Hindu Philosophy

Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit āstika) schools of thought, or

darshanas (literally, "views"):

1. Sankhya, a strongly dualist theoretical exposition of mind

and matter.
2. Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation closely based on
Sankhya
3. Nyaya or logics
4. Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism
5. Mimamsa, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of
orthopraxy
6. Vedanta, opposing Vedic ritualism in favour of mysticism.
Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the
post-medieval period.

In Hindu history, the distinction of these six schools was current in the Gupta
period "golden age" of Hinduism. With the disappearance of Vaisheshika and
Mimamsa, it was obsolete by the later Middle Ages, when the various sub-schools
of Vedanta (Dvaita "dualism", Advaita "non-dualism" and others) began to rise to
prominence as the main divisions of religious philosophy. Nyaya survived into the
17th century as Navya Nyaya "Neo-Nyaya", while Sankhya gradually lost its
status as an independent school, its tenets absorbed into Yoga and Vedanta.

Samkhya
Samkhya or Sankhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in
Hinduism. Sankhya postulates that everything in reality stems from purusha (
self, atma or soul) and prakriti (matter, creative agency or energy). There are
many living souls (Jeevatmas) and they possess consciousness. Prakriti consists of
three dispositions known as qualities (gunas): activity (rajas), inactivity (tamas)
and steadiness (sattva) which arises when the the two other gunas are held in
equilibrium. Because of the intertwined relationship between the soul and these
dispositions, an imbalance in disposition causes the world to evolve. Liberation of
the soul happens when it realizes that it is above and beyond these three
dispositions. Sankhya is a dualistic philosophy, but there are differences between
Sankhya and other forms of dualism. In the West, dualism is between the mind
and the body, whereas in Sankhya it is between the soul and matter. The concept
of the atma (soul) is different from the concept of the mind. Soul is absolute reality
that is all-pervasive, eternal, indivisible, attributeless, pure consiousness. It is non-
matter and is beyond intellect. Originally, Sankhya was not theistic, but in
confluence with Yoga it developed a theistic variant.
Maharishi Kapila is a Vedic sage, who as mentioned in the Srimad Bhagavatam
is the author of basic principles of the Sankhya system of Indian philosophy [1] as
available in the classical Sankhya text, Sankhya Karika, in 70 (Sutras) verses [2],
though its expansions and commentaries are spread over 6 volumes, and has
numerous commentaries, written over the ages, like the Kapila sankhya
pravachana Sutra vṛitti, by Aniruddha [3].

As described in the Mahabharata, he was one of the seven sons of Brahman; others
being, Aniruddha, Sana, Sanatsujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara, and
Sanatana [4]. Though, in Vishnu Purana, he is described as, an incarnation of the
mighty and universal Vishnu [5], famous for teaching a process of liberation known
as bhakti yoga.

His Descendants are found till date in Northern India esp. Punjab region. They
keep their surname as Kapil.

Much of the details about sage Kapila's life are available in the Srimad
Bhagavatam (Bhagavata Purana), Canto 3, Chapter 33: Activities of Kapila [1],
where it is mentioned that his parents were Kardama Muni and Devahuti, and after
his father left home, Kapila instructed his mother, Devahuti in the philosophy of
yoga and devotional worship of Lord Vishnu, enabling her to achieve both
liberation (moksha), and pure love of God [6]

History

He is mentioned by Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita as the greatest of all perfected

beings:

Of all trees I am the banyan tree, and of the sages among the demigods I
am Narada. Of the Gandharvas I am Citraratha, and among perfected
beings I am the sage Kapila. (Bhagavad Gita 10.26)

Teachings

Kapiladev's teachings are quoted extensively within various classical Hindu texts:

Mahabharata

• "Kapila said, 'Those who lead a life of domesticity are certainly auspicious
and acquire excellence of every kind. They are unable, however, to enjoy
the felicity that attaches to Renunciation." The Mahabharata, Book 12:
Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva: Section Section CCLXX, p.270 [7].

• "Kapila said,'Acts only cleanse the body. Knowledge, however, is the

highest end (for which one strives). 5 When all faults of the heart are cured
(by acts), and when the felicity of Brahma becomes established in
knowledge, benevolence, forgiveness, tranquillity, compassion,
truthfulness, and candour, abstention from injury, absence of pride,
 modesty, renunciation, and abstention from work are attained. These
constitute the path that lead to Brahma. By those one attains to what is the
Highest." The Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva:
Section CCLXX, p. 270-271.

• "Bhishma said (to Yudhisthira), 'Listen, O slayer of foes! The Sankhyas or

followers of Kapila, who are conversant with all paths and endued with
wisdom, say that there are five faults, O puissant one, in the human body.
They are Desire and Wrath and Fear and Sleep and Breath. These faults
are seen in the bodies of all embodied creatures. Those that are endued
with wisdom cut the root of wrath with the aid of Forgiveness. Desire is cut
off by casting off all purposes. By cultivation of the quality of Goodness
(Sattwa) sleep is conquered, and Fear is conquered by cultivating
Heedfulness. Breath is conquered by abstemiousness of diet. The
Mahabharata, Book 12: Santi Parva: Part III, Section CCCII. [8]

Srimad Bhagavatam

• "My appearance in this world is especially to explain the philosophy of

Sankhya, which is highly esteemed for self-realization by those desiring
freedom from the entanglement of unnecessary material desires. This path
of self-realization, which is difficult to understand, has now been lost in the
course of time. Please know that I have assumed this body of Kapila to
introduce and explain this philosophy to human society again." (3.24.36-
37)

• "When one is completely cleansed of the impurities of lust and greed

produced from the false identification of the body as "I" and bodily
possessions as "mine," one's mind becomes purified. In that pure state he
transcends the stage of so-called material happiness and
distress."(3.25.16)

• "The Supreme Personality of Godhead is the Supreme Soul, and He has no

beginning. He is transcendental to the material modes of nature and
beyond the existence of this material world. He is perceivable everywhere
because He is self-effulgent, and by His self-effulgent luster the entire
creation is maintained." (3.26.3)

• "The glory of the Lord is always worth singing, for His glories enhance the
glories of His devotees. One should therefore meditate upon the Supreme
Personality of Godhead and upon His devotees. One should meditate on
the eternal form of the Lord until the mind becomes fixed." (3.28.18)

Birth of the Ganges

Maharshi Kapila is a major figure in the story associated with the Hindu holiday of
Makar Sankranti, about bringing down Ganga Ganges River from heaven, which
involves King Sagara of Ikshvaku dynasty [9], from Ayodhya, an ancestor of
Rama. King Sagara had performed the Aswamedha yagna (Horse-sacrifice)
ninety-nine times. Each time a horse was sent around the earth Indra the King of
the Heaven grew jealous and kidnapped the horse, hiding it in the hermitage of
Kapila Muni during the hundredth sacrifice.

The 60 000 sons of Sagara found the horse, and believing Kapila to be the
abductor assaulted him. Kapila turned the assailants to ashes. Anshuman, a
grandson of King Sagara (Son of Asamanjas the Wicked son of King Sagara),
came to Kapila begging him to redeem the souls of the 60 000. Kapila replied that
only if the Ganges descended from heaven and touched the ashes of the 60,000
would they be redeemed [10]

References

1. ^ a b Chapter 33: Activities of Kapila Srimad Bhagavatam, Canto 3,

Chapter 33: Activities of Kapila. SB 3.33.1: Śrī Maitreya said: Thus
Devahūti, the mother of Lord Kapila and wife of Kardama Muni, became
freed from all ignorance concerning devotional service and transcendental
knowledge. She offered her obeisances unto the Lord, the author of the
basic principles of the Sāńkhya system of philosophy, which is the
background of liberation, and she satisfied Him with the following verses
of prayer." Bhaktivedanta VedaBase Network.
2. ^ A Tribute To Maharishi Kapila Secret Of Sankhya: Acme Of Scientific
Unification. p. 42.
3. ^ The Sánkhya Aphorisms of Kapila translated by James R. Ballantyne,
1885.
4. ^ Vaisampayana continued... The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan
Ganguli (1883 -1896), Book 12: Santi Parva, Part 3, Section: CCCXLI. p.
147 "The puissant Lord who is charged with the creation of all the worlds
is called Aniruddha, Sana, Sanatsujata, Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara,
Kapila, and Sanatana numbering the seventh,--these seven Rishis are
known as the spiritual sons of Brahman. Their knowledge comes to them of
itself (without being dependent on study or exertion). These seven are
wedded to the religion of Nivritti. They are the foremost of all persons
conversant with Yoga. They are possessed also of deep knowledge of the
Sankhya philosophy. They are preceptors of the scriptures on duty and it is
they that introduce the duties of the religion of Nivritti, and cause them to
flow in the worlds.
5. ^ Parashara... Vishnu Purana translated by Horace Hayman Wilson, 1840.
Book II: Chapter XIV. p. 106. "..a portion of the mighty and universal
Vishnu..
6. ^ Śrīmad Bhāgavatam Srimad Bhagavatam 3.33.30 - My dear Vidura, by
following the principles instructed by Kapila, Devahūti soon became
liberated from material bondage, and she achieved the Supreme Personality
of Godhead, as Supersoul, without difficulty."
7. ^ 'Those who lead a life... The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan
Ganguli (1883 -1896), Book 12: Santi Parva: Mokshadharma Parva:
Section Section CCLXX, p.270
 8. ^ Bhishma said... The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
(1883 -1896), Book 12: Santi Parva: Part III, Section CCCII.
9. ^ Ikshaku tribe The Mahabharata translated by Kisari Mohan Ganguli
(1883 -1896), Book 3: Vana Parva: Tirtha-yatra Parva: Section CVI, p. 228
'There was born in the family of the Ikshaku tribe, a ruler of the earth
named Sagara, endued with beauty, and strength...".
10. ^ Sons of Sagara Vishnu Purana translated by Horace Hayman Wilson,
1840, Book IV, Chapter IV. p. 378 the gods repaired to the Muni Kapila,
who was a portion of Vishńu, free from fault, and endowed with all true
wisdom. Having approached him with respect, they said, "O lord, what will
become of the world, if these sons of Sagara are permitted to go on in the
evil ways which they have learned from Asamanjas! Do thou, then, assume
a visible form, for the protection of the afflicted universe." "Be satisfied,"
replied the sage, "in a brief time the sons of Sagara shall be all destroyed.".

An Introduction to Hinduism, Gavin Flood, p. 232. Cambridge University Press,

1996. (Dates for proto-Samkhya, Karika Samkhya.)

Yoga
In Indian philosophy, Yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox philosophical
schools.[1][2] The Yoga philosophical system is closely allied with the Samkhya
school.[3] The Yoga school as expounded by Patanjali accepts the Samkhya
psychology and metaphysics, but is more theistic than the Samkhya, as evidenced
by the addition of a divine entity to the Samkhya's twenty-five elements of
reality.[4][5] The parallels between Yoga and Samkhya were so close that Max
Müller says that "the two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished
from each other as Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[6] The intimate
relationship between Samkhya and Yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:

"These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single discipline.
Sāṅkhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature, enumerating and
defining its elements, analyzing their manner of co-operation in a state of bondage
(bandha), and describing their state of disentanglement or separation in release
(mokṣa), while Yoga treats specifically of the dynamics of the process for the
disentanglement, out outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or
'isolation-integration' (kaivalya)."[7]

The foundational text of the Yoga school is the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, who is
regarded as the founder of the formal Yoga philosophy.[8] The Sutras of the Yoga
philosophy are ascribed to Patanjali, who may have been, as Max Müller explains,
"the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the
author of the Sutras."[9]
Patañjali (fl. 150 BCE[1] or 2nd c. BCE[2][3]) is the compiler of the Yoga Sutras,
an important collection of aphorisms on Yoga practice, and also the author of the
Mahābhāṣya, a major commentary on Panini's Ashtadhyayi. However, whether
these two works are that of the same author or not remains in some doubt.

In recent decades the Yoga Sutra has become quite popular worldwide for the
precepts regarding practice of Raja Yoga and its philosophical basis. "Yoga" in
traditional Hinduism involves inner contemplation, a rigorous system of
meditation practice, ethics, metaphysics, and devotion to the one common soul,
God, or Brahman. At the same time, his Mahābhāṣya, which first foregrounded the
notion of meaning as referring to categorization, remains an important treatise in
Sanskrit linguistic philosophy.

Authorship

Whether these two works are by the same author has been the subject of
considerable debate. The authorship of the two are first attributed to the same
person in Bhojadeva's rAjamArtaNDa, a relatively late (10th c.) commentary on
the Yoga Sutras[4], as well as a large number of subsequent texts. As for the texts
themselves, the Yoga Sutra iii.44 cites a sutra as that from Patanjali by name, but
this line itself is not from the Mahābhāṣya. However, certain themes such as the
unity of the constituent parts appear common to both. Sources of doubt include the
lack of cross-references between the texts, and no mutual awareness of each other,
quite unlike other cases of multiple works by (later) Sanskrit authors. Also, some
elements in the Yoga Sutras may date from as late as the 4th c. AD[3], but such
changes may be due to divergent authorship, or due to later additions which are
not atypical in the oral tradition. In the absence of any concrete evidence for a
second Patanjali, and given the approximately same time frame for the origin of
both texts, and the traditional ascription of both to a Patanjali most scholars simply
refer to both works as "by Patanjali".

In addition to the Mahābhāṣya and Yoga Sutras, the 11th c. text on Charaka by
ChakrapAni, and the 16th c. text Patanjalicharita ascribes to Patanjali a medical
text called the CarakapratisaMskritah (now lost) which is apparently a revision
(pratisaMskritaH) of the medical treatise by Charaka. Some have cited the
Patanjali reference in Yoga Sutra as possibly being from this text. Were he to be
the author of all three works, it would be quite amazing, although such diversity
would not be very uncommon in many early civilizations, as in the work of
Pingala or Katyayana, both grammaticians who also worked in mathematics, or
their contemporary Aristotle, say. At the same time, it is possible that the Patanjali
hagiography extolled his persona considerably.

Patañjali as an incarnation of Adi Sesha

Hagiography

In the Yoga tradition, Patanjali is a revered name and has been deified by many
groups, especially in the Shaivite bhakti tradition. It is claimed that Patañjali is an
incarnation of Ādi S'esha who is the first ego-expansion of Vishnu, Sankarshana.
Sankarshana, the manifestation of Vishnu His primeval energies and opulences, is
part of the so-called catur vyūha, the fourfold manifestation of Vishnu. Thus may
Patañjali be considered as the one incarnation of God defending the ego of yoga.

Even his name has been glorified; it is said that desiring to teach yoga to the
world, he fell (pat-) from heaven into the open palms (-añjali) of a woman, hence
the name Patañjali. He is also often respectfully referred to as Patanjali Maharishi,
or great sage.

In one popular legend, Patanjali was born to Atri (First of the Saptha Rishis) and
his wife Anusuya (this would make him go back to the time of the creation by
Brahma). According to this tradition, Anasuya had to go through a stern test of her
chastity when the Trimurti (Brahma, Vishnu, Siva) themselves came as Bhikshuks
and asked her for Bhiksha. She passed their test by accepting them as her children
and fed them while naked. She got the boon where all the 3 Murtis will be born to
them. They were SomaSkandan or Patanjali, Dattatreya, and Durvasa.

Tamil Shaivite legend

Regarding his early years, a Tamil Shaivite tradition from around 10th c. AD
holds that Patanjali learned Yoga along with seven other disciples from the great
Yogic Guru Nandhi Deva, as stated in Tirumular's Tirumandiram (Tantra 1).

Nandhi arulPetra Nadharai Naadinom

Nandhigal Nalvar Siva Yoga MaaMuni
Mandru thozhuda Patanjali Vyakramar
Endrivar Ennodu(Thirumoolar) Enmarumaame

English translation

By receiving Nandhi's grace we sought the feet of the Lord

The Four Nandhis (Sanagar, Santhanar, Sanath Sujatar, Sanath Kumarar),
Siva Yoga Maamuni, Patanjali, Vyakramapadar and I (Thirumoolar)
We were thus eight disciples.

The ancient Kali Kautuvam also describes how Patanjali and Vyagrapada gathered
along with the gods in Thillai near Chidambaram to watch Shiva and Kali dance
and perform the 108 mystic Karanas, which formed the foundation for the system
of Natya Yoga.

This Tamil tradition also gives his birth place in South Kailash, possibly the
modern day Thirumoorthy hills near Coimbatore. Some other traditions feel that
his being born in Bharatavarsha - the part of the ancient world corresponding to
South Asia - is beneath his godlike status, and that he must have been born in the
Jambudvipa, the mythical center of the universe.

Patanjali as Siddha is also mentioned by the goldsmith-sage Bogar:

It was my Grandfather who said, "Climb and see."

But it was Kalangi Nathar who gave me birth.
Patanjali,Viyagiramar,and Sivayogi Muni all so rightly said,
"Look! This is the path!" - Bhogar, 7000 sayings

This tradition also holds that Patanjali was a master of dance.

Yoga Sūtras

The Yoga tradition is much older, there are references in the Mahabharata, and the
Gita identifies three kinds of yoga, and it is also the subject of the late upanishad,
Yogatattva. The Yoga Sūtras codifies the royal or best (rAja) yoga practices,
presenting these as a eight-limbed system (aShTAnga). The philosophic tradition
is related to the Samkhya school. The focus is on the mind; the second sutra
defines Yoga - it is the cessation of all mental fluctuations, all wandering thoughts
cease and the mind is focused on a single thought (ekAgratA). The eight limbs or
the Ashtanga Yoga propounded here are

1. yama, ethics, restraint and ahimsa,

2. niyama, cleanliness, ascetism, etc.
3. Asana, posture
4. prANAyama, breath-control
5. pratyahAra, sense-withdrawal
6. dhAraNa, concentration
7. dhyana meditation, and
8. samAdhi, full absorption.

Expanded as this:-

Yama - non-violence, truthfulness, brahmacharya, non-accumulating/non-coveting

Niyama - Tapas (Discipline)- Svadhyaya (Self Study) - Ishvara Pranidhana
(Surrender to God/Higher Self) - Contentment/Acceptance
Asana - Discipline of the body
Pranayama - Breath Control
Pratyhara - withdrawal of all senses
Dharana - Concentration/Expand awareness beyond oneself
Dhyana - Meditation
Samadhi - Absorption/Universal Consciousness where All is One, One is All
In contrast to the focus on the mind in the Yoga sutras, later traditions of Yoga
such as the Hatha yoga focus on more complex asanas or body postures.

Relevance of his contribution to the science of yoga

Patañjali defended in his yoga-treatise several ideas that are not mainstream of
either Sankhya or Yoga. He, according to the Iyengar adept, biographer and
scholar Kofi Busia, acknowledges the ego not as a separate entity. The subtle body
linga sarira he would not regard as permanent and he would deny it a direct
control over external matters. This is not in accord with classical Sankhya and
Yoga.

Although much of the aphorisms in the Yoga Sutra possibly pre-dates Patanjali, it
is clear that much is original and it is more than a mere compilation. The clarity
and unity he brought to divergent views prevalent till then has inspired a long line
of teachers and practitioners up to the present day in which his most renowned
defender is B.K.S. Iyengar. With some translators he seems to be a dry and
technical propounder of the philosophy, but with others he is an empathic and
humorous witty friend and spiritual guide.

Mahābhāshya

The Mahābhāṣya ("great commentary") of Patañjali on the Aṣṭādhyāyī of Pāṇini is

a major early exposition on Panini, along with the somewhat earlier Varttika by
Katyayana. Here he raises the issue of whether meaning ascribes to a specific
instance or to a category:

kim punar AkritiH padArthaH, Ahosvid dravyam [5].

Now what is 'meaning' (artha) [of a word]? Is it a particular instance
(dravya) or a general shape (Akriti)?

This discussion arises in Patanjali in connection with a sutra (Panini 1.2.58) that
states that a plural form may be used in the sense of the singular when designating
a species (jAti).

Another aspect dealt with by Patanjali relates to how words and meanings are
associated - Patanjali claims shabdapramâNaH - that the evidentiary value of
words is inherent in them, and not derived externally[6] - the word-meaning
association is natural. The argument he gives is that people do not make an effort
to manufacture words. When we need a pot, we ask the potter to make a pot for us.
The same is not true of words - we do not usually approach grammarians and ask
them to manufacture words for our use. [27] This is similar to the argument in the
early part of Plato's Cratylus, where morphemes are described as natural, e.g. the
sound 'l' is associated with softness.

These issues in the word-meaning relation (symbol) would elaborated in the

Sanskrit linguistic tradition, in debates between the Mimamsa, Nyaya and
Buddhist schools over the next fifteen centuries.
Sphota : An early phonemic theory?

Patanjali also defines an early notion of sphoTa, which would be elaborated

considerably by later Sanskrit linguists like Bhartrihari. In Patanjali, a sphoTa
(from sphuT, burst) is the invariant quality of speech. The noisy element (dhvani,
audible part) can be long or short, but the sphoTa remains unaffected by individual
speaker differences. Thus, a single letter or 'sound' (varNa) such as k, p or a is an
abstraction, distinct from variants produced in actual enunciation[6]. This concept
has been linked to the modern notion of phoneme, the minimum distinction that
defines semantically distinct sounds. Thus a phoneme is an abstraction for a range
of sounds. However, in later writings, especially in Bhartrihari (6th c. AD), the
notion of sphoTa changes to become more of a mental state, preceding the actual
utterance, akin to the psycholinguistic lemma.

Patañjali's writings also elaborate some principles of morphology (prakriyā). In

the context of elaborating on Panini's aphorisms, he also discusses Kātyāyana's
commentary, which are also aphoristic and sūtra-like; in the later tradition, these
were transmitted as embedded in Patañjali's discussion. In general, he defends
many positions of Panini which were interpreted somewhat differently in
Katyayana.

Metaphysics as grammatical motivation

Unlike Panini's objectives in the Ashtyadhyayi which is to distinguish correct

forms and meanings from incorrect ones (shabdAunushAsana), Patanjali's
objectives are more metaphysical. These include the correct recitations of the
scriptures (Agama), maintaining the purity of texts (rakShA), clarifying ambiguity
(asaMdeha), and also the pedagogic goal of providing an easier learning
mechanism (laghu)[6]. This stronger metaphysical bent has also been indicated by
some as one of the unifying themes between the Yoga Sutras and the Mahābhāṣya.

The text of the Mahābhāṣya had diversified somewhat in the late Sanskritic
tradition, and the nineteenth-century orientalist Franz Kielhorn produced the first
critical edition and developed philological criteria for distinguishing Kātyāyana's
"voice" from Patañjali's. Subsequently a number of other texts have come out, the
1968 text by S.D. Joshi and J.H.F. Roodbergen often being considered definitive.

Patanjali also writes with a light touch. For example, his comment on the conflicts
between the orthodox Brahminic (Astika) groups, versus the heterodox, nAstika
groups (Buddhism, Jainism, and atheists) seems relevant for religious conflict
even today: the hostility between these groups was like that between a mongoose
and a snake[7]. He also sheds light on contemporary events, commenting on the
recent Greek incursion, and also on several tribes that lived in the Northwest
regions of the subcontinent.
References

1. ^ Jonardon Ganeri, Artha: Meaning, Oxford University Press 2006, 1.2, p.

12
2. ^ S. Radhakrishnan, and C.A. Moore, (1957). A Source Book in Indian
Philosophy. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University, ch. XIII, Yoga,
p.453
3. ^ a b Gavin A. Flood, 1996
4. ^ The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, ed. James Haughton Woods, 1914
5. ^ Mahābhāṣya, Joshi/Roodbergen: 1968, p. 68
6. ^ a b c The word and the world: India's contribution to the study of language
(1990). Bimal Krishna Matilal. Oxford.
7. ^ Romila Thapar, Interpreting Early India. Oxford University Press, 1992,
p.63

Nyaya
The Nyaya school is based on the Nyaya Sutras. They were written by Aksapada
Gautama, probably in the second century B.C.E. The most important contribution
made by this school is its methodology. This methodology is based on a system of
logic that has subsequently been adopted by the majority of the Indian schools.
This is comparable to the relationship between Western science and philosophy,
which was derived largely from Aristotelian logic.

Nevertheless, Nyaya was seen by its followers as more than logical in its own
right. They believed that obtaining valid knowledge was the only way to gain
release from suffering, and they took great pains to identify valid sources of
knowledge and distinguish these from mere false opinions. According to Nyaya,
there are exactly four sources of knowledge: perception, inference, comparison,
and testimony. Knowledge obtained through each of these is either valid or
invalid. Nyaya developed several criteria of validity. In this sense, Nyaya is
probably the closest Indian equivalent to analytic philosophy. The later Naiyanikas
gave logical proofs for the existence and uniqueness of Ishvara in response to
Buddhism, which, at that time, was fundamentally non-theistic. An important later
development in Nyaya was the system of Navya-NyÄya.

Gautama Maharishi is one of the Saptarishis (Seven Great Sages Rishi) sapta-
rishis (seven Rishis) of the current Manvantara (seventh) [1]. He was one of the
Maharishis of Vedic times, known to have been the discoverer of Mantras --
'Mantra-drashtaa', in Sanskrit. The Rig Veda has several suktas that go with his
name. He was the son of Dirgha-tamas, belonging to the line of Angiras. The Devi
Bhagavatam says that the river Godavari is so named because of its association
with Gautama. He had two sons by name Vamadeva and Nodhas, both themselves
discoverers of Mantras. There is a hymn called Bhadra in the Sama Veda which
again is ascribed to Gautama Maharishi.

Personal life

His wife is Ahalya, herself the mind born daughter (manasa putri) of Creator
Brahma. The Puranas speak of the story wherein it is described how Gautama won
the hand of Ahalya by perambulating the divine cow in order to fulfill the
stipulation of Brahma that whoever first goes round the whole Earth will win the
hand of Ahalya. The Chief priest of King Janaka of Mithila, by name Shatananda,
was the son of Gautama and Ahalya. Gautama's sixty-year long penance is
mentioned in the Shanti parva of the Mahabharata. The Narada purana describes
the story of the 12-year famine during which Gautama fed all the Rishis and saved
them.

Gautama was one of the famous seven rishis termed Saptarshi. He was the
progenitor of the Gautama gotra. He was the son of Rahugana.

With Bharadvaja, Gautama shares a common ancestry as they are both descended
from Angirasa, and sometimes they are both bracketed together under the name
Angirasa.

The sons of Gautama are Vamadeva and Nodha. The 4th book of the Rigveda is
that of the Vamadeva Gautama family.

Legends

The descent of Lord Shiva as Tryambakeshvar, that constitutes the source of the
Jyotirlinga nearby, happened for the sake of Gautama. The Brahmaanda-purana
mentions that one of the sub-branches of the Raanaayani branch of Sama Veda
was initiated by this Gautama. Some famous disciples of Gautama were
Praachina-yogya, Shaandilya, Gaargya, and Bharadwaja.

According to the Ramayana, Rishi Gautama once went to take bath in the river
Ganges early morning. The king of the devas, Indra, was fascinated with Gautam's
wife, Ahalya. Indra came in the form of Gautam and made love to Ahalya. As he
was escaping, he was caught by Rishi Gautama who was returning to the Ashrama
from his bath. Gautam cursed Ahalya and Indra both for this act. Ahalya was
converted to stone, while Indra was cursed with one thousand female genitals
(Sahasrayoni). Later, taking pity on both, Gautama converted both these curses to
boons. Indra's female genitals (yonis) became eyes, and he came to be known as
Sahasraaksha. As for Ahalya, Gautama granted her the boon that she would be
brought back to human form by the touch of the feet of Lord Rama and would
reunite with him.
Author of the earliest Dharma-sutra

Gauatama was also the author of Dharma-sutra known as Gautama Dharma sutra
[2] [3]
It is in fact the earliest Dharma Sutra. It contains 28 chapters with 1000
aphorisms. Almost every aspect of the observances of Hindu dharma - including
the rules for the four Ashramas, the forty sanskāras, the four varnas, kingly duties,
the punishments for various offences, the obsequies for the dead, do's and don'ts of
food consumption, the dharmas of women, the rules for Praayaschitta (atonement
for sins), and the rules of succession of property. In this sense Gautama's Dharma
Shastra may perhaps be considered the oldest law book of the world.

Akṣapāda Gotama, the 2nd century founder of the school of philosophy that goes
by the name of 'Nyaya' (Logic), is not to be confused with Gautama Maharishi.

References

1. ^ Inhabitants of the Worlds Mahanirvana Tantra, translated by Arthur

Avalon, (Sir John Woodroffe), 1913, Introduction and Preface. The Rishi
are seers who know, and by their knowledge are the makers of shastra and
"see" all mantras. The word comes from the root rish Rishati-prapnoti
sarvvang mantrang jnanena pashyati sangsaraparangva, etc. The seven
great Rishi or saptarshi of the first manvantara are Marichi, Atri, Angiras,
Pulaha, Kratu, Pulastya, and Vashishtha. In other manvantara there are
other sapta-rshi. In the present manvantara the seven are Kashyapa, Atri,
Vashishtha, Vishvamitra, Gautama, Jamadagni, Bharadvaja. To the Rishi
the Vedas were revealed. Vyasa taught the Rigveda so revealed to Paila,
the Yajurveda to Vaishampayana, the Samaveda to Jaimini, Atharvaveda to
Samantu, and Itihasa and Purana to Suta. The three chief classes of Rishi
are the Brah-marshi, born of the mind of Brahma, the Devarshi of lower
rank, and Rajarshi or Kings who became Rishis through their knowledge
and austerities, such as Janaka, Ritaparna, etc. Thc Shrutarshi are makers of
Shastras, as Sushruta. The Kandarshi are of the Karmakanda, such as
Jaimini.
2. ^ Introduction to Gautama The Sacred Laws of the Âryas, translated by
Georg Bühler (1879), Part I: Âpastamba and Guatama. (Dharma-sutra).
3. ^ Gautama, Institutes of the Sacred Law The Sacred Laws of the Âryas,
translated by Georg Bühler (1879), Gautama, Chapter I (Dharma-sutra).
Vaisheshika
The Vaisheshika school was founded by Kanada and postulates an atomic
pluralism. All objects in the physical universe are reducible to certain types of
atoms, and Brahman is regarded as the fundamental force that causes
consciousness in these atoms.

Although the Vaisheshika school developed independently from the Nyaya, the
two eventually merged because of their closely related metaphysical theories. In
its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika school differed from the Nyaya in one
crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge, the
Vaisheshika accepted only two—–perception and inference.

Kanada (also transliterated as Canada as well as other forms) was a Hindu sage
who founded the philosophical school of Vaisheshika. [1]. He talked of Dvyanuka
(biatomic molecule) and tryanuka (triatomic molecule) He probably lived around
600 BCE according to some accounts. It is believed that he was born in Prabhas
Kshetra (near Dwaraka) in Gujarat, India. His area of study was Rasavādam,
considered to be a type of alchemy. He believed that all living beings are
composed of five elements: water, fire, earth, air, ether. Vegetables have only
water, insects have water and fire, birds have water, fire, earth and air, Humans the
top of the creation has ether the sense of discrimination. (time, space, mind)are
one. Kal is time, the universal mind, the ruler of the first spiritual region. In
religions he is called Satan or Devil and soul is the light part of the creator, the
drop of the Ocean. He theorised that Gurutva was responsible for the falling of
objects on the Earth. Vaiseshika is one of the six orthodox (vedic) schools of
Indian philosophy, usually paired with Nyaya, another of those six.

It is believed that he often abstained from food by eating dirt.

Purva Mimamsa
The main objective of the Purva Mimamsa school was to establish the authority of
the Vedas. Consequently, this school's most valuable contribution to Hinduism
was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents believe that
one must have unquestionable faith in the Vedas and perform the yajñas, or fire-
sacrifices, regularly. They believe in the power of the mantras and yajñas to
sustain all the activity of the universe. In keeping with this belief, they place great
emphasis on dharma, which consists of the performance of Vedic rituals.
The Mimamsa accepted the logical and philosophical teachings of the other
schools, but felt they did not sufficiently emphasize attention to right action. They
believed that the other schools of thought that aimed for release (moksha) did not
allow for complete freedom from desire and selfishness, because the very striving
for liberation stemmed from a simple desire to be free. According to Mimamsa
thought, only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedas may one
attain salvation.

The Mimamsa school later shifted its views and began to teach the doctrines of
Brahman and freedom. Its adherents then advocated the release or escape of the
soul from its constraints through enlightened activity. Although Mimamsa does
not receive much scholarly attention, its influence can be felt in the life of the
practising Hindu, because all Hindu ritual, ceremony, and law is influenced by this
school.

Jaimini was an ancient rishi (sage), who was a great philosopher of the Mimansa
school of Indian philosophy. He was the disciple of the great Rishi Veda Vyasa,
the son of Rishi Parashara.[1]

Important works of Jaimini

Purva Mimamsa Sutras

Jaimini is most known for his great treatise Purva Mimamsa Sutras (“First
Reflection”), or Karma-mimamsa (“Study of [Ritual] Action”), a system that
investigates the nature of Vedic injunctions. The text founded the Purva-Mimamsa
school of Ancient Indian philosophy, one of the six Darsanas or schools of
Ancient Indian philosophy. [2]

Dated to ca. the 3rd century BC, the text contains about 3,000 sutras and is the
foundational text of the Mimamsa school. The text aims at an exegesis of the
Vedas with regard to ritual practice (karma) and religious duty (dharma),
commenting on the early Upanishads. Jaimini's Mimamsa is a ritualist conter-
movement to the mysticist Vedanta currents of his day. He was commented upon
by Śābara in the early centuries CE. [3]

Jamini Bharata

He is also considered the author of epic work, Jamini Bharata, which presents a
version of Mahabharata, which most known for its Aswamedha parva. [4]

Jamini Sutras

The Jaimini sutras, or Upadesha Sutras, is a classic work, rated as next only to the
Brihat Parashara Hora Sashtra, to which he gave an extended commentary, thus
giving birth to "Jaimini system of astrology". [5]
Other Mentions

Samaveda

When Rishi Veda Vyasa divided ancient vedic hymns into four parts based on
their use in the sacrificial rites, and taught them to his four chief disciples – Paila,
Vaisampayana, Jaimini and Sumantu, Samaveda was transmitted to rishi Jaimini.
"He divided the Veda into four, namely Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. The
histories and the Puranas are said to be the fifth Veda."
- Brahmanda Purana 1.4.21 [6]

Markandeya Purana

One of the major puranas, the Markandeya Purana, is presented as a dialogue

between sage Jaimini and Markandeya. [7]

Vedanta
The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the philosophical
teachings of the Upanishads rather than the ritualistic injunctions of the
Brahmanas.

While the traditional Vedic rituals continued to be practised as meditative and

propitiatory rites, a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge.
These were mystical aspects of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-
discipline, and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism.

The more abstruse Vedanta is the essence of the Vedas, as encapsulated in the
Upanishads. Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad is believed to have appeared as far back as 3,000
years ago. While thirteen or so Upanishads are accepted as principal, over a
hundred exist. The most significant contribution of Vedantic thought is the idea
that self-consciousness is continuous with and indistinguishable from
consciousness of Brahman.

[Vyāsa is a central and revered figure in the majority of Hindu traditions. He is

also sometimes called Veda Vyasa (veda vyāsa), (the one who compiled the
Vedas) or Krishna Dvaipayana (referring to his complexion and birthplace). He
is accredited as the scribe of both the Vedas, and the supplementary texts such as
the Puranas. A number of Vaishnava traditions regard him as an avatar of
Vishnu.[1] Vyasa is also considered to be one of the eight Chiranjeevin (long lived,
or immortals), who are still in existence according to general Hindu belief.
In the Mahabharata

Vyasa appears for the first time as the author of, and an important character in the
Mahābhārata. He was the son of Satyavati, daughter of a ferryman or fisherman,
and the wandering sage Parashara. He was born on an island in the river Yamuna.
This is said to be near Kalpi in Jalaun district in Uttar Pradesh. Many also point
out that the sage was born on the confluence of the rivers Koel,Sankha and
Brahmani at the present steel city of Rourkela in Northern Orissa. The place is
named after him as Vedvyas.He was dark-complexioned and hence may be called
by the name Krishna (black), and also the name Dwaipayana, meaning 'island-
born'.

Vyasa was grandfather to the Kauravas and Pandavas. Both Dhritarashtra and
Pandu, adopted as the sons of Vichitravirya by the royal family, were fathered by
him. He had a third son, Vidura, by a serving maid.

Veda Vyasa

Hindus traditionally hold that Vyasa categorised the primordial single Veda into
four. Hence he was called Veda Vyasa, or "Splitter of the Vedas," the splitting
being a feat that allowed people to understand the divine knowledge of the Veda.
The word vyasa means split, differentiate, or describe.

It has been debated whether Vyasa was a single person or a class of scholars who
did the splitting. The Vishnu Purana has an interesting theory about Vyasa. The
Hindu view of the universe is that of a cyclic phenomenon that comes into
existence and dissolves repeatedly. Each cycle is presided over by a number of
Manus, one for each Manvantara, that has four ages, Yugas of declining virtues.
The Dvapara Yuga is the third Yuga. The Vishnu Purana (Book 3, Ch 3) says:

In every third world age (Dvapara), Vishnu, in the person of Vyasa, in order to
promote the good of mankind, divides the Veda, which is properly but one, into
many portions. Observing the limited perseverance, energy, and application of
mortals, he makes the Veda fourfold, to adapt it to their capacities; and the bodily
form which he assumes, in order to effect that classification, is known by the name
of Veda-vyasa. Of the different Vyasas in the present Manvantara and the
branches which they have taught, you shall have an account. Twenty-eight times
have the Vedas been arranged by the great Rishis in the Vaivasvata Manvantara...
and consequently eight and twenty Vyasas have passed away; by whom, in the
respective periods, the Veda has been divided into four. The first... distribution
was made by Svayambhu (Brahma) himself; in the second, the arranger of the
Veda (Vyasa) was Prajapati... (and so on up to twenty-eight).

Author of the Mahābhārata

Vyasa is traditionally known as author of this epic. But he also features as an

important character in it. His mother later married the king of Hastinapura, and
had two sons. Both sons died without an issue and taking recourse to an ancient
practice called Niyoga where a chosen man can father sons with the widow of a
person who dies issueless, she requests Vyasa to produce sons on behalf of her
dead son Vichitravirya.

Vyasa fathers the princes Dhritarashtra and Pandu (by Ambika and Ambalika, the
wives of the dead king Vichitravirya). Vyasa told them that they should come
alone near him. First did Ambika, but because of shyness and fear she closed her
eyes. Vyasa told Satyavati that her child would be blind. Later this child was
named Dhritarāshtra. Thus Satyavati sent Ambālika and warned her that she
should remain calm. But Ambālika's face became pale because of fear. Vyasa told
her that child would suffer from anaemia, and he would not be fit enough to rule
the kingdom. Later this child was known as Pāndu. Then Vyasa told Satyavati to
send one of them again so that a healthy child can be born. This time Ambika and
Ambālika sent a maid in the place of themselves. The maid was quite calm and
composed, and she got a healthy child later named as Vidura. While these are
'legally' not his sons, another son Shuka, born of his wife, sage Jābāli's daughter
Pinjalā (Vatikā),[2] is considered his true spiritual heir. He was thus the grandfather
of both the warring parties of the Mahābhārata, the Kauravas and the Pāndavas.
He makes occasional appearances in the story as a spiritual guide to the young
princes.

Ganesha writes Mahabharata as dictated by Vyasa

In the first book of the Mahābhārata, it is described that Vyasa asked Ganesha to
aid him in writing the text, however Ganesha imposed a condition that he would
do so only if Vyasa narrated the story without pause. To which Vyasa then made a
counter-condition that Ganesha must understand the verse before he transcribed it.
This is supposed to explain the complicated Sanskrit used in some sections of the
Mahābhārata, recited by Vyasa when he wanted a break.

Vyasa is supposed to have meditated and authored the epic by the foothills of the
river Beas (named in his honour,) in the Punjab region.

Vyasa's Jaya

Vyasa's Jaya, the core of Mahābhārata is structured in the form of a dialogue

between Dhritarashtra (the Kuru king and the father of the Kauravas, who opposed
the Pāndavas in the Kurukshetra War) and Sanjaya, his advisor and chariot driver.
Sanjaya narrates each incident of the Kurukshetra War, fought in 18 days, as and
when it happened. Dhritarāshtra sometimes asks questions and doubts and
sometimes laments, knowing about the destruction caused by the war, to his sons,
friends and kinsmen. He also feels guilty, due to his own role, that led to this war,
destructive to the entire Indian subcontinent.

In the beginning Sanjaya gives a description of the various continents of the Earth,
the other planets, and focuses on the Indian Subcontinent and gives an elaborate
list of hundreds of kingdoms, tribes, provinces, cities, towns, villages, rivers,
mountains, forests etc of the (ancient) Indian Subcontinent (Bhārata Varsha). He
also explains about the military formations adopted by each side on each day, the
death of each hero and the details of each war-racings. Some 18 chapters of
Vyasa's Jaya constitutes the Bhagavad Gita, the sacred text of the Hindus. Thus,
this work of Vyasa, called Jaya deals with diverse subjects like geography, history,
warfare, religion and morality.

Ugrasrava Sauti's Mahābhārata

The final phase of Vyasa's work culminated as Mahābhārata, structured as a

narration by Ugrasrava Sauti, who was a professional story teller, to an assembly
of sages like Saunaka. Bharata is embedded inside it, and within it Jaya.

Reference to writing

Within the Mahābhārata, there is a tradition in which Vyasa wishes to write down
or inscribe his work:

The Grandsire Brahma (creator of the universe) comes and tells Vyasa to
get the help of Ganapati for his task. Ganapati writes down the stanzas
recited by Vyasa from memory and thus the Mahābhārata is inscribed or
written. Ganapati could not cope up with Vyasa's speed and he misses
many words or even stanzas.

The earliest portions of the Mahābhārata are estimated to date from roughly the
4th century BC, the time of the introduction of writing to India.

There is some evidence however that writing may have been known earlier based
on archeological findings of styli in the Painted Grey Ware culture, dated between
1100 BC and 700 BC.[3][4][5] and archeological evidence of the Brahmi script being
used from at least 600 BC.[6]

The difficulty faced by Ganapati (Ganesha) in writing down Mahābhārata as

described in the tradition, could be real, and was most probably faced by those
people who first attempted to write it down as some reciter recited it continuously.
This is because, the reciter will not be able to stop the recitation in between and
resume it, as the lines are committed to his memory as a continuous recording.

The name Ganapati, was used in ancient days, to denote the head of a republic. In
ancient India, there were kingdoms ruled by kings or Rajas as well as republics
ruled by elected heads or Ganapatis. Kambojas were a republic. To some extent
Dwāraka had republican style of rule. Ganapati who wrote down Mahābhārata,
probably was one this republic chiefs, well educated in the art of writing or
inscription.

In the Puranas

Vyasa is also credited with the writing of the eighteen major, if not all,
Purāṇas.His son Shuka is the narrator of the major Purāṇa Bhagavat-Purāṇa.

In Buddhism

Within Buddhism Vyasa appears as Kanha-dipayana (the Pali version of his name)
in two Jataka tales: the Kanha-dipayana Jataka and Ghata Jataka. Whilst the
former in which he appears as the Bodhisattva has no relation to his tales from the
Hindu works, his role in the latter one has parallels in an important event in the
Mahabhrata.

In the 16th book of the epic, Mausala Parva, the end of the Vrishnis, clansmen of
Vyasa's namesake and Vishnu incarnate Krishna is narrated. The epic says: One
day, the Vrishni heroes .. saw Vishvamitra, Kanwa and Narada arrived at
Dwaraka. Afflicted by the rod of chastisement wielded by the deities, those heroes,
causing Samba to be disguised like a woman, approached those ascetics and said,
‘This one is the wife of Vabhru of immeasurable energy who is desirous of having
a son. Ye Rishis, do you know for certain what this one will bring forth?Those
ascetics, attempted to be thus deceived, said: ‘This heir of Vasudeva, by name
Samba, will bring forth a fierce iron bolt for the destruction of the Vrishnis and
the Andhakas.

The important Bhagavata Purana (book 11) too narrates the incident in a similar
manner and names the sages as Visvāmitra, Asita, Kanva, Durvāsa, Bhrigu,
Angirâ, Kashyapa, Vâmadeva, Atri, Vasishthha, along with Nârada and others - it
does not explicitly include Vyasa in the list.

The Ghata Jataka has a different spin on it: The Vrishnis, wishing to test Kanha-
dipayana's powers of clairvoyance, played a practical joke on him. They tied a
pillow to the belly of a young lad, and dressing him up as a woman, took him to
the ascetic and asked when the baby would be born. The ascetic replied that on the
seventh day the person before him would give birth to a knot of acacia wood
which would destroy the race of Vásudeva. The youths thereupon fell on him and
killed him, but his prophecy came true .

Notably, he is not the Bodhisattva in the Ghata Jataka.

In the Arthashastra

The only non-religious book in which Vyasa has an interesting entry is the
Arthashastra of Chanakya. In chapter 6, it says:
'Whosoever is of reverse character, whoever has not his organs of sense under his
control, will soon perish, though possessed of the whole earth bounded by the four
quarters. For example: Bhoja, known also by the name, Dándakya, making a
lascivious attempt on a Bráhman maiden, perished along with his kingdom and
relations; so also Karála, the Vaideha... Vátápi in his attempt under the influence
of overjoy to attack Agastya, as well as the corporation of the Vrishnis in their
attempt against Dwaipáyan.

This reference matches the Jataka version in including Vyasa as the sage attacked
by the Vrishnis, though Vyasa does not die here.

Author of Brahma Sutra

The Brahma Sutra is attributed to Badarayana — which makes him the proponent
of the crest-jewel school of Hindu philosophy, i.e., Vedanta. As the island on
which Vyasa was born is said to have been covered by Badara (Indian jujube)
trees, he is known as Badarayana. Though traditionally, Vyasa is considered the
Badarayana who wrote the Sutras, many historians think these were two different
personalities.

Author of Yoga Bhashya

This text is a commentary on the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. Vyasa is credited with
this work also, though this is impossible, if Vyasa's immortality is not considered,
as it is a later text.

References

• The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, translated by Kisari

Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896
• The Arthashastra, translated by Shamasastry, 1915
• The Vishnu-Purana, translated by H. H. Wilson, 1840
• The Bhagavata-Purana, translated by A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami
Prabhupada, 1988 copyright Bhaktivedanta Book Trust
• The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha's Former Births, edited by E. B.
Cowell, 1895

References

1. ^ Mahābhārata 12.350.4-5, K.M. Ganguly full edition http://www.sacred-

texts.com/hin/m12/m12c049.htm
2. ^ Skanda Purāṇa, Nāgara Khanda, ch. 147
3. ^ S. U. Deraniyagala. Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka:
the Archaeological Evidence.
4. ^ N. R. Banerjee (1965). The Iron Age in India. New Delhi: Munshiram
Manoharlal.
 5. ^ F. Raymond Allchin, George Erdosy (1995). The Archaeology of Early
Historic South Asia: Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-37695-5.
6. ^ T. S. Subramanian. Skeletons, script found at ancient burial site in Tamil
Nadu. Institute for Oriental Study, Thane.

• Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana Vyasa, English translation by Kisari

Mohan Ganguli ]

The aphorisms of the Vedanta sutras are presented in a cryptic, poetic style, which
allows for a variety of interpretations. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into
six sub-schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own
series of sub-commentaries. Four of them are given here.

Advaita

Advaita is probably the best-known of all Vedanta schools. Advaita literally means
"non duality." Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya (788-820), who
continued the line of thought of some of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his
teacher's teacher Gaudapada. By analysing the three states of experience—–
waking, dreaming, and deep sleep—–he established the singular reality of
Brahman, in which the soul and Brahman are one and the same. He saw this form
as that of Vishnu. He wrote a thesis on the Vishnu Sahasranama (1008 names of
Vishnu), and also composed poems like the Bhaja Govindham instructing people
to think about Govinda (Vishnu) all the time. Ishvara is the manifestation of
Brahman to human minds under the influence of an illusionary power called
Avidya.

Visishtadvaita

Ramanujacharya (1040-1137) was the foremost proponent of the concept of the

Supreme Being having a definite form, name, and attributes. He saw this form as
that of Vishnu, and taught that reality has three aspects: Vishnu, soul (jiva), and
matter (prakrti). Vishnu is the only independent reality, while souls and matter are
dependent on Vishnu for their existence. Thus, Ramanuja's system is known as
qualified non-dualism.

[VishishtAdvaita Vedanta (IAST Viśishṭādvaita Vedanta) is a sub-school of the

Vedānta (literally, end or the goal of Knowledge, Sanskrit) school of Hindu
philosophy, the other major sub-schools of Vedānta being Advaita and Dvaita.
VishishtAdvaita (literally "Advaita with uniqueness/qualifications") is a non-
dualistic school of Vedanta philosophy. It is non-dualism of the qualified whole, in
which Brahman alone exists, but is characterised by multiplicity. It can be
described as qualified monism or attributive monism.

Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva Tatvam - Brahman as qualified by

the sentient and insentient modes (aspects or attributes) is the only reality.
It is a school of Vedanta philosophy which believes in all diversity subsuming to
an underlying unity. Ramanuja, the main proponent of Visishtadvaita philosophy
contends that the Prasthana Traya ("The three courses") i.e. Upanişads, Bhagavad
Gītā, and Brahma Sūtras are to be interpreted in way that shows this unity in
diversity, for any other way would violate their consistency.

Philosophers

The VisishtAdvaitic thought is considered to have existed for a long time, and it is
surmised that the earliest works are no longer available. The names of the earliest
of these philosophers is only known through Ramanuja's Vedanta Sangraha. In the
line of the philosophers considered to have expounded the VisishtAdvaitic system,
the prominent ones are Bodhayana, Dramida, Tanka, Guhadeva, Kapardi and
Bharuci. Besides these philosophers, Ramanuja's teacher Yamunacharya is
credited with laying the foundation for what culminates as the Sri Bhashya.

Bodhayana is considered to have written an extensive vritti (commentary) on the

Purva and Uttara Mimamsas. Tanka is attributed with having written
commentaries on Chandogya Upanishad and Brahma Sutras. Natha-muni of the
ninth century AD, the foremost Acharya of the Vaishnavas, collected the Tamil
prabandhas, classified them, made the redaction, set the hymns to music and
spread them everywhere. He is said to have received the divine hymns straight
from Nammalvar, the foremost of the twelve Alwars, by yogic insight in the
temple at Alwar Thirunagari, which is located near Tirunelveli in South India.
Yamunacharya renounced kingship and spent his last days in the service of the
Lord at Srirangam and in laying the fundamentals of the Vishishtadvaita
philosophy by writing four basic works on the subject.

Ramanuja is the main proponent of VisishtAdvaita philosophy. The philosophy

itself is considered to have existed long before Ramanuja's time.[citation needed]
Ramanuja continues along the line of thought of his predecessors while
expounding the knowledge expressed in the Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and
Bhagavad Gita.

Vedanta Desikan, one of the foremost learned scholars of medieval India, wrote
more than a hundred works in Sanskrit and Tamil. All are characterised by their
versatility, deep spiritual insight, ethical fervour and excellent expressions of
devotional emotion in delightful style. His Paduka-sahasram is a classic example.
He was a great teacher, expositor, debater, poet, philosopher, thinker and defender
of the faith of Vaishnavism. The Vadakalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism associate
themselves with Vedanta Desikan.

Pillai Lokacharya is associated with the Tenkalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism. He is

said to have born as an amsa ("essence") of Kanchi Devaraja (Varadaraja)
Perumal to document and immortalize Ramanuja's message in the month of
Aippaci under the star Thiruvonam (Sravana), in the year 1205 CE.[citation needed]. He
is said to have lived for 106 years, during which time, he also helped to safeguard
the idol of Ranganatha at Srirangam from Muslim invaders[citation needed]. Pillai
Lokacharya confirmed the basics of the Sri Vaishnava system in his 18 works
popularly known as Ashtadasa Rahasyangal ("the eighteen secrets") also called
the Rahasya granthas ("doctrines that explain the inner meanings").

Swaminarayan, the founder of the Swaminarayan Sampraday also propogated this

philosophy and based the Swaminarayan Sampraday on these ideals.

An important point to be noted here is that though these are two Schools of Sri
Vaishnavism (the religion) there are no differences in the doctrines of
Vishistadvaita.[neutrality disputed] There are only differences in issues related to the
method of following (for Eg. There is difference in the concept of sharanagati),
status of Sri and the status of nitya karmanushtanams. The Philosophy of
Vishistadvaita is essentially same.

Key Principles of VishishtAdvaita

The understanding of the 3 principles of VishishtAdvaita namely, Tattva, Hita and

PurushArtha are essential pre-requisites for an aspirant of that knowledge which
leads to liberation.

• Tattva: The knowledge of the 3 real entities namely, jIvA (the sentient);
Jagat (the insenient) and Ishvara (Vishnu-Narayana or Parabrahman)

• Hita: The means of realisation i.e. through Bhakti (devotion) and Prapatti
(self-surrender)

• PurushArtha: The goal to be attained i.e. moksha or liberation from

bondage.

Epistemology

Pramāṇas

Pramā, in Sanskrit, refers to the correct knowledge, arrived at by thorough

reasoning, of any object. Pramāṇa (sources of knowledge, Sanskrit) forms one part
of a tripuṭi (trio), namely,

1. Pramātṛ, the subject; the knower of the knowledge

2. Pramāṇa, the cause or the means of the knowledge
3. Prameya, the object of knowledge

In VisishtAdvaita Vedānta, the following three pramāṇas are alone accepted as

valid means of knowledge:

• Pratyakṣa — the knowledge gained by means of perception

• Anumāna — the knowledge gained by means of inference
• ṣabda — the knowledge gained by means of Sruti
Perception refers to knowledge obtained by cognition of external objects based on
sensory perception. In the modern day usage this will also include evidence
obtained by means of observation through scientific instruments since they are
only an extension of perception.

Inference refers to knowledge obtained by deductive reasoning and analysis.

Sruti refers to knowledge obtained from scriptures which primarily are

Upanishads, Brahma Sutras and Bhagavad Gita

Rules of Epistemology

The following rules of hierarchy apply to the issues when there is apparent conflict
between the 3 modes of acquiring knowledge:

• ṣabda or Sruti Pramāṇa occupies the highest position in matters which

cannot be settled or resolved by Pratyakṣa or Anumāna.

• Anumāna occupies the next position. When an issue cannot be settled

through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on Anumāna i.e.
whichever argument is more logical.

• When Pratyakṣa yields a definitive position on a particular issue, such a

perception cannot be ignored to interpret ṣabda in a way which violates that
perception.

Metaphysics

Ontology

The ontology in VishishtAdvaita consists of explaining the relationship between

Ishvara (Parabrahman), the sentient beings (chit-brahman) and the insentient
Universe (achit-brahman). In the broadest sense, Ishvara is the Universal Soul of
the pan-organistic body consisting of the Universe and sentient beings. The
description of the three ontological entities is given below:

Ishvara

Ishvara (denoted by Vishnu-Narayana) is the Supreme Cosmic Spirit who

maintains complete control over the Universe and all the sentient beings, which
together also form the pan-organistic body of Ishvara. The triad of Ishvara along
with the universe and the sentient beings is Brahman, which signifies the
completeness of existence. Ishvara is Parabrahman endowed with innumerable
auspicious qualities (Kalyana Gunas). Ishvara is perfect, omniscient, omnipresent,
incorporeal, independent, creator of the universe, its active ruler and also the
eventual destroyer. He is causeless, eternal and unchangeable — and is yet the
material and the efficient cause of the universe and sentient beings. He is both
immanent (like whiteness in milk) and transcendent (like a watch-maker
independent of a watch). He is the subject of worship. He is the basis of morality
and giver of the fruits of one's Karma. He rules the world with His Māyā — His
divine power.

Ishvara is considered to have a 2-fold characteristic: he is the indweller of all beings

and all beings also reside in Ishvara.

Antarvyāpi

When Ishvara is thought of as the indweller of all beings, he is referred to as the

paramātmān, or the innermost self of all beings. Ishvara is also the self for the
non-conscious Universe.

He who inhabits water, yet is within water, whom water does not know, whose
body water is and who controls water from within—He is your Self, the Inner
Controller, the Immortal.

He who inhabits the sun, yet is within the sun, whom the sun does not know, whose
body the sun is and who controls the sun from within—He is your Self, the Inner
Controller, the Immortal - Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 3.7.4-14

Bahuvyāpi

When Ishvara is thought of as the all encomposing and the residence of all beings
i.e. all beings reside in Ishvara, he is referred to as the paramapurusha. The
sentient beings and the insentient universe which form part of the pan-organistic
body of Ishvara are encapsulated by Ishvara.[original research?]

Sarvam khalvidam Brahma Chandogya Upanishad

Isavasyam idam sarvam Isa Upanishad

Chit

Chit is the world of sentient beings, or of entities possessing consciousness. It is

similar to the Purusha of Samkhya system. The sentient beings are called Jīvās and
they are possessors of individual consciousness as denoted by "I". The scope of
Chit refers to all beings with an "I" conscousness, or more specifically self-
consciousness. Therefore all entities which are aware of their own individual
existence are denoted as chit. This is called Dharmi-jnana or substantive
consciousness. The sentient beings also possess varying levels of Dharma-bhuta-
jnana or attributive consciousness

The jivas possess three different types of existence:

• Nityas, or the eternally free Jivas who were never in Samsara

• Muktas, or the Jivas that were once in Samsara but are free
• Baddhas, or the Jivas which are still in Samsara
Achit

Achit is the world of insentient entities as denoted by matter or more specifically

the non-conscious Universe. It is similar to the Prakriti of Samkhya system

Brahman

There is a subtle difference between Ishvara and Brahman. Ishvara is the

substantive part of Brahman, while jivas and jagat are its modes (also secondary
attributes), and kalyanagunas(auspicious attributes) are the primary attributes. The
secondary attributes become manifested in the effect state when the world is
differentiated by name and form. The kalyanagunas are eternally manifest.

Brahman is the description of Ishvara when comprehended in fullness i.e. a

simultaneous vision of Ishvara with all his modes and attributes.

The relationship between Brahman and Jivas, Jagat is expressed by Rāmānujā in

numerous ways. He calls this relationship as one of:

• Sarira/Sariri (body/indweller);
• Prakara/Prakari (attribute or mode/substance);
• Sesha/Seshi (Owned/owner);
• Amsa/Amsi (part/whole);
• Adharadeya/Sambandha (supporter/supported);
• Niyamya/Niyanta (controlled/controller);
• Rasksya/Raksaka (redeemed/redeemer);

These relationships can be experienced holding Brahman as the father, son,

mother, sister, wife, husband, friend, lover and lord. Hence, Brahman is a personal
being.

• What does Nirguna Brahman mean?

Ramanuja argues vehemently against understanding Brahman as one without

attributes. Brahman is Nirguna in the sense that impure qualities do not touch it.
He provides three valid reasons for staking such a claim:

Sruti/ Sabda Pramana: All sruti and sabda's denoting Brahman always list either
attributes inherent to Brahman or not inherent to Brahman. The Sruti's only seek to
deny Brahman from possessing impure and defective qualities which affect the
world of beings. There is evidence in the Sruti's to this regard. The Sruti's
proclaim Brahman to be beyond the tri-gunas which are observed. However,
Brahman possess infinite number of transcendental attributes, the evidence of
which is given in vakhyas like "satyam jnanam anantam Brahma"

Pratyaksha Pramana: Ramanuja states that "a contentless cognition is impossible".

And all cognition must necessarily involve knowing Brahman through the
attributes of Brahman.
Anumana Pramana: Ramanuja states that "Nirgunatva" itself becomes an attribute
of Brahman on account of the uniqueness of no other entity being Nirguna.

Theory of Existence

VishishtAdvaita adheres to a system of complete reality.[neutrality disputed] The three

ontological entities i.e. Ishvara, Chit and Achit are fundamentally real. It upholds
the doctrine of Satkaryavada as against Asatkaryavada.

Briefly,

• Satkaryavada is pre-existence of the effect in the cause. It maintains that

karya (effect) is sat or real. It is present in the karana (cause) in a potential
form, even before its manifestation.

• Asatkaryavada is non-existence of the effect in the cause. It maintains that

karya (effect) is asat or unreal until it comes into being. Every effect, then,
is a new beginning and is not born out of cause.

More specifically, the effect is a modification of what exists in the cause and
doesnot involve new entities coming into existence. This is called as
parinamavada or evolution of effect from the cause. This doctrine is common to
the Samkhya system and VishishtAdvaita system. The Samkhya system adheres to
Prakriti-Parinama vada whereas Vishishtadvaita is a modified form of Brahma-
Parinama vada.

Kārya and kāraṇa

The kāraṇa (cause) and kārya (effect) in Vishishtadvaita is different form other
systems of Indian Philosophy. Brahman is both the kāraṇa(cause) and the
kārya(effect). Brahman as the cause does not become the Universe as the effect.

Brahman is assigned two kāraṇatvas (ways of being the cause):

1. Nimitta kāraṇatva — Being the Efficient/ Instrumental cause. For example,

a goldsmith is assigned Nimitta kāraṇatva as he acts as the maker of
jewellery and thus becomes the jewellery's Instrumental cause.

1. Upādāna kāraṇatva — Being the material cause. For example, the gold is
assigned Upādāna kāraṇatva as it acts as the material of the jewellery and
thus becomes the jewellery's material cause.

The Universe and Sentients always exist, much like Brahman. However, they
undergo transformation. They begin from a subtle state and undergo
transformation. The subtle state is called a causal state, while the transformed state
is called the effect state. The causal state is when Brahman is internally not
distinguishable by name and form. The effect state is when the internal distinction
becomes pronounced.
It can be said that Vishishtadvaita follows Brahma-Prakara-Parinama Vada.
That is to say, it is the modes (Jivas and Jagath) of Brahman which is under
evolution. The cause and effect only refer to the pan-organistic body
transformation. Brahman as the Universal Self is unchanging and eternal.

Brahman having the subtle (sūkshma) chit and achit entities as his
Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) before manifestation is the same Brahman
having the expanded (stūla) chit and achit entities as
Saareeram/Prakaaram(body/mode) after manifestation.

The essential feature is that the underlying entity is the same, the changes are in
the description of that entity.

For eg. Jack was a baby. Jack was a small kid. Jack was a middle-aged person.
Jack was an old man. Jack is dead

The body of a single personality named Jack is described as continuously

changing. Jack doesnot become "James" because of the change.

Ethics

Souls and Matter are only the body of God. Creation is a real act of God. It is the
expansion of intelligence. Matter is fundamentally real and undergoes real
revelation. The Soul is a higher mode than Matter, because it is conscious. It is
also eternally real and eternally distinct. Final release, that comes, by the Lord's
Grace, after the death of the body is a Communion with God. This philosophy
believes in liberation through one's Karmas (actions) in accordiance with the
Vedas, the Varna (caste or class) system and the four Ashramas (stages of life),
along with intense devotion to Vishnu. Individual Souls retain their separate
identities even after moksha. They live in Fellowship with God either serving Him
or meditating on Him. The philosophy of this school is SriVaishnavism, a branch
of Vaishnavism.

Interpretation of Mahāvākyas

All Vedantic schools need to substantiate the meaning espoused by Mahāvākyas

which occur throughout Upanishadic literature. The interpretation of these Grand
Pronouncements serve as the cornerstone for establishing each school of thought.
The most significant among them is:

1. sarvam khalv idam brahma from Chandogya Upanishad

3.14.1

Translated literally, this means All this is Brahman. The ontology of

Vishishtadvaita system consists of:

1. Ishvara is Para-brahman with infinite superlative qualities, whose substantive

nature imparts the existence to the modes
2. Jivas are chit-brahman or sentient beings (which possess consciousness). They
are the modes of Brahman which show consciousness.

3. Jagat is achit-brahman or matter/Universe (which are non-conscious). They are

the mode of Brahman which are not conscious.

Brahman is the composite whole of the triad consisting of Ishvara along with his
modes i.e. Jivas and Jagat. Hence, "all this is Brahman" denotes the triad of
entities.

2. ayam ātmā brahma from Mandukya Upanishad 1.2

Translated literally, this means the Self is Brahman. From the earlier statement, it
follows that on account of everything being Brahman, the self is not different from
Brahman.

3. Tat tvam asi from Chandogya Upanishad 6.8.7

Translated literally, it means Thou art that

that here refers to Brahman and thou refers to jiva

The vākya establishes the identity of the jiva and Brahman. The issue here is if the
identity involves establishing a unique identity or a universal identity. The
difference is as follows:

1. Unique Identity:

Atman is Brahman; Nothing else is Brahman; Brahman is reality and therefore

everything else is illusion.

2. Universal Identity:

Atman is Brahman in the same way as everything else is Brahman.

Rāmānujā chooses to take the position of universal identity. He interprets this

passage to mean the subsistence of all attributes in a common underlying
substratum. This is referred to as samānādhikaranya. Thus Rāmānujā says the
purport of the passage is to show the unity of all beings in a common base. Ishvara
(Parabrahman) who is the Cosmic Spirit for the pan-organistic body consisting of
the Universe and sentient beings, is also simultaneously the innermost self
(Atmān) for each individual sentient being (Jīvā). All the bodies, the Cosmic and
the individual, are held in an adjectival relationship (aprthak-siddhi) in the one
Isvara.

Tat Tvam Asi declares that oneness of Isvara.

When multiple entities point to a single object, the relationship is established as
one of substance and its attributes.

For eg. in a statement:

Jack is a tall and intelligent boy

The descriptors tall-ness,intelligence and boy-ness all refer to a common

underlying Jack

Similarly, when the upanishads declare Brahman is the Universe, Purusha, Self,
Prana, Vayu, and so on, the entities are attributes or modes of Brahman.

If the statement tat tvam asi is taken to mean as only the self is brahman, then
sarvam khalv idam brahma will not make sense.

Understanding Neti-Neti

This is an upanishadic concept which is employed while attempting to know

Brahman. The purport of this exercise is understood in many different ways and
also influences the understaning of Brahman. In the overall sense, this phrase is
accepted to refer to the indescribable nature of Brahman who is beyond all
rationalisations. All descriptions of such an entity will necessarily have to be
partial or fall short of the actual.

The typical interpretation of Neti-Neti is not this, not this or neither this, nor that.
In VisishtAdvaita, the phrase is taken in the sense of not just this, not just this or
not just this, not just that. This means that Brahman cannot be restricted to one
specific or a few specific descriptions. Consequently, Brahman is understood to
possess infinite qualities and each of these qualities are infinite in extent.

Purpose of Human Existence

The purpose or goal of human existence is called as PurushArtha. According to the

Vedas, there are four goals namely Artha (wealth), kAma (pleasure), Dharma
(righteousness) and Moksha (permanent freedom from worldly bondage).
According to this philosophy, the first three goals are not an end by themselves but
need to be pursued with the ideal of attaining Moksha.

Moksha

Moksha is a state where the jiva achieves one-ness with Brahman in terms of all
knowership and possessing qualities free from all wordly evils and defects. The
jiva however does not possess the power to manifest/create and
unmanifest/destroy. Neither does it have the power to grant Moksha.
The union of Atman and Brahman is likened to a situation where tiny lamps come
under the blaze of the Sun. The lamp and Sun are still identifiable as different
sources of light and yet the light arising from them is indistinguishable.

Moksha does not involve destruction of the self ("I") consciousness of the jiva.

Comparison with Western Non-dualism

Baruch Spinoza, the 17th century Dutch rationalist philosopher, in his magnum
work Ethics establishes the nature of God. Spinoza's pan-organistic God (i.e. God
revealed as orderly nature) is comparable to Brahman (having the individual
selves' and Universe as its body)

Spinoza makes the following propositions on the nature of God in his work
"Ethics". These positions closely reflect the VishistAdvaitic position on the nature
of Brahman:

PROPOSITION XI. God, or substance consisting of infinite attributes, of which

each expresses eternal and infinite essentiality, necessarily exists.

PROPOSITION XV. Whatsoever is, is in God, and without God nothing can be,
or be conceived.

PROPOSITION XVII. God acts solely by the laws of his own nature and is not
constrained by anyone.

PROPOSITION XVIII. God is the indwelling and not the transient cause of all
things.

PROPOSITION XIX. God and all the attributes of God are eternal.

PROPOSITION XXX. Intellect, in function finite, or in function infinite, must

comprehend the attributes of God and the modifications of God, and nothing else.

VisishtAdvaita and Sri Vaishnavism

The Absolute Supreme Reality referred to as Brahman, is a Transcendent

Personality with infinite superlative qualities. He is Narayana, also known as Lord
Vishnu. He is also the other two members of the Trimurti, namely, Creator
Brahma and Shiva, the Lord of Deluge.

A man who has discrimination for his charioteer and holds the reins of the mind
firmly, reaches the end of the road; and that is the supreme position of Vishnu. -
1.3.9 Katha Upanishad

Beyond the senses are the objects; beyond the objects is the mind; beyond the
mind, the intellect; beyond the intellect, the Great Atman; beyond the Great
Atman, the Unmanifest; beyond the Unmanifest, the Purusha. Beyond the Purusha
there is nothing: this is the end, the Supreme Goal.- 1.3.10,11 Katha Upanishad

In terms of theology, Ramanujacharya puts forth the view that both the Supreme
Goddess Lakshmi and Supreme God Narayana together constitute Brahman - the
Absolute. Sri Lakshmi is the female personification of Brahman and Narayana is
the male personification of Brahman, but they are both inseparable, co-eternal, co-
absolute and are always substantially one. Thus, in reference to these dual aspects
of Brahman, the Supreme is referred to in the Sri Vaishnava Sampradaya as
Sriman Narayana.

Conclusion

Vishishtadvaita conclusions may be briefly summarised as below.

Narayana is the Absolute God. The Soul and the Universe are only parts of this
Absolute and hence, Vishishtadvaita is panentheistic. The relationship of God to
the Soul and the Universe is like the relationship of the Soul of Man to the body of
Man. Individual souls are only parts of Brahman. God, Soul and Universe together
form an inseparable unity which is one and has no second. This is the non-duality
part. Matter and Souls inhere in that Ultimate Reality as attributes to a substance.
This is the qualification part of the non-duality.

Vishishtadvaita philosophy provided the philosophical basis for the establishment of

Sri Vaishnavism and gave Vedantic backing to the brimming devotion of the Alwar
saints and their composition of wonderful poetry and devotional songs in praise of
Lord Vishnu.[neutrality disputed] The succession of great Master-Expositors and spiritual
giants of Vishishtadvaita school starts with the twelve Alwars, who left behind an
imperishable legacy of Tamil devotional poetry in the form of 4000 songs, now called
the Nalayira divya prabandham.]

Dvaita

Like Ramanuja, Madhvacharya (1238-1317) identified Brahman with Vishnu, but

his view of reality was pluralistic. According to Dvaita, there are three ultimate
realities: Vishnu, soul, and matter. Five distinctions are made: (1) Vishnu is
distinct from souls; (2) Vishnu is distinct from matter; (3) Souls are distinct from
matter; (4) A soul is distinct from another soul, and (5) Matter is distinct from
other matter. Souls are eternal and are dependent upon the will of Vishnu. This
theology attempts to addresses the problem of evil with the idea that souls are not
created.
Dvaitadvaita (Bhedabheda)

Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka, a 13th century Vaishnava Philosopher

from the Andhra region. According to this philosophy there are three categories of
existence: Brahman, soul, and matter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman
in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists
independently, while soul and matter are dependent. Thus soul and matter have an
existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the soul
is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is
Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousands of gopis, or cowherdesses;
of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Shuddhadvaita

Shuddadvaita (Sanskrit: śuddhādvaita; pure non-dualism ), also known as the

Vallabhā sampradāya (tradition of Vallabh) or Puśtimārg (The path of grace), is
a Hindu Vaishnava tradition, established by Vallabhacharya(1479 - 1531), who
came from the Andhra region but eventually settled in Gujarat, in the fifteenth
century. The tradition is focused on the worship of Krishna and preaches a pure
form (nondualist) philosophy different from Advaita. The Shrinathji temple at
Nathdwara, and compositions of eight poets (aṣṭachap), including Surdas, are
central to the worship by the followers of the sect.[1]

Though the tradition originated near Vrindavana in the current Indian state of
Uttar Pradesh, in modern times followers of Shuddadvaita are concentrated in the
states of Rajasthan and Gujurat.[2]

Vallabhacharya

Vallabha was a Telugu brahmin from a region that is currently in the Indian state
of Andhra Pradesh. He won the title of acharya by traveling and debating advaita
scholars from a young age. He is considered an avatar or Krishna's mouth
(mukhāvatāra) by the followers of the tradition.[1]

In 1493-94 Vallabhacharya is said to have identified an image of Krishna at the

Govardhan hill at Braj. This image, now called Shrinathji and located at
Nathdwara, Rajasthan, is central to the worship by Vallabha followers.[3] The bulk
of his fame lies in the region that is currently in the state of Gujarat.

Initiating mantra

According to Vallabha tradition, one night in 1494, Vallabhacharya received the

Brahmasambandha mantra (the mantra that binds one with Brahman, or Krishna)
from Krishna himself (hence the name, mukhāvatāra) at Gokula. The eight-
syllable mantra, śri kṛṣṇaḥ śaraṇaṃ mama (Lord Krishna is my refuge), is passed
onto new initiates in Vallabh sampradaya, and the divine name is said to rid the
recipient of all impurities of the soul (doṣas) .[2][3]

Philosophy

The school of in-essence monism or purified non-dualism of Vallabha sees

equality in "essence" of the individual self with God. There is no real difference
between the two (like the analogy of sparks to fire). However, unlike Shankara's
Advaita, Vallabha does not deny God as the whole and the individual as the part.
The individual soul is not the Supreme (Satcitananda) clouded by the force of
avidya, but is itself Brahman, with one attribute (ananda) rendered imperceptible.
The soul is both a doer and enjoyer. It is atomic in size, but pervades the whole
body through its essence of intelligence (like sandalwood makes its presence felt
through its scent even if sandalwood can't be seen).

Unlike Advaita, the world of Maya is not regarded as unreal, since Maya is
nothing else than a power of Ishvara. He is not only the creator of the universe but
is the universe itself. Vallabha cites the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad account, that
Brahman desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual
souls and the world. Although Brahman is not known, He is known when He
manifests Himself through the world.

Bhakti is the means of salvation, though Jnana is also useful. Karmas precede
knowledge of the Supreme, and are present even when this knowledge is gained.
The liberated perform all karmas. The highest goal is not Mukti or liberation, but
rather eternal service of Krishna and participation along with His activities in His
Divine abode of Vrindavana. Vallabha distinguishes the transcendent
consciousness of Brahman as Purushottama. Vallabha lays a great stress on a life
of unqualified love and devotion towards God.

Everything is Krishna's Leela

According to the version of Vaishnava Theology Vallabhacharya espoused; the

glorious Krishna in His "Satcitananda" form is the Absolute, Svayam bhagavan.
He is permanently playing out His sport (leela) from His seat in the goloka which
is even beyond the divine Vaikuntha, the abode of Vishnu and Satya-loka, the
abode of Brahma the Creator, and Kailas, the abode of Shiva. Creation is His
sport.

Path to bliss in the Kali Yuga

Followers of Vallabhacharya maintain that if one wants to obtain moksha and the
bliss given by Krishna, the only path to do so is bhakti. In the Kali Yuga, it is
believed that the forms of bhakti mentioned in the scriptures are nearly impossible
to practice, so the followers of Vallabhacharya recommend pushti bhakti –
obtaining the grace of God for seemingly no reason. This path is called pushti-
maarg.
Atma-nivedana

It is that bhakti which gives itself up body, heart and soul to the cause of God. It is
considered to be the fullest expression of what is known as Atma-nivedana (=
giving-up of oneself) among the nine forms of bhakti (Nava Vidha Bhakti). It is
the bhakti of the devotee who worships God not for any reward or presents but for
His own sake. Such a devotee goes to Goloka after leaving this body and lives in
eternal bliss enjoying the sports of the Lord. The classical example of this
complete self-effacement is that of the cow-herdesses towards Krishna. They
spoke no word except prayer and they moved no step except towards Krishna.
Their supreme-most meditation was on the lotus-feet of Krishna.Thus it is by
God's grace alone that one can obtain release from bondage and attain Krishna's
heaven, Goloka.

Ashta-chaap

Eight disciples of Vallabhacharya are called the ashta-chaap (eight reprints).

Foremost among them was Surdas, the blind poet of Agra.

These are Surdas, Krushnadas, Paramanand, Kumbhandas, Chaturbhuj, Nanddas,

Chhitswami, Govinddas.

Notes

1. ^ a b Martin, Nancy M., "North Indian Hindi devotional literature" in Flood

2003, pp. 182-198
2. ^ a b Beck 1993, pp. 194-195
3. ^ a b Colas, Gerard, "History of Vaiṣṇava traditions" in Flood 2003,
pp. 229-270

References

• Beck, Guy L. (1993). Sonic theology: Hinduism and sacred sound.

Columbia, S.C: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 0-87249-855-7.
• Flood, Gavin (Ed) (2003), Blackwell companion to Hinduism, Blackwell
Publishing, ISBN 0-631-21535-2

Acintya Bheda Abheda

Achintya-Bheda-Abheda (acintya bhedābheda in IAST) is a school of Vedanta

representing the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference,[1] in relation
to the power creation and creator, (Krishna), svayam bhagavan.[2][3] and also
between God and his energies[4] within the Gaudiya Vaishnava religious tradition.
In Sanskrit achintya means 'inconceivable',[1] bheda translates as 'difference', and
abheda translates as 'one-ness'. It is believed that this philosophy was taught by
the movement's theological founder Chaitanya Mahaprabhu[5](1486 - 1534) and
differentiates the Gaudiya tradition from the other Vaishnava Sampradayas. It can
be best understood as integral monism, as a position between polar opposites of
absolute monism of Advaita, and the dualist monism of Dvaita.

Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (1486-1534), was stating that the soul or energy of God is
both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, Govinda,
and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of
loving devotion (bhakti).[10] This philosophy of "inconceivable oneness and
difference" is followed by a number of modern Gaudiya Vaishnava movements,
including ISKCON. ISKCON has recently participated in bringing the academic
study of Krishna-related philosophies into Western academia through the
theological discourse on Krishnology.

{ Caitanya's philosophy of acintya-bhedābheda-tattva completed the progression to

devotional theism. Rāmānuja had agreed with Śaṅkara that the Absolute is one only,
but he had disagreed by affirming individual variety within that oneness. Madhva had
underscored the eternal duality of the Supreme and the Jīva: he had maintained that
this duality endures even after liberation. Caitanya, in turn, specified that the Supreme
and the jīvas are "inconceivably, simultaneously one and different" (acintya-bheda-
abheda). He strongly opposed Śaṅkara's philosophy for its defiance of Vyāsadeva's
siddhānta.– Satsvarupa dasa Goswami, Readings in Vedit Literature: The Tradition
Speaks for Itself, Chapter 5[6]}

Historical perspective

Historically, within Hinduism there are two conflicting philosophies regarding the
relationship between living beings (Jiva or Atma) and God (Ishvara, Brahman or
Bhagavan). Advaita schools assert the monistic view that the individual soul and
God are one and the same[7], whereas Dvaita schools give the dualistic argument
that the individual soul and God are eternally separate[8]. The philosophy of
Achintya-bheda-abheda includes elements of both viewpoints. The living soul is
intrinsically linked with the Supreme Lord, and yet at the same time is not the
same as God - the exact nature of this relationship being inconceivable to the
human mind.

Philosophy

The theological tenet of achintya-bheda-abheda tattva reconciles the mystery that

God is simultaneously "one with and different from His creation". In this sense
Vaishnava theology is not pantheistic as in no way does it deny the separate
existence of God (Vishnu) in His own personal form. However, at the same time,
creation (or what is termed in Vaishnava theology as the 'cosmic manifestation') is
never separated from God. He always exercises supreme control over his creation.
Sometimes directly, but most of the time indirectly through his different potencies
or energies (Prakrti).

"One who knows God knows that the impersonal conception and personal
conception are simultaneously present in everything and that there is no
contradiction. Therefore Lord Caitanya established His sublime doctrine: acintya
bheda-and-abheda-tattva -- simultaneous oneness and difference." (A. C.
Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada)[4] The analogy often used as an explanation in
this context in the relationship between the Sun and the Sunshine.[9] For example
both the sun and sunshine are part of the same reality, but there is a great
difference between having a beam of sunshine in your room, and being in close
proximity to the sun itself. Qualitatively both, the Sun and the Sunshine are the
same, but in terms of quantity they are very different. This analogy is applied to
the living beings and God - the Jiva being of a similar quality to the Supreme
being, but not sharing the qualities to an infinite extent, as would the Personality
of Godhead himself[10]. Thus there is a difference between the souls and the
Supreme Lord.

Difference in concept to Advaita Vedanta

Its is clearly distinguished from the concept of anivacaniya (inexpressible) of

Advaita Vedanta. There is a clear difference between the two concepts as the two
ideas arise for different reasons. Advaita concept is related to the ontological
status of the world, where as both Svayam bhagavan and his shaktis (in Lord
himself and his powers) are fully real, and they are different from each other, but
at the same time they are the same. But that does not negate the reality of both.[1]
Mayavadi concept is a direct opposite and a contradicting concept to an early
Krishna-theism. [11]

Exceptions

While it applied to relations between Purusha (the Lord) and Prakriti (be it material,
marginal, or spiritual powers), in the theology of the concept there are areas of
exceptions. Jiva Goswami also accepts that any object and its energy are non-
different, such as fire and power of burning. While some maintain that its only a
secondary extension of the principle that it is primarily applied to Svayam bhagavan
and His energies. It does not, however, apply to differences between Avatars of
Svayam bhagavan and Lord Himself, so the difference between Vishnu and His
origin, is not covered by the concept of acintya bhedabheda, i.e. it cannot be applied
in cases where different levels of Purusha are compared.[1]

Miscellaneous

The phrase is used as the chorus line in Kula Shaker's 1998 hit song Tattva.
"Achintya-bheda-abheda-tattva".[12]

References

1. ^ a b c d Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's

Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483.pp. 47-52
2. ^ Kaviraja, K.G.. Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and
commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Bhaktivedanta Book
Trust.Madhya 20.108-109 "It is the living entity's constitutional position to be
an eternal servant of Krishna because he is the marginal energy of Krishna and
 a manifestation simultaneously one with and different from the Lord, like a
molecular particle of sunshine or fire."
3. ^ Kṛṣṇa Upaniṣad 1.25: ...na bhinnam. nā bhinnamābhirbhinno na vai vibhuḥ
4. ^ a b Prabhupada, A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami (1972). Bhagavad-gita as it is.
Bhaktivedanta Book Trust Los Angeles, Calif.7.8
5. ^ "Additional information" (in English). Krishna.com. Retrieved on April 16,
2008. "Lord Chaitanya taught that as spirit souls we are part of God and thus
we are one with Him in quality, and yet at the same time we are also different
from Him in quantity. This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva,
inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference."
6. ^ Satsvarupa, dasa Goswami (1976), Readings in Vedit Literature: The
Tradition Speaks for Itself, pp. 240 pages, ISBN 0912776889
7. ^ "Additional information" (in English). Tatfoundation. Retrieved on April 16,
2008. "This interpretation of the Upanishads, that the individual soul and God
are one and the same, is what distinguishes advaita from other forms of
Vedanta."
8. ^ "Additional information" (in English). dvaita.org. Retrieved on April 16,
2008. "Dvaita,... asserts that the difference between the individual soul or Jiva,
and the Creator, or Ishvara, is eternal and real"
9. ^ Prabhupada, A.C.Bhaktivedanta Swami (1988). Srimad Bhagavatam.
Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Bhag. 4.31.16 "One may be in the sunshine, but he
is not on the sun itself."
10. ^ Kaviraja, K.G.. Sri Caitanya-caritamrita. Bengali text, translation, and
commentary by AC Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Bhaktivedanta Book
Trust. Madhya 6.163 "Qualitatively the living entity and the Supreme Lord are
one, but in quantity they are different"
11. ^ (1997) in S. Devadas Pillai: Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A
Dictionary. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books, 403. ISBN 81-7154-807-5.
12. '^ Kula shaker. "Tattva lyrics" (in English). Song, Album 'k.
lyricsfreak.com. Retrieved on April 16, 2008. "acintya bheda bheda tattva ...
like the sun and the shine"

References

• Chatterjee, Satischandra; Datta, Dhirendramohan (1984). An Introduction to

Indian Philosophy, Eighth Reprint Edition, Calcutta: University of Calcutta.
• Müeller, Max (1899). Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga,
Naya and Vaiseshika. Calcutta: Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.. ISBN 0-7661-4296-
5. Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of The Six Systems of
Indian Philosophy.
• Radhakrishnan, S.; Moore, CA (1967). A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy.
Princeton. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.
• Zimmer, Heinrich (1951). Philosophies of India. New York, New York:
Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01758-1. Bollingen Series XXVI;
Edited by Joseph Campbell.
Further reading

• Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press:

Cambridge, 1996. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.

• Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian

Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th
edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.

• Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and

Humanity." 2006.

Svayam Bhagavan

Svayam Bhagavan (IAST svayam bhagavān), "The Lord" or Lord Himself, is a

Sanskrit theological term. The term refers to the concept of absolute representation
of the monotheistic God as Bhagavan within Hinduism.

It is most often used in Gaudiya Vaishnava Krishna-centered theology as referring

to Krishna. The title Svayam Bhagavan is used exclusively to designate Krishna,
(Gupta 2007, p.36 note 9)[1] while there are conflicting semantics or other usages
in the Bhagavata Purana. Traditions of Gaudiya Vaishnavas, the Nimbarka
Sampradaya and follower of Vallabha considers him to be the source of all
avataras,[2] and the source of Vishnu himself, or to be the same as Narayana. As
such, he is therefore regarded as Svayam Bhagavan.[3][4][5]

The term is seldomly used to refer to other forms of Krishna and/or Vishnu within
the context of certain religious texts such as the Bhagavata Purana, and also within
other sects of Vaishnavism.

Though Krishna is recognized as Svayam Bhagavan by many,[6] he is also

perceived and understood from an eclectic assortment of perspectives and
viewpoints. [7] When Krishna is recognized to be Svayam Bhagavan, it can be
understood that this is the belief of Gaudiya Vaishnavism,[8] the Vallabha
Sampradaya,[9] and the Nimbarka Sampradaya, where Krishna is accepted to be
the source of all other avatars, and the source of Vishnu himself. This belief is
drawn primarily "from the famous statement of the Bhagavatam"[1](1.3.28).[10]

A different viewpoint differing from this theological concept is the concept of

Krishna as an avatara of Narayana or Vishnu. It should be however noted that
although it is usual to speak of Vishnu as the source of the avataras, this is only
one of the names of the God of Vaishnavism, who is also known as Narayana,
Vasudeva and Krishna and behind each of those names there is a divine figure
with attributed supremacy in Vaishnavism.[11]
Meaning

The theological interpretation of svayam bhagavān differs with each tradition and
the literal translation of the term has been understood in several distinct ways.
Translated from the Sanskrit language, the term literary means "Bhagavan
Himself" or "directly Bhagavan".[1] Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition often translates it
within its perspective as primeval Lord or original Personality of Godhead, but
also considers the terms such as Supreme Personality of Godhead and Supreme
God as an equivalent to the term Svayam Bhagavan, and may also choose to apply
these terms to Vishnu, Narayana and many of their associated avatars. [12][13]

Early commentators of Bhagavata Purana such as Madhvacharya translated the

term Svayam Bhagavan as "he who has bhagavata"; meaning "he who has the
quality of possessing all good qualities".[5] Others have translated it simply as "the
Lord Himself".[14] Followers of Vishnu-centered sampradayas of Vaishnavism
rarely address this term, but believe that it refers to their belief that Krishna is
among the highest and fullest of all avatars[15] and is considered to be the
"paripurna avatara", complete in all respects and the same as the original.[16]
According to them Krishna is described in the Bhagavata Purana as the
purnavatara (or complete manifestation) of the Bhagavan, while other
incarnations are called partial. "Krishna being the Bhagavan Himself, the mind of
man fixed on him intensely, whatever be the motive and however ignorantly it
might be."(p.334)[6] Generally there is a universal acceptance of the uniqueness of
Krishna incarnation throughout Hinduism, as well as the principles involved in His
life and personality for which He has been described as Svayam Bhagavan. [6]

Perspectives

Supporting Views

There is an element of countenance in many Krishna centered traditions to the

subordination of Krishna to Vishnu. The reasons for that are given that it was the
easiest way to accommodate Krishna's human story within the composite
Vaishnava theological perspective. These "core texts assert and defend the
ultimacy of Krsna's identity".[17] However inclusion of Krishna in the list of
avataras does not necessarily subordinated him to Vishnu as one of the latter's
expansions.[18] Early authors, such as 12th century Jayadeva considered dasavatara
to be principal incarnations of Kirshna, rather then Vishnu.

The prime supporters of the Krishna-centered theology, Gaudiya Vaishnavas and

followers of the Vallabha Sampradaya Nimbarka Sampradaya, use the Gopala
Tapani Upanishad,[19] Vedanta Sutras[1] and other Hindu scriptures[20] such as the
Bhagavata Purana and the Brahma Vaivarta Purana, among others, to support their
view that Krishna is indeed the Svayam Bhagavan. This belief was summarized by
the 16th century author Jiva Goswami in some of his works, such as Krishna-
sandarbha.[21][1] While Krishna himself if mentioned in one of the earliest texts of
Vedic literature - Rig-Veda.[22]
In the sixth book of the Hindu epic Mahābhārata, the Bhishma Parva (where the
Bhagavad Gita is part of), Krishna offers numerous quotations that reaffirm the
belief that he himself is the Svayam Bhagavan. Verse 7.7 of the Bhagavad Gita, is
often used to support the opinion that Krishna himself is the Svayam Bhagavan,
and that no impersonal form of Brahman supersedes his existence, as it is an
common view that Bhagavad Gita was propounding Krishna-theism before first
major proponents of monism.[23]

Other two pervading understandings of the position of Svayam Bhagavan asserted

in the Gita are connected to other, not Krishna-centered, traditions. One tradition
follows predominately the views of Sankaracharya commentary on Brahma Sutras
and is referred as maya-vad[23] which justifies Svayam Bhagavan supremacy by a
concept of illusion or maya.

The second alternative understanding of the evident supremacy of Svayam

Bhagavan in the Gita, is a popular view on Krishna being the highest and fullest
avatar of the Lord, Vishnu or Narayana.[15] "The Bhagavad Gita depicts Krishna
not only as Brahman but also as an avatara of Vishnu and the friend of Arjuna."[24]
In summary in accordance with this view Svayam Bhagavan Krishna is considered
to be the purna-avatara (full incarnation) of Vishnu or, according to some, of the
universal Narayana who transcends even Brahman.[25] [2]

Supremacy or a concept of originality is often referred to the words pf Krishna

himself, as for example, Abhinavagupta of yet another tradition of Hinduism,
introduces a quotation from the Bhagavad-gita that 'I', referring to Krishna, is the
highest self who transcends the perishable and imperishable. [26]

Other Vaishnava views

Sri Vaishnavas provide and example of alternative monotheism that is “tainted” by

elements apparently in tension with this concept. The Sri Vaishnavas identify
Vishnu with the Brahman, while Krishna-centered traditions will associate Para
Brahman with Krishna as Svayam Bhagavan. According to Ramanujacharya,
Brahman is personal. Indeed, he is the supreme person , creator and Lord, who
leads souls to salvation. Far from having no (positive) attributes, as some Advaita
Vedanta followers maintain, Brahman is the sum of all “noble attributes” — i.e.
omniscient, omnipotent, omnipresent, and all-merciful, all qualities attributed to
Vishnu by all Vaishavas. According to South Indian traditions he is also advitya
(Sanskrit meaning without rival). To Vaishnavas, Shiva, Brahma, and the other
gods of the Hindu pantheon are viewed as Brahman's agents or servants, created
and commissioned by him. Some Vaishnavas consider them to be or see that they
have the same status that of angels have in the western religious traditions.[27]

“The entire complex of intelligent and non-intelligent beings - is viewed as real

and constitutes the form, i. e., the body of the highest Brahman”.[28] A soul-body
relationship, according to Ramanujacharya, is “entirely subordinate” to its soul,
having no independent reality or value.[29] However Ramanujacharya himself did
not stress a subordination of the 'puravatara' Krishna to Vishnu.
However, Vaishnava traditions do not adhere to the concept of Svayam Bhagavan
with the same views as those who support the concept.[30][unreliable source?] To support
their view they quote the 149th chapter of Anushāsanaparva in the epic
Mahabharata, Bhisma which states, with Krishna present, that mankind will be
free from all sorrows by chanting the Vishnu sahasranama', which are the
thousand names of the all-pervading supreme being Vishnu, who is the master of
all the worlds, supreme over the devas and who is one with Brahman. [31], [32] This
seems to indicate that Krishna is identical with Vishnu. Indeed, Krishna himself
said, "Arjuna, one may be desirous of praising by reciting the thousand names.
But, on my part, I feel praised by one shloka. There is no doubt about it.” [33]

Adherents of this view generally believed to adhere to Vedic literature, and often
state that some Vaishnava scriptures such as the Bhagavata Purana, which is one
of the primary texts used in supporting the concept of Svayam Bhagavan, may
contain material that was added at a later time and does not completely follow the
teachings of the Vedas.[citation needed]

Some adherents of this view argue that the application of the term Svayam
Bhagavan and the category of svayaṁ-rūpa is a relatively new view, generally
associated with Gaudiya Vaishnavism view, and is generally not upheld in any
previous Vaishnava traditions and within greater Hinduism.[citation needed]

Many Vaishnava schools have different interpretation of the concept as for

example followers of the Swaminarayan Sampraday believe that Lord Narayana
manifested himself as Lord Swaminarayan.[34] This view is only supported within
their particular tradition.

Comparison

The exact relationship between Krishna and Vishnu, particularly regarding which
of the two is primary to the other, and which of the two is the summum bonum, is
one of the most frequently debated issues in Vaishnavism.

Some early schools of thought, such as Pancaratra in particular, refer to Vasudeva-

Krishna (Krishna, the son of Vasudeva) as the source of all incarnations and as no
different from the ultimate and absolute reality, and as non-distinct from Vasudeva
and any other manifestations of the supreme self.[35]

However other, more specifically in South Indian Vaishnava sampradayas existing

prior to Caitanya and Vallabhacarya, Krishna is often considered to be either a
subordinate avatar of Vishnu, or as in the case of the Madhva tradition, a full
avatar of Vishnu. However, this definition of avatar was presented differently to
Sanatana Goswami by Chaitanya, as it was based on the Gaudiya interpretations of
the Upanishads and the Bhagavata Purana.
Krishnaism

The term Krishnaism has been used to describe the cults of Krishna, reserving term
"Vaishnavism" for cults focusing on Vishnu in which Krishna is an avatara, rather
than a transcended being.[36]

"Greater Krishnaism" corresponds to the second and dominant phase of Vaishnavism,

revolving around the cults of Vasudeva, Krishna, and Gopala.[37]Today the faith has a
significant following outside of India as well.[38] Supremacy of Krishna is the key
concept of Krishnaism. Gaudiya is one of the main traditions worshiping Radha
Krishna that developed this concept.

Relationship between different forms of Krishna as paripurna avatara of Vishnu and

as svayam bhagavan being direct representation of svayam rupa.

Gaudiya Vaishnava perspective

Theory of avataras

Primary theology of Caitanyaite or Gaudiya traditions is based and presented in

Bhagavata Purana and Caitanya Caritamrita.[39]Svayam in Svayam rupa does not
imply one and only, and all conceptions by previous Vaishnava traditions,
according to the Gaudiya Vaishnavas beliefs, fall under a second category, tad
ekatma rupa[40] (meaning: one that one and not different).[41] 'Svayam' as a term
means not depending on others or being himself. [21] In his instruction to Sanatana
Goswami, at Kasi, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu explains the implications of the vadanti
verse: "The word brahman refers to Svayam Bhagavan, who has one
consciousness without a second, and without whom there is nothing else." (Gupta
2007, p 36).[1]

The deity of Tulasi Krishna at Udupi. Krishna is the main deity worshipped by the
followers of Madhvacharya.

Rūpa Gosvāmī has described the svayaṁ-rūpa in his Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta:[42]

"The form of the Supreme Personality of Godhead that does not depend on other
forms is called svayaṁ-rūpa, the original form."[43][40]

The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms[40] are also described in the Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta

[43][44]
"The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms simultaneous to svayaṁ-rūpa form and are
non-different.[40] At the same time by their bodily features and specific activities
they appear to be different."

Two best known Vedic descriptions of the creation are purusha sukta and nasadiya
sukta. One hymn addresses to Vishvakarma, The one who makes all. To beliefs of
Vaishnavas,[45] the Visvakarma Sukta of Rig Veda (10.82) refers to
Garbhodakasayi Viṣṇu indirectly as the Supreme God: The waters verily first
retained the embryo in which all the gods were aggregated, single deposited on the
navel of the unborn (ajah), in which all beings abide.[46] and according to the
Gaudiyas, falls under category of tad-ekātma-rūpa,[40]

According to the Gaudiya Vaishnava interpretation, it is also confirmed in the

Bhagavad-gītā (7.7), which says, mattaḥ parataraṁ nānyat: "There is no truth
superior to Me." Where Krishna is 'bhagavan' himself, whose partial
manifestations are the other gods. This idea is reflected in the Bhagavata Purana.
The Brahma Vaivarta Purana tells us Krishna is the ultimate source from which
Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva and Prakriti originate. He is Svayam Bhagavan while other
incarnation are his partial manifestations. The comments of Sridhara Svami (an
early Sankara sect commentator), bring out uniqueness of Krishna. According to
him Krishna is perfect as all potencies are observed to be full in him. [47] In
Atharvavedasamhita, Krishna is described as having slain the giant Kesi, Keshava.
The Kaustiki Brahmana (30.9) alludes to Krishna Angirasa, who is an object of
evening ceremony in connection with Brahmanaacchamsin priest. The Aitareya
Aranyaka speaks of two Krishnas of Harita Gotra.[47] However the south Indian
Vaishnavism makes very little stress on Krishna and altogether ignored Radha in
contrast with the other traditions.[47]

To the views of the Gaudiya Sampradaya, the Bhagavad-gita[48] states that this
bhakti-yoga is secretive:[49] - "Just hear from Me again about the most confidential
part of the instructions in Bhagavad-gītā."[48] It is also described as such in
Bhagavata Purana[50] Vashnavas of ISKCON often stress their view that in both
cases Krishna is speaking about himself, aham and me in Sanskrit mean, I am and
Me respectively. While some commentators derive secondary meanings,[51] all
major Sanskrit dictionary accept that the direct meaning of aham and me, refers to
Krishna himself. [52]

Krishna and Balarama meet their father and mother - Vasudeva and Devaki. Thus
a personal name of Krishna as Vaasudeva or son of Vasudeva, and
Devakinandana, son of Devaki. Painting by Raja Ravi Varma

Lakshmi

When Gaudiya Vaishnavas present their views on Krishna being Svayam

Bhagavan, [53] they present a number of perspectives some include comparison
with other forms such as Vishnu, that are considered supreme in other
sampradayas. The Bhagavat Sandarbha and the Tattva Sandabha are among
quoted works by Jiva Goswami[1], "Vaishnavas don't argue among themselves if
Krishna or Vishnu is the Supreme. They consider it a matter of one's relationship
with the Lord. Someone has a relationship with Vishnu, someone with Rama,
someone with Krishna, etc. as per rasa theology." In the Caitanya Caritamrita [54]
Chaitanya discusses this in a joking mood with Venkatta Bhatta from Sri
sampradaya.[55] While Pustimarga tradition predates Gaudiya Vaisnavism in Radha
worship. [56] When Chaitanya traveled through South India in 1509-10, he stayed
at the house of Venkata Bhatta, the father of Gopala Bhatta, priest of Srirangam.
Venkata and his two brothers, Gopala's uncles Trimalla and Prabodhananda
Sarasvati "were converted from their Sri Vaishnava faith in Lakshmi-Narayana as
supreme to one in Radha Krishna" as Svayam Bhagavan.[56] The dialog of this
conversion is recorded in 16 c. Caitanya caritamrita biography by Krishna dasa
Kaviraja.[55]

In the Madhya lila of the Chaitanya charitamrita a presentation is given,[57] with a

reference to the particular verse of the tenth canto of Bhagavata Purana as to the
reason why Lakshmi also knows as Sri (thus the name of Sri Sampradaya) is
burning with desire and still not capable of entering to the realm of Vrindavana.[58]

Prabodhananda Sarasvati who was a Sri Sampradaya sannyasi was converted as to

supreme position of Radha-Krishna being Svayam Bhagavan instead of Lakshmi-
Narayana. He as well apparently came to appreciate the supremacy of Radha
worship from Caitanya.[59]

Cosmological perspective

The view of South Indian Vaishnava groups, on sarga, or subtle creation, is based
upon scriptural adherence to Narayana or Vishnu being the cause of creation[60]
expanding into Viraja and then Maha-Viṣṇu glancing over pradhana, and that is
the start of actual function of creation. This view is not contradicted by Krishna-
centered Vashnavism and does not appear to be in contradiction with Svayam
Bhagavan who as Vasudeva (son of Vasudeva, Krishna) is according to Pancaratra
is at the source of creation.

Pancaratra sources are accepted by all of Vaishnava traditions, and confirmed by

Yamunacarya who preceding in the line of Ramanuja, summarizing in his
Agamapramanya, a defense of the revelation of the tantric Vaishnava Pancaratra,
defending whole body of the texts being part of the Veda: "The Pancadratra Tantra
is authoritative like the Vedic sentences ordaining sacrifice on the grounds that it
is based on knowledge free from all defects". Amalananda, also defends
Pancaratra and while confirming that Agamas do not have the same self-
authenticating validity, as the four Vedas, but the authenticity of it assured because
Veda bear witness to the omniscience of Vasudeva. This position also forms the
basis of Bhagavatam based theology. [61]

It is also a view of Gaudiya Vaishnavas that Sanatana Goswamis Brihad

Bhagavatamrita, has illustrated this principle, not just in terms of comparative
cosmology or avatara hierarchy as in Vaishnava Pancaratra, but also in terms of
cosmology of adi-rasa.[62] The cosmological principle of the four dhamas (with a
separate place for the last two: Vaikuntha - abode of Vishnu or Narayana, tad-
ekatma rupa, in transcendence, and Goloka as abode of Svayam Bhagavan in
transcendence) is the key of the graphical presentation, but it is also an answer to
the dilemma.[63] In accordance with the cosmology of the Brihad Bhagavatamrita
Krishna is believed being the original and most complete in all rasas or tastes is in
fact not engaged and non engaging, is his independence, he does not even, at least
in this his original form, carry symbols of Viṣṇu, he only carries his own flute, and
that is the pleasure of his devotees.[64]

Original Purusha of the Vedas

The form of Narayana is linked with the concept of sacrifice in the earliest known
references to him. In Vedic sources such as the Purusha Sukta, Narayana is given
as the name of the self-offering of the great cosmic sacrifice of the Rig Veda[65].
Narayana is not mentioned in Rig Veda itself, but came to be regarded as the seer
who authored the hymn. It is possible that the sage who composed the Purusha
Sukta hymn has been assimilated to the Purusha whose praise he had sung, and he
himself became the object of worship. Mentions of a divine sage named Narayana,
along with counterpart Nara, appears in many Puranic texts.[66] Purusha is also
identified with Vishnu in the Rig Veda and interpreted accordingly by many
traditions of Vaishnavism. In the Bhagavata he is recognized as "the Lord whose
being is sacrifice, Yajna Purusha"[67][68][69][20] Some believe that thus this verse of
the Rig Veda is a foundation of Vaishnava tradition. In the Gopala Tapani
Upanishad the Rig Veda verse(1.22.20) was addressed paraphrasing the original of
the Vedic hymn in accordance with the beliefs of the Gaudiya Vaishnava:[70] It
outlines a specific view held by the Gaudiya Vaishnava and Vallabha Sampradaya,
that the conclusion of Vishnu worship is meditation on gopa-rupah or specific
form of Krishna[19].[71]

Krishna Upanishad supports this conclusion of Gopala Tapani,[72] and refers to the
original "the most divine form of bliss dwells in the supremacy of love of Lord
Krishna", [73] saksad, Hari as gopa-rüpa. (1.10-12): [74]

"The Supreme Personality of Godhead appeared in His original form as a

cowherd boy. Cheated and bewildered by His illusory potency, the world
could not understand His true identity.
"Even all the demigods cannot defeat the Lord's Maya potency. By the
Lord's Yogamaya potency Brahma became a stick and Siva became a flute.
How did the Lord's Maya potency manifest the entire universe?
"Knowledge is the strength of the demigods. The Lord's Maya potency
steals away that knowledge in a single moment. Lord Sesanaga appeared in
His original form as Lord Balarama. The eternal Supreme Personality of
Godhead appeared in His original form as Lord Krishna."[75][19]

Gaudiya Vaishnava believe that Krishna possesses qualities that are absent in
other forms and they relate to his sweetness in Vrindavana lila. Krishna is himself
Narayana.[76] Narayana is often identified with supreme, however, when his beauty
and sweetness (madhurya) overshadow his majesty, he is known as Krishna, i.e.
Svayam Bhagavan. [77] As Friedhelm Hardy says, the concept of Bhagavan, "a
single, all-powerful, eternal, personal and loving God ... is an empty slot, to be
filled by concrete characteristics" and these characteristics culminate in
Krishna.[78]

Paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavata Purana

Jiva Gosvami’s Bhajan Kutir at Radha-kunda. Jiva Goswamis Sandarbhas

summarize Vedic sources of Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition's accretion of the
concept bhagavān svayam based on paribhasa-sutra of Bhagavat Purana
[79]

In Gaudiya Vaishnava, Vallabha Sampradaya Nimbarka sampradaya and old

Bhagavata school, Krishna believed to be fully represented in his original form in
the Bhagavata Purana, that at the end of the list of avataras concludes with the
following text:[80]

All of the above-mentioned incarnations are either plenary portions or portions of

the plenary portions of the Lord, but Sri Krishna is the original Personality of
Godhead (Svayam Bhagavan).[81]

Not all commentators on the Bhagavata Purana stress this verse, however a
majority of Krishna-centered and contemporary commentaries highlight this verse
as a significant statement.[82]Jiva Goswami has called it Paribhasa-sutra, the
“thesis statement” upon which the entire book or even theology is based. [83]

In another place of the Bhagavata Purana 10.83.5-43 those who are named as
wives of Krishna all explain to Uraupadi how the 'Lord himself' (Svayam
Bhagavan, Bhagavata Purana 10.83.7) came to marry them. As they relate these
episodes, several of the wives speak of themselves as Krishna's devotees.[84]

Many Krishna-centered traditions believe that Svayam Bhagavan personally

carries his unalloyed devotees (vahamy aham) like a husband carries his bride
across the threshold into the house of prema bhakti [85]. Badarayana Vyasa says in
his Brahma Sutras, visesam ca darsayati, implying that the scripture declares a
difference with regard to the passing from the world of nirapeksa or unflinching
devotees.[86]

Source of Para-Vasudeva

Baladeva Vidyabhusana in his commentary on Gopala Tapani Upanishad states:

Glory to the Gopala Tapani Upanishad, which to the pious reveals Lord Krishna,
the original Personality of Godhead, the Supersoul near to all moving and
unmoving creatures.[87]

The word used is krsna svayam isvaram, the paraphrase of the Bhagavatam verse
1.3.28 that Jiva Goswami has called a key sutra[21], not only to the Bhagavatam
but to Vedanta and thus all the Vedas.[21] [88]

According to the Upanishads its believed that when Brahma, who is said to be
original created being, was approached by the sages Four Kumaras he was
presented with critical question: – Who is Supreme God? Who does death fears? –
By knowing Whom, does everything else gets realized? – Who is that person, who
is behind the repetition of creation of this Universe?[89] [90]His own original or
sweet form, Sva-bimbaṁ to the is not manifested very often in the Universe, loka-
locanam.[91] Gaudiya Vaishnavas quote sources that claim that it happens only
ones in a universal day of Brahma, and its only at that time its believed, once
every fourteen manvantaras, each seventy one divya-yugas duration.[92] Some
religions do not even consider it possible to see the God. To answer four Kumaras
Brahma needed to relate this secret word of the seed mantra.[93] And this is
believed to be the answer to the question, who is supreme god and how he creates
this world.[89] Brahma replied to the sages: "Krisna is the Supreme Personality of
Godhead. Death fears Govinda. By knowing Gopijanavallabha everything
becomes realized. By pronouncing the word "svaha" the Personality of Godhead
created the world.[94] In the wider context of the Bhagavata's total perspective,
Krishna is "not one among many but the Lord himself".[95]

Sanat-Kumara Samhita confirms the belief that this Kama Gayatri is the
foundational structure of the Goloka, believed to be the above of Krishna, who is
the original Vaasudeva[96]: "In the whorl of the lotus flower which is Lord
Krishna's transcendental abode, the Gopala mantra is written."[97][98] [99][100]
Related historical records

The first inscription of the Heliodorus pillar that was made by Heliodorus 110
BCE.
This Garuda-standard of Vasudeva, the God of Gods was erected here by the
devotee Heliodoros,

While some place Krishna-centered worship as Svayam Bhagavan in the medieval

times of Indian history, there is some evidence suggesting the opposite. In the
antiquity Krishna images were worshiped at many places. Quoting Curtius, Dr.
D.C. Sircar says that an image of Herakles (i.e. Vasudeva-Krishna according to
Sircar) was being carried in front of the Paurava army, as it advanced against the
Greeks led by Alexander the Great (The Cultural Heritage of India, vol. 4. p. 115)
An interesting terracotta plague showing Vasudeva carrying the infant Krishna
over his head across the flooded Yamuna river, belonging to c. first century is
housed in the Mathura Museum. A Mora stone inscription of about the same time
refers to some images of Bhagavata Vrshni Panchaviras, Sankarshana, Vasudeva,
Pradyumna, Samba and Aniruddha - which were very beautifully carved in
stone.[101]A Gupta period research makes a "clear mention of Vasudeva as the
exclusive object of worship of a group of people," who are referred as
bhagavatas.[102]

Verifying the antiquity of the exclusive worship of Svayam Bhagavan, Krishna,

the early Jaina texts repeatedly stress two categories of Baladevas and Vasudevas
that clearly can not be attributed to the Buddhist tradition, and can not be traced to
the earlier strata of the Jaina canon itself. The introduction of these novel
categories in the Jaina tradition, therefore, can hardly be explained without
references to the legends surrounding the two popular figures of the early
Vaishnava tradition, namely Balarama and Krishna of Mathura.[103]

Archaeological remains found in the region of Mathura support the fact that the
popularity of these two divine figures had reached its zenith in the Mauryan and
the Sunga period and associated Bhagavata religion had become widespread
throughout Mathura and Western India areas. This period coincides with the large
migrations of Jainas from Magadha to Mathura. Baladeva is referred to by Jaina
Puranas as Halabhrit, without any support from Brahminical texts. All the
Vasudevas are modeled after the description of Krishna found in the Puranas.
They are called blue-black (nila) in complexion and are designated by several
names that are normally applied exclusively to Krishna e.g. Keshava, Madhava,
Govinda, Vishnu and Narayana (which is used as synonym for the name
Vasudeva). List of opposites (or prati categories) include most of the names
associated with Asuras in Puranas.[103] According to an opinion of some scholars
in Patanjali's time identification of Krishna with Vasudeva is an established fact as
is surmised from a passage of the Mahabhasya - (jaghana kamsam kila
vasudevah).[104] This "supposed earliest phase is though to have been established
from the sixth to the fifth centuries BCE at the time of Panini, who in his
Astadhyayi explained the word vasudevaka as a bhakta, devotee, of Vasudeva and
its believed that Bhagavata religion with the worship of Vasudeva Krishna were at
the root of the Vaishnavism in Indian history."[105] [106] Not just Indian Gupta
period but also some historical records of the Greeks show existence of the bhakti
tradition to Krishna-Vaasudeva,[107] it needs to be noted that, even Panini gives
some support to the ancient root of Krishna-Vaasudeva bhakti - (vāsudeva
arjunābhyāṁ, or related to Arjuna),[108] its is however only much later (2nd
century BC) Patanjali who refer in his definition of the devotee or bhakta as "the
follower of Vasudeva, God of gods."[109][104]

Other uses

In the Bhagavata purana the term is used for other forms of God, including
Dhanvantari,[110] Vamana,[111] Vishnu, [112] Vaikunthadeva.[113] Although the term
appears in the text referring to other forms, these references do not form a part of
the Krishna-centered theology on which the reference to Krishna is based.

The Brahma Vaivarta Purana and Garga Samhita often refer to Krishna as
paripūrṇatama, the term used in Gaudiya Vaishnava tradition by Bhaktivinoda
Thakura in his Amnaya Sutra - krishnas tu paripurnatma sarvatra sukha-rupakah
translated as 'original Supreme Personality of Godhead'. [114]

Notes

1. ^ a b c d e f g Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva

Gosvami. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483.
2. ^ a b Bhagawan Swaminarayan bicentenary commemoration volume, 1781-
1981. p. 154: ...Shri Vallabhacharya [and] Shri Swaminarayan... Both of
them designate the highest reality as Krishna, who is both the highest
avatara and also the source of other avataras. To quote R. Kaladhar Bhatt in
this context. "In this transcendental devotieon (Nirguna Bhakti), the sole
Deity and only" is Krishna. New Dimensions in Vedanta Philosophy - Page
154, Sahajānanda, Vedanta. 1981
3. ^ Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern
Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The
Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
4. ^ Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A
Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya
Vaishnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
5. ^ a b Dimock Jr, E.C.; Dimock, E.C. (1989). The Place of the Hidden
Moon: Erotic Mysticism in the Vaisnava-Sahajiya Cult of Bengal.
University Of Chicago Press. page 132
6. ^ a b c Mepathur Narayana Bhattatiri (2003). Narayaneeyam-Bhagavata,
Condensed Edition. Sri Ramakrishna Math. ISBN 81-7120-419-8.pp.234-
239
7. ^ Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krishna's Various Personalities".
History of Religions 26 (3): 333-335. Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
8. ^ Kennedy, M.T. (1925). The Chaitanya Movement: A Study of the
Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
9. ^ Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 341. ISBN 0-521-43878-0. Retrieved on
2008-04-21."Early Vaishnava worship focuses on three deities who
become fused together, namely Vasudeva-Krishna, Krishna-Gopala, and
Narayana, who in turn all become identified with Vishnu. Put simply,
Vasudeva-Krishna and Krishna-Gopala were worshiped by groups
generally referred to as Bhagavatas, while Narayana was worshipped by the
Pancaratra sect."
10. ^ Essential Hinduism S. Rosen, 2006, Greenwood Publishing Group p.124
ISBN 0275990060
11. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 4
12. ^ Knapp, S. (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to Freedom,
Empowerment and Illumination -. iUniverse. "Krishna is the primeval
Lord, the original Personality of Godhead, so He can expand Himself into
unlimited forms with all potencies." page 161
13. ^ Dr. Kim Knott, (1993). "Contemporary Theological Trends In The Hare
Krishna Movement: A Theology of Religions". Retrieved on 2008-04-
12...."Bhakti, the highest path, was that of surrender to Lord Krishna, the
way of pure devotional service to the Supreme Personality of Godhead".
14. ^ K. Klostermaier (1997). The Charles Strong Trust Lectures, 1972-1984.
Brill Academic Pub, 206. ISBN 90-04-07863-0. "For his worshippers he is
not an avatara in the usual sense, but Svayam Bhagavan, the Lord himself."
p.109 Klaus Klostermaier translates it simply as "the Lord Himself"
15. ^ a b Bipin Chandra Pal (1964, 132 pages). Shree Krishna: Letters Written
to a Christian Friend. Yugayatri/New India Printing & Publishing
Co.. "First edition published in 1938 under the title of 'Europe asks: who is
Shree Krishna'."p. 31: Shree Krishna stands at the top of this series. He is
therefore called by his votaries as Purna Avatara or the highest and fullest
incarnation of the Lord.
16. ^ "Sapthagiri". www.tirumala.org. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. Parashara
Maharishi, Vyasa's father had devoted the largest Amsa (part) in Vishnu
Purana to the description of Sri Krishna Avatara the Paripoorna Avatara.
And according to Lord Krishna's own (istructions) upadesha, "he who
knows (the secrets of) His (Krishna's) Janma (birth) and Karma (actions)
will not remain in samsara (punar janma naiti- maam eti) and attain Him
after leaving the mortal coil." (BG 4.9). Parasara Maharishi ends up Amsa
5 with a phalashruti in an identical vein (Vishnu Purana .5.38.94)
17. ^ Valpey 2006, p. 154
18. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship
between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented
by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey:
Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p. 182-183
19. ^ a b c B. V. Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya Press.
ISBN 1-932771-12-3.
20. ^ a b Gaudiya scholar, Bhaktivinoda Thakura in his Dasa Mula Tattva Ch.3:
'Śrī Kṛṣṇa—The Supreme Absolute Truth', Part: Vedic Evidences of Śrī
Kṛṣṇa ’s Divinity states: In the Ṛg-Veda (Ṛg. 1.22.23):

tad viṣṇoḥ paramaṁ padaṁ sadā paśyanti sūrayaḥ

divīva cakṣur ātataṁ viṣṇor yat paramaṁ padam

"The Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu, is the Absolute Truth whose lotus

feet all the demigods are always eager to see. His lotus-feet are only visible
to those endowed with spiritual vision, for they are completely
transcendental and supreme like Śrī Kṛṣṇa, Himself." Again, in the Ṛg-
Veda (1.22.164 sūkta 31) we find this verse:

apaśyaṁ gopām anipadyamāna mā ca parā ca pathibhiś carantam

sa sadhrīcīḥ sa viṣucīr vasāna avarīrvati bhuvaneṣv antaḥ

"I saw a young cowherd boy, who never falls from His position. Sometimes
He is near, sometimes He is far away; in this manner, He moves in various
ways. Sometimes, He is clothed in many robes and at other times
differently dressed; in this way, He is repeatedly appearing and
disappearing in this universe." The next verse establishes the eternal aspect
of Śrī Kṛṣṇa's transcendental pastimes as found in the Ṛg Veda (1.54.6):

tā vāṁ vāstuny uśmasi gamadhyai yatra gavo bhūri sṛṅga ayāsaḥ

atrāha tad urugāyasya viṣṇoḥ parama-padam avabhāti bhuri

"I desire to attain Your (Śrī Rādhikā and Śrī Kṛṣṇa's) abode where the
wish-fulfilling cows, known as kāmadhenu, are decorated with gracefully
long horns. The eternal residence of Śrī Kṛṣṇa, the fulfiller of His devotees'
desires, is pre-eminently exhibiting itself in all grandeur."
21. ^ a b c d Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta:
Acintyabhedabheda in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of
Oxford.
22. ^ Sunil Kumar Bhattacharya Krishna-cult in Indian Art. 1996 M.D.
Publications Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 8175330015 p.126: "According to
(D.R.Bhadarkar), the word Krishna referred to in the expression 'Krishna-
drapsah' in the Rig- Veda, denotes the very same Krishna".
23. ^ a b (1997) in S. Devadas Pillai: Indian Sociology Through Ghurye: A
Dictionary. Columbia, Mo: South Asia Books, 403. ISBN 81-7154-807-5.
24. ^ Panjab University Journal of Medieval Indian Literature. Page 56 Panjab
University Sheikh Baba Farid Dept. of Medieval Indian Literature
25. ^ Sri Swami Chidananda (1964, 132 pages). The Divine Name and Its
Practice: Souvenir on the Occasion of the Double. Divine Life Society &
Publishing Co.. "Preface Sri Swami Krishnananda"p. 24
26. ^ Flood 2006, p. 150
27. ^ "Monotheism (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy) Nov 1, 2005".
www.seop.leeds.ac.uk. Retrieved on 2008-07-26.
28. ^ Ramanuja {1962) p. 88
29. ^ Ramanuja {1962) p. 424
30. ^ Tapasyananda, S. (1982). Śrīmadbhāgavatam-Srimad Bhagavata, the
Holy Book of God. Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras.Page xxvi[unreliable source?]
31. ^ see, Ganguli English translation of Mahabharata, Chapter 148, at
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/m13/m13b113.htm
32. ^ For Sanskrit text and translation, see: Tapasyananda, Vishnu
Sahasrnama, Ramakrishna Mission pp. 3-4.[unreliable source?]
33. ^ Srivaishnavism
34. ^ "Lord Narayan manifested himself as Lord Swaminarayan".
35. ^ Flood, G.D. (2006). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu
Religion. IB Tauris. ISBN 1845110129. p.102-105 - describes Vasudeva-
Krishna, (Krishna son of Vasudeva) as the source of all or as the same the
ultimate reality, non-distinct from Vasudeva and other manifestations.
Having a hundred-fold radiance of fire from whom all other forms of
Purusha, Achuta and Satya emanate.
36. ^ Flood p. 117
37. ^ Vaishnava University of Cumbria website Retrieved on 5-21-2008
38. ^ Graham M. Schweig (2005). Dance of Divine Love: The R asa L il a
of Krishna from the Bh agavata Pur a. na, India's classic sacred love
story. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press, Front Matter. ISBN 0-
691-11446-3.
39. ^ Valpey, Kenneth Russell (2006). Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya
Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā as devotional truth. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-
415-38394-3.Ch. 1
40. ^ a b c d e Beck 2005, page 39 'According to Ortodox Gaudiya.. Krishnas
svarupa, or true form manifests in three ways. His svayam-rupa or
transcendent form is self-existent, not dependent on anything. His
tadekatma rupa is identical in essence to his true form, though it differs in
appearance (and would include such forms of Krishna as Narayana and
 Vasudeva). His avesa form has Krishna appearing though in varying
degrees of possession'
41. ^ Swami Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Sri Caitanya Caritamrta
Madhya-lila Chapter 20 Verse 165". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved
on 2008-05-07.
42. ^ Rupa Goswami, Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta (Pūrva-khaṇḍa,verse 12)
Kusakrathadasa, 1990, Krsna Institute, ISBN 156130008X

ananyāpekṣi yad rūpaṁ svayaṁ-rūpaḥ sa ucyate.

43. ^ a b Srila Rupa Gosvami's Sri Laghu-Bhagavatamrta, Translated by

Kusakrathadasa, 1990, Krsna Institute, ISBN 156130008X
44. ^ Rupa Goswami, Laghu-bhāgavatāmṛta (Pūrva-khaṇḍa, verse 14)

yad rūpaṁ tad-abhedena svarūpeṇa virājate

ākṛtyādibhir anyādṛk sa tad-ekātma-rūpakaḥ

“The tad-ekātma-rūpa forms exist simultaneously with the svayaṁ-rūpa

form and are nondifferent. At the same time, their bodily features and
specific activities appear to be different.” quoted in Swami Prabhupada,
A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Sri Caitanya Caritamrta Madhya-lila Chapter 20
Verse 165". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on 2008-05-07.

45. ^ Klaus K. Klostermaier, A Survey of Hinduism. Page 113, 1994, ISBN

0791421090
46. ^ Rg.10.082.06 Ralph T.H. Griffith, [1896] translates it "The waters, they
received that germ primeval wherein the Gods were gathefed all together. It
rested set upon the Unborn's navel, that One wherein abide all things
existing."
47. ^ a b c Gosvami, J.; Chatterjee, C. (1986). Srikrsnasandarbha and its
critical study. Jadavpur University. p xvii-xviii
48. ^ a b BG 18.64 "sarva-guhya-tamam—the most confidential of all" Purport
states : "This essence is not understood by a common man, but by one who
is actually very dear to Kṛṣṇa"
49. ^ Klostermaier, K. (1974). "The Bhaktirasamrtasindhubindu of Visvanatha
Cakravartin". Journal of the American Oriental Society 94 (1): 96-107.
Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
50. ^ SB 2.9.35: yathā mahānti bhūtāni bhūteṣūccāvaceṣv anu praviṣṭāny
apraviṣṭāni tathā teṣu na teṣv aham
51. ^ Hiltebeitel, A. (1984). "The Two Krishnas on One Chariot: Upanisadic
Imagery and Epic Mythology". History of Religions 24 (1): 1-26. Retrieved
on 2008-04-19.
52. ^ Sivananda, S. (1958). God Exists.. Yoga-Vedanta Forest
University.Quote: “Aham” means “I” in Sanskrit. “Idam” means “this.”
53. ^ "VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online - Vedic Encyclopedia,
Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library". www.veda.harekrsna.cz. Retrieved on
2008-05-04.
54. ^ Caitanya Caritamrita 2.9.108
55. ^ a b Jan, Marez. "VEDA - Vedas and Vedic Knowledge Online - Vedic
Encyclopedia, Bhakti-yoga in vedas, Library". www.veda.harekrsna.cz.
Retrieved on 2008-05-04.
56. ^ a b Brzezinski, J.K. (1992). "Prabodhananda, Hita Harivamsa and the"
Radharasasudhanidhi". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African
Studies, University of London 55 (3): 472-497. Retrieved on 2008-05-
04."identify Radha as the supreme Laksmi.."
57. ^ Madhya 9.113-114: "Just to associate with Kṛṣṇa, Lakṣmī abandoned all
transcendental happiness in Vaikuṇṭha and for a long time accepted vows
and regulative principles and performed unlimited austerities."
58. ^ SB 10.16.36
59. ^ Brzezinski, J.K. (1992). "Prabodhananda Sarasvati: From Benares to
Braj". Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of
London 55 (1): 52-75. Retrieved on 2008-05-04.
60. ^ The Eleventh Canto of Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam describes Lord Mahāpuruṣa:
bhūtair yadā pañcabhir ātma-sṛṣṭaiḥ puraṁ virājaṁ viracayya tasmin
svāṁśena viṣṭaḥ puruṣābhidhānam avāpa nārāyaṇa ādi-devaḥ "When the
primeval Lord Nārāyaṇa created His universal body out of the five
elements produced from Himself, and then entered within that universal
body by His own plenary portion, He thus became known as the Puruṣa.
61. ^ "self-authenticating validity as the Veda, but their authenticity is
nevertheless assured because the Veda bear witness to the omniscience of
Vasudeva." p. 53-54, Flood. 2006
62. ^ K Dasa, (2006). "The Life and Teachings of Krishna dasa Baba".
Retrieved on 2008-04-13.
63. ^ Anand Karalapakkam, Bhakti List : Archives Wed Apr 19 2000.
"krushNAstu bhagavAn swayam". www.ramanuja.org. Retrieved on 2008-
04-29.
64. ^ Dāsa, Gopīparāṇadhana; Sanātana Gosvāmī (2002). Śrī Brhad
Bhāgavatāmrta of Śrīla Sanātana Gosvāmī: translated from the original
Sanskrit, with a summary of the author's Dig-darśinī commentary. Los
Angeles: Bhaktivedanta Book Trust, 920. ISBN 0-89213-345-7.
65. ^ Rig Veda 10.90
66. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship
between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented
by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey:
Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p. 5
67. ^ Bhagavata Purana 3.13.23
68. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 194bhagavan yajñapuruso
69. ^ Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship
between Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented
by the Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey:
Routledge, 254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X. p.74-75
70. ^
 etad visnoh paramam padam ye nityodyuktah samyajante na kaman
tesam asau gopa-rupah prayatnat prakasayad atma-padam tadaiva- "To
they who always diligently worship Lord Viṣṇu's transcendental form, the
Lord, in His original form as a cowherd boy, shows His lotus feet."B. V.
Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya Press. ISBN 1-
932771-12-3.

71. ^ Krishna, the Lord of Love. Bábá Premánand Bhárati, 1904]]

72. ^ Wood, Ernest (2008). Great Systems of Yoga (Forgotten Books).
Forgotten Books. ISBN 1-60506-644-3. "Once the sages came to the great
Brahma and asked: 'Who is the supreme God?... He replied Shri Krishna
verily is the supreme God. Death is afraid of Godinda."
73. ^ Stephen Knapp (2005). The Heart of Hinduism: The Eastern Path to
Freedom, Empowerment and Illumination. [United States]: iUniverse, Inc.
ISBN 0-595-35075-5. p.16: "the Krishna Upanishad that directly reveals
that the most divine form of bliss dwells in the supremacy of love of Lord
Krishna."
74. ^

gopa-rūpo hariḥ sakṣan maya-vigraha-dharaṇaḥ

durbodhaṁ kuhakaṁ tasya mayayā mohitaṁ jagat
durjayā sa suraiḥ sarvair dhṛṣṭi-rūpo bhaved dvijaḥ
rudro yena kṛto vaṁsas tasya māyā jagat katham
balaṁ janaṁ suraṇaṁ vai teṣāṁ janaṁ hṛtaṁ kṣaṇat
śeṣa-nago bhaved ramaḥ kṛṣṇo brahmaiva sasvatam

Vyasadeva, Baladevavidyabhusana (1992). Sri Krsna Upanisad and Other

Vaisnava Upanisads. [United States]: Krsna Institute. ISBN 1561300780.

75. ^ Vyasadeva, Baladevavidyabhusana (1992). Sri Krsna Upanisad and

Other Vaisnava Upanisads. [United States]: Krsna Institute. ISBN
1561300780.
76. ^ Cyclopædia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, Edward Balfour.
Published 1871, Scottish and Adelphi Presses. p.604: Krishna indeed,
himself is Narayana;
77. ^ The Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious
Transplant, Edwin Bryant, Maria Ekstrand, 2004, 448 pages, Page 151:
known as Narayana and is served in awe and reverence. However, when his
beauty and sweetness (madhurya) overshadow his majesty, he is known as
Krishna...]
78. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 2
79. ^ Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami.
Routledge. ISBN 0415405483.
80. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 153Bhag. Purana 1.3.28

ete cāṁśa-kalāḥ puṁsaḥ kṛṣṇas tu bhagavān svayam :indrāri-vyākulaṁ

lokaṁ mṛḍayanti yuge yuge
81. ^ 1.3.28 Swami Prabhupada, A.C. Bhaktivedanta. "Srimad Bhagavatam
Canto 1 Chapter 3 Verse 28". Bhaktivedanta Book Trust. Retrieved on
2008-05-07.
82. ^ "Sri Krishna". www.stephen-knapp.com. Retrieved on 2008-04-30.
83. ^ Dhanurdhara Swami (2000). Waves of Devotion. Bhagavat Books. ISBN
0-9703581-0-5. - "Waves of Devotion". www.wavesofdevotion.com.
Retrieved on 2008-05-04.In Hari-namamr†a-vyakarana, Jiva Gosvami
defines paribhasa-sutra as aniyame niyama-karini paribhasa: “A
paribhasa-sutra implies a rule or theme where it is not explicitly stated.” In
other words, it gives the context in which to understand a series of
apparently unrelated statements in a book.
84. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 141
85. ^ Bg 9.22
86. ^ "VNN Editorial - 'Uttarayana', The Path Of Light And Darkness".
www.vnn.org. Retrieved on 2008-05-03.
87. ^ B. V. Tripurari (2004). Gopala-tapani Upanisad. Audarya Press. ISBN
1-932771-12-3.Śrī Gopāla Tapanī bhāśya 1.1:

gopala-tapanim naumi ya krsnam svayam isvaram

kara-stharava-sankasam sandarsayati sad-dhiyah

88. ^ Gosvami, J.; Dasa, S.N.; Dasa, K.; Dasa, K.; Dasa, G.; Dasa, D. (1995).
Sri Tattva-sandarbha: The First Book of the Sri Bhagavata-Sandarbha
Also Known as Sri-sandarbha. Jiva Institute for Vaisnava Studies.
89. ^ a b

krsno vai paramam daivatam govindan mrtyur bibheti

gopijanavallabha-jnanena taj jnatam bhavati svahayedam samsarati

90. ^ alternative translation of Gopala-tapani Upanisad

91. ^ SB 3.2.11
92. ^ Chaitanya Charitamrita Adi 3.10
93. ^ Rosen, S.J. (2006). Essential Hinduism. Praeger Publishers.
94. ^ Svähä is the mantra by which offerings are made into the sacrificial fire.5
It is derived from the root ä(hu with the prefix su meaning “well-done,”
meaning “according to the vidhi.” This etymology is tentatively accepted
by Monier-Williams. The verb root vah is only used in the perfect tense.
“to say, speak, state.” Monier-Williams gives the following meanings for
svähä: “hail! hail to! May a blessing rest on” As a noun: “an oblation,
oblation personified.” Both svähuti and svähväna are found in Rg.
95. ^ Matchett 2000, p. 184
96. ^ om namo bhagavate sarva-bhutatmane vasudevaya sarvatma-samyoga-
yoga-padma-pithatmane namah - "I offer my respectful obeisances unto
Lord Vasudeva, the all-pervading Supreme Personality of Godhead who
resides in His own transcendental abode, which resembles a lotus flower."
97. ^

karnikayam likhed vahni-

 putitam mandala-dvayam
tasya madhye likhed bijam
sadhyakhyam karma samyutam

98. ^ Cult, P.C.S. (1927). "An Introduction To The Post-chaitanya Sahajia

Cult". Journal. - refers to Kama Gayatri in the practice of Post-chaitanya
Sahajia Cult and ortodox Gaudiya.
99. ^ Mukherjee, P. (1979). History of the Chaitanya Faith in Orissa.
Manohar. refers to practice of Gopal mantra and its significance
100. ^ Rosen, S.J. (2004). "Who Is Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu?". The
Hare Krishna Movement: The Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious
Transplant. Retrieved on 2008-04-19."he was given the ten-syllable Gopala
mantra, a confidential incantation"
101. ^ Chapter: Krishna and His Cult. Krishna Theatre in India By M.L.
Varalpande, p.6; 2002. ISBN 8170171512
102. ^ Banerjea, 1966, page 20
103. ^ a b Doniger, Wendy (1993). Purāṇa perennis: reciprocity and
transformation in Hindu and Jaina texts. Albany, N.Y: State University of
New York Press, 331. ISBN 0-7914-1381-0.p.210-212
104. ^ a b A Corpus of Indian Studies: Essays in Honour of Professor
Gaurinath Sastri, Page 150, 1980 - 416 pages.
105. ^ Page 76 of 386 pages: The Bhagavata religion with the worship of
Vasudeva Krishna as the ... of Vasudeva Krishna and they are the direct
forerunners of Vaisnavism in India.Ehrenfels, U.R. (1953). "The University
Of Gauhati". Dr. B. Kakati Commemoration Volume.
106. ^ Page 98: In the Mahabharata, Vasudeva-Krishna is identified with
the highest God.Mishra, Y.K. (1977). Socio-economic and Political History
of Eastern India. Distributed by DK Publishers' Distributors.
107. ^ Vaidisa, B.; Wessanagar, V.; Others, (1987). "The Impact Of
Vaisnavism—excavated Remains From Vidisha (mp)". Vaisnavism in
Indian Arts and Culture: Collected Papers of the University Grants
Commission National Seminar on" Impact of Vaisnavism on the Indian
Arts".
108. ^ bhaktiḥ | 4.3.96 acittāt adeśakālāt ṭhak | 4.3.97 mahārājāt ṭhañ |
4.3.98 vāsudeva arjunābhyāṁ vun | Panini 4.3.95
109. ^ Singh, R.R. (2007). Bhakti And Philosophy. Lexington Books.
ISBN 0739114247. p. 10: "[Panini's] term Vaasudevaka, explained by the
second century B.C commentator Patanjali, as referring to "the follower of
Vasudeva, God of gods."
110. ^ Bhag.P. 2.7.21: dhanvantariś ca bhagavān svayam eva kīrtir
nāmnā nṛṇāṁ puru-rujāṁ ruja āśu hanti yajñe ca bhāgam amṛtāyur-
avāvarundha āyuṣya-vedam anuśāsty avatīrya loke. The Lord in His
incarnation of Dhanvantari very quickly cures the diseases of the ever-
diseased living entities simply by his fame personified, and only because of
him do the demigods achieve long lives. Thus the Personality of Godhead
becomes ever glorified. He also exacted a share from the sacrifices, and it
is he only who inaugurated the medical science or the knowledge of
medicine in the universe.
 111. ^ Bhag. P. 5.24.27: tasyānucaritam upariṣṭād vistariṣyate yasya
bhagavān svayam akhila-jagad-gurur nārāyaṇo dvāri gadā-pāṇir
avatiṣṭhate nija-janānukampita-hṛdayo yenāṅguṣṭhena padā daśa-
kandharo yojanāyutāyutaṁ dig-vijaya uccāṭitaḥ. Śukadeva Gosvāmī
continued: My dear King, how shall I glorify the character of Bali
Mahārāja? The Supreme Personality of Godhead, the master of the three
worlds, who is most compassionate to His own devotee, stands with club in
hand at Bali Mahārāja's door. When Rāvaṇa, the powerful demon, came to
gain victory over Bali Mahārāja, Vāmanadeva kicked him a distance of
eighty thousand miles with His big toe. I shall explain the character and
activities of Bali Mahārāja later [in the Eighth Canto of Śrīmad-
Bhāgavatam].
112. ^ Bhag. P. 7.1.1 samaḥ priyaḥ suhṛd brahman bhūtānāṁ bhagavān
svayam indrasyārthe kathaṁ daityān avadhīd viṣamo yathā King Parīkṣit
inquired: My dear brāhmaṇa, the Supreme Personality of Godhead, Viṣṇu,
being everyone's well-wisher, is equal and extremely dear to everyone.
How, then, did He become partial like a common man for the sake of Indra
and thus kill Indra's enemies? How can a person equal to everyone be
partial to some and inimical toward others?
113. ^ Bhag. P. 8.5.4 patnī vikuṇṭhā śubhrasya vaikuṇṭhaiḥ sura-
sattamaiḥ tayoḥ sva-kalayā jajñe vaikuṇṭho bhagavān svayam From the
combination of Śubhra and his wife, Vikuṇṭhā, there appeared the Supreme
Personality of Godhead, Vaikuṇṭha, along with demigods who were His
personal plenary expansions.
114. ^ "In that devotional liberation the spiritual senses of the spiritual
form of the liberated soul are filled. There Lord Krishna, the original
Supreme Personality of Godhead, enjoys blissful pastimes." Amnaya Sutra
3.5 Sampatti-prakarana, Sutra 114

References

• Elkman, S.M.; Gosvami, J. (1986). Jiva Gosvamin's Tattvasandarbha: A

Study on the Philosophical and Sectarian Development of the Gaudiya
Vaisnava Movement. Motilal Banarsidass Pub.
• Flood, G.D. (2006). The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu
Religion. IB Tauris. ISBN 1845110129.
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Vaishnavism of Bengal. H. Milford, Oxford university press.
• Ramanuja; George Thibaut (trans.) (1962). "The Vedanta Sutras with the
Commentary by Ramanuja". Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
• Richard Thompson, Ph. D. (December 1994). "Reflections on the Relation
Between Religion and Modern Rationalism". Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
• Gupta, Ravi M. (2004). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta: Acintyabhedabheda
in Jiva Gosvami's Catursutri tika. University Of Oxford.
• Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami's
Catursutri tika. Routledge. ISBN 0415405483.
 • Ganguli, K.M. (1883 -1896). The Mahabharata of Krishna Dwaipayana
Vyasa. Kessinger Publishing.

• Kaviraja, K.; Prabhupada, A.C.B.S.; Bhaktivedanta, A.C. (1974). Sri

Caitanya-Caritamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.
• S.D. Goswami (1998), The Qualities of Sri Krsna, GNPress, pp. 152 pages,
ISBN 0911233644
• Garuda Pillar of Besnagar, Archaeological Survey of India, Annual Report
(1908-1909). Calcutta: Superintendent of Government Printing, 1912, 129.
• Rowland Jr, B. (1935). "Notes on Ionic Architecture in the East". American
Journal of Archaeology 39 (4): 489-496. Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
• Delmonico, N. (2004). "The History Of Indic Monotheism And Modern
Chaitanya Vaishnavism". The Hare Krishna Movement: The
Postcharismatic Fate of a Religious Transplant. Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
• Mahony, W.K. (1987). "Perspectives on Krsna's Various Personalities".
History of Religions 26 (3): 333-335. Retrieved on 2008-04-12.
• D Hudson (1993). "Vasudeva Krsna in Theology and Architecture: A
Background to Srivaisnavism". Journal of Vaisnava Studies (2). Retrieved
on 2008-04-30.

• Beck, Guy L. (Ed.) (2005), Alternative Krishnas: Regional and Vernacular

Variations on a Hindu Deity, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791464156,
<http://books.google.com/books?hl=en&id=0SJ73GHSCF8C>

• Matchett, Freda (2000). Krsna, Lord or Avatara? the relationship between

Krsna and Visnu: in the context of the Avatara myth as presented by the
Harivamsa, the Visnupurana and the Bhagavatapurana. Surrey: Routledge,
254. ISBN 0-7007-1281-X.
• Valpey, Kenneth Russell (2006). Attending Kṛṣṇa's image: Caitanya
Vaiṣṇava mūrti-sevā as devotional truth. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-
415-38394-3.

Further reading

• Ganguli, K.M. (1896). Bhagavad-Gita (XXV-XLII). The Mahabharata,

Book 6. Calcutta: Bharata Press.

• Prabhupada, A.C. (1988). Srimad-Bhagavatam. Bhaktivedanta Book Trust.