Unit 1 and 2 Meaning and definition of organization development Organization development is the process through which an organization develops

the internal capacity to most efficiently and effectively provide its mission work and to sustain itself over the long term. This definition highlights the explicit connection between organizational development work and the achievement of organizational mission. This connection is the rationale for doing OD work. Organization development, according to Richard Beckhard, is defined as: a planned effort, organization-wide, managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health, through planned interventions in the organization's 'processes', using behavioural science knowledge. According to Warren Bennis, organization development (OD) is a complex strategy intended to change the beliefs, attitudes, values, and structure of organizations so that they can better adapt to new technologies, markets, and challenges. Warner Burke emphasizes that OD is not just "anything done to better an organization"; it is a particular kind of change process designed to bring about a particular kind of end result. OD involves organizational reflection, system improvement, planning, and self-analysis.

Importance of OD Organizational Change The process of organizational development identifies areas of company operations where change is needed. Each need is analyzed, and the potential effects are projected into a change management plan. The plan outlines the specific ways in which the change will improve company operations, who will be affected by the change and how it can be rolled out efficiently to employees. Without organizational development as part of change management, a company would have a difficult time developing effective change management programs. Growth Organizational development is an important tool in managing and planning corporate growth. An organizational development analysis brings together sales projections and consumer demand to help determine the rate of company growth. This information is used to alter the company business plan and plan the expansion and use of company resources such as personnel and the distribution network to accommodate future growth.

Work Processes improvement and modification When a company is involved in organizational development, it analyzes work processes for efficiency and accuracy. Any quality control measures required to attain company standards are put in place. Evaluators analyze duplicate process, or processes that can be combined for greater efficiency, and develop and implement detailed plans on how to improve company methods. Product Innovation Product innovation requires the analysis of several kinds of information to be successful. Organizational development is critical to product innovation because it can help analyze each element of product development and create a method for using it effectively. Some of the processes that come together in organizational development to assist in product innovation are competitive analysis, technology development, consumer preferences, target market research, manufacturing capabilities analysis and patents and trademarks HISTORY OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT In the late 1960s organizational development was implemented in organizations via consultants, but was relatively unknown as a theory of practice and had no common definition among its practitioners. Richard Beckhard, an authority on organizational development and change management, defined organizational development as "an effort, planned, organization-wide, and managed from the top, to increase organization effectiveness and health through planned interventions in the organization's processes, using behavioral-science knowledge" (Beckhard 1969). Throughout the 1970s and 1980s organizational development became a more established field with courses and programs being offered in business, education, and administration curricula. In the 1990s and 2000s organizational development continued to grow and evolve and its influences could be seen in theories and strategies such as total quality management (TQM), team building, job enrichment, and reengineering. RATIONALE AND IMPLEMENTATION Organizational development takes into consideration how the organization and its constituents or employees function together. Does the organization meet the needs of its employees? Do the employees work effectively to make the organization a success? How can the symbiotic relationship between employee satisfaction and organizational success be optimized? Organizational development places emphasis on the human factors and data inherent in the organization-employee relationship. Organizational development strategies can be used to help employees become more committed and more adaptable, which ultimately improves the organization as a whole.

The organizational development process is initiated when there is a need, gap, or dissatisfaction within the organization, either at the upper management level or within the employee body. Ideally, the process involves the organization in its entirety, with evidenced support from upper management and engagement in the effort by all members from each level of the organization. To launch the process, consultants with experience in organizational development and change management are often utilized. These consultants may be internal to the company or external, with the cautionary understanding that internal consultants might be too entrenched in the existing company environment to effectively coordinate and enforce the action plans and solutions required for successful change. Data analysis through task forces, interviews, and questionnaires can illuminate likely causes for disconnects throughout an organization. These gaps can then be analyzed, an action plan formed, and solutions employed. This is by no means a linear process, nor is it a brief one. Feedback from all constituents should be elicited throughout the process and used to make adjustments to the action plan as necessary. Constant monitoring during the entire implementation effort is important for its success and acceptance. THE FUTURE OF ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT There are contradictory opinions about the status and future prospects of organizational development. Is it a theory whose time has come and gone? Does its basis in behavioral science, a "soft" science, make it unappealing? What are the challenges for the future? An article by Bunker, Alban, and Lewicki proposes six areas that could revitalize the field of organizational development in the future: virtual teams, conflict resolution, work group effectiveness, social network analysis, trust, and intractable conflict. These authors suggest that focusing on these areas will help bridge the gap between research theory (i.e., academics) and practice (i.e., consultants). Getting these two groups to communicate with each other will benefit both groups and promote organizational development efforts. In a survey conducted by Church, Waclawski, and Berr, twenty individuals involved in the study and practice of organizational development were questioned about their perspectives and predictions on the future of the field. The most in-demand services, according to those polled, are: executive coaching and development team building and team effectiveness facilitating strategic organizational change systemic integration

diversity and multiculturalism.

They list the daily challenges in the field as the need for speed, resistance to change, interpersonal skills and awareness, and differentiating organizational development, which refers to the variety of definitions of organizational development among practitioners and how this impacts consultants, clients, and the clients' needs. The opinions on the future direction of the field vary among its practitioners. Nevertheless, the continuing interest in and value of optimizing an organization's needs and goals with the needs, wants, and personal satisfaction of its employees indicate that organizational development will continue to be relevant to and vital for organizational reform in the future, either in its present form or through evolution into other theories and practices. ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROCESS The Organizational Development (OD) process is complicated and it takes long time to complete the process. It takes minimum of one year and sometimes continues indefinitely. There are different approaches to OD process but the typical process consists of seven steps, viz., initial diagnosis, data collection, data feedback and confrontation, action planning and problem solving, team building, inter group development and evaluation and followup. 1. Initial Diagnosis: If executives recognize that there are inadequacies within organization which can be corrected by OD activities, it is necessary to find out the professional and competent people within the organization to plan and execute OD activities. If competent people are not available within the organization the services activities are to be taken. The consultants adopt various methods including interviews, questionnaires, direct observation, analysis of documents and reports for diagnosing the problem. 2. Data Collection: Survey method is used to collect the data and information for determining organizational climate and identifying the behavioral problems. 3. Data Feedback and Confrontation: Data collected are analyzed and reviewed by various work groups formed from this purpose in order to mediate in the areas of disagreement or confrontation of ideas or opinions and to establish priorities. 4. Selection and Design of Interventions: The interventions are the planned activities that are introduced into the system to accomplish desired changes and improvements. At this stage the suitable interventions are to be selected and designed.

5. Implementation of Intervention: The selected intervention should be implemented. Intervention may take the form of workshops, feedback of data to the participants, group discussions, written exercises, on-the-job activities, redesign of control system etc. Interventions are to be implemented steadily as the process is not a one-short, quick cure for organizational malady. But it achieves real and lasting change in the attitudes and behavior of employees. 6. Action Planning and problem Solving: Groups prepare recommendations and specific action planning to solve the specific and identified problems by using data collected. 7. Team Building: The consultants encourage the employees throughout the process to form into groups and teams by explaining the advantages of the teams in the OD process, by arranging joint meetings with the managers, subordinates etc. 8. Inter group Development: The consultants encourage the inter group meetings, interaction etc., after the formation of groups/teams. OD theories There are several theories associated with organizational development. Lewin's three step theory on organizational development is simple but very valuable; it suggests that organizational change has three steps known as unfreezing, transformation, and refreezing . During the first step an organization realizes there is a need for change. During transformation the changes in organizational development occur, and in the final step the implemented changes are refreeze into the organizational routine. Another of Lewin's theories is the action-research model; it suggests that organizational development can come through the use of problem identification, hypothesis development and testing, and data analysis. This theory is cyclical, and can be repeated several times during organizational change. The general system theory is another theory associated with organizational development that discusses the importance of external environment on organizational development. This theory suggests that an organization takes something from the environment and transforms it; it then is given back to the external environment altered . This emphasizes the symbiotic relationship of the organization and the external environment. Burke's theory of organizational change also discusses the external environment. Burke's theory considers how leadership, the external environment, mission and strategy, organizational culture, and individual and organizational performance work together . Burke suggests that all of these aspects impact each other in organizational development.

If organizational change and development is to be successful certain conditions must exist. Top management must support the developments if they are to be successful because they have the means to make the changes possible. Consultants must be competent and capable of all of the necessary work needed to cause organizational change . Resistance is a natural occurrence for change, and employees can be made part of the implementation to make resistance less dominant. Organizations must also take ownership for the changes or they will not be taken seriously. Organizational development is necessary for any organization to survive and be successful. Many theories have helped organizations to understand and implement organizational developments. It is important that conditions be correct in an organization if changes are expected to be successful. OD interventions Organizational development interventions refer to the techniques (strategies) designed by OD specialists, coaches and mentors to help solve the pressing issues of organizations who seek their services. A single organizational consultant can't use all the interventions offered in his arsenal. It is constantly preferable to use interventions when the need to have arises. This hence calls for an successful understanding of the organization, its desires and the problems it is facing so as to make confident that the perfect intervention tools solve the ideal kinds of troubles. The following are the diverse kinds of organizational development interventions: Sensitivity coaching Survey feedback development discussion Aim setting and planning Team constructing and management objective. Managerial grid Job enrichment, participative management and quality circles. Process consultation intervention Inter-group Team-Building Interventions Third-Party Peacemaking Interventions Structural Interventions These kinds of intervention can be employed in various settings based on the require of the organization. Survey feedback intervention supplies information and details to all the managers. Info related to the attitude, structure, working circumstances will be included in the survey. Managers analyze the data pertaining to each and each employee and takes suitable action. They attempt to analyze the difficulty, evaluate the result and appropriate the issue.

On the other hand, along the consultation approach, the consultant meets all departments, function teams, and observes the interaction and skill levels of those working in those places. Goal setting and preparing goals are necessary for the overall strategic plans for the profitability of the organization. Managerial grid identifies management behavior on unique methods. It looks into production-oriented variables as well as the employee-oriented variables and combines them to interact with each and every other. It also offers the structural view of the laboratory coaching. Managerial grid interventions also relate to the leadership abilities. The growth of any organization pulls its peoples to adjust their thinking toward organizational development interventions. Individuals with planned and changed interventions can grow in organizations. An intervention types the front view of any developed organization. So it is valuable to follow and implement creative interventions. In implementing OD interventions, it is necessary to apply criteria to objectives, experiment with option arrangements, establish inter unit task force, and identify important communicators and fire-able offenses. An intervention types the appropriate relationship between strategy and organizational development. So a development model is needed to reflect the human resource, management and structure to create the organizational development intervention. At last an intervention makes a way for the efficient organization development with lots of competition. Types of OD interventions Lets review four major types of OD interventions (there are others, but they are usually variations or combinations of these four): Action Search Appreciative Inquiry Future Search Whole System Intervention

Although the objective of each of these is the same, the viewpoint and methodology for each is different.. All of these can work. The trick is to match the leadership style and organization culture so that the one selected has the best chance of success in a particular case. Most OD work is performed with the assistance of trained facilitators. They have the professional training to lead groups through the chaos of change to arrive at the objective. Managers who attempt a do it yourself approach to OD work often create more turmoil and make things worse. This is especially true if the leadership dynamic is part of the problem (which is usually the case).

OD work is tricky. It requires the skill of someone trained in this field. Headstrong managers who decide to undertake massive organization change without help are like critically ill patients trying to remove their own appendix. It is not a smart strategy. The flip side is that the effort needs to be owned by the manager rather than the consultant. Leaders who abdicate their responsibility to be the spiritual leader of the organization pay for it with lower trust. Action Search Most organizations contemplating an OD initiative, do so because they are not satisfied with how things are going. If the current trajectory of business is meeting or exceeding goals, there is little impetus for change. The Action Search approach takes on a somewhat negative spin from the outset. The idea is to determine what is wrong and fix it quickly. The first stage is to gather data. What areas of the business are falling short? How can these be changed to perform better? Unfortunately, many efforts using this technique become witch hunts where management looks for scapegoats. The process becomes one of uncovering ugly issues, followed by defensive tactics by those in charge. Most of us have participated in this type of intervention. It takes place on a regular basis in some companies. Ask yourself how successful these programs have been in your experience. Do they produce positive change, or simply mask more underlying issues while creating interpersonal chaos? My experience indicates this technique should be used only under very tight constraints with ground rules supporting solid values. That does not happen very often. Hence, using Action Research has a real potential to backfire if not managed extremely well. Appreciative Inquiry This approach is the mirror image of the action research technique. The process starts by asking what is working well. Groups focus on what is going right rather than what is going wrong. The idea is to find ways of doing more of the right stuff, thus providing less reinforcement for doing the wrong stuff. This is a much more pleasant process. It feels good to focus on strengths. It also provides a benchmark for improvement. The danger is that groups who are failing miserably can deceive themselves into thinking all they need do is clone the few bright spots to succeed. . A combination of both methods can avoid a kind of Pollyanna view of reality. Future Search In this process, the focus is on the vision rather than the current state. The idea is to get groups engaged in defining a compelling view of the future. When compared to the present, this allows

clarification of the gaps between current practices and organizational goals. Outstanding vision is the most powerful force for all individuals and organizations. Whole System Intervention This is a kind of zero-based approach to OD. In this case, the activities of the organization are viewed through a systems approach. The emphasis is on getting a critical mass within the organization to redefine the business. Processes become the focal point for redesign efforts. This is less threatening than the action research technique because of focuses on the what and how rather than the who. The challenge with a systems approach is that can get pretty complicated. In systems thinking, we try to understand the interrelations between things. This is opposed to the usual linear way of thinking If we do one thing it results in an effect. In systems thinking we need to understand not only the direct effect of actions but also the side effects. If leaders are unhappy with performance, they need to look at their system because it is perfectly designed to give exactly the result they are getting. Trying to untangle what is hurting the system and streamline the process for a better result can get convoluted. The four OD interventions described in this paper are the cornerstones for organizational improvement. They need to be applied with care and judgment to be effective. When OD activities go awry, the cure is often worse than the disease. With the health, or even survival, of the organization at stake, it is important to do this work carefully with the assistance of an expert. Unit 3 and 4 Organizational change and managing resistance to change Concept or organizational change Different kinds of change require different strategies and plans to effectively gain employee engagement and acceptance of change. The three types of change that occur most frequently in organizations are developmental, transitional and transformational. Change management theories effectively support how to deal with developmental and transitional change, but are less effective at dealing with successfully implementing transformational change. A critical step in determining which approach to use in overcoming resistance to implementing organization change is to determine which type of change the organization is experiencing. Developmental Change Developmental change occurs when a company makes an improvement to their current business. If a company decided to improve their processes, methods or performance standards this would

be considered developmental change. Companies are continually processing developmental change to some degree in order to stay competitive. This type of change should cause little stress to current employees as long as the rationale for the new process is clearly conveyed and the employees are educated on the new techniques. When major change such as the decision to close a division, if the company attempted to implement developmental change as the first step in streamlining the business, employees may be more likely to accept the change. The employees could see that the company attempted different strategies before determining that closing the division was the only option. Transitional Change Transitional change is more intrusive than developmental change as it replaces existing processes or procedures with something that is completely new to the company. The period when the old process is being dismantled and the new process is being implemented is called the transitional phase. A corporate reorganization, merger, acquisition, creating new products or services, and implementing new technology are examples of transitional change. Transitional change may not require a significant shift in culture or behavior but it is more challenging to implement than developmental change. The future of the organization is unknown when the transformation begins which can add a level or discomfort to employees. The outcome of transitional change is unknown so employees may feel that their job is unstable and their own personal insecurities may increase. Education on the new procedures should be commenced at each stage of the new process. This will allow employees to feel that they are actively involved and engaged in the change. As an employees level of engagement in the new procedure increases, their resistance to change may decrease. Management should be cognizant of the impact and stress these changes will have on their employees. The company should continue to inform the employees of their status offer support in helping them deal with the personal adjustments they will be forced to make. Transformational Change Transformational change occurs after the transition period. Transformational change may involve both developmental and transitional change. It is common for transitional and transformation change to occur in tandem. When companies are faced with the emergence of radically different technologies, significant changes in supply and demand, unexpected competition, lack of revenue or other major shifts in how they do business, developmental or transitional change may not offer the company the solution they need to stay competitive. Instead of methodically implementing new processes, the company may be forces to drastically transform themselves. Importance of change management Although change is an inevitable part of business, especially in todays tumultuous corporate environment, it is not always embraced by employees and managers with open arms. No matter

how important and unstoppable change is, it can be very stressful. Many individuals are hesitant to take on something new or leave something behind due to already established comfort zones or familiarity associated with jobs and job functions. Most organizations which have gone through change without a change management plan in place can attest to the problems and troubles they have experienced. Whether hesitant or fearful, those impacted by any change must be guided through a series of activities and steps for successful change adoption to occur. Effective Change Management plans, which focus on the people side of change, involve a structured approach aimed at empowering individuals to accept, embrace, and prepare for change. This approach ensures alignment with group expectations and objectives, and personnel readiness for effectively integrating and managing the change or changes about to take place within any given team, department, or company-wide initiative or endeavor. The chart below outlines some of the most common implications of either effective or ineffective change management. These implications support the justification for using a Change Management process. IF change is EFFECTIVELY managed 1. Employees have a solid understanding of why change is happening. 2. Employees engage in both the solution and the change. 3. Training is used to build knowledge and skills after employees have made the personal decision to support the change. 4. Resistance is identified and dealt with early in the process. 5. Senior leaders demonstrate their own commitment and the organizations commitment to the change. 6. Change is supported. 7. A coalition of support among senior leaders and managers creates momentum throughout the organization. 8. Probability of meeting project objectives is increased. If change is NOT Managed

1. Productivity declines as people become more consumed with the change being introduced. 2. Passive resistance grows. 3. Active resistance emerges and sabotages the change. 4. Employees become disinterested in the current state and the future state. 5. People are left to wonder why the change is happening. 6. Employees revert back to the old ways to avoid implementing the new ways. 7. Changes are not fully implemented. 8. Changes are cancelled due to lack of support. 9. Many types of risk are created risk to the project, to the organization, to the employees involved and to the individuals supporting the change. The Change Management Process The Change Management process is a sequence of steps or activities that encompass a group of systems and tools for managing change. These systems and tools are needed to manage any organizational change effort in order for those involved to make a smooth transition from their current environment to what is desired or needed. Change managements goal is to minimize change impacts on those involved and to avoid distractions and resistance. The various steps involved in any successful Change Management process include the following: Prepare the environment and those involved in the change Implement and manage the change Collect feedback, reinforce the change as it is occurring, and adapt the change process as needed Establishing and instituting the above steps creates a clear path to proper resource implementation and new job responsibility integration by: Ensuring Executive and Management sponsorship/support and employee motivation

Preparing individuals to become successful / effective and for management to effectively coach and facilitate in an environment conducive to the success of the change Identifying change Sponsors and employee readiness and possible resistance Successful employee transition from their current environment to a desired environment weather implementing new processes, jobs, or job responsibilities/functions is what Change Management is all about. Benefits of change management Benefits of change management to the organization: Change is a planned and managed process. The benefits of the change are known before implementation and serve as motivators and assessment of progress The organization can respond faster to customer demands Helps to align existing resources within the organization Change management allows the organization to assess the overall impact of a change Change can be implemented without negatively effecting the day to day running of business Organizational effectiveness and efficiency is maintained or even improved by acknowledging the concerns of staff The time needed to implement change is reduced The possibility of unsuccessful change is reduced Employee performance increases when staff feel supported and understand the change process Increased customer service and effective service to clients from confident and knowledgeable employees Change management provides a way to anticipate challenges and respond to these efficiently An effective change management process lowers the risk associated with change

Managed costs of change: change management helps to contain costs associated with the change Increased return on investment (ROI) Creates an opportunity for the development of "best practices", leadership development, and team development

Benefits of change management for individuals / staff: Effective change management supports a smooth transition from the old to the new while maintaining morale, productivity, and even company image Provides management and staff support for concerns regarding changes An efficient change management process creates the correct perception of the change for staff and public Helps to plan efficient communication strategies Minimizes resistance to change Improves morale, productivity and quality of work Improves cooperation, collaboration and communication A carefully planned approach to change reduces stress and anxiety and encourages people to stay loyal to the organization Increased employee acceptance of the change Personal loss/gain to individuals is acknowledged and addressed Change management reduces disruptive aspects and emphasises positive opportunities in the change process

Further benefits of change management: Careful planning helps to ensure that the change process is started and managed by the right people at the right time Planned change management allows you to include specific tasks and events that are appropriate for each stage in the change process

Change management ensures that customers, suppliers and other stakeholders understand and support the change

Change management The term Change Management describes the focused effort of helping people through a transition or change cycle. The goals of Change Management are to minimize resistance to the required change and to develop commitment to the desired end state.

It is in human nature to resist change. "We resist change. We choose to keep our habits, rather the comfort of our habits" Change and the phenomenon of it, is fundamental to evolution; and yet it implies some sort of resistance. Resistance to change can take various forms and the task of filtering out the cause of resistance can often be difficult. Examples include change in work processes where the needs, expectations, and concerns of individuals are ignored. Change and resistance to it forms a knock-on-effect to both the construction and destruction of any organisation. Fear is one of the major forms of resistance to change and I shall discuss this in depth at a later stage. Alas resistance to change can be categorised to the organisational level and the individual level. It is these two separate levels which we shall discuss further exploring what steps may be taken to overcome resistance at both the organisational and individual level.

six Types of Technique Are Required Six types of intervention technique are required to effectively manage change. They are: Assessing: Diagnosing interests, attitudes, and beliefs; and identifying the appropriate intervention techniques for each stakeholder. Examples: - Force Field Analysis - Stakeholder Analysis - Personality Inventories Informing: Communicating to stakeholders and providing avenues for feedback. Examples: - Competitive Threat Presentation - Telephone Hotline - Sponsor Memos Educating/Training: Providing formal and informal training/education (classes, articles, etc.) Examples: - Project Kickoff Training - Best Practices Workshop - Peer Teaching Reinforcing: Providing incentives and disincentives as well as setting an example. Examples: - Individual Performance Measure Revision - Cross Project Forums - Special Rewards Leading: Setting the course for change and then supporting it as it occurs. Examples: - Public Support - Private Influence and Enlistment - Conflict Resolution Transferring Ownership: Involving affected personnel in helping to design and implement the change. Examples: - Representative Governance Structure - Pilot Participation - Suggestion and Question Boxes

The Organisational Barriers to Change

There are a number of barriers to change at the organisational level that, need to be addressed to allow change to be implemented with the least amount of resistance. These include: Undefined Goals and Objectives An organisation should clarify continually the goals and objectives, outlining roles and specifying performance standards. Financial and Environmental Lack of working capital in an organisation can prevent it from introducing change that is necessary to stay ahead of competitors or merely survive as a business. In these circumstances redundancies are almost inevitable. The lack of finance could be due to a variety of factors. These include: a fall in market demand, rise in competition or the degree of turbulence in the market place such as the September 11 th World Trade Disaster; which caused a significant effect on businesses and investment world wide. Lack of Resources and Bad Resource Allocation Lack of resources is an onset of financial and/or environmental issues as discussed in the above paragraph. Bad resource allocation, occur when managers make bad decisions in allocating resources such as money, time, machinery and staff. Managers should use their imagination to avoid causing conflict situations. Structural An organisation that follows the traditional hierarchical structure tends to resist change more than that which has a more flat structure. Communication between head of departments and employees in traditional hierarchical structures are usually poor which causes a rift between Management and Employees. Insufficient Communication There are two branches of communication, which are communication internally, within the

organisation between Employees and Management and externally between the organisation and suppliers and customers. In organisations where management keep employees in the dark with respect to change potentially face fierce resistance. Employees may interpret this as a conspiracy against them inevitably leading to an unfriendly atmosphere to work in. Organisations that fail to communicate with their Customers and Suppliers, changes that are in effect can face disastrous consequences. Example the Tiptree Company that had implemented a 1.5 million warehousing system to handle a larger number of books failed to notify, its customers that it had undergone a radical change without informing its customers. Unfortunate for Tiptree, which encountered problems with their new systems for about six months; had tarnished its 1992 British Book Awards Distributor of the Year. Lack of or Bad Leadership Strong leadership is required in order to direct the change management process in any organisation. Bad leaders who merely provide are not doing enough to inspire the employees to march ahead. People want to be shown the way. Lack of Preparation for New Roles Organisations may lack in their planning phase. Failing to prepare and define the new roles that will need to be satisfied when change is implemented; shall give rise to resistance. Cultural Issues The culture of an organisation is a set of unwritten rules. Management may have a set of protocols for employees to adhere to perform business processes. The way a task is actually carried out depends namely on the culture. The culture of the organisation can strongly resist to change as employees become too familiar with the current way of doing things. "Culture is the integrated pattern of human behaviour that includes thought, speech, action, and artefacts and depends on man's capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations."(Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary)

Individuals Resisting Change There are a number of barriers to change at the individual level that, need to be addressed to allow change to be implemented with the least amount of resistance. These include: Fear News of change can invoke fear among employees. Employees may feel afraid of not being able

to fulfil the new proposed changes to work practices that are being imposed. Employees may begin to question the future of their job, which shall cause much discomfort. People resist change due to anxiety, pessimism and different personal ambitions. Lack of Input into the change Individuals tend to resist change where they play not part in change. The idea of not knowing the change can cause a rift between the employees and management. Overcoming Resistance at Organisational and Individual Level Organisational Level Overcoming Undefined Goals and Objectives Goals and Objectives should be frequently redefined and relayed to all employees. This shall aid towards clearing up any misunderstanding and possible conflicts. Overcoming Financial and Environmental Issues Organisations should have a contingency fund to cater for changes in demand or develop a very good relationship with their bank manager in case you need to borrow money at hard times. At the other end of the scale if demand sores suppliers must be able to satisfy demand. Benchmarking suppliers shall help determine your best suppliers. A good supplier may be one that allows you to have a 30 day or more credit account, which leave you with more working capital. Essentially corporate business strategies should have a degree of flexibility to act as a defence to sudden changes. Overcoming Structural Problems and Insufficient Communication In a large organisation employees may wish to elect a spokes person who can act as a collective voice to air potential barriers directly to management. Surveys can be conducted and results analysed. In a small organisation employees should be encouraged to speak up if they feel that change is causing a conflict. Overcoming Lack of or Bad Leadership It is a natural human instinct to follow leadership as children we look up to our parents and as adults we look up towards our superiors. Leaders must lead the way and be an example for others to follow. In leading and setting an example to others leaders must take an active role a hands on approach side by side with the employees in order to motivate and encourage. As in the words of the great, Mahatma Gandhi; We must become the change we want to see. Visionary leaders, no matter how articulate, are not enough. A shared commitment still requires personal contact to make it real

Overcoming Lack of Preparation for New Roles The importance of planning must be emphasised and reflected. The new roles should be concisely explained to the respective employees prior to implementing change, to stifle out any doubts, fears or resistance. Overcoming Cultural Issues The cultural characteristics once identified need to be overcome and evolved into a non-blame culture. By doing so the employees shall have the freedom to evolve and try innovative ways of doing their jobs without the fear of being penalised for mistakes. Individual Level Employees should be directly involved in the change process, which shall motivate and reduce resistance. Extra incentives should be made available to further encourage and reward compliance. Support networks should be established as a means to reinforce the change theory. Appendix 1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs depicts the theory of psychological needs, values of authority, hierarchy and rationality, security needs. The model consists of many levels. Maslow argues that once the basic level of Air food water and sex are met the next hierarchical or rational need is for safety. An organisation must concentrate on invoking a sense of Belonging to the organisation by keeping them informed, involved and sharing the success. Esteem by Others should be achieved by promoting team work and the occasional appraisals by management. Force Field Analysis The force field analysis helps identify the forces for change (drivers) and forces against change (resistance) in an organisation. Through analysis the author concludes that it important to note that even if you have more forces for change than against this may not actually guarantee you successful change. The key is to remove the barriers to change on the organisational and individual level.

Specific approaches to enlist co-operation