1. What is the difference between class and structure?

Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of data types together to perform a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to contain functions also. The major difference is that all declarations inside a structure are by default public. Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class are private. One more difference apart from public and private access specifier, that struct dont have protected as an access specifier while class do. 2. What is the difference between an object and a class? Classes and objects are separate but related concepts. Every object belongs to a class and every class contains one or more related objects. A Class is static. All of the attributes of a class are fixed before, during, and after the execution of a program. The attributes of a class dont change. The class to which an object belongs is also (usually) static. If a particular object belongs to a certain class at the time that it is created then it almost certainly will still belong to that class right up until the time that it is destroyed. An Object on the other hand has a limited lifespan. Objects are created and eventually destroyed.Also during that lifetime, the attributes of the object may undergo significant change. 3. What is encapsulation? Encapsulation means wrapping up of Data and Codethis is what i got from data structures book. 4. What is an enumerator? Enumeration is a value data type, which means that enumeration contains its own values and cannot inherit or pass inheritance. Enumerator allows you to assign symbolic names or integral constants. 5. What is the difference between c & c++? There are many differences between c and c++ but some of the important are 1.A small but potentially important difference between c and c++ is that in c a character constant is automatically elevated to and integer whereas in c++ it is not. 2.In c we can declare the global variable several times eventhough it is a bad programming concept but in c++ it is an error.

3.Another subtle difference between c and c++ is that in c++ all functions must be prototyped.Remember in c prototypes are recommended but technically optional.

What is C++?
Released in 1985, C++ is an object-oriented programming language created by Bjarne Stroustrup. C++ maintains almost all aspects of the C language, while simplifying memory management and adding several features - including a new datatype known as a class (you will learn more about these later) - to allow object-oriented programming. C++ maintains the features of C which allowed for low-level memory access but also gives the programmer new tools to simplify memory management. C++ used for: C++ is a powerful general-purpose programming language. It can be used to create small programs or large applications. It can be used to make CGI scripts or console-only DOS programs. C++ allows you to create programs to do almost anything you need to do. The creator of C++, Bjarne Stroustrup, has put together a partial list of applications written in C++.
How do you find out if a linked-list has an end? (i.e. the list is not a cycle)

You can find out by using 2 pointers. One of them goes 2 nodes each time. The second one goes at 1 nodes each time. If there is a cycle, the one that goes 2 nodes each time will eventually meet the one that goes slower. If that is the case, then you will know the linkedlist is a cycle.
What is the difference between realloc() and free()?

The free subroutine frees a block of memory previously allocated by the malloc subroutine. Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer. If the Pointer parameter is a null value, no action will occur. The realloc subroutine changes the size of the block of memory pointed to by the Pointer parameter to the number of bytes specified by the Size parameter and returns a new pointer to the block. The pointer specified by the Pointer parameter must have been created with the malloc, calloc, or realloc subroutines and not been deallocated with the free or realloc subroutines. Undefined results occur if the Pointer parameter is not a valid pointer.
What is function overloading and operator overloading?

Function overloading: C++ enables several functions of the same name to be defined, as long as these functions have different sets of parameters (at least as far as their types are concerned). This capability is called function overloading. When an overloaded function is called, the C++ compiler selects the proper function by examining the number, types and

order of the arguments in the call. Function overloading is commonly used to create several functions of the same name that perform similar tasks but on different data types. Operator overloading allows existing C++ operators to be redefined so that they work on objects of user-defined classes. Overloaded operators are syntactic sugar for equivalent function calls. They form a pleasant facade that doesn't add anything fundamental to the language (but they can improve understandability and reduce maintenance costs).
What is the difference between declaration and definition?

The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present the definition of this declaration. E.g.: void stars () //function declaration The definition contains the actual implementation. E.g.: void stars () // declarator

{
for(int j=10; j > =0; j--) //function body cout << *; cout << endl; }
What are the advantages of inheritance?

It permits code reusability. Reusability saves time in program development. It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing problem after a system becomes functional.
How do you write a function that can reverse a linked-list?

void reverselist(void)

{
if(head==0) return; if(head->next==0) return; if(head->next==tail)

{
head->next = 0; tail->next = head;

}
else

{
node* pre = head; node* cur = head->next; node* curnext = cur->next; head->next = 0; cur-> next = head; for(; curnext!=0; )

{
cur->next = pre; pre = cur; cur = curnext;

curnext = curnext->next;

}
curnext->next = cur;

} }
What do you mean by inline function?
The idea behind inline functions is to insert the code of a called function at the point where the function is called. If done carefully, this can improve the application's performance in exchange for increased compile time and possibly (but not always) an increase in the size of the generated binary executables.

Write a program that ask for user input from 5 to 9 then calculate the average
#include "iostream.h" int main() { int MAX = 4; int total = 0; int average; int numb; for (int i=0; i<MAX; i++) { cout << "Please enter your input between 5 and 9: "; cin >> numb; while ( numb<5 || numb>9) { cout << "Invalid input, please re-enter: "; cin >> numb;

}
total = total + numb;

}
average = total/MAX; cout << "The average number is: " << average << "\n"; return 0;

}
Write a short code using C++ to print out all odd number from 1 to 100 using a for loop

for( unsigned int i = 1; i < = 100; i++ ) if( i & 0x00000001 ) cout << i << \",\";

What is public, protected, private?

Public, protected and private are three access specifier in C++. Public data members and member functions are accessible outside the class. Protected data members and member functions are only available to derived classes. Private data members and member functions cant be accessed outside the class. However there is an exception can be using friend classes. Write a function that swaps the values of two integers, using int* as the argument type. void swap(int* a, int*b) { int t; t = *a; *a = *b;

*b = t;

}
Tell how to check whether a linked list is circular.

Create two pointers, each set to the start of the list. Update each as follows:

while (pointer1) { pointer1 = pointer1->next; pointer2 = pointer2->next; if (pointer2) pointer2=pointer2->next; if (pointer1 == pointer2) { print (\"circular\n\");

} }
OK, why does this work?

If a list is circular, at some point pointer2 will wrap around and be either at the item just before pointer1, or the item before that. Either way, its either 1 or 2 jumps until they meet.
What is virtual constructors/destructors?

Answer1 Virtual destructors: If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor function (matching the pointer type) is called on the object. There is a simple solution to this problem declare a virtual base-class destructor. This makes all derived-class destructors virtual even though they dont have the same name as the base-class destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to a derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is called. Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual function is a syntax error. Answer2 Virtual destructors: If an object (with a non-virtual destructor) is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to the object, the base-class destructor function (matching the pointer type) is called on the object. There is a simple solution to this problem declare a virtual base-class destructor. This makes all derived-class destructors virtual even though they dont have the same name as the base-class destructor. Now, if the object in the hierarchy is destroyed explicitly by applying the delete operator to a base-class pointer to a derived-class object, the destructor for the appropriate class is called.
Virtual constructor: Constructors cannot be virtual. Declaring a constructor as a virtual function is a syntax error. Does c++ support multilevel and multiple inheritance?

Yes.

What are the advantages of inheritance?

It permits code reusability.

 Reusability saves time in program development. It encourages the reuse of proven and debugged high-quality software, thus reducing problem after a system becomes functional.
What is the difference between declaration and definition?

The declaration tells the compiler that at some later point we plan to present the definition of this declaration. E.g.: void stars () //function declaration The definition contains the actual implementation. E.g.: void stars () // declarator

{
for(int j=10; j>=0; j--) //function body cout<<*; cout<<endl; }

What is the difference between an ARRAY and a LIST?

Answer1 Array is collection of homogeneous elements. List is collection of heterogeneous elements. For Array memory allocated is static and continuous. For List memory allocated is dynamic and Random. Array: User need not have to keep in track of next memory allocation. List: User has to keep in Track of next location where memory is allocated. Answer2 Array uses direct access of stored members, list uses sequencial access for members. //With Array you have direct access to memory position 5 Object x = a[5]; // x takes directly a reference to 5th element of array //With the list you have to cross all previous nodes in order to get the 5th node: list mylist; list::iterator it; for( it = list.begin() ; it != list.end() ; it++ )

{
if( i==5)

{
x = *it; break;

}
i++;

}
Does c++ support multilevel and multiple inheritance?
Yes.
What is a template?

Templates allow to create generic functions that admit any data type as parameters and

return value without having to overload the function with all the possible data types. Until certain point they fulfill the functionality of a macro. Its prototype is any of the two following ones: template <class indetifier> function_declaration; template <typename indetifier> function_declaration; The only difference between both prototypes is the use of keyword class or typename, its use is indistinct since both expressions have exactly the same meaning and behave exactly the same way.
Define a constructor - What it is and how it might be called

(2 methods).

Answer1 constructor is a member function of the class, with the name of the function being the same as the class name. It also specifies how the object should be initialized. Ways of calling constructor: 1) Implicitly: automatically by complier when an object is created. 2) Calling the constructors explicitly is possible, but it makes the code unverifiable. Answer2 class Point2D{ int x; int y; public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor }; main(){ Point2D MyPoint; // Implicit Constructor call. In order to allocate memory on stack, the default constructor is implicitly called. Point2D * pPoint = new Point2D(); // Explicit Constructor call. In order to allocate memory on HEAP we call the default constructor.

You have two pairs: new() and delete() and another pair : alloc() and free(). Explain differences between eg. new() and malloc()
Answer1 1.) new and delete are preprocessors while malloc() and free() are functions. [we dont use brackets will calling new or delete]. 2.) no need of allocate the memory while using new but in malloc() we have to use sizeof(). 3.) new will initlize the new memory to 0 but malloc() gives random value in the new alloted memory location [better to use calloc()] Answer2 new() allocates continous space for the object instace malloc() allocates distributed space. new() is castless, meaning that allocates memory for this specific type, malloc(), calloc() allocate space for void * that is cated to the specific class type pointer.

What is the difference between class and structure?

Structure: Initially (in C) a structure was used to bundle different type of data types together to perform a particular functionality. But C++ extended the structure to contain functions also. The major difference is that all declarations inside a structure are by default public. Class: Class is a successor of Structure. By default all the members inside the class are private.

What is RTTI?
Runtime type identification (RTTI) lets you find the dynamic type of an object when you have only a pointer or a reference to the base type. RTTI is the official way in standard C++ to discover the type of an object and to convert the type of a pointer or reference (that is, dynamic typing). The need came from practical experience with C++. RTTI replaces many Interview Questions - Homegrown versions with a solid, consistent approach.
What is encapsulation?

Packaging an objects variables within its methods is called encapsulation.

Explain term POLIMORPHISM and give an example using eg. SHAPE object: If I have a base class SHAPE, how would I define DRAW methods for two objects CIRCLE and SQUARE

Answer1 POLYMORPHISM : A phenomenon which enables an object to react differently to the same function call. in C++ it is attained by using a keyword virtual Example public class SHAPE

{
public virtual void SHAPE::DRAW()=0;

}
Note here the function DRAW() is pure virtual which means the sub classes must implement the DRAW() method and SHAPE cannot be instatiated public class CIRCLE::public SHAPE

{
public void CIRCLE::DRAW()

{
// TODO drawing circle

} }
public class SQUARE::public SHAPE

{
public void SQUARE::DRAW()

{
// TODO drawing square

} }
now from the user class the calls would be like

globally SHAPE *newShape; When user action is to draw public void MENU::OnClickDrawCircle(){ newShape = new CIRCLE();

}
public void MENU::OnClickDrawCircle(){ newShape = new SQUARE();

}
the when user actually draws public void CANVAS::OnMouseOperations(){ newShape->DRAW();

}
Answer2 class SHAPE{ public virtual Draw() = 0; //abstract class with a pure virtual method }; class CIRCLE{ public int r; public virtual Draw() { this->drawCircle(0,0,r); } }; class SQURE public int a; public virtual Draw() { this->drawRectangular(0,0,a,a); } }; Each object is driven down from SHAPE implementing Draw() function in its own way.
What is an object?

Object is a software bundle of variables and related methods. Objects have state and behavior.
How can you tell what shell you are running on UNIX system?

You can do the Echo $RANDOM. It will return a undefined variable if you are from the CShell, just a return prompt if you are from the Bourne shell, and a 5 digit random numbers if you are from the Korn shell. You could also do a ps -l and look for the shell with the highest PID.
What do you mean by inheritance?

Inheritance is the process of creating new classes, called derived classes, from existing classes or base classes. The derived class inherits all the capabilities of the base class, but can add embellishments and refinements of its own.

Describe PRIVATE, PROTECTED and PUBLIC the differences and give examples.
class Point2D{ int x; int y; public int color; protected bool pinned; public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor }; Point2D MyPoint; You cannot directly access private data members when they are declared (implicitly) private: MyPoint.x = 5; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR //Nor yoy can see them: int x_dim = MyPoint.x; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR On the other hand, you can assign and read the public data members: MyPoint.color = 255; // no problem int col = MyPoint.color; // no problem With protected data members you can read them but not write them: MyPoint.pinned = true; // Compiler will issue a compile ERROR bool isPinned = MyPoint.pinned; // no problem
What is namespace?

Namespaces allow us to group a set of global classes, objects and/or functions under a name. To say it somehow, they serve to split the global scope in sub-scopes known as namespaces. The form to use namespaces is: namespace identifier { namespace-body } Where identifier is any valid identifier and namespace-body is the set of classes, objects and functions that are included within the namespace. For example: namespace general { int a, b; } In this case, a and b are normal variables integrated within the general namespace. In order to access to these variables from outside the namespace we have to use the scope operator ::. For example, to access the previous variables we would have to put: general::a general::b The functionality of namespaces is specially useful in case that there is a possibility that a global object or function can have the same name than another one, causing a redefinition error.
What is a COPY CONSTRUCTOR and when is it called?

A copy constructor is a method that accepts an object of the same class and copies its data members to the object on the left part of assignement: class Point2D{ int x; int y;

public int color; protected bool pinned; public Point2D() : x(0) , y(0) {} //default (no argument) constructor public Point2D( const Point2D & ) ; }; Point2D::Point2D( const Point2D & p )

{
this->x = p.x; this->y = p.y; this->color = p.color; this->pinned = p.pinned;

}
main(){ Point2D MyPoint; MyPoint.color = 345; Point2D AnotherPoint = Point2D( MyPoint ); // now AnotherPoint has color = 345
What is Boyce Codd Normal form?

A relation schema R is in BCNF with respect to a set F of functional dependencies if for all functional dependencies in F+ of the form a-> , where a and b is a subset of R, at least one of the following holds: * a- > b is a trivial functional dependency (b is a subset of a) * a is a superkey for schema R
What is virtual class and friend class?

Friend classes are used when two or more classes are designed to work together and need access to each other's implementation in ways that the rest of the world shouldn't be allowed to have. In other words, they help keep private things private. For instance, it may be desirable for class DatabaseCursor to have more privilege to the internals of class Database than main() has.
What is the word you will use when defining a function in base class to allow this function to be a polimorphic function?

virtual
What do you mean by binding of data and functions?

Encapsulation.

What are 2 ways of exporting a function from a DLL?

1.Taking a reference to the function from the DLL instance. 2. Using the DLL s Type Library
What is the difference between an object and a class?

Classes and objects are separate but related concepts. Every object belongs to a class and every class contains one or more related objects. - A Class is static. All of the attributes of a class are fixed before, during, and after the execution of a program. The attributes of a class don't change.

- The class to which an object belongs is also (usually) static. If a particular object belongs to a certain class at the time that it is created then it almost certainly will still belong to that class right up until the time that it is destroyed. - An Object on the other hand has a limited lifespan. Objects are created and eventually destroyed. Also during that lifetime, the attributes of the object may undergo significant change.
Suppose that data is an array of 1000 integers. Write a single function call that will sort the 100 elements data [222] through data [321].

quicksort ((data + 222), 100);

What is a class?

Class is a user-defined data type in C++. It can be created to solve a particular kind of problem. After creation the user need not know the specifics of the working of a class.
What is friend function?

As the name suggests, the function acts as a friend to a class. As a friend of a class, it can access its private and protected members. A friend function is not a member of the class. But it must be listed in the class definition.
Which recursive sorting technique always makes recursive calls to sort subarrays that are about half size of the original array?

Mergesort always makes recursive calls to sort subarrays that are about half size of the original array, resulting in O(n log n) time.
What is abstraction?

Abstraction is of the process of hiding unwanted details from the user.

What are virtual functions?

A virtual function allows derived classes to replace the implementation provided by the base class. The compiler makes sure the replacement is always called whenever the object in question is actually of the derived class, even if the object is accessed by a base pointer rather than a derived pointer. This allows algorithms in the base class to be replaced in the derived class, even if users don't know about the derived class.
What is the difference between an external iterator and an internal iterator? Describe an advantage of an external iterator.

An internal iterator is implemented with member functions of the class that has items to step through. .An external iterator is implemented as a separate class that can be "attach" to the object that has items to step through. .An external iterator has the advantage that many difference iterators can be active simultaneously on the same object.
What is a scope resolution operator?

A scope resolution operator (::), can be used to define the member functions of a class outside the class.
What do you mean by pure virtual functions?

A pure virtual member function is a member function that the base class forces derived classes to provide. Normally these member functions have no implementation. Pure virtual functions are equated to zero. class Shape { public: virtual void draw() = 0; };

What is polymorphism? Explain with an example?

"Poly" means "many" and "morph" means "form". Polymorphism is the ability of an object (or reference) to assume (be replaced by) or become many different forms of object. Example: function overloading, function overriding, virtual functions. Another example can be a plus + sign, used for adding two integers or for using it to concatenate two strings.