CIPS Level 5 Advanced Diploma

in Procurement and Supply

Module title: Managing Teams and Individuals [L5M1]

Leading global excellence in procurement and supply

 Learning Outcome 2: Understand and apply approaches to
managing individuals involved in the procurement and supply
function
2.1 Analyze how the different behavioral characteristics of individuals
can impact on their management style and approach
❖ Understanding the differences among individuals
❖ Uniqueness and similarities between individuals
❖ Idiographic approaches to the development and measurement of
individuals
❖ Emotional intelligence
❖ Diversity in operations
❖ Managing diversity
❖ Emotional Intelligence - use emotional information to guide thinking
and behaviour, and to manage and/or adjust emotions
All rights reserved. These slides are provided exclusively to CIPS Approved Study Centres for the sole purpose of teaching CIPS Professional Qualifications, they are not to be used for any other purpose and may not be altered, copied,
sold or lent to other parties. Copyright ©2018 CIPS

Leading global excellence in procurement and supply

how the different behavioral characteristics of
individuals can impact on their management style
and approach
• Behavior can be defined as the actions or reactions of a person in
response to external or internal stimulus situation.
• Managers must adopt a process by which they can direct, influence
and guide the behaviour and work of individuals in the context of
their organization
• Managers can adapt their style and approach to successfully persuade
others to meet the objectives of the function.
• Remember managers are also individuals with different
characteristics of behaviour and traits
Leadership theories
Trait theory: ‘Great Man Theory’

• The trait theory is traced back to ‘Great Man Theory’

• the Great Man Theory of leadership posits that great leaders are
born, not made or trained.
• Individuals are born with certain traits or characteristics, and these
characteristics are different in natural-born leaders compared to
others or are only present in such leaders.
• It is believed that these specific traits or characteristics enable them
to lead people while they shape the pages of history.
• The Great Man theory has been introduced as the earliest theory of
leadership. This theory assumes that great leaders are innate and not
made and the theory was standard in the 19th and early
20thcenturies.
• The Great Man Theory of leadership tried to clarify leadership in the
view of inheritance. Great leaders inherit their ability to lead The
theory essential concept is that the leader is genetically able with
higher qualities that distinguish him from his followers.
‘Great Man Theory’
• In the Great Man Period, researchers focused on great men (and some
women) in the history of the world and suggested that a person who
copied their personalities and behaviours would become a strong leader
(Borgotta, Rouch, and Bales, 1954; Galton, 1869).
• However, “Great Man” was used because, leadership was accepted of
mostly as a male quality, especially in terms of military leadership.
• The theory equated leadership with personality. Some theorists have even
attempted to explain leadership based on inheritance (Jennings, 1960)
• However, personalities are extremely difficult to imitate, thereby providing
little value to practicing managers. This influenced thoughts around the
Trait theory of four primary traits.
Critics: ‘Great Man Theory’

• Theory of leadership attempts to explain leadership based on

inheritance. The theory essential concept is that the leader is
genetically gifted with superior qualities that differentiate him from
his followers. The expectation is that great leaders will take over their
ability to lead through their genes.
• there can only a few born leaders, very rare, individuals possess the
unique characteristics to be effective leaders and attain greatness by
divine design. Examples are often drawn from popular historical
figures such as Nelson Mandela, Robert Mugabe, Haile Selassie I,
Kwame Nkrumah. It was believed that these individuals were natural
born leaders with innate characteristics of leadership, which enabled
them to lead individuals while they shape the pages of history.
Critics: ‘Great Man Theory’
• Many of the traits cited as being important to be an effective leader are
typical masculine traits. In contemporary research, there is a significant
shift in such a mentality.
• A person is not born with self-confidence. Self-confidence is developed,
honesty and integrity are a matter of personal choice, motivation to lead
comes from within the individual, and the knowledge of business can be
acquired. While cognitive ability has its origin partly in genes, it still needs
to be developed. None of these ingredients are acquired overnight.
• The Great Man theory then evolved into the trait theories
• Eventually the Great Man Theory was abandoned in favor of the theories
based on behavioral science.
leader and leadership traits
• Early theories of leadership who focused on leader and leadership
traits:
o Trait theory (Stogdill, 1974) identified critical traits and skills for a
leadership role
o McCall and Lombardo (1983) identified 4 primary traits needed for
good leadership.
Leadership theory: Trait theory
• The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are
made with certain qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles.
• Leaders inherit certain leadership qualities and traits that make them stand
out from the crowd. These leadership abilities boost them to leadership
status.
• That is, certain qualities such as intelligence, sense of responsibility,
creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a good leader.
• The trait theory of leadership focused the characteristic or the combination
of characteristics that are common among leaders. The trait theory
attempts to categorize the characteristics that distinguish leaders from
followers.
• Trait theory explains that some people are born with certain traits that
make them good leadership means leadership is innate.
Leadership theory: Trait theory
• Trait theories argue that leaders can be born or made. In other words,
that the traits of successful leaders can be either inherited or
acquired through training and practice. The aim was to identify the
right combination of characteristics that make an effective leader and
focus was on studying the mental, social and physical traits of leaders.
• This can be applied in real time because today, psychometric tools are
an example of trait theory principles in action and are often used in
staff recruitment. These tools highlight key personality traits and are
used for personal performance and team development.
Leadership theory: Trait theory
• The trait theory assumes that successful managers are born, that
certain traits are more suitable for certain roles, and that good
managers are good because they have the right combination o
personality traits.
• After several studies on the trait theory, (Stogdill, 1974) identified
critical traits and skills needed for a good leadership role;
✓Emotional stability
✓Admitting error
✓Good interpersonal skills
✓Intellectual breadth
Intelligence: Effective leaders tend to Emotional stability: Leaders who can remain calm
have above-average intelligence, and composed in stressful situations are better
enabling them to analyze complex equipped to handle crises and make rational
situations, make informed decisions, decisions.
and adapt to changing
circumstances.

Figure 2.1 Four Primary Traits (Source: McCall and Lombardo, 1983)
Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory

• It is naturally pleasing theory.

• It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of
the theory.
• It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an
individual can be assessed.
• It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader
element in the leadership process
Limitations of trait theory
• It's important to note that while these traits and skills are often
associated with effective leadership, leadership is a complex and
multifaceted phenomenon. Different leadership situations may
require different combinations of traits and skills. Moreover,
leadership effectiveness can also be influenced by situational factors,
the organization's culture, and the specific goals and challenges at
hand.
• Trait theory has contributed to our understanding of leadership, but
it's important to recognize that leadership is not solely determined by
a checklist of traits and skills. Effective leadership is a dynamic and
context-dependent process that involves the interaction of numerous
factors.
• It's important to remember that while traits theorists work provide
valuable insights into leadership traits and skills, leadership
effectiveness can also be influenced by situational factors and the
context in which leadership is exercised.
• Different leadership styles and approaches may be more effective in
certain situations.
• Additionally, leadership is not solely determined by traits and skills
but also by the ability to adapt and learn from experiences.
• Leadership is a dynamic and evolving field, and subsequent research
has expanded upon and refined the understanding of leadership traits
and skills. Nevertheless, Trait theory remains a foundational
contribution to the study of leadership, but it is very complex.
Behavioral leadership theory-(1940's - 1950's)
• In a world that has become more complex and challenging, a need
emerged for leadership theories that support circumstances of rapid
change, disruptive technological innovation and increasing
globalization.
• This led to the new leadership era, moving away from the above-
mentioned traditional theories of leadership.
• The new leadership era: Behavioral leadership theory, also known as
the behaviorist approach to leadership, focuses on the actions and
behaviors of leaders rather than their inherent traits or
characteristics.
Behavioral leadership theory
• This theory emerged as a reaction to earlier trait theories of
leadership, which suggested that effective leaders possessed specific
personality traits.
• Behavioral leadership theory, on the other hand, argues that
leadership is not necessarily determined by one's traits but can be
learned and developed through specific behaviors and actions.
• In the 1960s and 1970s The Behaviour Era took a completely new
direction by emphasizing what leaders do as opposed to their traits or
source of power. Leadership was thus defined as a subset of human
behaviour.
Behavioral leadership theory
• The Early Behaviour Period was basically an extension of the Trait
Period except that, instead of studying personality traits, the
emphasis was on developing behaviour traits.
• Behavioral theory suggests that anyone can become an effective
leader by adopting and practicing the right behaviors, regardless of
their natural traits.
• The behavioral theories seek to determine what style and functional
behaviors are effective in motivating individuals to achieve goals,
communication, teambuilding and personal interaction. And these
various studies identified different patterns off behaviour called
styles.
Key Behavioral Studies
• Two prominent studies contributed significantly to the development
of behavioral leadership theory:
1. The Ohio State Leadership Studies: This research, conducted at
Ohio State University in the 1940s, identified two key dimensions of
leadership behavior: initiating structure (task-oriented behavior)
and consideration (relationship-oriented behavior). These
dimensions formed the basis for assessing leadership behavior.
2. The University of Michigan Studies: Another influential study
conducted at the University of Michigan in the 1950s identified two
different leadership styles: employee-centered (like consideration)
and job-centered (like initiating structure).
Initiating Structure is a category of leadership behaviors
aimed at creating clarity and structure for an organization.
Some of the behaviors in the Initiating Structure category are:
➢ Setting clear expectations
➢ Providing constructive criticism enabling improvement
➢ Setting standards of performance and production
➢ Creation and maintenance of processes, policies, and
procedures
➢ Setting job descriptions and establishing the division of
labor
➢ Systematic coordination of work
➢ Emphasis on meeting milestones and performance targets
➢ Monitoring and controlling operations and performance
A high level of Initiating-Structure behavior means a high
definition of roles, tasks, expectations, schedules, etc., which
leaves few uncertainties for the employees, bearing a
resemblance to Scientific Management by Taylor
 Consideration behavior is a category of leadership behaviors focusing on relationships and
the welfare of people. Here are a few examples of consideration behaviors:
➢ Listening to team members and other stakeholders
➢ Treating people well and seeing them as equals
➢ Providing support to team members
➢ Being generally supportive, friendly, and available
➢ Emphasizing the welfare of the team members
➢ Building trust and a good team climate
➢ Display of empathy and a genuine wish to understand the capabilities of each team
member

The level of Consideration behaviors set the leader’s level of empathy and focus on people. High
consideration behavior signifies a strive for trust, interest in the followers’ feelings, and a willingness to
create warm relationships within the team. A leader with high consideration behavior uses active
listening, understands the strengths and weaknesses of each team member, and supports them as
required. Consideration behavior can be compared with democratic leadership combined with coaching
• The Ohio State University and Michigan studies identified two
important leader behaviour traits:
1. Initiating structure (leader emphasis on accomplishment of tasks)
2. Consideration (leader concern for individual and group cohesion)
• Ultimately, these studies narrowed the description of leader behavior
into two dimensions
• Initiating Structure Behavior: The behavior of leaders who define the
leader-subordinate role so that everyone knows what is expected,
establish formal lines of communication, and determine how tasks
will be performed.
• Consideration Behavior: The behavior of leaders who are concerned
for subordinates and attempt to establish a warm, friendly, and
supportive climate.
• They found two critical characteristics of leadership either of which
could be high or low or independent of one another. See pg 72
• A low score on one does not require a high score on the other.
• The findings of Ohio State Leadership Studies suggest that effective
leaders possess a strong ability to work with others and build a
cohesive team that is balanced with the capability to create structure
within which activities can be accomplished.
• The Ohio State Leadership Studies also concluded that you are not
born to become a leader; you can learn, practice, and develop
yourself to become one.
• The University of Michigan studies identified that employee-centered
leaders who displayed supportive behaviors and focused on the
human needs of their employees were better able to bring about
positive interaction and reduce conflict in teams. This was aligned
with consideration category developed by Ohio State University.
• Building on this work, Blake and Mouton (1985) developed the
leadership grid mapping also two dimensions( concern for people and
concern for results)
Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid
• Blake and Mouton's Managerial Grid: Robert Blake and Jane Mouton
developed a leadership model known as the managerial grid, which
combined concern for production (task orientation) and concern for
people (relationship orientation) into a grid. This model emphasized
the need for leaders to balance these two dimensions for effective
leadership.
• The Managerial Grid combines these two dimensions to create five
distinct leadership styles:
The model is based on two behavioral dimensions:
1. Concern for People: this is the degree to which a leader considers
team members' needs, interests and areas of personal development
when deciding how best to accomplish a task.
2. Concern for Results: this is the degree to which a leader
emphasizes concrete objectives, organizational efficiency and high
productivity when deciding how best to accomplish a task.
Blake and Mouton plotted each of the five management styles in a
graph concerning the two different leadership behaviors, i.e., concern
for people and concern for production. The y-axis displayed the level of
concern for people, and the x-axis the concern for production.
 five distinct leadership styles:
Country Club
Management (Low Team Management (High
Production, High People) Production, High People)

Middle-of-the-
Road Management
(Moderate
Production,
Moderate People)

Impoverished Management (Low

Produce or Perish (High Production, Low
Production, Low People)
People)
• Country Club Management (Low Production, High People): Leaders
who fall into this category are highly concerned about the well-being
and satisfaction of their team members but may not emphasize task
completion as much. They create a friendly and comfortable work
environment but may struggle to meet performance goals.
• Team Management (High Production, High People): These leaders
strike a balance between achieving tasks and maintaining good
relationships. They aim for high productivity while also ensuring that
team members are satisfied and motivated.
• Impoverished Management (Low Production, Low People): Leaders in
this category show minimal concern for both task completion and
people. They may be uninvolved and disengaged, leading to low
productivity and team dissatisfaction.
• Produce or Perish (High Production, Low People): These leaders
prioritize task accomplishment and performance but may not pay
much attention to team members' needs or relationships. They often
push for results but may risk low morale among their team.
• Middle-of-the-Road Management (Moderate Production, Moderate
People): Leaders in this style aim to maintain a balance between task
accomplishment and people's needs. They neither excel in task
orientation nor in building strong relationships, resulting in moderate
outcomes in both areas.
1. Impoverished Management – Low Results/Low People
• The Impoverished or "indifferent" manager is mostly ineffective. With a
low regard for creating systems that get the job done, and with little
interest in creating a satisfying or motivating team environment , this
manager's results are inevitably disorganization, dissatisfaction and
disharmony.
2. Produce-or-Perish Management – High Results/Low People
• Also known as "authoritarian" or "authority-compliance" managers, people
in this category believe that their team members are simply a means to an
end. The team's needs are always secondary to its productivity.
• This type of manager is autocratic, has strict work rules, policies and
procedures, and can view punishment as an effective way of motivating
team members. This approach can drive impressive production results at
first, but low team morale and motivation will ultimately affect people's
performance, and this type of leader will struggle to retain high
performers.
• They probably adhere to the Theory X approach to motivation, which
assumes that employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working.
3. Middle-of-the-Road Management – Medium Results/Medium
People
• A Middle-of-the-Road or "status quo" manager tries to balance
results and people, but this strategy is not as effective as it may
sound. Through continual compromise, they fail to inspire high
performance and fail to meet people's needs fully. The result is that
their team will likely deliver only mediocre performance.
4. Country Club Management – High People/Low Results
• The Country Club or "accommodating" style of manager is most
concerned about their team members' needs and feelings. They
assume that, if their people are happy and secure, they'll work hard.
• What tends to be the result is a work environment that is very relaxed
and fun, but where productivity suffers because there is a lack of
direction and control.
5. Team Management – High Production/High People
• According to the Blake Mouton model, Team Management is the most
effective leadership style. It reflects a leader who is passionate about their
work and who does the best they can for the people they work with.
• Team or "sound" managers commit to their organization's goals and
mission, motivate the people who report to them, and work hard to get
people to stretch themselves to deliver great results. But, at the same time,
they're inspiring figures who look after their teams. Someone led by a
Team manager feels respected and empowered and is committed to
achieving her goals.
• Team managers prioritize both the organization's production needs and
their people's needs. They do this by making sure that their team members
understand the organization's purpose , and by involving them in
determining production needs.
• When people are committed to, and have a stake in, the organization's
success, their needs and production needs overlap. This creates an
environment based on trust and respect, which leads to high satisfaction,
motivation and excellent results. Team managers likely adopt the Theory Y
approach to motivation, as we mentioned above.
• Even if the Grid theory is getting old, it is incredibly straightforward in
showing how leadership styles depend on the leader’s behaviors.
• One important output of this theory is that Nystrom argued that all
five leadership styles are effective at delivering successful leadership
depending on context.
• In sum: Behavioral theories of leadership provides a basis by which
you can understand what managers do and how they behave.
• They assume that developing self awareness of your own behavioral
traits is an important part of your development as a manager
• The most important aspect is the idea that successful behaviors,
styles and approaches can be learned and developed regardless of an
individual’s personality.
• It suggest that there are two aspect of managing individuals:
managers can adapt and develop their own behaviour and
management style: in understanding the different behavioral
characteristics of individuals, managers are able to learn how to
respond appropriately to help support individual employees to adapt
and develop their own behaviour in the workplace.
• behavioral leadership theory emphasizes that leadership can be
learned and practiced through specific observable behaviors. It has
contributed to the development of leadership training programs and
provided a more action-oriented perspective on leadership.
• However, it should be considered alongside other theories, such as
trait and situational theories, to provide a comprehensive
understanding of leadership dynamics.
Understanding the differences among
individuals
• Individual differences are the ways in which people differ from each
other.
• Every member of an organization has its own way of behavior.
• Individual differences in psychology are the variations from one
person to another on variables such as attitude, values, self-esteem,
the rate of cognitive development-think of it as all of the little bits
and pieces that set us apart and makes us unique from others.
• It is important for managers to understand individual differences
because they influence the feelings, thoughts, and behavior of
employees.
• Individual differences play a key role in how employees
handle workplace stress and heavily influence workplace
dynamics and culture.
• Our personality differentiates us from other people and
understanding someone's personality gives us clues about
how that person is likely to act and feel in a variety of
situations. In order to effectively manage organizational
behavior, an understanding of different employees'
personalities is helpful.
Research into individual difference
• According to Revelle (2000) research into the differences between
individuals can be split into three broad areas;
1. How knowing individual differences can support predictions of
performance
2. Explaining the dynamics of individual differences
3. Taxonomies of individual difference
Revelle's categorization highlights the multifaceted nature of
individual differences research, encompassing aspects of
personality, cognitive abilities, and personal interests.
Understanding these differences is crucial for fields such as
psychology, education, and human resources, as it helps tailor
interventions, educational strategies, and career guidance to
individual needs and characteristics.
• The most widely researched areas of individual difference relates
to methods of predicting future performance outcome. See pg
75 for different studies- through descriptive approaches.
• Methods for predicting future performance outcomes include;
o Aptitude tests (Sprung and Sprung, 2010)
o Biographical data (Owens, 1976)
o Measures of behaviour (Wernimont and Campbell, 1968)
o Cognitive ability (i.e. Progressive Matrices and Vocabulary Scales,
Raven, 1981)
o Personality (i.e. Five Factor Model of Personality, Digman, 1990)
o Graphology (Guion and Gottier, 1965)
• However, many tests developed after world war 2 in the west
recognizing and explaining the dynamics of individual differences.
Even bringing into our attention that when choosing what tests to use
to predict future performance outcomes, we must consider the
validity and reliability of such tests according to countries legislations
• An increase in diversity results in such benefits as improved
performance, increased number of satisfied customers, and an even
more satisfied workforce
Taxonomies of individual differences
• Personality psychology has not yet established a generally accepted,
systematic framework for distinguishing, ordering, and naming
individual differences in people's behavior and experience. Such a
systematic framework is generally called a taxonomy-Taxonomy is the
science of naming, describing and classifying organisms
• Allport (1961) discovered that there were over 18,000 separate trait
terms used to describe individual personal characteristics.
• Some studies suggested that these traits could be investigated
nomothetically-(relating to, involving, general or universal)
• Eysenck (1973) established a Hierarchical model of personality to
describe inherited personality traits based on three(3) criteria
Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of personality
• Eysenck theorized that at the broadest level of the hierarchy, an
individual's personality can be described in terms of "types." Eysenck
primarily focused on three type variables: extraversion/introversion,
neuroticism/stability, and psychoticism.
• According to Eysenck, personality can be measured – it can be
condensed into the existence of these three ‘super traits’ or ‘super
factors’ (ENP)
• And by understanding these traits then we can understand individual
differences because these traits remain stable, and they all come
from where you are born(genetic) and external forces play a limited
role.
• Extraversion vs introversion (E) The typical extrovert is very
outgoing, seeks the company of other people, enjoys risk-taking
activities and likes sensation-seeking. By contrast, the typical
introvert is rather shy and reserved, tends to prefer his or her own
company, and does not seek stimulation from external factors.
• Neuroticism vs emotional stability (N) neuroticism is typically
someone who is tense, edgy, highly-strung, and irritable and anxiety –
and who worries excessively. By contrast, emotional stability presents
somebody who demonstrates a level of calmness, and who bounces
back rather quickly from emotional upsets.
• Psychoticism relates to morality and compassion.
 Understanding differences among individuals

Figure 2.4 Eysenck’s Hierarchical Model of Personality

All rights reserved. These slides are provided exclusively to CIPS Approved Study Centres for the sole purpose of teaching CIPS Professional Qualifications, they are not to be used for any other purpose and may not be altered, copied,
sold or lent to other parties. Copyright ©2018 CIPS

Leading global excellence in procurement and supply

The Five –Factor
Model (FFM)
Other psychologists talk about the ‘Big Five
personality factors; OCEAN
1. extroversion
2. neuroticism
3. openness to experience
4. conscientiousness
5. agreeableness.
This theory claims that we can describe
ourselves in terms of these five personality
traits/characteristics. See table2.1 pg 78
• Extraversion is indicated by assertive and energetic,.
• Neuroticism is essentially equivalent to emotional instability
and can be seen in irritable and moody behaviors.
• Openness to experience, sometimes referred to as intellect,
indicates an individual’s inquisitiveness, thoughtfulness, and
propensity for intellectually challenging tasks.
• Agreeableness is indicated in empathic, sympathetic, and
kind behaviors.
• Finally, conscientiousness refers to an individual’s sense of
responsibility and duty as well as foresight.
The Five –Factor Model (FFM) critics
• The Big Five personality test is commonly used in the corporate world
as it is known to predict important job-related outcomes, such as job
performance, a person’s potential for burnout, his/her trainability and
subsequent job satisfaction but it is criticized for excluding other
personality factors that could be considered universal.
• It was argued that a six factor should be included to cover humility
and honesty.
• The theory may be limited if applied to different cultures.
Personality development and self-concept -
Rogers humanistic Theory
• Rogers’ theory of personality development was based on humanistic
psychology. According to his approach, everyone exists in a world full
of experiences. These experiences shape our reactions that include
external objects and people. Also, internal thoughts and emotions.
• Roger believed that a person’s behaviour is a factor motivated by self-
actualization tendencies to work and achieve the highest level of their
potential and achievement.
• He supported the views of Maslow hierarchy of needs- self
actualization
• Rogers believed that a person reaches to self-actualization level when
they achieve their goals, wishes and desires at all stages of their life.
• According to Rogers we all have our idea of self concept
• And the self concept is made up of 3 dimensions;
➢self worth
➢self image
➢ideal self
Roger believes that we want to feel, experience and behave in ways
which are consistent with our self-image, and which reflect what we
would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and ideal-
self are to each other, the more consistent we are and the higher our
sense of self-worth.
Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
• Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined
order through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy
to adulthood.
• Stages arise as individuals grow and face new decisions and turning
points during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each stage is
defined by two opposing psychological tendencies – one positive and
negative. From this develops an ego virtue/strength or
maldevelopment, respectively.
• During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis which
could have a positive or negative outcome for personality
development.
• For Erikson (1950, 1963), these crises are of a psychosocial nature
because they involve psychological needs of the individual (i.e.,
psycho) conflicting with the needs of society (i.e., social).
Erikson's 'psychosocial' term is derived from the two source
words:
• psychological (or the root, 'psycho' relating to the mind, brain,
personality, etc) and
• social (external relationships and environment), both at the
heart of Erikson's theory.
• Erikson's psychosocial theory basically asserts that people
experience eight 'psychosocial crisis stages' which
significantly affect each person's development and
personality.
• According to the theory, Life is a series of lessons and
challenges which help us to grow. Erikson's wonderful theory
helps to tell us why. The theory is helpful for child
development, and adults too.
0-1.5 years
Stage 1 — Infancy.
• During this stage, development centers around trust and mistrust. This
stage begins at birth and usually lasts until a baby is 18 months old.
• When your baby is born, they're learning about the world around them.
They're completely dependent on you for care.
• When your baby cries or fusses and you meet their needs by holding,
feeding, and caring for them, you build trust.
• Over time, your baby learns that they can trust other caregivers, too.
• When babies are neglected or their needs aren’t met, they develop
mistrust. If trust isn’t established at this stage of development, it's more
difficult to establish later in life. They may feel a sense of hopelessness
when faced with crisis.
1.5 years- 3years
Stage 2 — Toddlerhood.
• During this stage, which begins at 18 months old and lasts until age
two or three, your toddler's development focuses on autonomy
versus shame or doubt.
• Now, your toddler's learning how to do things for themselves. By
giving praise, you help them establish a foundation for self-belief and
autonomy. If you discourage your toddler or don’t allow them to work
independently, they may feel discouraged, ashamed, and doubtful of
their abilities.
3 years-5years
Stage 3 — Preschool.
• Development at this stage centers around initiative and guilt. This
stage begins at age three and lasts until age five. Here, your child
focuses on doing things independently and begins to develop a sense
of aims and goals.
• When they feel encouraged, these children take the initiative to do
things independently. They feel a sense of purpose in their life. If they
are criticized or discouraged by caregivers, they may feel guilty
instead.
5 years-12 years
• Stage 4 — Early school years.
• Here, development centers around industry and inferiority. This stage
begins at age five and lasts till age 12. During this stage, your child's
becoming aware of their individuality. They see accomplishments in
school and sports and seek praise and support from those around
them.
• If teachers, caregivers, and peers offer support and a sense of
accomplishment, they feel competent and productive. If they don’t
receive positive reinforcement for their accomplishments, they may
feel inferior or incompetent.
12 years-18 years
Stage 5 — Adolescence
• At this stage, development centers around identity and role
confusion. This stage begins at around age 12 and lasts till age 18.
When you hear the psychological term “identity crisis,” it comes from
this stage of development.
• During adolescence, you’re trying to figure out who you are and
establish goals and priorities for your adult life. You’re establishing
your place in the world.
• If young people are overwhelmed by expectations and
responsibilities at this stage, they may not be able to establish their
identity. This leads to confusion about what their needs and goals are.
18 years-40 years
• Stage 6 — Young adulthood
• At this stage, intimacy and isolation are the focus of development.
This stage begins at age 19 and lasts until age 40. During this time in
your life, you are establishing and building upon relationships.
• If you have meaningful relationships with friends and family, you
experience intimacy with others. If you struggle with relationships,
you may feel isolated and lonely.
40years-65years
Stage 7 — Middle adulthood
• The development in this stage is around generativity and stagnation
or self-absorption. This stage begins at age 40 and lasts till age 65.
• When you feel a sense of care and responsibility, it’s called
generativity. You look out for those around you and feel the need to
pass along what you’ve learned to younger generations.
• But if you don’t act as a mentor in some capacity, you may feel bitter
and unhappy. This leads to restlessness and isolation from your
friends, family, and society.
65 years +
Stage 8 — Late adulthood.
• The final stage of the developmental process proposed by Erikson
centers around ego integrity and despair. This stage begins at age 65
and lasts throughout the rest of your life. If you’re satisfied with your
life, you age with grace. You often feel pride in what you’ve
accomplished and want to demonstrate your wisdom to others.
• If you don’t feel a sense of accomplishment when you look back on
your life, you may fall into despair. When that happens, you tend to
focus more on regrets.
• Successful completion of each stage results in a healthy personality
and the acquisition of basic virtues.
• Failure to successfully complete a stage can result in a reduced ability
to complete further stages and therefore an unhealthier personality
and sense of self. These stages, however, can be resolved successfully
later.
• Erikson's theory is useful for teaching, social work, parenting, self-
awareness, managing and coaching, dealing with conflict, and
generally for understanding self and others
Application of Ericksons theory to
management
• The Psychosocial development theory can be utilized in the analysis
of individual behavior in relation to past traumatic experiences and
conflicts with current developmental tasks-and produce relevant
strategies or approaches to manage the individual; e.g
✓Create projects that allow individuals to take charge of their work
tasks
✓Incorporate individuals' interests and ideas into department activities
to send the message that their input matters to you and others.
✓Give children many small choices within acceptable limits.
Compliment good choices within earshot of peers and parents,
keeping it simple and authentic.
• Talk with an individual privately about poor choices. Ask questions to
encourage cause-and-effect thinking about the problem, alternate
choices, and how s/he can solve the problem now. Focus on guiding
them to a solution, not on criticizing her as a person.
• Teach an individual that there is life beyond a mistake
• Be sensitive to the needs of others. Role-play different situations with
individuals and discuss how they want to be treated when they are in
like circumstances. This encourages them to think beyond
themselves.
Emotional Intelligence
• Emotional intelligence, sometimes referred to as EQ ("emotional
quotient"), refers to a person's ability to recognize, understand,
manage, and reason with emotions. It is a critical ability when it
comes to interpersonal communication—and a hot topic not only in
psychology, but in the business world.
• It is defined as the ability to understand and manage your own
emotions, as well as recognize and influence the emotions of those
around you
• Emotional intelligence is widely recognized as a valuable skill that
helps improve communication, management, problem-solving, and
relationships within the workplace.
• Self-awareness is the key emotional intelligence skill behind good
leadership. It's often thought of as the ability to know how you're
feeling and why, and the impact your feelings have on your behavior.
• This suggest that EI is also a skill that researchers believe can be
improved with training and practice.
• In the workplace, managers who consistently outperform their peers
not only have technical knowledge and experience, but more
importantly, they utilize the strategies associated with EI to manage
conflict, reduce stress and as a result, improve their success.
• Gardner (1983) believes that individuals who develop an
understanding of intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence will
better understand how they can choose behaviors and actions that
would be helpful in each situation.
• intrapersonal intelligence regards one's own feelings and emotions,
• interpersonal intelligence enables one to know others' desires,
feelings, and intentions.
Diversity in organizations
• Diversity in the workplace – relates to the differences between individuals,
e.g., race, gender, ethnic groups, age, religion, sexual orientation and
disability.
• Diversity of an organization is the result of decisions made by both
organizations and individuals
• Diversity is driven by the need to take individuals from different
backgrounds and approaches to life and unite them in order to achieve
organizational objectives
• The goal is harmony and alignment
• The reality is usually conflict, unconscious bias and uncomfortable
revelations about organizational justice
Benefits of diversity include the following;
• Can contribute to improved operations through new creative ideas
and perspectives informed by diverse backgrounds.
• Diversity supports organizations to deliver exceptional products,
services and customer experiences.
• Developing an inclusive environment where diversity is valued and
respected requires organizations and managers to extend inclusion
beyond the minimum standards determined by compliance to
legislation.
• To value diversity, organizations must demonstrate a deliberate and
aggressive determination to build diversity into the workforce
• McGregor-Smith Review (2017) highlights how the challenges facing
the UK economy means ‘inclusion’ in necessary to access the widest
pool of talent
Managing diversity
• Managing diversity versus supporting inclusion (Miller, 2018)
• Diversity – recognizing differences and seeking to leverage that
difference to achieve organizational objectives
• Inclusion – valuing and sharing differences and encouraging
contribution from a range of different perspectives.
• Realistic Conflict Theory (Sherif, 1961) suggest that to explain why
inner group conflict, negative prejudices and stereotypes occur
o To reduce prejudice and tension, it is necessary to force groups to
work together to achieve common goals
o A socio-psychological model
• Relative Deprivation Theory (Runciman, 1966) highlights that social
rewards, i.e. respect and esteem, can also contribute to inter-group
conflict
• Social Identify Theory (Tajfel and Turner, 1986) suggest that prejudice
occurs because we tend to see ourselves as part of a group based on
characteristics, i.e. age, gender
o In-group
o Out-group
• There is no legal requirement for organizations to have a diversity
policy in place, but it is best practice for diversity to be valued and
respected in the workplace, and it helps the organization to protect
itself from a legal perspective.
• Green et al (2018) – highlighted several practices that increase the
value and respect for diversity in the workplace;
• Diversity training – so staff have the right skills and an increased
awareness of diversity.
• Financial assistance – support from the government in terms of grants
and reasonable adjustments to allow those with disabilities to have
their unique needs accommodated in the workplace improves the
chance of employment.
• Specific initiatives – introducing specific initiatives for particular
groups, such as support for women returning to the workplace after
maternity leave or a period of caregiving or mentoring provided to
minority groups.
• Support for the physically disabled – to promote employment
amongst physically disabled people through initiatives, such as
vocational counselling and guidance, self-advocacy, the provision of
adapted transport and flexible work schedules.
• Developing an inclusive climate – developing and maintaining a
culture of inclusion with structural support for diverse groups will
help specific initiatives to achieve their objectives.
Types of inequality
• Equality – creating a fairer workplace, where everyone can contribute
and where everyone can be all that they can be, regardless of their
characteristics.
Types of inequality
• • Direct discrimination
• • Indirect discrimination
• • Discrimination by perception
• • Harassment
• • Victimisation
Emotional Intelligence (EI) - use emotional information to guide thinking
and behaviour, and to manage and/or adjust emotions

• EI can be developed and improved over time and through age and
experience
• Managers with highly developed EI generally focuses on an individual’s
unique abilities, rather than a uniform collective
• High-EI managers are more likely to delegate tasks and roles that will help
individuals to achieve their potential
• EI helps managers to understand other people’s emotions and resolve
conflict
• By addressing emotional and social perceptions, managers can proactively
create the conditions for improved individual and group performance
• EI capability enable managers to control their emotional impulses and
observe from a different perspective
• EI can be used for negative purposes:
• o Manipulation
• o Undermining tactics
• o Exposure to public embarrassment