Basic Design of Flying Wing Models
Basic Design of Flying Wing Models
Basic Design of Flying Wing Models
%he pressure forces, which act on the surface of each wing section, can be replaced by a single total force and a single total moment. !oth act at the #$arter%c&ord point of the airfoil. #hen the angle of attack changes -e.g. due to a gust., the moment stays nearly constant, but the total force changes. Increasing the angle of attack increases the force. 'enter of (ra)ity %ranslations and rotations of *free floating* bodies are performed relative to their center of gravity. #hen the angle of attack of a plane changes, the plane rotates -pitches. around its center of gravity -c.g... E, ili!ri * 0et3s have a look at a trimmed flight condition, where all forces and moments are in e&uilibrium and let3s compare a conventional, cambered airfoil with an airfoil with a refle+ed camber line. %he moments and forces for this trimmed state are denoted with an asterisk -4.. %he forces are the weight of the model m, multiplied with the gravity acceleration g -9.*1m"+. and the aerodynamic lift ,, which have to cancel out -sum of forces in vertical direction e&uals 1ero.. %he drag forces are neglected here. %he sum of the moments around c.g. -caused by the airfoil moment and the lift force ,, acting at a distance from c.g.. must also be 1ero.
E, ili!ri * State
%his airfoil has a nose heavy moment. As stated above, the center of gravity is also the center of rotation of the wing. #hen it is shifted behind the c"4 point, the air force ,- in front of the c.g. counteracts the nose heavy moment 54 to achieve e&uilibrium. %he distance between c.g. and c"4 point is depending on the amount of -. A symmetrical airfoil has -./, which means we have to place the c.g. at the c"4 point.
%he refle+ed camber line makes the moment coefficient positive, which means, that the moment around the c"4 point is working in the tail heavy direction. %herefore the center of gravity has to be located in front of the c"4 point to balance the moment - by the lift force ,-. %he larger the moment -$coefficient. of the airfoil, the larger the distance between c"4 and the c.g. for e&uilibrium.
#hen the angle of attack is increased -e.g. by a gust., the lift force 0 increases. 6ow ,0,- and the tail heavy moment due to the lift is larger than the moment around c"4, which still is . -. %hus the wing will pitch up, increasing the angle of attack further. %his behavior is instable and a tailplane is needed to stabili1e the system. Ne tral Point and Sta!ility
,ere, we have the air force acting behind the c.g., which results in an additional nose heavy moment, when the lift increases. #ith ,0,-, the wing will pitch down, reducing the angle of attack, until the e&uilibrium state is reached again. %he system is stable.
As we learned above, an unswept wing with a refle+ed airfoil is able to stabili1e itself. Its c.g. must be located in front of the c"4 point, which is also called ne$tral point -n.p... %he distance between the neutral point -&uarter chord point for an unswept wing. and the center of gravity is defining the amount of stability $ if the c.g. is close to the n.p., the straightening moment is small and the wing returns -too.
slowly into its e&uilibrium condition. If the distance c.g. % n.p. is large, the c.g. is far ahead of the c"4 point and the wing returns &uickly to the e&uilibrium angle. 7ou will re&uire larger flap deflections to control the model, though. If the distance is too large, the wing may become over$stabili1ed, overshooting its trimmed flight attitude and oscillating more and more until the plane crashes. A measure for stability is the distance between c.g. and n.p., divided by the mean chord of the wing. %ypical values for this number for a flying wing are between /./2 and /./1, which means a +tability coefficient sigma of 2 to 1 percent. #e can e+press the e&uilibrium of moments around c.g. for our design lift coefficient , which can be transformed to find the moment coefficient needed to satisfy a certain stability coefficient2 . E.a*&le #e want to use an unswept flying wing -a plank. for ridge soaring and decide to use a target lift coefficient of ./.1. #e want to have a stability coefficient of 12 and are looking for a matching airfoil. #e calculate the necessary moment coefficient 'm . /.1 - /./1 . 3/./21. /earching through a publication about 8ppler airfoils [(9 , we find, that the airfoils 8 :9; and 8 (<= could be used for our model. by
with the root chord lr, the tip chord lt and the taper ratio #e can also calculate the spanwise location of the mean chord
. %he n.p. of our swept wing can be found by drawing a line, parallel to the fuselage center line, at the spanwise station y. %he chord at this station should be e&ual to . %he n.p. is appro+imately located at the c"4 point of this chord line -see the sketch below..
Instead of using the graphical approach, the location of the neutral point can also be calculated by using one of the following formulas, depending on the taper ratio2
, if taper ratio B =.<@A. %he c.g. must be placed in front of this point, and the wing may need some twist -washout. to get a sufficiently stable wing.
/#/ 0%ist
%he selection of the location of the c.g. to be infront of the n.p. is not a guarantee for e&uilibrium $ it is only a re&uirement for longitudinal stability. Additionally, as e+plained above for unswept wings, the sum of all aerodynamic moments around the c.g. must be 1ero. !ecause we have selected the position of the c.g. already to satisfy the stability criterion -c.g. in front of n.p.., we can achieve the e&uilibrium of the moments only by airfoil selection and by adCusting the twist of the wing. 'n conventional airplanes with a hori1ontal stabili1er it is usually possible to adCust the difference between the angles of incidence of wing and tailplane during the first flight tests. 'n the other hand, flying wings have the difference built into the wing
-twist., which cannot be altered easily. %hus it is very important to get the combination of planform, airfoils and twist right -or at least close. before the wing is built. Again, the calculation of these parameters is &uite comple+ and shall not be presented hereD the relations are shown in great detail in [(@ . ,ere I will present a simple, appro+imate approach, which is based on two graphs, and can be used for swept, tapered wings with a linear airfoil variation from root to tip. #e start with the same geometric parameters, which we have used for the calculation of the n.p. above. Additionally, we calculate the aspect ratio -AR . b4"5, where 5 is the wing area. of the wing. %he selection of the airfoil sections also defines the operating range of the model. Airfoils with a small amount of camber are not well suited for slow, thermaling flight, but good for ><! flight style and ridge soaring. #e can design the twist distribution for one trimmed lift coefficient, where the wing will fly without flap deflections. %his lift coefficient will usually be somewhere between the best glide and the best climb performance of the airfoil. #ith the selected lift coefficient 'l of the airfoils, we can also find the moment coefficient 'm/.21 from the airfoil polars. If we plan to use different root and tip sections, we use the mean value of the moment coefficient of the two airfoils. %he re&uired twist of the wing can be combined from two parts2 Eeometric %wist %his is the twist, which is built into the wing as the difference between the +$a+is of the root and the tip section. It corresponds to the angle difference between main wing and tailplane of conventional planes and can be easily measured. A positive twist means a smaller angle of incidence at the tip section -washout.. 0arge geometric twist angles can be used to stabili1e wings with small sweep angles or highly cambered airfoils, but have the drawback of creating large amounts of induced drag, when the wing is operated outside of its design point. %he aim of the following paragraphs is to find the geometric twist. Aerodynamic %wist If we select airfoils with different 1ero lift angles, we can reduce the amount of geometric twist. %he difference between the 1ero lift directions is called aerodynamic twist and we need airfoil polars to find the 1ero lift angle. Also, a small or even positive moment coefficient reduced the re&uired amount of geometric twist, and improves the off design performance of the wing. Finding t+e 1e, ired 0%ist 2re, Using graph :, we enter the graph with the aspect ratio AR on the hori1ontal a+is, and draw a vertical line upwards, until we intersect the curve, corresponding to the sweep angle of the c"4 line. Continuing to the a+is on the left border, we find the standard value 4re& for the re&uired twist angle. %his standard value is valid for a wing, which2
is trimmed at . 1./ and, has a +tability coefficient of - .1/2 -see above., and uses airfoils with a moment coefficient of 1ero.
>rom the standard value we calculate the true, re&uired twist angle, using the formula inset into the graph. %herefore, we calculate the ratio of our target lift coefficient to the standard lift coefficient -'," . and the ratio of our desired stability coefficient to the standard . #e see, that a reduction of the lift coefficient to ',./.1 also reduces the re&uired twist by A=F. Also, if we use a smaller stability margin , we need a smaller amount of twist.
(rap& 16 Finding t&e re#$ired twi+t. 3ariation of 4ero lift angle If we use different airfoils at root and tip, they may have different 1ero lift directions, which influences the e&uilibrium state. %he geometric twist has to be reduced by the difference of the 1ero lift directions / of tip and root sections2 . Using the same airfoil for both sections, we can set = to 1ero. Infl ence of t+e Airfoil Mo*ent coefficients %he moment coefficient of the airfoils contributes to the e&uilibrium, and has to be taken into account for the calculation of the twist. Eraph ( can be used to find the e&uivalent twist due to the contribution of 'm, which has to be subtracted from the re&uired twist. If we use airfoils with positive moment coefficients, the contribution will be positive, which results in a reduction of the amount twist, highly cambered airfoils yield negative values 'm, which force us to build more twist into the wing. /imilar to the previous graph, we enter with the aspect ratio, intersect with the sweep curve and read the value for 'm from the lefthand a+is.
(rap& 26 Finding t&e additional twi+t d$e to t&e airfoil+ moment coefficient. Again, the graph has been plotted for a certain standard condition, which is a moment coefficient of cm- . /./1 -note2 positive value.. #e apply the ratio of the moment coefficients -cm"cm-. to find the contribution 'm of the moment coefficient to the geometric twist. %his contribution has to be subtracted from the re&uired twist angle, too. Using the usual, cambered airfoils with negative moment coefficients will change the sign of the ratio cm"cm-, which results in negative 'm values. %his means, that the subtraction from re# will actually be an addition, increasing the geometric twist angle. If we have different airfoils at root and tip, we can use the mean moment coefficient 7cm!tip 3 cm!root8"2 to calculate the ratio cm"cm-. >inally, we can calculate the geometric twist angle geo, which has to be built into the wing2 . E.a*&le As you have noticed, the graphs contain an e+ample, which is used here. #e consider a flying wing model with the following data2 wing span chord length at root chord length at tip sweep angle at c"G line design lift coefficient root section 8 :9( tip section 8 :9G b . 2.391 m lr . /.29/ m lt . /.1:/ m
/.21 . 2/;
', . /.1 cm!r . 3/./1 and /!r . %/.3; cm!t . 3/./3 and /!t . /.1;
desired stability coefficient +igma . /./1 #e calculate the wing area /2 5 . 7l<r 3 l<t8"2 - b . /.1/*1 m4 and the aspect ratio AR . b4"5 . 11./ and the mean moment coefficient cm . 7cm!r 3 cm!t8"2 . /./2 . Using graph :, we find -re# H ::.9I, which has to be corrected to match our design lift coefficient and the desired stability margin2
11.* - 7/.1"1./8 - 7/./1"/.18 . 2.91; . %his means that our model would need a twist angle of (.)AI -wash out. from root to tip, if we would use a symmetrical airfoil section. %he difference of the 1ero lift angle of tip and root section is . 6ow we read the twist contribution of the moment coefficient from graph (, which is 4Cm H A.9I, which has to be corrected for our smaller mean moment coefficient2
2.91; % /.*; % 2.32; . %/.1:; . %he negative value means, that we could use a small amount of wash$inJ %his is because we have already enough stability due to the selection of airfoils with refle+ed camber lines. /ince the calculated amount is very small, we can use the same angle of incidence for the root and tip ribs. /ince the presented method is not perfect, we can assume an accuracy to : degree, which is also a reasonable assumption for the average building skills.
Bi!liogra&+y
7es, lots of Eerman references, but there are at least +ome papers in 8nglish below... :. ,epperle, 5artin2 =e$e >rofile f?r =$rfl?gelmodelle! >5%$Kolleg 9, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, Eermany, :)99. (. Unverfehrt, ,ans$NMrgen2 Fa+@ination =$rfl?gel, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$ !aden, Eermany, :))=. <. ,epperle, 5artin2 =e$e >rofile f?r EleAtro%>ylonmodelle! >5%$Kolleg :=, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, Eermany, :)):. G. ,epperle, 5artin2 =e$e >rofile f?r >ylon $nd 5peed, >5% ;, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, :)9;. A. Nakob, 'tto2 Eppler 22/ $nd Eppler 221, >5% (, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$ !aden, :)9A. ;. ,epperle, 5artin2 =e$e >rofile f?r +c&nelle Fl$gmodelle, >5%$Kolleg :@, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, :))G. @. ,epperle, 5artin2 5egelfl$gmodell Bi@@ard mit >rofil C 42, >5% (, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, :)99. 9. Anderson, D. A.2 Dntrod$ction to Flig&t, <rd edition, 5cEraw$,ill, :)9), I/!6 =$=@$ :==G);$<. ). ,orCesO, 5ilan2 AerodynamiAa ,EtaFGcGc& odel$, 6ase LoCsko, Praha, :)A@. :=. Adkins, C. 6.2 He+ign of Iptim$m >ropeller+, AIAA$9<$=:)=. Also published in the Nournal of Propulsion and Power, Lol. :=, 6o. A, /eptember$'ctober :))G. ::. 0arrabee, 8. 8.2 >ractical He+ign of inim$m Dnd$ced ,o++ >ropeller+, /A8 paper @)=A9A, !usiness Aircraft 5eeting and 8+position, #ichita, April :)@). :(. ,ansen, ,.2 BindAanalme++$ngen im Reynold+@a&lbereic& )on odellfl$g@e$gen, >5%$ Kolleg ;, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, Eermany, :)9). :<. 5ueller, %. et al.2 ,ow Reynold+ =$mber Bind T$nnel ea+$rement+6 T&e Dmportance of being Earne+t, Conference on Aerodynamics at 0ow Qeynolds 6umbers, 0ondon, :)9;. :G. 8ppler, Q. and /omers, D.2 A 'omp$ter >rogram for t&e He+ign and Analy+i+ of ,ow%5peed Airfoil+, 6A/A %5$9=(:=, :)9=. :A. 8ppler, Q.2 >raAti+c&e Berec&n$ng laminarer $nd t$rb$lenter Ab+a$ge%(ren@+c&ic&ten, Ingenieur$Archiv. :;. 8ppler, Q.2 T$rb$lent Airfoil+ for (eneral A)iation, Nournal of Aircraft, Lol. :A, 6o. (, :)@9. :@. Euglielmo, N. and /elig, 5.2 5panwi+e Jariation+ in >rofile Hrag for Airfoil+ at ,ow Reynold+ =$mber+, Nournal of Aircraft, Lol. <<, 6o. G, :));. :9. >elske, U. und /eubert, Q.2 >rofilme++$ng bei Aleinen Reynold+@a&len im odellwindAanal, /tudienarbeit, Institut fMr Aero$ und Easdynamik, UniversitRt /tuttgart, :)9<. :). Anderson, N. D.2 F$ndamental+ of Aerodynamic+, (nd 8dition, 5cEraw$,ill, :)):, I/!6 =$ =@$:==@;@$). (=. Althaus, D.2 >rofilpolaren f?r den odellfl$g, 6eckar$Lerlag, Lillingen$/chwenningen. (:. /elig, 5. /., Donovan, N. >., >raser, D. !.2 Airfoil+ at ,ow 5peed+, /oartech 9, :)9). ((. Krause, !.2 odellmotorentec&niA, transpress L8!, !erlin, :)9;. (<. Nennings, E.2 Two%5troAe T$nerK+ CandbooA, ,.P. !ooks-S. :)@<. (G. !Tnsch, ,. #.2 Her +c&nella$fende LweitaAtmotor, 5otorbuch Lerlag, /tuttgart, :)9(.
(A. 0yon, C., /elig, 5. /., !roeren, A.2 Bo$ndary ,ayer Trip+ on Airfoil+ at ,ow Reynold+ =$mber+, AIAA )@$=A::, :))@. (;. Kat1, N., Plotkin, A.2 ,ow%5peed Aerodynamic+, 5cEraw$,ill, :)):, I/!6 =$=@$:==9@;$G. (@. 6ickel, K., #ohlfahrt, 5.2 5c&wan@lo+e Fl$g@e$ge, !irkhRuser Lerlag, :))=, I/!6 <$@;G<$ (A=($U, also available in english as2 Taille++ Aircraft in T&eory and >ractice, AIAA 8ducation /eries, I/!6 :$A;<$G@=)G$(. (9. ,epperle, 5.2 Eppler%>rofile, 5%! :"(, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, :)9;, I/!6 <$99:9=$:==$;. (). ,epperle, 5artin2 >rofile f?r =$rfl?gelmodelle! >5%$Kolleg (=, (:, and ((, Lerlag fMr %echnik und ,andwerk, !aden$!aden, Eermany, :))@. <=. /elig, 5., Euglielmo, N., !roeren, A., EiguVre, P.2 5$mmary of ,ow%5peed Airfoil Hata, Lolume :, /oar%ech Publications, Lirginia !each, :))A, I/!6 =$);G;@G@$:$9 <:. /elig, 5., 0yon, C., EiguVre, P., 6inham, C., Euglielmo, N.2 5$mmary of ,ow%5peed Airfoil Hata, Lolume (, /oar%ech Publications, Lirginia !each, :));, I/!6 =$);G;@G@$($; <(. /abbagh, K.2 21+t 'ent$ry Met % T&e aAing of t&e Boeing :::, Pan !ooks, :));, I/!6 =$ <<=$<(9)=$A. <<. 0ennon, A.2 R"' odel Aircraft He+ign, AirAge Publishing -5A6., :==;, I/!6 =$)::()A$ G=$( <G. Abbott, I.,., von Doenhoff, A.8.2 T&eory of Bing 5ection+, Dover Publications, 6ew 7ork, :)A), /!62 G9;$;=A9;$9. <A. Cebeci, %.2 An 8ngineering Approach to the Calculation of Aerodynamic >lows, /pringer:))), I/!6 <$AG=$;;:9:$;
Air&lane 0y&es and Mo*ent Coefficient 5oment Coefficient and Airfoil /hape Qefle+ and 5oment Coefficient Qefle+ and 0ift W Drag 0ocation of Camber and 5oment Coefficient Lelocity Distribution and !oundary 0ayer Dangers everywhere Airfoil Design for 0ight %ailless Airplanes Conclusions
%ing %it+o t s%ee& '&lan() 0ongitudinal stability is created solely by the airfoil. A plank re&uires an airfoil with a po+iti)e moment coefficient. s%e&t %ing It is possible to use any airfoil, because longitudinal stability can always be achieved by selecting a suitable combination of sweep and twist. >or best allround performance, airfoils with low moment coefficients -around 1ero. are better suited although. %hey need smaller amounts of twist, which results in a broader speed range without paying too much penalties off the design point. %ing %it+ a lo% &osition of t+e center of gra-ity '&arafoil) %he moment coefficient is less important and it is possible to use traditional airfoils with negative moment coefficients. %he position of the c.g. can be chosen to guarantee stability, but usually airfoils with medium moment coefficients are chosen to achieve higher penetration speeds and a wider speed range.
ahead of the neutral point and the moments of inertia around a spanwise a+is are small -as with an unswept flying wing.. Air&lane 0y&es and Mo*ent Coefficient 5oment Coefficient and Airfoil /hape
%ing %it+o t s%ee& '&lan() A po+iti)e moment coefficient results in a reflexed camber line. A twist does not help for stability, but can improve the stall characteristics of the wing. s%e&t %ing 0ow moment coefficients and a small amount of twist can be achieved by airfoils with little camber and a neutral or slightly refle+ed camber line. %ing %it+ a lo% &osition of t+e center of gra-ity '&arafoil) %he moment coefficient poses no strong restriction on the airfoil shape.
'la++e+ of taille++ airplane+ and t&eir typical airfoil +&ape+. Airfoils with strongly refle+ed camber lines are usually not used on conventional airplanes $ they are uni&ue to tailless airplanes. >rom the aerodynamicists view, airfoils with Xrefle+Y are &uite difficult and very interesting to develop, because they are very sensitive with respect to changes in Qeynolds number. %hus the following sections will concentrate on airfoils with refle+ed camber lines, as they are used in tailless planes with no or little wing sweep.
Airplane %ypes and 5oment Coefficient Mo*ent Coefficient and Airfoil S+a&e Qefle+ and 5oment Coefficient
T&e plot of moment coefficient )+. angle of attacA +&ow+! &ow cm depend+ on t&e amo$nt of reflex. Using this trick, the problem seems to be solved. #e simply bend the railing edge upward until we achieve the moment coefficient necessary to stabili1e our tailless plane and there we go... !ut we probably prefer an airplane, which not only flies safe and stable, but also performs with a low sink speed, a high penetration speed and a good ,"H ratio $ that3s where all the trouble begins.
,ift )+. drag coefficient+ for different amo$nt+ of reflex. 6ow we have a problem2 while we add refle+ to the camber line, in order to shift the moment coefficient towards the positive values, we shift the lift vs. drag polar down. %his means, that we actually reduce the lift at a certain angle of attack and, what3s even worse, we also reduce the ma+imum lift coefficient. A reduced ma+imum lift coefficient leads to higher stall and landing speeds, which is not e+actly our aim. 'f course the aerodynamicist already knows a remedy against
low lift2 he increases the amount of the ma+imum camber. Indeed, this increases the lift, but also reduces the positive moment coefficient.
Dnfl$ence of t&e location of t&e camber 7xc"c8 on t&e moment coefficient. As we can see, moving the location of the ma+imum camber backwards, also shifts the moment coefficient down towards negative values. %hus it might be advisable, to concentrate the camber in the first &uarter of the chord length, if we want to compensate the lift loss -introduced by the refle+ed camber line. by an increased amount of camber.
Dangers e-ery%+ere
#e have already learned, that several parameters, linked closely together, have an influence on the design of a low moment, high lift airfoil. #e have not yet talked about the additional problems, introduced by the behavior of the boundary layer.
>roblem+ facing t&e de+igner of an airfoil for taille++ airplane+. %he >igure above and the enumeration below show the most important parameters and how they are linked together.
5oving the ma+imum camber towards the leading edge Z more stable moment coefficient -more positive.. $ puts more stress on the boundary layer near the leading edge -suction peaks.. Increasing the amount of camber Z better lift -cl vs. cd shifts towards positive cl values.. Z cl%max may be increased. $ less stable moment coefficient -more negative.. $ puts more stress on the boundary layer -more pressure drop towards the trailing edge.. Increasing the amount of refle+ Z more stable moment coefficient -more positive.. $ less lift -cl vs. cd shifts towards negative cl values.. $ cl%max decreases.
Cow camber and reflex c&ange t&e )elocity di+trib$tion. %he image above presents velocity distributions of four different airfoils with different combinations of refle+ and camber. %he moment coefficient of all airfoils is similar. In general, the velocity distributions of the upper surfaces show high velocities in the first third of the chord length, steadily decreasing as the flow reaches the trailing edge. Depending on the Qeynolds number, the steepness of the velocity drop -which, according to !ernoulli3s e&uation, represents a pressure rise. is limited. #hen the pressure rise is too strong, the flow separates, causing loss of lift and increasing drag. %he velocity distribution on the lower surface pose less problems, with a danger for boundary layer separation near the trailing edge. %his will have a destabili1ing effect and will cause an increase in drag. A uni&ue feature of airfoils with a refle+ed camber line is the crossover of the velocity distributions in the second half of the chord length. Increasing the amount of refle+, speeds up the flow on the lower surface, while it slows down the flow on the upper side. %he enclosed area of negative lift near the trailing edge increases, driving the moment coefficient towards positive -more stable. values. Increasing the camber will increase the velocity on the upper surface and decrease the speed on the lower surface. %he enclosed area of positive lift in the front half of the airfoil also increases, contributing to the lift. #hen the camber is increased too much, the ma+imum lift may decrease, because the camber has to be compensated by a larger amount of refle+, putting more stress on the boundary layer. %ypically, the ma+imum lift can be increased to a certain amount, by increasing camber and refle+, but at the cost of a harder stall, which might be dangerous during takeoff and landing.
>irst we will have a look at two e+isting airfoil sections, which have been used in man carrying tailless airplanes. %he first one is a modern airfoil ->U =A$,$:(;. with a refle+ed camber line, which was not designed for amateur built tailless planes, but for helicopter blades. 6evertheless it has been used in some amateur proCects, by people seeking for ma+imum performance. %he second airfoil -,orten II. has been designed for light tailless planes, but is much older, having been designed in the :)<=s. F7 89:;:"/< %his airfoil has been designed by >. U. #ortmann during a stay at the !ell helicopter company in the U/A.
Jelocity di+trib$tion of t&e FN /1%C%129 airfoil at 3 different angle+ of attacA. T&e de+ign point corre+pond+ approximately to t&e middle of t&e t&ree c$r)e+. %he velocity distribution shows a typical low speed laminar flow airfoil. %he velocity on the upper surface increases steadily to A=F chord length, where a rather steep, concave velocity drop starts. %he velocity on the lower surface is nearly constant, slightly increasing towards the trailing edge. /uch a distribution results in laminar flow over the first half of the airfoils upper surface and along the total length of the lower surface. %he drag polar, shown below, indicates the benefits and the problems of such a velocity distribution2 very low drag and good performance, but only in a narrow range of lift coefficients -laminar b$cAet.. 'utside of the bucket, the drag increases rapidly and the danger of flow separation at low Qeynolds numbers is &uite high. %he airfoil has a hard stall behavior and suffers from flow separation at Qeynolds numbers below ( millions. >or an amateur built, light tailless glider, it is probably not a good choice -but well suited for the blade of a helicopter rotor..
;orten II As a reminiscence to the past, this airfoil is astonishingly well suited for our purpose. 'riginally this airfoil had been designed and used by the ,orten brothers, who built a number of high performance sailplanes during the :)<=s and :)G=s. %heir designs are legend, although some of their published performance data are a little bit too good. %here planes were well known for their good handling characteristics, which can be of greater importance that the actual performance figures of a sailplane.
Jelocity di+trib$tion of t&e Corten airfoil at 3 different angle+ of attacA. %he velocity distribution of the ,orten II airfoil looks &uite different from the >U airfoil. %he distribution on the upper surface, is much smoother. Due to the blunt leading edge, no suction peaks are visible for the selected angles of attack. %he pressure rise -velocity drop. starts near (=F of the chord length, which leads to a less steep gradient. %he lift vs. drag characteristics shows smoother polars with no distinctly separated low drag region. %he airfoil does not reach the low drag of the >U airfoil.
Hrag polar+ of t&e Corten DD airfoil. %he stall characteristics of the ,orten II airfoil are smoother than the >U =A$,$:(; airfoil, but due to its e+cessive thickness, it also suffers from boundary layer separation at lower Qeynolds numbers. Its moment coefficient is not positive enough for an unswept flying wing. A thinned version of this airfoil with a slightly increased refle+, might be usable for a light, tailless glider. Instead of trying to modify an e+isting airfoil a new design has been performed to find a compromise between performance and handling.
M; => During the design of this airfoil, the emphasis has been to design an airfoil, suited for light, man carrying gliders, with moderate wing sweep. #hile performance was an issue, ma+imum lift capabilities and good handling &ualities were more important. Qegarding the usual construction techni&ues, it was decided to allow transition on the upper surface near :AF of the chord length. %he blunt leading edge and the smooth movement of the trailing edge separation is responsible for the comfortable stall characteristics. >light Qeynolds numbers can start at G==3===, where the ma+imum lift coefficient is appro+imately :.G.
C :*.
Concl sions
Depending on the type of tailless airplane, stability re&uirements lead to different criteria for airfoil selection. >or most tailless planes, airfoils with low moment coefficients yield the best performance. 0ow moment coefficients and high lift coefficients can be achieved by using refle+ed camber lines, but the corresponding velocity distributions are sensitive to low Qeynolds numbers, and may result in problems with stall behavior. %he best compromise for light, tailless airplanes seems to be a moderately refle+ed camber line, combined with the ma+imum camber shifted towards the leading edge and a rather blunt nose. %ogether with a smooth velocity distribution, a soft stalling character can be achieved. Concerning the stall characteristics, the airfoil plays an important role, but only in conCunction with the spanwise lift distribution, which is a result of the wing planform and the spanwise twist distribution. /wept and tapered wings tend to have a higher loading near the wing tip, which causes the tip to stall first, if no additional twist is used.
E.&eri*ental Data A large body of data was published in the :)(=s as a result of a series of e+periments at Eottingen, Eermany. Data for different aspect$ratios can be correlated &uite well using the Prandtl$0anchester formula, originally derived for elliptic spanwise loading. ,aving reference data at aspect$ratio AQHA, one can derive the polar characteristics of shorter wings with remarkable precision, at least in the linear range. Ma.i* * Lift Coefficients %he values of the ma+imum lift coefficient are largely independent from the aspect$ratios at aspect$ ratios above ( and a Qeynolds number : million. At aspect$ratios : B AQ B ( the most evident effect is the shift of the angle of attack at which ma+imum lift is reached. %his angle increases progressively and easily reaches <= degrees. /&uared wings show Clma+ as high as :.<. At even lower aspect ratios the wing is subCect to strong vorte+ flows and C0 increases at a faster rate than that predicted with a linear theory. %his is due to the presence of the strong tip vortices that separate closer to the leading edge, according to a mechanism similar to that governing the delta wing. %he spanwise distribution of lift is another interesting aspect of these wings. %he lift is mostly concentrated in the inboard sections and reaches high values. Aft sweep moves the point of ma+imum lift outboard, which on turns may promote undesirable tip stall. Press re C+aracteristics 8+perimental investigations showed that the root sections do not e+perience high 08 pressure peaks. In addition, the spanwise pressure gradients are such as to cause an outward drain of the boundary layer from the root sections. %he combined influence of these two effects is such as to make the root sections highly resistant to flow separation and therefore capable of developing local lift coefficients of such large magnitude as to more than compensate for the lift losses that occur when the tip sections of the wing stall. Sta!ility C+aracteristics 0ongitudinal and lateral stability of low aspect$ratio wings have been investigated over the years. 'ne important aspect is the behavior of the pitching moment with the lift coefficient, that is strongly dependent on the wing sweep and various technical devices -tip devices, fences, nacelles, etc... 0ongitudinal stability depends mostly on the aspect$ratio and the sweep angle -/hortal$5aggin, :)A:.. %he stability limit is appro+imated in the figure below for untapered wings -tapered wings have less conservative limits..
Figure 2: Longitudinal stability limits (empirical data). 0eading$edge separation due to induced camber in the three$dimensional wing may cause a bubble of large spanwise e+tent, so that airfoils that ordinarily stall from the trailing$edge actually stall from the leading$edge. %his phenomenon is dependent -at least. on the sweep, on the leading edge radius and the twist. Inflection Lift In the study of wing stability it is useful to define the terms inflection lift and $+able lift. %he inflection lift is the point at which there is a change in the pitching moment without conse&uences to the stability. Usable lift is the point at which the pitching moment breaks away and leads to a shift of the aerodynamic center with maCor conse&uences for the longitudinal stability. >igs. < and G below show e+amples of pitching moment behavior at constant aspect$ratios and at constant sweep, respectively. %he data are &ualitative, but they are compiled from e+perimental works reported in Qef. :.
Figure 4: Pitching moment at aspect-ratio (AR=4.) %he ratio between inflection lift and ma+imum lift is of the order =.A$:.=, with the lowest values approached by low aspect$ratio wings, and the largest values proper of slender wings. Means for I*&ro-ing Perfor*ances %ip stall is one of the problems encountered by short wings ->ig. (., especially at take$off and landing. 'ne very effective way to delay or even remove the stall is the use of fences -or vanes., which are vertical surfaces aligned with the flight direction.
%he fences provide a physical bound to the spanwise pressure gradients and constrain the boundary layer drain toward the tip, which is the prime cause of the tip stall.
Figure 5: Effect of fences on CL of swept back wing. 'ther methods include2 nacelles, stores, e+tensible leading$ edge flaps, droop nose, boundary layer control, chord e+tension, variable sweep, camber, and twist. Lertical" hori1onal tail and wing$body combinations make up for additional effects.
0a!le "5 As&ect:1atios of Fig+ter Wings Aircraft U/ >$:A -5cDonnell$Douglas. U/ >$:9 -5cDonnel$Douglas. Dassault 5irage (=== Dassault Qafale 5'( /ukhoi /u$(@ 5apo 5ig$() A1 <.= <.A (.= (.; <.A <.G (.A :.9 (.( (.= (.< (.< M
%he wings of the aircraft on %able : are all swept back. Development of swept forward wings is still at the research stage, e+cept for one prototype fighter -U$().. 1elated *aterial
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Selected 1eferences
>ink 5P, 0astinger N0, Aerodynamic '&aracteri+tic+ of ,ow%A+pect Ratio Bing+ in 'lo+e >roximity to t&e (ro$nd, 6ACA %6 D$)(;, :);:. /chlichting ,, %ruckenbrodt 8. Aerodyna*ics of t+e Air&lane, 5cEraw$,ill, 6ew 7ork, :)@). @aneAs5 All t+e WorldAs AircraftB "CCC:/88/, edited by P. Nackson, :))) -published fully update every year J.
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