Unit 14 Process of Change: Objectives
Unit 14 Process of Change: Objectives
Unit 14 Process of Change: Objectives
Objectives
After studying this Unit you should be able to understand:
what is change ?
types of change
alternative strategies of change
process of change, a few models of change
resistance to change
commonly used interventions of Managing Change.
Structure
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Drivers of Change in Business
14.3 Alternative Strategies of Change – at a Glance
14.4 Process of Change
14.5 Change Models
14.6 Phases of Planned Change
14.7 Resistance to Change
14.8 Overcoming Resistance to Change
14.9 Some Principles of Change
14.10 Reducing Resistance to Change: Few Suggestions
14.11 Commonly used Interventions for Managing Change
14.12 Summary
14.13 Self Assessment Questions
14.14 Further Readings
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The dictionary meaning of change as a noun is — ‘making or becoming
different, difference from previous state, substitution of one for another,
variation’ etc. Change is also a verb meaning — ‘to undergo, show or subject
to change, to make or become different’. We are experiencing changes in all
spheres of our lives — food, drinks, clothing, relationships, ambitions, living
standard, work, tools, techniques. The changes are occurring so fast that people
say ‘in this rapidly changing world change is the only constant’.
There are numerous visible and invisible forces , which are constantly affecting
changes in organizations, a few of them may be enumerated as follows:
All changes are not similar in nature. Some changes keep on happening on
their own and some are planned. There are three types of changes.
Evolution
Revolution
Planned change
When people are not willing or / and not prepared for facing the change,
change comes gradually as a natural process, in small adjustments or shifts in
response to emerging problems — this type of change has been called
Evolution.
When efforts are made to make others experience the need of change and
determine the ideal or desired situation and striving to achieve the ideal or
desired state through planned actions — planned change takes place.
Marilyn Ferguson has described four types of change in his “Aquarian conspiracy”
Exceptional Change
A particular change is accepted as an exception; there is no change in ongoing
aspects. The existing beliefs are not changed but specific change is introduced
separately, as an exception. In THE R&D division of a large organization flexi
time was introduced as an exception — all other divisions were continuing the
ongoing system.
Incremental Change
A gradual change, those who are affected do not experience it initially.
Computerisation in offices has been introduced as an incremental change in
most of the organizations.
Pendulum Change
Change from one extreme point of view to the opposite — pendulum change.
In a Company elaborate procedures of open tender was in practice for
engaging Consultants; suddenly they decided to go for single tender on
negotiation basis.
Paradigm change
The new information about an event, object, behaviour, image is integrated and
the ‘picture shifts’ or enlarges, emergence of a new belief — such a change is
called paradigm change. A ‘paradigm’, in simple words may be understood as
a cognitive model of how things are or a standard for how things should be.
For example, the consideration for the success of a PSU today in comparison
to those in the seventies.
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Change also has been explained as a continuum — the two extremes being Process of Change
No Desired Constant
Change (Productive Change) Change
No Change Position
The ‘no change’ position indicates the ‘0’ condition of ‘inertia’ — sticking to
traditional view, valuing the past conservative thinking that ‘new’ is definitely
bad. Any change or deviation from the past is perceived as a threat — a
threat to beliefs, habits, preferences, norms and prevailing order. An example is
— evolving a performance management system, constantly sticking to the
previous method — where boss does it alone.
The major benefit from this position is ‘stability’, less efforts, comfort, less risk
but it also brings no growth, boredom, dissatisfaction, conformity and stagnation.
Constant Change
The extreme ‘right’ indicates the state of ‘constant change’ and presents a
dynamic approach having a constant focus on future. It considers the ‘new’ as
always good. Any change is seen as positive and resistance is seen as bad —
not moving with times and an opposition to the norms and values and progress.
A restlessness for knowing what is new and adapting the same without our
objective assessment of the strong and positive aspects of what is the past or
the present, not even the existing capabilities. In order to convince or
implement the changes not much regard to the affected people is given, and
effort to convince has much jargon and force and excitement. Some times, the
focus on what is important and crucial is lost. This state provides energy,
excitement and a Zeal to go ahead of the traditions.
Productive (pragmatic) Change
Between the two extremes is another approach ‘the Pragmatic approach’ of
change — which is focused on the existing state (what is happening) and
change seen as inevitable. The emphasis is on explaining the need for change
and making a conscious choice without having a fascination or inertia for the
past nor a compulsion for a rapid change.
DRIVERS CHANGES
The political strategy emphasises the identification and influence of people who
seem most able to make and implement decisions. It usually focuses on those
who are respected and have the largest constituency in a given area. One’s
level of influence is based on one‘s perceived power and ability to work with
other influential people to reach goals that are valued by one‘s constituency.
The Economic Strategy
Economic strategists believe that “Money can buy anything or any change we
want.” They emphasise the acquisition of or — at the very least, influence
over — all forms of material goods, such as money, land, stocks, bonds, and
any other tradable commodity. This strategy is widely used in the United States
and the Western world and is used most often by large corporations and by the
very rich.
Inclusion in a group that plans to use the academic strategy to solve problems
or to make changes is based primarily on one’s expertise in a given area or on
one’s desire to acquire such knowledge. Leadership and influence within the
group generally depends on the degree to which the person is perceived as an
expert. Newcomers to the field are considered to have little to contribute, while
those with advanced degrees or many years of specialized study receive a
great deal of attention.
The Engineering Strategy
Users of this strategy try to bring about behavioural change without dealing
directly with the people involved. The underlying assumption is, “If the
environment or the surroundings change enough, people will be forced to
change.” Therefore, engineering strategists may spend a great deal of time
studying physical layouts, patterns of interaction, and role descriptions in work
places and classrooms without ever speaking to the employees or students.
Groups that approach change in this way often recruit members based on their 5
Organisational technical skills. Group needs often are defined in terms of technical skills,
Development and Change
which are considered more important than interpersonal styles.
The Military Strategy
The military-style approach to change is based on the use of physical force.
The name military has been given to this approach because it conveys the
appropriate connotation to most people, not because the military is the sole user
of this approach. Police Departments, “revolutionary” student groups, and some
teachers, for example, employ the military strategy.
The basic assumption behind this approach is, “People react to genuine threats.
With enough physical force, people can be made to do anything.” Therefore,
considerable time is spent in learning to use weapons and to fight. Physical
conditioning, strength, and agility are valued.
Membership in such a group is based on one’s ability to deal with and to use
conflict in ways that benefit the group.
The Applied Behavioural Science Model
Most problems are extremely complex; a cut-and-dried approach to problem
solving is not always the most effective or thorough. This is the basic
assumption of the applied behavioural science (ABS) model.
Groups that use the ABS model tend to believe that as many people who will
be affected by the decision as possible should be included in the decision-
making process. Within the group, one’s level of influence is based on one’s
own knowledge and the degree to which one will be affected by the decision.
Ideally, the person with the most knowledge about the problem and/or the
person most affected by the decision should have the most influence.
The ABS model considers any information or theory that will shed light on the
situation and help the group to reach a decision to be valuable. Group
members’ emotional needs are regarded as existing primarily for emotional and
intellectual integration.
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Process of Change
Existing Change (Transition) Vision
Situation Desired
Situation
The existing situation is the status, which is prevailing at the moment, what the
organizations looks like now. The desired situation is the status which one
desires to prevail; it is also called vision. A vision helps in clarifying—
The transition state may be defined by ascertaining the activities and processes
necessary to transform the organizations from its current state to the desired
state — a road map — for specifying the activities, crucial interventions and
events during the transition period. For making an organization move from the
existing state to desired state some ‘force’ is to be applied.
Some forces applied by the individual(s) undergoing the change oppose the
force applied for moving to the desired state — this is called resistance. This
also supports Newton’s third law of motion- “Every action / force creates an
opposition (resistance)”.
Successful change—the three stage model
According to Lewin’s three step model, successful change in organizations
should follow three steps :
i) Unfreezing
Newton’s first law of motion states “Every object remains in state of rest or
uniform motion in a straight line unless and until an external force is applied to
it.” In the organizations also similar situations exist. When a product, service
or profit is at a deteriorating stage but with the rapid changes there maintaining
a ‘steady state’ is not possible as the situations are bringing many types of
forces, usually inhibiting forces which block the pace. For example, for a
stagnant product, every product will remain stagnant and non-competitive
leading to decay vertically down unless and until an external, innovative and
relevant technology is proposed to cause its growth vertically upwards.
Thus for making any change some thing has to be done in a planned way to
disturb the status quo: this is called de freezing (unfreezing). This stage aims
at disturbing the existing equilibrium and creates motivation to change using
mechanisms like — (a) lack of confirmation or disconfirmation (b) sharing one’s
concerns and perceptions openly, looking in to feelings, removal of barriers of
communications, induction of guilt and anxiety and creations of threats by
reduction of psychological safety, presentation of alternative scenarios etc.
In case of any change, the effort is going to face individual resistance and
group conformity. These change efforts for overcoming the pressures of both
individual resistance and group conformity.
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Organisational Two types of forces emerge and at the status quo, both are in balance
Development and Change
a) Forces prompting the change — forces that direct the behaviour away
from the status quo — “Driving forces”
b) Forces hindering the movement away from the status quo — Restraining
forces.
Restraining forces
Driving forces
FORCE FIELD
The technique described is called ‘Force field analysis’. The method includes
the following steps:
1) Identify the problem, which you want to work and describe it.
2) Define the problem clearly indicating the present situation.
3) Define the situation desired after the problem is solved.
4) Identify the forces working for the change i.e. driving force by way of
individual listing, brainstorming or any other means.
5) Identify and list forces likely to work against the desired change
(restraining forces). These forces can be related to human resource,
time, money, technology, customer requirements or any other internal,
external factors.
6) From the list of driving forces and restraining forces, prioritise the forces
and identify 3-4 most significant forces under each of the both categories.
7) Make a force field diagram showing both types of forces after
prioritization. The arrows should be proportional to their priority / strength.
8) Discuss and list possible action steps for reducing or eliminating the
effect of the restraining forces and add or increase the effect of the
driving forces.
9) Determine the most effective steps under both the categories of forces
and outside which once to implement.
10) Examine the resources available for carrying out each action steps.
11) Develop a comprehensive action plan, sequence of activities and assign
responsibilities for implementation.
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12) Implement the plan. Process of Change
13) Evaluate.
ii) Moving / Intervening
The steps to be taken for making the desired change should be planned
considering all aspects — Tasks, Technology, Structure and Human Resource.
Since any organization is composed of these four inter-related and inter-
dependent components, the impact of the changes should be anticipated and
examined. Since the organizational environment is a resultant of three or four
components — and any organization exist in environment analysis of internal
and external environment is essential.
Here also, Newton’s Second Law is quite helpful in understanding — “The rate
of change of momentum is proportional to force applied and change takes place
in the direction in which the force acts”. Hence, for rapid and deep change,
forces applied should be strong, direction should be clear and force applied in
the right direction.
This stage helps stabilising and integrating the changes. This is gained by
integrating new responses into persons and into significant ongoing relationships
through reconfirmation.
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Organisational Developing the Desired State (Preferred Scenario)
Development and Change
At this stage, efforts are made to determine how the organization or
organizational unit, project or the programme would look like after making the
changes. For preparing the scenario, alternative possibilities or preferred
scenario are developed by using techniques like brainstorming, fantasy or a
variety of structured exercises. Efforts are made to stimulate both right brain
type thinking and left-brain type of thinking so that both conventional and non-
conventional ideas are captured.
Evaluate each of the scenarios by using different evaluation methods and select the
most visible one. At this stage, left-brain type of thinking will be quite useful.
Re-work on the selected preferred scenario to make it more explicit and inspiring.
Getting the commitment for the change initiatives and resources, the commitment
of the key persons in the organization and outside should be assured.
Formulating the strategy action plan to move the organization from the current
state to the desired state
These states deal with how the movement from the existing to the desired
state would be accomplished. Thus, this stage would indicate how the results
would be accomplished. For this, a wide range of strategies to reach the new
stage or preferred scenario would be identified. Using the right brain type
thinking, the alternative strategies are identified, then evaluation of each of the
alternative strategies would be made and that appropriate strategy would be
selected which would help in achieving the desired outcome. These strategies
would next be translated in the form of workable plans.
2. ADPI Model
This Model is based on the work of NR Jones. It consists of the following
stages.
Organizational
analysis
Implementation
Designing Change
Intervention
The key resource persons and other team members must be identified and
some team building initiatives are taken to ensure shared vision and commitment
to change. Role of each member should be clarified.
In a few shallow pans, frogs were kept in water at normal temperature. The
pans were kept on Bunsen burners which were heating the water in pans very
slowly. Even if the water became very hot the frogs did not jump out of the
pans — quite surprising. The water started boiling — the frogs got boiled!
Pans with room temperature water once again put on the bunsen burners.
When the water became quite hot (but not boiling) around 60 - 70 Degree C
temperatures frogs were dropped in the pans. Within flash of moment frogs
jumped out and save themselves.
Many of us are like the frogs — we develop tolerance and adaptability and
ignore the “temperature” and end up boiling. ‘Awareness’ therefore is the first
stage. A process of enhancing the awareness of self by considering the aims,
goals, vision, mission and the state of their achievement, future environmental
scenarios, extrapolations and forecast is useful for enhancing awareness.
Bench marking and competitor intelligence are two other triggers of enhancing
12 awareness.
The awareness creates anxiety to create future scenarios, — likely gains and Process of Change
problems — and therefore generates energy in those who become aware. For
example, in BHEL in 1983, the HR Manager was trying to project the role of
Personnel function in achieving the Corporate objectives (1985-90) and could
realise that if the manpower strength and turnover/sales keeps on increasing at
the previous rate, then in 1990 the company will be in red only because of
Manpower strength. He got alarmed and made a series of presentations in
different fora. After initial reaction, the top Management also became aware
and alarmed of the impeding situation. This created planned efforts of
Manpower Planning in the leadership of the HR Manager. After 2 years, the
Manpower strength started decreasing — today the strength is 43,000 against
the strength of 78,000 in 1983-84. The turnover during the period has
increased from Rs. 800 crores to 8000 crores.
This awareness creates an imbalance and disturbs the status quo. People
become uncomfortable and respond in different ways. Usually energy level
increases for denial and opposition of the issues.
Feeling the Need
Once the awareness spreads and increases, the involved people start feeling the
need of the change of elimination of the unhealthy situations. They start
thinking about ways and means to avoid this undesired situation.
When the actual / projected results are not in line with expectations, needs are
intensely felt.
Any person at any level can feel the need, but sharing will help enhance the
clarity.
Exploring Readiness for Change
In spite of the strongly felt need, it is essential to explore the readiness of the
organization to change. A process facilitator may call a meeting / workshop of
senior people and on the basis of observations on the interaction, he can get an
idea of the readiness to change. When too much fascination for the status quo
is sensed, fear and apprehensions are strongly expressed, case of failure are
cited more than success stories, resource scarcity is repeatedly presented —
resistance to change efforts is likely to be high. OD should not be initiated in
a hurry.
General Considerations
Size of the organization
Growth rate
Crisis (situation)
Macro economics 13
Organisational OD history
Development and Change
Culture
Resources
Time commitment
Money
Access to people
Labour Contract limitations
Structural flexibility
People Variables
Interpersonal skills
Management development
Flexibility at the top
Internal change agents
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Diagnosis Process of Change
The processes at the transition stage are quite important. Whenever managers
suspect that the change is likely to come — their initial reaction is that of
“shock”. Their performance starts receding and they give different negative
comments. This shock starts spreading. In a multi unit public sector undertaking,
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Organisational when the Top Management decided to introduce a KRA based Performance
Development and Change
Management System, there was an initial reaction of shock. It affected their
sense of well-being and perform adversely.
Soon after, a strong tendency to deny that there is anything wrong in the
prevailing system emerged and managers tried to show an enhanced
competence (ability) to protect the existing status. They started showing that
the present system was quite good. Very soon, there was a realisation that the
average is imminent and they have to bear the pangs of change. This
realisation was spread and managed positively for enhancing the readiness of
change by introducing planned efforts by introducing mechanisms for awareness
generation, training, involvement of users, interest and support of senior and top
level managers. All these created strong emotions — at one side fear of
unknown — on the other side benefits of the new system, pressure on roles,
future possibilities, benefits, losses, implications etc. The pressure for unlearning
the existing ways and learning the new ways created different types of fears
and anxieties.
Resistance is ability to avoid what one does not want from the environment.
Resistance to change is a behaviour designed to discredit, delay or prevent the
implementation of a change.
There are some issues, which are not observed or experienced initially. These
are the deeper issues. The issues may not be found to cause resistance initially,
but it is experienced and becomes visible while discussing or working on the
issues. These appear in different ways:
Mistrust
Punishments
Rewards
Need for respect, reward, recognition
Fear of loss (monetary or status)
Lack of resilience.
Inertia
Threats to Power
Group norms
Organizational
Resistance to
change
Inertia
Due to the Task, Structure, Strategy, Technology, Systems, Procedures and
familiar people, organizations get frozen or are in a steady state. The idea of
bringing in charge creates the feeling of disturbance in the equilibriam. Hence
resistance.
Limited Focus
All organizational systems are inter-related, therefore change in one causes
stress and strain on others. Therefore, if a change is carried out in one system/
sub-system, there is a natural tendency in the other components to resist the
ensuing changes — as these do not want to get disturbed.
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Group Norms Process of Change
By way of the past interactions working, a group norm settles in. Change
questions these norms and seeks establishment of other norms — hence
resistance.
Threat to Expertise
People have acquired a degree of expertise and specialisations which make
them comfortable and self esteem is high — due to change in organizations —
there is a danger of getting some of the expertise obsolete and acquisitions of
new expertise /specializations. This needs a lot of personal / group effort — as
such resistance.
Threat to Power
Change may bring in new structure, new technology, new systems, procedures,
new delegation of powers, new relationships that may cause a threat to some
of the sources of power, hence resistance
Resource Pressure
All the above-mentioned changes may create pressure on various types of
resources including manpower resources. This perception causes resistance.
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Process of Change
14.10 REDUCING RESISTANCE TO CHANGE :
FEW SUGGESTIONS
To reduce resistance to change in the key steps, few suggestions are discussed
below:
i) Initiation of Change
Resistance will be low if the persons involved perceive the change project
as their own, rather than imposed on them by others.
Resistance will be low if the whole hearted support from Top Management
is available.
ii) Type of Change
Resistance will be low if the involved persons are convinced that the
difficulties experienced in their job would come down after implementation.
Resistance will reduce if the change is likely to bring interesting and
satisfying experience, to the concerned individuals.
Resistance will be less if the change is congruent and supports the values
and ideals of the concerned individual.
The perception that the power autonomy, and security will not be adversely
affected.
iii) Process of Change
If the persons likely to be affected have taken part in diagnosis, and have
agreement on the basic change problems and felt its importance —
resistance will be less.
Resistance will become low if the change makers (or sponsors) (i) see the
opponent‘s view points empathize with them and (ii) take steps to remove
their perceived fears.
Resistance will be reduced if feedback is taken from the affected persons
and they are apprised of the steps to be taken.
If there is enough change flexibility and project is kept open to revision and
amendment on the basis of evaluation and feedback.
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To intervene, according to Chris Argrysis, means to enter in to an ongoing Process of Change
system for the purpose of helping those in the system.
The main task of a Facilitator is to help the group increase its effectiveness by
improving its processes.
A process refers to how a group works together and includes how members
talk to each other, how they identify and solve problems, how they make
decisions and how they handle conflicts etc.
In basic facilitation, it is expected that the Facilitator would guide the group
using the principles of effective group processes -observing both contents and
processes.
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Organisational
Development and Change 14.12 SUMMARY
In this rapidly changing world change is the only constant. In this unit we have
tried to define change, understand the concept of change and types of change.
Drivers for change and alternative strategies of change has also been
discussed. Different models of change are described followed by the concept
of resistance to change and how to overcome resistance to change.
1) Consider your present job and indicate which benefits emerging out of an
effective change management is most important to you ?
a) Career advancement
b) Improved prospects
c) Job Security
d) Increased job satisfaction
e) Respect and recognition
2) a) Which of the changes at your work place you experienced in the
recent past —
— new boss — new system / procedures
— new work group — new products / services
— new position (responsibility) — new customer
— new equipment — new location
— new suppliers
b) Which change was most difficult for you ?
c) What were your thoughts and feelings before the change? Did you
have any fears ? What were those ?
d) How did you cope with the change ?
e) What would have helped you to cope with the changes better?
3) Complete the following sentence by writing as many adjectives / phrases as
you can think of
Change is ---------------------------------------
e.g. painful, agonising --------------------------
4) Complete the following sentence by writing as many adjectives / phrases as
you can think of
Change is -------------------------------
e.g. refreshing, energetic, profitable ---------------
5) Think of a change which would be beneficial to your company /
organization and respond to the following four questions --------
a) What is the change you have thought of ?
b) What are the reasons / benefits of the change ?
c) How would the change affect the involved persons ?
d) What support and tools should be provided to the involved persons for
managing the transition ?
6) A large scale company is to introduce a new Performance Management
System. Presently, the company practices an annual confidential report type
of appraisal system, which is done by the superiors annually.
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Process of Change
14.14 FURTHER READINGS
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