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Subjective
religious texts are filled with metaphor. Metaphors
differently interpret the text, “Christ is God and
man,” .Metaphors lead to additional layers of meaning.
The claim is that “reality” is not simply given to us
through language; rather it is mediated through different
forms of language representation
One disadvantage in discussing metaphoric
representation is that it is necessary to discuss verbal
metaphor. And as is well known, metaphor is one of the
most difficult problems in language. In verbal metaphor,
there are usually two explicit parts: a topic, which is the
entity being talked about, and the vehicle, which is the
metaphoric material being predicated of the topic. For
example, in Lee is a block of ice, Lee is the topic, and
block of ice is the vehicle. The implicit connection
between the two is often referred to as the ground.

Choosing a Research Topic

Pragmatics, Discourse Analysis, and Critical
Discourse Analysis are separate but related areas of
linguistic inquiry.
· Pragmatics often focuses on the social and generic
constraints (like politeness conventions, relative
social status, etc.) that shape communicative
situations,
· discourse analysis may foreground how discourse
constructs social meanings, serves rhetorical
purposes, or creates subject positions.
· Critical discourse analysis is particularly interested
 in the relationship between discourse and the
preservation of power.
Research in these areas may ask questions related to
language-in-use and its meaning-making functions.
A research topic is your general area of interest,
whereas the research question is the particular thing you
want to find out and which grows out of your research
topic
When deciding on a topic, there are a few things
that you will need to do:
 brainstorm for ideas
 ensure that the topic is manageable and
that material is available
 make a list of key words
 be flexible
 research and read more about your
topic
 formulate a thesis statement

What is corpus
and design of Corpora
A corpus is usually computer-readable and able to be
accessed with tools such as concordances which are able
to find and sort out language patterns.
Corpora may be general or they may be specialized.
· A general corpus, also known as a reference
corpus: A general corpus, thus, provides sample data
from which we can make generalizations about
spoken and written discourse as a whole, and
 frequencies of occurrence and co-occurrence of
particular aspects of language in the discourse
· Specialized corpora are required when the
research question relates to the use of spoken or
written discourse in particular kinds of texts or in
particular situations
Factors used in representation of corpus:
The representativeness of the corpus further depends on
the extent to which it includes the range of linguistic
distribution in the population. That is, different linguistic
features are differently distributed (within texts, across
texts, across text types), and a representative corpus
must enable analysis of these various distributions.

Sociolinguistics is the study of relationship b/w lang

and society . it examines how social factors such as age,
gender, ethnicity and region influence lang use.
The term “sociolinguistic” for work that involves
variation and style in the media or a similar close
analysis of language
Interactional sociolinguistics (IS) studies the
language use of people in face-to-face
interaction .Interactional sociolinguists in principle try to
describe how meaningful contexts are implied via
talk .This is obvious with terms such as ‘this’, ‘there’,
‘you’ or ‘soon’, terms that have been traditionally called
indexical or ‘deictic’ in linguistics .
Why is Interactional Sociolinguistics important?
Interactional Sociolinguistics is important because it
draws our attention to the existence of subtle cultural
differences in the systematic combination of verbal and
non-verbal signs .IS has also illustrated that technically
differing styles do not necessarily lead to
miscommunication, just as miscommunication itself does
not automatically lead to conflict or stereotyping. IS
offers an excellent tool for analyzing the tension between
here-and-now interaction and more established
discursive practices.

Contrived data according to Potter

Data should be generated ) for the purpose of discourse
analysis .Potter (1997) defines such data as ‘contrived’
and claims it is ‘subject to powerful expectations about
social science research fielded by participants; and there
are particular difficulties in extrapolating from interview
talk to activities in other settings’ and instead favours
‘naturally occurring talk

DHA
The discourse-historical approach DHA provides a
vehicle for looking at latent power dynamics and the
range of potential in agents, because it integrates and
triangulates knowledge.
Systematic qualitative analysis in the DHA takes four
layers of context into account: the intertextual and inter-
discursive relationships between utterances ; the extra-
linguistic social/sociological variables; the history and
archaeology of texts and organizations; and institutional
frames of the specific context of a situation .
the DHA distinguishes between three dimensions
that constitute textual meanings and structures:
the topics that are spoken/ written about; the
discursive strategies employed; and the linguistic
means that are drawn upon to realize both topics
and strategies

CDA
Critical discourse analysis explores the connections
between the use of language and the social and political
contexts in which it occurs. It explores issues such as
gender, ethnicity, cultural difference, ideology and
identity .Critical discourse analysis starts with the
assumption that language use is always social and that
discourse both reflects and constructs the social world’
Principles of Critical Discourse Analysis--------------
SPDI
Fairclough's framework and Wodak (1997), however,
describe a number of principles for critical discourse
analysis which underlie many of the studies done in this
area.
These include
 Social and political issues are constructed
and reflected in discourse
 Power relations are negotiated and
performed through discourse
 Discourse both reflects and reproduces
social relations
 Ideologies are produced in the use of
discourse
Van Dijk argues that CDA should not be seen as a
method but as a form of critically driven theory .CDA has
been criticized for its claim to use linguistic analysis to
confirm forms of power abuse ”Many of the scholars
writing on CDA have also been leaders in the field of
political discourse; for example, Norman Fairclough,
Ruth Wodak, and Teun van Dijk.

Intonational units
Intonation units are an important component of
American English pronunciation and speech. An
intonation unit is a segment of speech. It can be as small
as a single word, or as long as a sentence .
Generally, intonation units:
 begin with faster speech, and end with
slower speech
 include a single pitch word
 end with a pitch boundary
Elements of intonation units
· Sentences can often be broken up into multiple
intonation units. Each intonation unit usually has a
single pitch word and ends in a pitch boundary.
· Similar sentences can have a different number of
intonation units. The end of each intonation unit is
marked with a hash (/) and the pitch words are
bolded
Use of intonation in conveying meaning
According to Halliday (1970), intonation plays a crucial
role in conveying meaning. If the intonation of a
sentence is changed, its meaning will also be changed .
plays a crucial role By signaling emotions, attitudes,
emphasis and the structure of information. changes in
pitch, rhythm and tone can alter the interpretation of a
sentewnce, suchg as distinguishing b/w a sentence and a
statement.
Intonation units and emotion
Individual speakers alter the number of intonation units
they use .Faster and Slower speaker in intonation
units
A faster speaker will generally use fewer intonation units
and may be seen as being more urgent, frantic, excited,
and anxious.
A slower speaker may have more intonation units and
may be perceived as being more emphatic, determined,
and insistent

The Differences between Reference and

Substitution
"It is important to point out differences between
reference and ellipsis-substitution.
· One difference is that reference can reach a long
way back in the text whereas ellipsis and
substitution are largely limited to the immediately
preceding clause.
· Another key difference is that with reference there
 is a typical meaning of co-reference. That is, both
items typically refer to the same thing. With ellipsis
and substitution, this is not the case.
· There is always some difference between the
second instance and the first. If a speaker or writer
wants to refer to the same thing, they use reference.
If they want to refer to something different, they use
ellipsis-substitution

Principals of Discursive Psychology

Discursive psychology is an approach that addresses
psychological matters in terms of how they figure in
discourse in conversations over family mealtimes, in
therapy sessions, in witness statement
Fundaental observations of Discursive psychology
Discursive psychology is usefully understood as working
with three fundamental observations about the nature of
discourse. Discourse is:
 Oriented to action
 Situated sequentially, institutionally and rhetorically
 Constructed and constructive
These observations’ structure analytic work in DP

The concept of Transitivity:

In traditional grammar, transitivity was developed as the
concept of transitive or intransitive verb whether the
verb takes an object or not, but in SFL it functions to link
grammar to the meta functions; It is a semantic system
to analyze representations of reality in a linguistic text
and create the same experience through various lexico-
grammatical options influenced by different mind styles

Kinds of Discourse Analysis Projects

Replication of previous discourse studies
One kind of study to consider is a replication study .Such
studies provide both the accumulation and consolidation
of knowledge over time.
Samraj’s (2005) study of research article abstracts and
introductions is an example of a replication study.
 Using different discourse data but the
same methodology
 Analyzing discourse data from a different
perspective
 Analyzing existing data from a discourse
analysis perspective
 Focusing on unanalyzed genres
Criteria for developing a discourse analysis project
In her book Qualitative Methods in Sociolinguistics,
Johnstone (2000) lists a number of criteria that
contribute to the development of a good research topic.
What she says, however, applies equally to discourse
analysis projects. These criteria include
 A well-focused idea about spoken or
written discourse that is expressed as a question
 Ability to get the discourse data that is
needed for the research project;
 Being comfortable with in the ways of
collecting the discourse data required by the project;
  Being competent in the method of
analysis required for the project

Subject-Predicate (Verb) Agreement

it refers to the rules that subjects and verb in a sentence
must agree in a no.
Subject-verb agreement with a compound subject
In sentences with more than one subject (a compound
subject), the word and usually appears between the
elements.
Subject-verb agreement
The conjunctions or, either …or, and neither …nor ask
you to choose between things rather than add things. If
both elements are singular, use a singular verb. If both
elements are plural, use a plural verb.
Subject-verb agreement in relative clauses
Agreement problems can occur in relative clauses using
which, that, or one of those who. The verb in a relative
clause must agree with the relative pronoun's
antecedent

What is Genre?
Genres are ways in which people ‘get things done’
through their use of spoken and written discourse. Genres
are activities that people engage in through the use of
language. Academic lectures and casual conversations
are examples of spoken genres. Newspaper reports and
academic essays are examples of written genres
Genre as social action
Discourse arises among people, in interaction, and it is
part of the means by which people accomplish social
actions. Meanings arise within the pragmatic unfolding of
events and mediate the alignment of participants to
perceptions of immediate situations and relevant
contexts (whether fictive or non-fictive) called to mind by
language]]]
· The thinness of the written sign
· Typification, social organization, and social
change
Factors that help in exaining The social and
cultural context of genres
An important stage in genre analysis, formerly, is an
examination of the social and cultural context in which
the genre is used. In the case of a written text, factors
that might be considered Include:
 The setting of the text
 The focus and perspective of the
text
 The purpose of the text
 The intended audience for the text,
expectations and requirements for
text
Steps in Genre Analysis
Bhatia (1993) and Bawarshi and Reiff (2010) present
steps for carrying out the analysis of genres, in their case
written genres
· The first step, however, is to collect samples of the
genre you are interested in
· The next step is to consider what is already known
 about the particular genre
· We next need to refine the analysis by defining the
speaker or writer of the text.
· We also need to consider the goal, or purpose, of the
texts
· We should also think about the networks of texts that
surround the genre

Idiomatic phrases are used as signals of the response

and its occurrence after a previous negatively evaluated
response (conventional treatments). Idioms are often a
problem for the teacher in so much as it is not always
easy to find natural contexts in which to present them.

In Bloor and Bloor (1995: 96), substitution and

ellipsis are used to avoid the repetition of a lexical item
through grammatical resources of the language. The
substitution and ellipsis can be nominal, verbal and
clausal. Substitution words have the same function such
as “one and ones” for nouns

“Discourse analytic” paradigm, which addresses

discourse-level matters related to larger stretches of talk
and text beyond the word or sentence level, including
questions of participant, topic, function, and discourse
structure, as well as a range of topics that includes news
interviews, quotation and reported speech, register
issues, politeness, positioning and framing

Relationship b/w beats and rhythm :

When we listen to a stretch of spoken English discourse,
we often feel that there is a rhythm or regularity to
it.The impression of rhythm may arise out of a feeling of
alternation between strong and weak 'beats'.
Traditionally, rhythm has been considered an important
element in the teaching of spoken English

English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is usually

defined as teaching English with the aim of assisting
learners’ study or research in that language. In this
sense it is a broad term, covering all areas of academic
communicative practice such as pre-tertiary,
undergraduate and post-graduate . EAP has emphasized
the rich diversity of texts, contexts and practices in
which students must now operate .In addition, students
now take a broader and more heterogeneous mix of
academic subjects .As a result, EAP has assumed greater
prominence and importance in the academy, forcing it to
evolve and to ask new questions
What has discourse analysis told us about EAP?
Perhaps the most productive application of discourse
analysis in EAP has been to explore the lexico-
grammatical and discursive patterns of particular genres
in order to identify their recognizable structural identity
An example analysis of an EAP genre
One example of this is a study of self-mention, which
concerns how far writers want to interrupt into their texts
though use of ‘I’ or ‘we’, or avoid it by choosing
impersonal forms

Winter (1977) shows that the relationship between

clauses can be signaled by three types of vocabulary:
Vocabulary 1 such as subordination; Vocabulary 2 such
as sentence connectors; and Vocabulary 3 such as lexical
items. The last one, Vocabulary 3 is crucial to
understanding text organization,

Media discourse refers to interactions that take place

through a broadcast platform, whether spoken or
written, in which the discourse is oriented to a non-
present reader, listener or viewer .
terms associated with media discourse : framing,
agenda-setting, bias, representation, intertextuality and
ideology
Approaches to Media Discours
The three main approaches to the study of media
discourse can be characterized as
 Discourse analytic
 Sociolinguistic
 Nonlinguistic
Discourse analytic approach is the primary focus of
scholars in the study of media discourse.
The term “sociolinguistic” for work that involves
variation and style in the media or a similar close
analysis of language
The “nonlinguistic” research involves work in political
science, media studies, or communication studies
paradigms
Role of media discourse in shaping public opinion :
Media discourse plays a crucial role in shaping public
opinion by influencing how issues are framed and
represented, thus impacting societal perceptions and
beliefs through selective reporting and lang use.

According to MIchael, how many types of social

meanings are drawn in use of lang
Michael Halliday, the founder of systemic functional
linguistics, calls these three functions the ideational,
interpersonal, and textual. The ideational function is
further divided into the experiential and logical.
According to Halliday's theory of Systemic
Functional Linguistics, the "six ideational
metafunctions" refer to the six types of processes that
can be expressed within a clause, which are:
· material process,
· behavioral process,
· mental process,
· verbal process,
· relational process, and
· existential process;
Interpersonal (Impersonal and Logical Function)
Grammatically, interpersonal meta-function at the clausal
level enjoys Mood.
 · Mood parallel to interpersonal communication which
embraces three grammatical categories of speech :
function, modality and tone.
· clausal mood (whether declarative, imperative or
interrogative)
Mood is concerned with the topic of information or service
and whether it is giving or demanding and the tenor of
the relationship between interact ants. .
The Mood element constituted by the Subject and the
Finite (auxiliary or lexical verb) and the remainder of the
clause as the Residue. Hence, the order Subject+Finite
establishes the mood as declarative, while the order
Finite+ Subject establishes the mood as interrogative
Textual
Grammatically, textual meta-function at the clausal level
enjoys Theme. Thematic structure is concerned with
Theme, and Rhyme, or the old and new information
structure or topic and comment
 Cohesion:
 Referencing
 Substitution and Ellipsis
 Lexical Cohesion

Ties:
We need a term to refer to a single instance of cohesion,
a term for one occurrence of a pair of cohesively related
items. This is called a tie.
Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a
fireproof dish.
The relation between them and six cooking apples in
the above example constitutes a tie .

Discourse analysis is a useful tool for studying the

political meanings that inform written and spoken text.
Discourse Analysis is the investigation of knowledge
about language beyond the word, clause, phrase and
sentence levels
Discourse analysis refers to attempts to study the
organization of language above the sentence or above
the clause
However, Michael Stubbs redefines Discourse in his later
work as it is therefore more accurate to say that text and
discourse analysis studies language in context: how
words and phrases fit into both longer texts, and also
social contexts of use]]]]]]]]
Implications for discourse analysis
· First, discourse occurs within a social situation, as it
operates meaningfully within that situation.
· Second, discursive situations are understood by
their participants so as to be meaningful and
sensible to them
· Third, the knowledge, thought, and meanings
expressed within situated utterances then become
part of the ongoing resources
· Fourth, regularities of linguistic form usually look
for linguistic orders
· Fifth, linguistic entrainment into particular
discursive practices goes hand in hand with
 socialization into activity networks
· Sixth, when discourse travels outside of its original
ambit, the mechanisms for that wider travel are
themselves topics of examination
Factors that impact the opportunities for
collReaboration in DA--------------RETAI
· research interests and goals
· expertise and methodological
issues
· theoretical fraeworks
· availability of data and
resources
· institutional or disciplinary
norms

Relationship b/w discourse and social practices :

discourse shapes and is shaped by social practices. lang
reflects societal norms, values and ideologies ,while at
the same time it helps to establish and reinforce social
structures and power dynamics

Advertising is a means of communication with the users

of a product or service. Advertisements are messages
paid for by those who send them and are intended to
inform people who receive. Ads are wonderful examples
of the diverse roles discourse can fulfill in society.
advertising is one of the liveliest and most representative
forms of discourse when it comes to displaying its own
inner functioning .advertising has always suffered the
consequences of a perceived marginal status, at different
levels .Advertising has also been denied seriousness of
purpose on the grounds of its ultimate commercial aims

Ethics
Proponents of discourse ethics reverse the order in which
we normally address ethical uncertainties
Discourse ethics (DE) has two aims:
to specify the ideal conditions for discourse and to
ground ethics in the agreements reached through
the exercise of such discourse
Discourse ethics consequently instantiates the
intuition that if people discuss issues in fair and
open ways, the resulting conclusions will be
morally binding for those appropriately involved in
the conversation.

Discourse Analysis and Multimodality

Multimodal discourse analysis considers how texts draw
on modes of communication such as pictures, film, video,
images and sound in combination with words to make
meaning .It has examined print genres as well as genres
such as web pages, film and television programs.Much of
the work in multimodal discourse analysis draws from
Halliday’s (1978, 1989) social semiotic approach to
language, a view that considers language as one among
a number of semiotic resources (such as gesture, images
and music) that people use to communicate, or make
meaning, with each other.]]]]]]]
 Phy
sical Anthropology
Anthropology is a unique academic discipline that
operates at the crossroads of the physical sciences, social
sciences and humanities to examine the diversity of
human experience across cultures and over time
Basic tenets of physical anthropology:
· Holism: Holism means that a part of something
can only truly be understood if examined within
relation to the whole of it. for example, human
biology has to be examined within the context
of human cultures and vice versa
· Relativism: Relativism means that judgments,
truths, or moral values have no absolutes, and
can only be understood relative to the situation
or individuals involved
· Universalism: Universalism means that
whatever the theoretical principle is, it's equally
applicable to all.For anthropologists,
universalism means that we believe all humans
are equal in intelligence, complexity, etc. This is
in contrast to ethnocentrism, which is the belief
that some peoples are more important or
culturally/biologically better than other peoples.
· Culture: All humans have culture. Culture is the
set of learned behaviors and knowledge that
belong to a certain set of people.The most
important thing to remember is that culture is
 learned.
Cultural
Anthropology
Culture is the patterns of learned and shared behavior
and beliefs of a particular social, ethnic, or age group.
Cultural anthropologists study the diversity of human
cultures and societies around the world and the processes
by which people construct local, regional and global
forms of social relationships. Cultural anthropology
maintains relations with a great number of other
sciences.
Linguistic anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of
how language influences social life. It is a branch of
anthropology that originated from the endeavor to
document endangered languages,. As a field of
anthropology, linguistic anthropologists are concerned
with how language influences culture. Linguistic
anthropologists may also take an interest in language as
it relates to socialization

Con
junction
Conjunctive elements are cohesive not in
themselves but indirectly, by virtue of their
specific meanings;
Hasan and Halliday (1976) adopt a scheme of just four
categories, namely additive, adversative, causal, and
temporal. According to Halliday (1985), conjunction is
classified into elaboration, extention, and enchancement
1)Elaboration
Elaboration means one clause that expands another by
elaborating on it (or some portion of it) by restating in
other words, specifying in greater detail, commenting,.
There are two categories of elaborative relation, namely
apposition and clarification.
 Apposition
According to Kridalaksana (1993) apposition is a
word or phrase which explains other preceding
phrase or clause. In this type of elaboration
some element is re-presented, or restated, either
by exposition or example. Look at the example
below:
Expository: in other word, that is (to stay), I mean
(to say), to put it another way.
Exemplifying: for example, for instance, thus, to
illustrate.
 Clarification
Here, the elaborated element is not simply
restated but reinstated, summarized, made more precise
or in some other way clarified for the purposes of
discourse:
 Corrective: or, rather, at least, to be more
precise
 Distractive: by the way, incidentally
 Particularizing: in particular, more especially
 Summative: in short, to sum up, in conclusion,
briefly
 Verifactive: actually, as a matter of fact, in fact
2) Extension
Extension means one clause expands another by
extending beyond it by adding some new element , or
offering an alternative .Extension involves either
addition, adversative, or variation.
· Additive conjunction acts to
structurally coordinate or link by adding to the
presupposed item divided into positive and
negative .
· Adversativet is conjunction which
relates two clauses that state contras each
other
· Variation includes replacive ‘instead’,
subtractive ‘except’ and alternative ‘or’ types
 Replacive: on contrary, instead
 Subtractive: apart from that, except
 Alternative: alternatively
3) Enhancement
Enhancement means one clause expands another by
embellishing around it by qualifying it with some
circumstantial feature of time, place, cause or condition

Thematisation and Staging

According to Brown and Yule (1983), “thematisation is a
discourse rather than simply a sentential process. What
the speaker or writer puts first would influence the
interpretation of everything that follows.”
“Staging” was a more general, more inclusive, term
than thematisation (which refers only to the linear
organization of texts). Every clause, sentence, paragraph,
episode and discourse were organized around a particular
element that is taken as its point of departure.
The notion of “relative prominence” arising from
processes of thematisation and “staging” devices has led
many researchers, particularly in psycholinguistics, to
consider staging as a crucial factor in discourse structure

What is text?
In linguistics, the term text refers to:
1. The original words of something written, printed, or
spoken, in contrast to a summary or paraphrase.
2. A coherent stretch of language that may be regarded
as an object of critical analysis.
Text linguistics refers to a form of discourse analysis a
method of studying written or spoken language that is
concerned with the description and analysis of extended
texts
In the humanities, different fields of study concern
themselves with different forms of texts. Literary
theorists, for example The concept of texture is entirely
appropriate to express the property of ‘being a text’

Pronouns in Discourse
The pronoun is bound to the noun phrase when semantic
rules and contextual interpretation determine that a
pronoun is co referential with a noun phrase. A pronoun is
free or unbound when it refers to some object not
mentioned in the discourse.
Pronouns include three classes:
  Personal pronoun
 Possessive determiners
 Reflexive pronouns
Personal Pronouns:
The speaker and the addressee of a communication
situation are often marked linguistically by the first- and
second-person pronouns. the reference of especially the
plural first-person pronouns is more complex.
Conventional typological studies have arranged personal
pronouns into tables and used the terms 'first', 'second'
and 'third person', and 'singular' and 'plural number'.
 Examples: If the buyer wants to look the condition of
the property, he has to have another survey. One carried
out on his own behalf.
 Here in the above example the use of personal pronoun
‘he’ or ‘his’ for ‘buyer’ and ‘one’ for ‘survey’ is a source of
personal reference.
Possessive pronouns:
If possessive pronouns are used, they give two more
notions other than speaker and addressee.
They are that of ‘possessor’ and ‘possessed’
 Example: That new house is John’s.
 I didn’t know it was his.
Here, in the above example the use of possessive
pronouns ‘his’ for ‘John’ indicates the possessor and ‘’s’ is
for the possessed ‘house’ includes another source of
personal reference.
Reflexive pronouns:
Reflexive pronouns are a kind of pronoun that is used
when the subject and the object of the sentence are the
same. Include myself, ourselves, yourself, yourselves
himself, herself, itself, themselves.
Pronouns may be classified by three categories:
person, number, and case. English has three
persons (first, second, and third):
 First-person is the speaker or writer him- or
herself. The first person is personal (I, we, etc.)
 Second-person is the person who is being
directly addressed. The speaker or author is saying this is
about you, the listener or reader.
 Third-person is the most common person
used in academic writing. The author is saying this is
about other people. In the third person singular there are
distinct pronoun forms for male, female, and neutral
gender.

A theory of discourse interpretation that uses such an

intermediate level of representation is Discourse
Representation Theory (DRT), formalism proposed in
the early 1980s by Hans Kamp. Discourse Representation
Theory explain certain discourse phenomena, such as the
interaction between indefinite noun phrases and
(anaphoric) pronouns in texts shown. One of the striking
features of DRT is that it, instead of working with first-
order formula syntax, works with explicit semantic
representations. Such representations are called
Discourse Representation Structure (DRS) which
describes the objects mentioned in a discourse and their
properties

Confidentiality
Confidentiality refers to a condition in which the
researcher knows the identity of a research subject, but
takes steps to protect that identity from being discovered
by others. , maintaining confidentiality is a key measure
to ensure the protection of private information.