Running head: HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION

Hallucinogen Use and Etiology Zackery A. Tedder Texas State University San Marcos Department of Psychology

HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION Hallucinogen Use and Etiology Authors Robert Julien, Claire Advokat and Joseph Comaty (2011) define hallucinogens as a psychedelic drug that produces profound distortions in perception (p. 697). The most widely studied hallucinogens are d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), Peyote, Psilocybin (4phosphoryloxy-N,N-dimethyltryptamine), phencyclidine (PCP), and dimethyltryptamine (DMT). Several of these are considered endogenous (DMT, psilocybin, and peyote), while others are man-made (LSD and PCP). Method of delivery can be swallowed, smoked, or injected.

According to the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies (SAMHSA, 2008) in 2006, approximately 23 million persons aged 12 or older used LSD in their lifetime... In comparison, the same study yielded that almost 700,000 personshad used DMT. This research reflects there are considerable data available for

examination of the use of hallucinogens in American culture today. Hallucinogens have been chronicled in their use since the times of the Inca tribes and those who have studied their many practices. Many aspects of their use during this time have been attributed to shamanism and religious applications. While hallucinogen use in modern

times have many overlapping applications as to the why of their use, implications of psychological and physiological perspectives have only recently become more understood and researched. Confounding variables from social aspects along with implicit organic brain

dysfunction leading to onset of schizophrenia may also play a role. This paper will examine the empirical evidence of past research into the psychological and physiological development of a hallucinogenic drug use disorder. Anciently, as it has been recounted, tribes in the Andes and Inca culture partook of ritualistic hallucination use in order to relay information from regional gods. Gase (1996)

HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION explains the reason for this was to extend life, to improve health and strength, and to prepare for war (p. 167). This was done both orally and rectally via an ancient version of an enema. The end result was thought to prepare the body for the influx of energy from the ancestors, according to their traditions. This backdrop of information seems prudent in discussing the many reasons that may lead to people using hallucinogens for the first time. Cultural aspects should be considered and explored with clients when discussing contributing reasons for use, and heritage should be identified. Literature of today, however, does not account for the traditions of older extinct cultures. Researchers focus more on environmental perspectives, and other mediating factors common amongst a population of addicts. Gathering information for this topic proved difficult, as

hallucinogens are seldom a drug of choice in most addicts. It has been described as being used primarily as a means of enhancing social intercourse and is typically associated with countercultural acitivites (Khavari, Mabry & Humes, 1977). This countercultural ideal is more associated with the hippy movement of the 1960s, and played a valuable role in research into hallucinogen use in the 1970s. This is evident when searching out for articles that cover this subject and the large-scale drop off that appears to occur after 1980. While more recent articles do exist, more informative articles with information relative to use were those performed during the previous period. When discussing the use of hallucinogens, it is reasonable to distinguish certain parameters that allow us to group this classification of drug into several categories of experiences. A case study performed by Anna Marsh (1979) discussed three distinct categories directly attributed to that of hallucinations of experiences of a young woman with early onset of schizophrenia: Superimposed hallucinations, spatial and depth distortions, and animations (p.

HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION 628). The article describes the key components of each category of hallucination under different kinds of drugs, and those directly attributed to the onset of psychosis during a schizophrenic episode. Interestingly, Marsh states that schizophrenics, when given LSD, were able to

differentiate their schizophrenic from their toxic hallucinations (p. 629). This has fascinating implications in regards to the report of hallucinations in a schizophrenic population, along with drug-induced psychosis. It also leads to us asking why would patients with schizophrenia, who may already be experiencing hallucinations, be interested in experiencing further self-induced hallucinations? There is no simple answer, but does possibly give us a biological component to the etiology of a hallucinogen addiction. Personality may also play a key role in the etiology of hallucinogen addiction. Research performed by Khavari, Mabry and Humes (1977) describe personality factors involved between drug users and non-users. They identified that when comparing drug use and certain personality characteristics, it was difficult to determine the extent to which drug use is predictively related to the personality variables (p. 173), specifically in terms of hallucinogenic use. This is to signify that there is rarely any one characteristic that may be used in determining prevalence in use for this specific type of drug. Further, over half of the subjects admitted to using LSD and marijuana, and most did so for general sensation seeking type activities. This aspect gives us a clue into the social aspect of drug use. Research performed by Braucht, Kirby, and Berry (1978) examined different psychosocial characteristics between different types of drug users, and employed methods which helped them compare different classes of drugs and their confounding effects on use. They identified that users who use primarily use hallucinogens also use marijuana and some amphetamines. In describing the psychosocial aspects of use within this population, they state

HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION that their peers are supportive of drug use and their use is meant as a means of enhancing social occasions (p. 1472). This is interesting insofar as this specific type of user is typically not looking to mask emotional pain or depress CNS function, but instead is looking for alternate perspectives in life that may help enhance ones own journey through life. This may speak to the psychology of the individuals who are trying hallucinogens for personal gain, and may speak to their own motivation for doing so. Research by Smart and Jones (1970) reveals other interesting perspective on the psychopathology of individuals who use, specifically, LSD. They compared MMPI results of 100 LSD users, and 46 non-users. They found that 96% of the sample who were users of LSD were judged to be abnormal (p. 289) in their clinical profile, 23% met criteria for Conduct Disorder, and 13% for psychosis. This research paints quite a different picture of people who are abusing LSD, as posits that people who are in this population tend to be counter-cultural. This can be inferred due to elevated Psychopathic Deviant (Pd), Schizophrenia (Sc), and Mania (Ma) scales in their MMPI profile. They also offer this piece of information regarding their population after discussing periods of mental health treatment and etiology leading up to it: [T]here were noticeable differences between the user and nonuser groups. LSD users were frequently seen for behavioral disorders and treated for excessive anxiety, depression, hallucinations, paranoia, suicidal tendencies and homosexuality. (p. 290) Interestingly, only two of the participants in the study cite that side effects of LSD use were the initiatory factor in obtaining help from a mental health practitioner. This lends itself to scrutiny in attempting to identify correlates related to use or dependence. In attempting to alleviate potential stressors, individuals in this group may be trying to identify other means of

HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION understanding or inner peace. While there are more productive methods of achieving this, subjects in this study were labeled as underachievers from comfortable home lives. This may reflect that people from well-adjusted home lives may partake of psychedelic experiences in order to make sense of their own critical and ethereal curiosities, along with enhancing social situations. In regards to a clinical population, Fowler, Carr, Carter and Lewin (1998) investigated a schizophrenia population in Australia to identify current and lifetime use patterns in this population. They found that while the most used drugs were alcohol, amphetamines and

marijuana, hallucinogens were more used in a previous period than in the time during their research, but were still prevalent among a small minority along with solvents and inhalants. Only 3.1% (n=194) of the sample identified using hallucinogens with in the previous six months of the study. This may be attributed to cultural differences in regards to the populations of different continents. It may also speak to the lack of availability of these substances in Australia. Certainly, there are a myriad of reasons that people will come to use hallucinogens. Clinical populations, along with casual users, will find different routes of meaningful experiences when it comes to hallucinogens because it seems that the most likely cause of use is peer related along with sensation seeking. The DSM-IV even covers several different aspects of hallucinogen use, and its attributed disorders. Halpern and Pope (1999) discuss the many different classifications of disorders laid out in the DSM that clinicians may use to diagnose patients with long-term abuse effects. They even identify one curiously unique category which is not addressed in other Substance Use Disorders: Post-Hallucination Perceptual Disorder, or simply, flashbacks. Discussion of reviews of previous research yield that much of the older literature tends to lean towards an alarmist tone, citing a Donlon (1971) passage discussing

HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION personality disintegration in almost all habitual users of psychedelics. The authors believe that this is a gross overgeneralization of the facts, and much of the previous research was seeking to incite fear into the general population. Their meta-analysis showed that modest effects were present, and that the editorialized findings were unjustifiable. In all, hallucinogenic use may stem from mere curiosity and peer pressure than its more addictive-prone counterparts like methamphetamines or opioids. In regards to addiction, it appears that hallucinogens are not high in abuse-potential, even among clinical populations. Evidence is scant in regards to addiction-potential. Long-term abusers are rare in the literature, only populated by several dozens in previous studies. Etiologically, it appears that most effects wear off in a short-term period, with only anecdotal evidence of long-term carry-over effects, where one subject stated flashbacks lasting for 26 years (Abraham, 1993). While long-term effects are not positive, short-term gains may lend positive outcomes in regards to ethereal questions and complex forms of depression. Emerging research may indicate that psilocybin may be effective in treating antidepressant resistant forms of depression. Further evaluation is needed to find potential benefits of psychedelic use for curing otherwise incurable disorders.

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HALLUCINOGENS AND ADDICTION Marsh, A. (1979). Visual hallucinations during hallucinogenic experience and schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 5(4), 627-630. Smart, R. G., & Jones, D. (1970). Illicit LSD users: Their personality characteristics and psychopathology. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 75(3), 286-292. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Office of Applied Studies. (2008, February 14). The NSDUH Report: Use of Specific Hallucinogens: 2006. Rockville, MD. Retrieved from: http://www.samhsa.gov/data/2k8/hallucinogens/hallucinogens.htm