Talimabad, Sangam Vihar, New Delhi-110080

SESSION: 2023-24
BIOLOGY PROJECT
Blood and Understanding Blood
Groups
NAME: FATIMA KHATOON
CLASS: 11-B2
ADMN. NO- 10494
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my teacher , who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful
project of Biology , who also helped me in
completing my project, I came to know about
so many new things I am really thankful to
them. Secondly, I would also like to thank
my parents and friends who helped me a lot
in finalizing this project within the limited
time frame.
Certificate
This is to certify that this project has been
made by Fatima Khatoon, of class 11th
has successfully completed this Biology
project under the guidance of Mr. Abu
Shama, during the academic session 2023-
2024.

____________
Subject Teacher’s Signature
BIOLOGY PROJECT

Blood and Understanding

Blood Groups
 INDEX
S.NO TOPIC PAGE NO.
1. CERTIFICATE 01
2. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 02
3. WHAT IS BLOOD 03
4. TYPES OF BLOOD 04
CELLS
5. FUNCTIONS OF 11
BLOOD
6. BLOOD GROUPING 13
AND ITS TYPES
7. ABO BLOOD 14
GROUPING
8. RH BLOOD GROUPING 18
9. CONCLUSION 19
10. BIBLIOGRAPHY 20

What is Blood?
Blood is one of the most important components of
life. Almost any animal that possesses a
circulatory system has blood. From an
evolutionary perspective, blood was speculated to
have risen from a type of cell that was responsible
for phagocytosis and nutrition. Billions of years
later, blood and the circulatory system have
drastically helped the evolution of more complex
life forms.
Blood is a fluid connective tissue that consists of
plasma, blood cells and platelets. It circulates
throughout our body delivering oxygen and
nutrients to various cells and tissues. It makes up
8% of our body weight. An average adult
possesses around 5-6 litres of blood.

Types of Blood Cells

We have seen blood consist of cells known as
formed elements of blood. These cells have their
own functions and roles to play in the body. The
blood cells which circulate all around the body are
as follows:
Red blood cells (Erythrocytes)
RBCs are biconcave cells without nucleus in
humans; also known as erythrocytes. RBCs
contain the iron-rich protein called haemoglobin;
give blood its red colour. RBCs are the most
copious blood cells produced in bone marrows.
Their main function is to transport oxygen from
and to various tissues and organs.

White blood cells (Leucocytes)

Leucocytes are colourless blood cells. They are
colourless because it is devoid of haemoglobin.
They are further classified as granulocytes and
agranulocytes. WBCs mainly contribute to
immunity and defence mechanism
Types of White Blood Cells
There are five different types of White blood cells
and are classified mainly based on the presence
and absence of granules.
 Granulocytes
 Agranulocytes

Granulocytes
They are leukocytes, with the presence of granules
in their cytoplasm. The granulated cells include-
eosinophil, basophil, and neutrophil.
Eosinophils
 They are the cells of leukocytes, which are
present in the immune system.
 These cells are responsible for combating
infections in parasites of vertebrates and for
controlling mechanisms associated with
allergy and asthma.
 Eosinophil cells are small granulocyte, which
are produced in the bone marrow and makes 2
to 3 per cent of whole WBCs. These cells are
present in high concentrations in the digestive
tract.
Basophils
 They are the least common of the
granulocytes, ranging from 0.5 to 1 per cent of
WBCs.
 They contain large cytoplasmic granules,
which play a vital role in mounting a non-
specific immune response to pathogens, and
allergic reactions by releasing histamine and
dilating the blood vessels.
 These white blood cells have the ability to be
stained when exposed to basic dyes, hence
referred to as basophil.
 These cells are best known for their role in
asthma and their result in inflammation and
bronchoconstriction in the airways.
 They secrete serotonin, histamine and heparin.
Neutrophils
 They are normally found in the bloodstream.
  They are predominant cells, which are present
in pus.
 Around 60 to 65 per cent of WBCs are
neutrophils with a diameter of 10 to 12
micrometres.
 The nucleus is 2 to 5 lobed and the cytoplasm
has very fine granules.
 Neutrophil helps in the destruction of bacteria
with lysosomes, and it acts as a strong oxidant.
 Neutrophils are stained only using neutral
dyes. Hence, they are called so.
 Neutrophils are also the first cells of the
immune system to respond to an invader such
as a bacteria or a virus.
 The lifespan of these WBCs extends for up to
eight hours and is produced every day in the
bone marrow.

Agranulocytes
They are leukocytes, with the absence of granules
in their cytoplasm. Agranulocytes are further
classified into monocytes and lymphocytes.
Monocytes
 These cells usually have a large bilobed
nucleus, with a diameter of 12 to 20
micrometres.
 The nucleus is generally half-moon shaped or
kidney-shaped and it occupies 6 to 8 per cent
of WBCs.
 They are the garbage trucks of the immune
system.
 The most important functions of monocytes
are to migrate into tissues and clean up dead
cells, protect against blood borne pathogens
and move very quickly to the sites of
infections in the tissues.
 These white blood cells have a single bean-
shaped nucleus, hence referred to as
Monocytes.
Lymphocytes
 They play a vital role in producing antibodies.

 Their size ranges from 8 to 10 micrometres.

 They are commonly known as natural killer

cells.
 They play an important role in body defence.

 These white blood cells are colourless cells

formed in lymphoid tissue, hence referred to

as lymphocytes.
  There are two main types of lymphocytes – B
lymphocytes and T lymphocytes.
 These cells are very important in the immune
systems and are responsible for humoral and
cell-mediated immunity.
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 Thrombocytes are specialized blood cells
produced from bone marrow.
 Platelets come into play when there is bleeding
or haemorrhage.
 They help in clotting and coagulation of
blood. Platelets help in coagulation during a
cut or wound.

Plasma
The liquid state of blood can be contributed to
plasma as it makes up ~55% of blood. It is pale
yellow in colour and when separated. Blood
plasma consists of salts, nutrients, water and
enzymes. Blood plasma also contains important
proteins and other components necessary for
overall health. Hence, blood plasma transfusions
are given to patients with liver failure and life-
threatening injuries.
Components of Blood Plasma
Blood plasma has several protein components.
Proteins in blood plasma are:
 Serum globulin
 Serum albumin
 Fibrinogen
The serum contains only globulin and albumin.
Fibrinogen is absent in serum because it is
converted into fibrin during blood clotting.

Functions of Blood
Blood is responsible for the following body
functions:
 Fluid Connective Tissue
Blood is a fluid connective tissue composed of
55% plasma and 45% formed elements including
WBCs, RBCs, and platelets. Since these living
 cells are suspended in plasma, blood is known as
a fluid connective tissue and not just fluid.
 Provides oxygen to the cells
Blood absorbs oxygen from the lungs and
transports it to different cells of the body. The
waste carbon dioxide moves from the blood to
the lungs and is exhaled.
 Transports Hormones and Nutrients
The digested nutrients such as glucose, vitamins,
minerals, and proteins are absorbed into the
blood through the capillaries in the villi lining
the small intestine.
The hormones secreted by the endocrine glands
are also transported by the blood to different
organs and tissues.

• Blood Clotting at Site of Injury

The platelets help in the clotting of blood at the
site of injury. Platelets along with the fibrin
form clot at the wound site
• Transport of waste to the Kidney and Liver
Blood enters the kidney where it is filtered to
remove nitrogenous waste out of the blood
plasma. The toxins from the blood are also
removed by the liver.
• Protection of the body against pathogens
The White Blood Cells fight against infections.
They multiply rapidly during infections.

What is blood group?

 A blood group also called a Blood Type
 Classification of blood is based on the presence
or absence of inherited antigenic substances on
the surface of red blood cells (RBCs)
 These antigens may be proteins, carbohydrates,
glycoproteins, or glycolipids, depending on the
blood group system.
 Blood group systems
 ABO blood group system
 Rh blood group system

ABO blood group system

 The ABO blood group system is the most
important blood type system (or blood group
system) in human blood transfusion.
 ABO blood types are also present in some other
animals for example rodents and apes such as
chimpanzees, bonobos and gorillas.
 Determination of ABO blood groups depends
upon the immunological reaction between
antigen and antibody.
 Antigens are also called agglutinogens because
of their capacity to cause agglutination of
RBCs.

ABO BASICS
 Based on the presence or absence of antigen A
and antigen B, blood is divided into four groups:
‘A, B, AB and ‘O’ group.
 Blood having antigen A belongs to ‘A’ group.
This blood has β-antibody in the serum.
 Blood with antigen B and α-antibody belongs to
‘B’ group.
 If both the antigens are present, blood group is
called ‘AB’ group and serum of this group does
not contain any antibody.
 If both antigens are absent, the blood group is
called ‘O’ group and both α and β antibodies are
present in the serum.
Antigen and Antibody Present in ABO
Blood Group
Principle of Blood Grouping
 Blood grouping is done on the basis of
agglutination.
 Agglutination means the collection of separate
particles like RBCs into clumps or masses.
 Agglutination occurs if an antigen is mixed
with its corresponding antibody which is
called isoagglutinin, i.e. occurs when A
antigen is mixed with anti-A or when B
antigen is mixed with anti-B.
Importance of ABO group in blood
transfusion
 During blood transfusion, only compatible
blood must be used.
 The one who gives blood is called the ‘donor’
and the one who receives the blood is called
‘recipient’.
 While transfusing the blood, antigen of the
donor and the antibody of the recipient are
considered.
 The antibody of the donor and antigen of the
recipient are ignored mostly. Thus, RBC of ‘O’
group has no antigen and so agglutination does
not occur with any other group of blood. So,
‘O’ group blood can be given to any blood
group persons and the people with this blood
group are called ‘universal donors’.
 Plasma of AB group blood has no antibody.
This does not cause agglutination of RBC from
any other group of blood. People with AB
group can receive blood from any blood group
persons. So, people with this blood group are
called ‘universal recipients’.
 In mismatched transfusion, the transfusion
reactions occur between donor’s RBC and
 recipient’s plasma. So, if the donor’s plasma
contains agglutinins against recipient’s RBC,
agglutination does not occur because these
antibodies are diluted in the recipient’s blood.
TRANSFUSION REACTIONS DUE TO ABO
INCOMPATIBILITY
 Transfusion reactions are the adverse reactions
in the body, which occur due to transfusion
error that involves transfusion of incompatible
(mismatched) blood.
 The reactions may be mild or may be severe
leading to renal failure, shock and death.

RH blood group system

 The Rh blood group system is one of thirty five
current human blood group systems.
 It is the most important blood group system
after ABO.
 Rh blood group system consists of 50 defined
blood-group antigens, among them there are
six common types of Rh antigens.
 Each of which is called an Rh factor. These
types are designated C, D, E, c, d, and e.
  The type D antigen is widely prevalent in the
population and considerably more antigenic
than the other Rh antigens.
 Anyone who has this type of antigen is said to
be Rh positive, whereas a person who does not
have type D antigen is said to be Rh negative.
 This antigen was discovered by Karl
Landsteiner and Alexander Wiener in 1940.
 It was first discovered in Rhesus macaque and
hence the name 'Rh factor’.

Erythroblastosis fetalis
 Erythroblastosis fetalis is a disease of the fetus
and newborn child characterized by
agglutination and phagocytosis of the fetus’s red
blood cells.
 In most instances of erythroblastosis fetalis, the
mother is Rh negative and the father Rh
positive. The baby has inherited the Rh-positive
antigen from the father, and the mother
develops anti-Rh agglutinins from exposure to
the fetus’s Rh antigen. In turn, the mother’s
agglutinins diffuse through the placenta into the
fetus and cause red blood cell agglutination.
Symptoms and signs in the fetus:
 Enlarged liver spleen, or heart fluid build up in
the fetus' abdomen seen via ultrasound.
Symptoms and signs in the newborn:
 Anaemia that creates the newborn's pallor (pale
appearance). Severe enema of the entire body.
 Jaundice or yellow discoloration of the
newborn's skin, sclera or mucous membrane.
 Enlargement of the newborn's liver and spleen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 www.google.com
 www.wikipedia.com
 www.brainly.com
 NCERT Biology text book