Fig. 4.

(courtesy AREVA, NPAG)

Fig. 5. (courtesy, Namibian Power Corporation)

Fig. 6. (courtesy AREVA, NPAG)

5. Power system automation components

Power system automation components may be classified according to their function: Sensors Interface Equipment Controllers Actuators

Thus we see that Figure 1 is still a good representation of what is needed to effect automation, whether it is for EHV transmission, sub-transmission or distribution. Figure 7 depicts the control philosophy of a power system automation scheme.

MONITORING AND SUPERVISION

CONTROL

Action and Feedback

ACQUISITION

Fig. 7. 5.1 Overview of power system components 5.1.1 Sensors 5.1.1.1 Current and voltage transformers Individually or in combination current and voltage transformers (also called instrument transformers) are used in protective schemes such as overcurrent, distance and carrier protection. Also in combination current and voltage transformers are also used for power measurements. In general custom specified voltage and current transformers are used for power metering, because of the increased accuracy requirements. Figure 8 shows instrument transformers in one of the substation areas (called bays).

Fig. 8. 5.1.1.2 Other sensors For reliable electrical power system performance the states, stress conditions and the environmental conditions associated with the components have to be monitored. A very costly component in a substation is a transformer. For a transformer, monitoring is done, for example, for pressure inside the tank, winding temperature and oil level. For circuit breakers, sensing signals may need to be obtained from it such as gas pressure and number of operations. 5.1.2 Switches, isolators, circuit breakers A most important function of a substation is the enabling of circuit configuration changes occasioned by, for example, planned maintenance, faults feeders or other electrical equipment. This function is of course in addition to the other important function of circuit protection which may also necessitate configuration changes. Modern switches and circuit breakers will have contacts or sensors to indicate their state or position. Figure 9 shows the ABB HH circuit breaker mechanism. The plant required to achieve the desired operation is usually quite elaborate and includes controls and protection to ensure that it operates reliably.

Automation

Fig. 9. Portion of HH ABB circuit breaker mechanism

6. IEC 61850 substation automation: Origin and philosophy

The International Electrotechnical Commission is one of the most recognisable standard generating bodies for the electrical power industry. Its standard the IEC 61850 Communication Networks and Systems in Substations is a global standard governing communications in substations. The scope of the standards is very broad and its ramifications very profound. So profound in fact that it is hard to imagine any new modern substation that would not at least incorporate parts of this standard. In addition, the standard is almost sure to be adopted albeit in customised / modified form in Generation, Distributed Energy Resources (DER) and in manufacturing. The standard has its origins in the Utility Communications Architecture (UCA), a 1988 initiative by the Electrical Power Research Institute (EPRI) and IEEE with the initial aim of achieving inter-operability between control centres and between substations and control centres. In the end it was found to be more prudent to join efforts with similar work being done by the Working Group 10 of Number 57 (TC57). The emerged document IEC 61850 used work already done by the UCA as a basis for further development. 6.1 IEC 61850 substation architecture 6.1.1 Substation bays In an IEC 61850 compliant substation, equipment is organized into areas or zones called bays. In these areas we find switching devices (e.g., isolators and circuit breakers) that connect, for example, lines or transformers to bus-bars.

Examples of the bays would be: Incomer bay Bus-coupler bay Transformer bay

Figure 8 above, for example, could depict a transformer bay. 6.1.2 Merging units Merging units are signal conditioners and processors. For example, they accept, merge and synchronise sampled current and voltage signals (all three phases quantities of the CT/VT) from current and voltage transformers (conventional and non-conventional) and then transfer them to intelligent electronic devices (see IEDs, in the next section). So called electronic VTs and CTs are being manufactured by some companies which use new ways of sensing with the overall size being reduced. With electronic sensing, the sensing and merging are combined. Figure 10 gives an overview of the functions and associated inputs of a merging unit.

Fig. 10. (Jansen & Apostolov) As technology progresses it is believed that there will be a move away from copper connections from field devices to the substation control room in favour of fibre. Figure 11 shows a merging unit Brick) by vendor GE)

6.1.3 Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) An IED is any substation device which has a communications port to electronically transfer analog, status or control data via a proprietary or standard transmission format (BPL Global IEC 61850 Guide) [8]. Examples of IEDs are: Modern IEC 61850 protection relays (distance, over-current, etc.) Equipment-specific IED (e.g., for transformer bay protection and control, with tripping logic, disturbance monitoring, voltage, current, real and reactive power, energy, frequency, etc.). Bay controllers

Figure 11 shows some IEDs from various vendors with multiple functionality. In reality todays IEDs have mutated to the form of programmable logical controllers (PLCs) of another kind with multiple capabilities. 6.1.4 Device/system integration: Substation functional hierarchy An IEC 61850-designed substation has the following hierarchical zones: Process Bay Station

Diagrammatically this is illustrated in Figure 12 (Jansen & Apostolov) [9]. A complete representation that includes aspects, such as links to remote control centres and GIS, is given in Figure 13.

116

Fig. 12.

Fig. 13. (courtesy SISCO & GE)

[O1]

Fig. 14. Fibre-based

Fig. 15.

7. Substation communications and protocols

With the IEC 61850 technology and with all the components and systems described in previous sections functioning normally, we have in fact a virtual substation. The remote terminal units (RTU) increasingly with IED functionality, pass on analog and digital data through either copper or fibre to IEDs in the substation control room in the form of relays or bay controllers. The process of transferring data and communicating it to various devices has been greatly simplified with the aid of the standard. The data arriving at the IEDs comes already formatted / standardized. The situation is similar to the plug and play philosophy applied to computer peripherals of today. 7.1 Virtualisation With the IEC 61850 a real substation is transformed into a virtual substation, i.e., real devices transformed into objects with unique standardized codes. In Figure 16, a real device, a transformer bay is transformed into a virtual, logical device with descriptive name, e.g., Relay1. Inside the device are logical nodes (LN) named strictly in accordance with the IEC standard. For example, a circuit breaker inside this logical device is given XCBR1 [10]. In turn the breaker has other objects associated with it, e.g., status (open / closed) and health. The

services associated with this data model are defined in the Abstract Communications System Interface (ACSI). The following ACSI functions are listed by Karlheinz Schwartz [11]: Logical Nodes are used as containers of any information (data objects) to be monitored Data objects are used to designate useful information to be monitored Retrieval (polling) of the values of data objects (GetDataObjectValues) Send events from a server device to a client (spontaneous reporting) Store historical values of data objects (logging) Exchange sampled values (current, voltages and vibration values) Exchange simple status information (GOOSE) Recording functions with COMTRADE files as output

7.2 Mapping IEC 61850 is a communications standard, a main aim of which is interoperability. A good definition is: Interoperability is the ability of two or more IEDs (Intelligent Electronic Devices) from the same vendor, or different vendors to exchange information and uses that information for correct co-operation [12]. Although ACSI models enable all IEDs to behave identically from a general network behaviour perspective, they still need to be made to work with practical networks in the power industry, (Baigent, Adamiak and Mackiewicz) [10]. This universal compatibility is achieved through mapping of the abstract services to universal, industry-recognised protocols. Presently the protocol most supported is the Manufacturing Message Specification (MMS). MMS was chosen because it has an established track record in industrial automation and can support the complex and service models of IEC 61850. Table 1 gives an idea of the naming process:

Fig. 16. Karlheinz Schwartz

8. Communication of events in an IEC 61850 substation

In his IEC 61850 Primer, Herrera states that IEC 61850 provides a standardized framework for substation integration that specifies the communications requirements, the functional characteristics, the structure of data in devices, the naming conventions for the data, how applications interact and control the devices, and how conformity to the standard should be tested. In simpler terms, IEC 61850 it is an open standard protocol created to facilitate communications in electric substations. 8.1 The communication structure of the substation The IEC 61850 architecture there are two busses: Process bus Station bus

IEC 61850 station bus interconnects all bays with the station supervisory level and carries control information such as measurement, interlocking and operations [13]. IEC 61850 process bus interconnects the IEDs within a bay that carries real-time measurements for protection called sampled values or sampled measured values [13]. Figure 17 shows the basic architecture.

Fig. 17.

8. Communication of events in an IEC 61850 substation

In his IEC 61850 Primer, Herrera states that IEC 61850 provides a standardized framework for substation integration that specifies the communications requirements, the functional characteristics, the structure of data in devices, the naming conventions for the data, how applications interact and control the devices, and how conformity to the standard should be tested. In simpler terms, IEC 61850 it is an open standard protocol created to facilitate communications in electric substations. 8.1 The communication structure of the substation The IEC 61850 architecture there are two busses: Process bus Station bus

IEC 61850 station bus interconnects all bays with the station supervisory level and carries control information such as measurement, interlocking and operations [13]. IEC 61850 process bus interconnects the IEDs within a bay that carries real-time measurements for protection called sampled values or sampled measured values [13]. Figure 17 shows the basic architecture.

Fig. 17.

The process bus is designed to be fast since it must carry crucial I/O between IEDs and sensors/actuators. The requirements for the process bus cited in various literature sources are as follows: High environmental requirements for the terminal equipment (electromagnetic compatibility, temperature, shock, where applicable) in the area of the primary system Adequate bandwidth for several SV data streams Highly prioritized trip signals for transmitting from the protection device to the CBC Permeability of data to the station bus/data filtering at the coupling point Simultaneous TCP/IP traffic for normal control and status signal traffic as well as reports on the process bus Download/upload channel for setting or parameterizing functions Highly precise time synchronization Redundancy For reasons of speed, the process bus is based on optical fibre with high data throughput of about 10Gbits/s. Because of its enhanced data capacity it is capable of carrying both GOOSE (Generic Object Oriented Substation Event) and SMV (Sampled Measured Values). The station bus is used for inter-IED communications. Only GOOSE messaging occurs in the station bus.

9. Substation control and configuration

Although the strengths of the IEC 61850 in the capturing, virtualisation, mapping and communication of substation information are undoubted, it will still be necessary to link everything together and to design a control strategy. This strategy must utilize the experience and expertise of the asset owner. The substation must also respond in accordance with the operational and safety criteria set by the organization. 9.1 Substation configuration Automation of the substation will require in the first instance the capture of its configuration. This requires the capture of the information on all the IEDs in the substation. In some cases the IEDs could be from different vendors. The information has to be in a standardized IED Capability Description (ICD). Then, using a system configuration tool, a substation description file is created (Figure 18). The SCD (Substation Configuration Description) is then used by relay vendors to configure individual relays [14].

10. Wider implications of the IEC 61850: The Smart Grid

Smart Grid is a term used to describe the information driven power systems of the future. This will involve introducing new electronic, information and computer technology into the whole value chain of electrical energy systems from generation, transmission and distribution down to the consumer level. Figure 19 shows the linkages between the technology of electricity production and commerce.

The process bus is designed to be fast since it must carry crucial I/O between IEDs and sensors/actuators. The requirements for the process bus cited in various literature sources are as follows: High environmental requirements for the terminal equipment (electromagnetic compatibility, temperature, shock, where applicable) in the area of the primary system Adequate bandwidth for several SV data streams Highly prioritized trip signals for transmitting from the protection device to the CBC Permeability of data to the station bus/data filtering at the coupling point Simultaneous TCP/IP traffic for normal control and status signal traffic as well as reports on the process bus Download/upload channel for setting or parameterizing functions Highly precise time synchronization Redundancy For reasons of speed, the process bus is based on optical fibre with high data throughput of about 10Gbits/s. Because of its enhanced data capacity it is capable of carrying both GOOSE (Generic Object Oriented Substation Event) and SMV (Sampled Measured Values). The station bus is used for inter-IED communications. Only GOOSE messaging occurs in the station bus.

9. Substation control and configuration

Although the strengths of the IEC 61850 in the capturing, virtualisation, mapping and communication of substation information are undoubted, it will still be necessary to link everything together and to design a control strategy. This strategy must utilize the experience and expertise of the asset owner. The substation must also respond in accordance with the operational and safety criteria set by the organization. 9.1 Substation configuration Automation of the substation will require in the first instance the capture of its configuration. This requires the capture of the information on all the IEDs in the substation. In some cases the IEDs could be from different vendors. The information has to be in a standardized IED Capability Description (ICD). Then, using a system configuration tool, a substation description file is created (Figure 18). The SCD (Substation Configuration Description) is then used by relay vendors to configure individual relays [14].

10. Wider implications of the IEC 61850: The Smart Grid

Smart Grid is a term used to describe the information driven power systems of the future. This will involve introducing new electronic, information and computer technology into the whole value chain of electrical energy systems from generation, transmission and distribution down to the consumer level. Figure 19 shows the linkages between the technology of electricity production and commerce.

ICD FILE

ICD FILE

ICD FILE

IEC 61850
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION TOOL

SCD FILE

Fig. 18.

Fig. 19. Source NIST Smart Grid Framework We have seen that automation started on the factory floor and some of the IEC 61850 functions use manufacturing protocols such as MMS. We already start to see the trend

towards extending the IEC 61850 to generating stations. It is therefore not hard to imagine IEC 61850 like protocols encompassing every facet of engineering, including manufacture. 10.1 Smart Grid benefits Among the benefits of Smart Grid are: Increased grid efficiency - the use of control systems to achieve optimum power flow through, for example, centrally controlled FACTS devices which can increase efficiency of the transmission system Better demand control - a Smart Grid would incorporate an energy management system to manage demand (e.g., managing the peaks and valleys) Asset optimization - the IEC 61850 information model already has the capability to store not only the status of a logical device / node, but also condition / health Management of renewable energy sources - renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, tend to be unpredictable, therefore, the Smart Grid system can enable predictions on the availability of these resources at any moment and ensure proper energy scheduling decisions are taken Management of plug in electric vehicles - the Smart Grid can inform electric vehicle motorists of the nearest charging stations Smart metering - with smart metering, power usage and tariffs can be administered remotely to the advantage of both the supplier and the consumer

11. Security threats in automated power systems

In this chapter we have seen the central role computer hardware and software in the control and management of the power system bring tremendous benefits. However, investing in these high technology, information technology reliant assets also brings threats. The threats are quite serious especially when it is realized that every critical component of the substation becomes a virtual computer. The IED mentioned numerous times in this chapter is itself a computer. What are the threats? 11.1 SCADA vulnerabilities Chikuni, Dondo [15] Computing vulnerabilities

Hardware: RTUs, IEDs and SCADA Masters belong to the class of computer hardware and suffer from the same vulnerabilities of regular computer systems such as interruption (denial of services [DoS]) and eavesdropping Communication links: the vulnerabilities are also similar to those in regular computer networks - if messages are not encrypted, data or passwords can be intercepted. Radiation emissions from equipment can be read by unauthorized people SCADA software: the most common attacks come in the form of interruption, interception and modification. Software bugs, if not fixed in time, can attract hobbyist hackers to attack unpatched SCADA [15]

towards extending the IEC 61850 to generating stations. It is therefore not hard to imagine IEC 61850 like protocols encompassing every facet of engineering, including manufacture. 10.1 Smart Grid benefits Among the benefits of Smart Grid are: Increased grid efficiency - the use of control systems to achieve optimum power flow through, for example, centrally controlled FACTS devices which can increase efficiency of the transmission system Better demand control - a Smart Grid would incorporate an energy management system to manage demand (e.g., managing the peaks and valleys) Asset optimization - the IEC 61850 information model already has the capability to store not only the status of a logical device / node, but also condition / health Management of renewable energy sources - renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar, tend to be unpredictable, therefore, the Smart Grid system can enable predictions on the availability of these resources at any moment and ensure proper energy scheduling decisions are taken Management of plug in electric vehicles - the Smart Grid can inform electric vehicle motorists of the nearest charging stations Smart metering - with smart metering, power usage and tariffs can be administered remotely to the advantage of both the supplier and the consumer

11. Security threats in automated power systems

In this chapter we have seen the central role computer hardware and software in the control and management of the power system bring tremendous benefits. However, investing in these high technology, information technology reliant assets also brings threats. The threats are quite serious especially when it is realized that every critical component of the substation becomes a virtual computer. The IED mentioned numerous times in this chapter is itself a computer. What are the threats? 11.1 SCADA vulnerabilities Chikuni, Dondo [15] Computing vulnerabilities

Hardware: RTUs, IEDs and SCADA Masters belong to the class of computer hardware and suffer from the same vulnerabilities of regular computer systems such as interruption (denial of services [DoS]) and eavesdropping Communication links: the vulnerabilities are also similar to those in regular computer networks - if messages are not encrypted, data or passwords can be intercepted. Radiation emissions from equipment can be read by unauthorized people SCADA software: the most common attacks come in the form of interruption, interception and modification. Software bugs, if not fixed in time, can attract hobbyist hackers to attack unpatched SCADA [15]

unselective sw itch-o ff

p rimary e quipment d amage

short circuit in li ne and li ne not disco nnected

CB doesn't Sw itch

reclosing wrongly activated

Com municatio n Sen sor->PDIS Disturbed

Communication P DIS->XCBR Disturbed

W rong Setti ngs Fa ke Messa ges In jected XCBR Switching Condition s

Wrong Settin gs in PDIS

Messag es Suppre ssed

Message s Suppressed

PDIS Trigg er Cond itions

XCBR ene rgy Control loo p

M essage Content Changed

Fake Sensor Me ssages Inj ected

Message Content Changed

M essage Content Changed

Fig. 20. Example of attack graph for a circuit breaker Message suppression In this attack certain messages between SAS devices are prevented from reaching the receiver, e.g., circuit breaker control devices are isolated from protection devices. Message suppression can involve several other types of attack, e.g., re-configuration of routers or switches, cutting wires or congesting the network so that genuine messages cannot get through (denial of service attack). Security protocols The multiplicity and varied nature of SAS attacks makes it imperative to institute robust security protocols capable of handling all eventualities. Such protocols include the use of private keys (only known to the sender), encryption and sequence numbers (initial number known between sender and receiver at the start).

128

12. Effects on educational curricula

To give an idea of the profound changes the power system will have on our education systems and also to give some suggestions on how to mitigate some of the challenges, we reproduce the following excerpts from a paper by Chikuni, Engelbrecht and Dongo [17] at the PowerCon 2010 conference: When we analyse a modern substation incorporating the new substation technology based on IEC 61850, it would seem that the role of an electrical engineer is notable by its absence. Certainly some of the responsibilities of both engineers and technicians have shifted and there needs to be new breed of electrical engineers altogether. Some questions need to be answered: Should we retrain the power engineer in networks or Should we train network engineers so that they acquire power engineering knowledge or Should we work with a completely new curriculum which merges power systems, electronics and networks into one programme?

We first need to acknowledge that there are already a lot of good power engineers out there trained in the traditional manner, i.e., starting off with physics, circuits and systems, electrical machines and power systems (including electrical protection). For these engineers, one needs to identify those who can benefit both themselves and their organizations by

going through this additional training. The process of training engineers has been quite formal, especially if they wish to attain professional status. One typically needs four to five years of formal training and a further two years of guided industrial training before attaining the status of chartered (CEng) or professional (PrEng) engineer. A great debate will ensue, therefore, when a computer network engineer is designated the responsible person in an electrical substation, notwithstanding the obviously immense power this individual will have in making sure that the substation operates correctly, safely and efficiently. The other route is to include networking as part of any electrical engineering curriculum. A few programmes today include industrial automation and a few even include computer networking. In the University of Zimbabwe model all electrical engineering students have a chance to complete at least the first semesters of a CISCO network academy programme. Indeed some complete the CCNA (four semesters). Whatever solution is arrived at, it is clear that electrical engineering training curricula inevitably have to include more and more electronics, sensors, automation and networking, not as peripheral subjects, but as part of the core.

Summary and conclusions : In this chapter we have seen the extremely rapid development of automation, starting from the years of mechanisation, production lines and the taking root of computer-based automation in the car manufacturing industry. Then we noticed rapid increases in computer power in both hardware and software forms. There has also been tremendous moves in standardization in North America and Europe. We have seen too IEC 61850 international cooperation in standards development and the benefits that are already being reaped from this. Interoperability brings some relief to customers, giving them the ability to choose hardware from an increasing variety of vendors. Quite striking is the increasing dominance of ICT in power system control and massive changes in power system operation and practice. The power systems have become more complex - more interlinked. The complexity presents new challenges. The traditionally trained power systems engineer lacks the know how to understand or tackle faults that could arise in these systems. On the other hand the network engineer may lack the underlying principles of power and energy systems. A new type of multi-discipline power systems engineer has to be trained. The Smart Grid will soon be a reality. Generation, transmission, distribution consumption and commerce will be information driven. Finally, when automation is combined with mechatronics and robotics, our lives are poised to be drastically changed.