Romanian Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy and Hypnosis

Volume 1, Issue 4, October – December 2014 Research Paper

Parenting style and child anxiety

Corina Dobre
Titu Maiorescu University, Bucharest, Romania

Diana Rădulescu, Simona Gabor, Ana Maria Gherasim, Raluca Vas

Titu Maiorescu University, Bucharest, Romania

Abstract
This study's main objective is to examine the relationship between parenting style of parents
experienced when they were children (in this research called "original") and the parenting style
they use in relation to their children (called "current"). Another objective is investigating the
subscales of parenting style, such as "care", "overprotection", "involvement" and
"empowerment” and how they relate to a number of specific forms of child anxiety.
The battery of tests was applied to a group of children aged between 8 and 11 years (n = 30, M=
9.87; SD=1.37) who completed anxiety questionnaires and scales of evaluating the current
parenting style perception. Their parents completed a questionnaire that highlights native
parenting characteristics.
The results reveal the existence of statistically significant negative correlations between the
child’s separation anxiety and his mother involvement. Also, in terms of the original parenting, it
showed that child separation anxiety is negatively correlated with the maternal care received
from his mother, and the care received from the mother from both her parents.
There were highlighted also statistically significant correlations between child’s social phobia,
obsessive-compulsive disorder and his father overprotection. Agoraphobia negatively correlated
with "care", that relates to the original parenting style.

Keywords: parenting style, child's anxiety, overprotection, autonomy, care.

Corresponding author: Corina Dobre

Phone number: 0723.654.453
E-mail address: corina.dobre0@gmail.com

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I. INTRODUCTION

From childhood to adolescence, parents play an important role in regulating child’s

emotions and behaviors, but also in the development of self-esteem and identity (Shaffer & Kipp,
2010). The parenting style of the mother and father are formed over time due to their different
perceptions about child education, starting with cultural differences. Also, the parenting style is
based on a different process of socialization, specific to the gender nuances (Barber, 1996).
Therefore, the same situation involving education of the child if the parents produce different
reactions leading to the formation of different parenting styles. These statements refer to
different perceptions of parents related to dangerous situations and harmful to the child (Belsky,
Putnam & Crnic, 2006).
The first theory about parenting style was developed by Baumrind (2005), who identified
three types: dictatorial, authoritarian and permissive. Authoritarian style allows the child to form
an independent personality, his parents being supporters of his behavior, but at the same time
maintaining firm in terms of standards (Baumrind, 1991). Both dictatorial parenting style and the
permissive one constrain optimal child development.
Children and adolescents who have been brought up in a dictatorial style tend to have
average results at school, underdeveloped social skills, low self-esteem and are prone to
depression (Darling & Steinberg, 1993). Children who come from an environment with
permissive parenting are performing poorly in school, but sometimes show a high level of self-
esteem and good social skills (Darling, 1999). Underlining the idea that parenting style
influences child development, Parker, Tupling and Brown (1979) described two types of
parenting, represented by care and overprotection/control.
The study’s results that are based on this theory have shown that people suffering from
neurotic disorders are blaming low parental care and protection, while chronic diseases (asthma)
and certain behaviors and disorders of infancy (dependence on parents, separation anxiety) are
related to an increased level of overprotection (Parker, Kiloh, & Hayword, 1987; Shilov, Parker,
Hadzi - Pavlovic, Manicavasagar & Blaszczynski, 1991).
Regarding the influence of parenting styles on child development, not only the child’s
attributes and internal resources are determined by the parents, but also the ability of self-
regulation and self-evaluation (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Thomas, 1980).
The study by Grolnick and Ryan (1989) show that parental motivation and support have a
result in higher academic performance, rather than passively or overprotectiveness. Baldwin
(2007) found that parenting styles are associated with optimism, which translates into a high
level of influence between the child’s acceptance of the parenting style and his level of happiness
and self-acceptance. Furthermore, a high level of control exercised by the mother, associated

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with a low level of emotional involvement of the father leads to deficits in attention and
behaviors like vandalism, violation of rules and threatening others (Gadeyne, Ghesquiere &
Onghena, 2004). Also, the father’s involvement during child development is extremely
important; a good father-child relationship is associated with the lack of emotional and
behavioral difficulties in adolescence and a greater level of academic motivation (Flouri &
Buchanan, 2004).
Making a field studies review, we find the development of some research that seeks to
support the hypothesis of the existing relationship between parenting style and socio-emotional
development of children (Belsky, Putnam & Crnic, 1996; Betts, Gullone, Allen, 2010; Rubin,
Cheah & Fox, 2001).
Karazsia and Wildman (2008) have attempted to highlight how parent’s behavior is
mediating the relationship between positive affects (PA) and negative affects (NA) and children's
behavioral problems. The results on a number of 1461 subjects argue that both negative and
positive affects are influenced in early and middle childhood by parental behaviors. Specifically,
maladaptive behaviors of parents mediate the relationship between maternal affects and
children's behavioral problems (Karazsia & Wildman, 2008).
In another study, Aunola and Nurmi (2005) tried to highlight the combination of
parenting styles of mothers and fathers, which best predicts the type of behavioral problems -
internal / external of children. These styles are: affection, controlling behavior and psychological
control. The results showed that high levels of psychological control exercised by the mother
(guilt, manipulation, threats of withdrawal of love), associated with increased levels of affection,
leads to increased behavioral problems in children (i.e. drug use, early sexual behavior problems,
specific problems to the period of adolescence) (Aunola & Nurmi, 2005).
On the other hand, behavioral control exercised by the mother (behavior monitoring,
setting limits, demands on highlighting maturity) lowers behavioral problems of external type
(anger and aggressive behavior) of the children, if associated with a low level of psychological
control (Aunola & Nurmi, 2005).
In a series of research is argued that in addition to behavior problems, parenting style
influences children's anxiety level (Ginsburg, Siqueland, Masia - Warner, Hedtke, 2004; Rapee,
1997; Chorpita & Barlow, 1998). For most children, however anxiety is a common experience,
transient and functional, differing in shape and intensity, depending on the stage of development
(Last, Perrin, Herseni, Kazdin, 1996), but sometimes the severity of these symptoms can reach
levels similar to those of adult (Last, 1993 as cited in Last et al., 1996).
Research results have shown a strong relationship between child anxiety and
overprotective parents. When parents exercise an exaggerate control over the child, reflected by
critics, penalties, invasion of privacy, this child will grow anxious, with a low confidence level in

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make decisions on his own (Parker, 1991). A dictatorial parenting style contributes to the
development of a cognitive model in which the child believes that all results are determined by
external factors (Block & Kremen, 1998). The child will experience the feeling of lack of control
over any situation that involves him (Heimberg & Spokas, 2007). In a study made by Wood
(2006) on a sample of 40 children, diagnosed with anxiety disorder, has shown that an intrusive
parenting style, characterized by unnecessary assistance in daily tasks of the child and the
invasion of privacy, causes separation anxiety in child development. Also, the dread of anxiety is
associated with the parenting style (Erozkan, 2012). Therefore, the emotional warmth of parents
was associated negatively with anxiety, and as the child feels more affection from his parent’s
part, the chances that he becomes anxious become smaller (Landis & Stone, 1952 as cited by
Erozkan, 2012).
Based on these aspects, the present study seeks to investigate primarily the relationship
between parenting style of parents experienced in their own childhood and the parenting style
used in relation to their children. Secondly, it examines whether there is an association between
parenting style and child's anxiety level.

II. OBJECTIVES AND HYPOTHESIS

This study has as primary objective to identify the relationship between the parenting
style experienced by parents in their childhood (for which we will use in this study, the term
"original") and the parenting style used in relationship with their children (here studied under the
name of "current"). Original parenting style is defined by two sub-dimensions: "care" and "over-
protection". Current parenting style is defined by overtones "involvement" and "autonomy".
Also, the second objective of the research is to identify an association between the
original or current parenting style and the anxiety level of children.
The established general hypothesis is: There is an association between the original
parenting style and the current parenting style in the investigated group.
The specific hypotheses are:
 There is a significant association between subscale "overprotection" of the original
parenting construct and the subscale "autonomy" of the current parenting construct.
 There is a significant association between the autonomy granted by the parents and child
anxiety.
 There is a significant association between the level of involvement of parents and the
child's anxiety level.
 There is a significant correlation between the subscale "overprotection" of the original
construct of parenting and child anxiety.

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 There is a significant correlation between the subscale „care" of the original construct of
parenting and child’s anxiety.

2.1. Participants
The study was conducted on a sample of 30 children and parents. Children aged between
8 and 11 years (M = 9.87, SD = 1.137). The sample includes a total of 14 girls and 16 boys.
Maternal age is between 29 and 48 years (M = 38.33; SD = 3.854) and between 31 and 48 for the
fathers (M = 39.77, SD = 3.854).

2.2. Instruments

Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI, Parker, Tupling & Brown, 1979) measures how
fundamental parenting styles are perceived by measuring the variable "care", "overprotection" /
"control". The scale was applied to both parents of each child who participated in the research.
Adults complete the test, using their recalled memory to identify how they perceived their par-
ents in the first 16 years of life. Subjects have 4 possible answers, from "very likely" to "very
unlikely". Following the interpretation of the results, parents can be included in one of these
parenting styles "emotional coercion", "control based and deprived of affection", "optimal" or
"negligent".
In the original study published by Parker, Tupling & Brown in the British Journal of
Medical Psychology (1979), they evaluated 150 students and nurses and 500 volunteers. PBI has
proven to be valid, the results were confirmed in subsequent retesting, which followed in large
periods of time. For this study, the internal calculated consistency of the scale was a good one
and the Cronbach's alpha coefficient for each of the subscales are: for the subscale "care" as it re-
lates to the mother, Cronbach's alpha 0.94, and 0.80 for the father. For subscale "overprotection"
the mother had Cronbach's alpha value of 0.86 and 0.87 for the father.
Spence Children's Anxiety Scale (Spence, 1997) is a self-assessment tool for children.
The scale is designed to identify the symptoms describing the separation anxiety, social phobia,
obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorders, agoraphobia, generalized anxiety and the fear of
physical harm. Most data come from applying the test on a sample of 2052 children aged 8 to 12
years, of which 851 boys and 1201 girls, students in the city of Brisbane, Australia (Spence,
1998). The scale contains 44 items, of which 38 reflect the specific symptoms of anxiety and 6
have positive connotations. Subjects are asked to circle the corresponding subscale of the
frequency of experiencing each symptom, rated from 0 to 3, where 0 corresponds to answer
"never" and 3 "always". The consistency of the scale was checked and the Cronbach's alpha was
0.93. The results for each subscale are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1. Cronbach's alpha for the subscales of Spence Children's Anxiety Scale
Subscale Cronbach's alpha

Separation anxiety 0.81

Social fobia 0.83

Obsessive compulsive
0.84
disorder
Agoraphobia 0.94

Fear of injury 0.93

Generalised anxiety 0.94

The perceptions of parent’s scales (POPS, Grolnick, Ryan & So, 1997) consist of 22
items, 11 for mothers and 11 for fathers. The scale measures the children's perception of the
degree of involvement of parents in their lives, but also on the level of autonomy that they
provide. Each item presents four possible answers and the subject of chooses the one that best
describes his reality. For this study, the internal consistency of the scale was Cronbach's alpha of
0.80.

The procedure
The battery of questionnaires was distributed to children in classes II, III and IV from
several schools in Bucharest, in the classroom. Previously, about 90 students received a letter for
them and their parents with a request to participate in a research on parenting style and child
anxiety. The active consent was obtained from 70 families (54.4% of cases). The researcher also
asked teachers and the school for permission to access the classroom and makes the
investigation.
Each set of questionnaires was placed in an envelope, and parents were instructed to seal
the envelope after completing forms. A deadline was set for returning responses and on an
agreed time, the sealed batteries questionnaires were collected directly by the researcher.
Questionnaires were completed in an anonymous way. Subsequently a code was used, written on
each set in order to pair the responses from members of the family. Out of 70 sets of distributed
questionnaires, 37 were returned, and 7 of them were filled only by a parent, whether the father
or the mother. In the end, a total of 30 questionnaires were retained, answered by both parents
and children.

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III. RESULTS

Correlation analysis was performed using Pearson coefficient calculation, following the
establishment of the normal distribution of the recorded data.
The first hypothesis that there is an association between the original parenting style and
the current parenting style was not supported by the data of this study. Therefore, the results
showed that there isn’t a significant statistical correlation between variables "maternal
involvement" and "paternal involvement", which measures the current parenting style and the
corresponding variables subscale "care", afferent to the original parenting style. It was also found
that there are not significant statistical correlations between variables "mother granted
autonomy" and "father granted autonomy" as showed by the POPS variables corresponding to
PBI scales "overprotection" and "care", for each parent.
For verifying the the following assumptions, results showed that: separation anxiety
scores for children correlate negatively, statistically significant with the mother’s involvement (r
= -0.39, p <0.05).
The scores for obsessive-compulsive disorder, correlated positively, statistically
significant with the autonomy granted by the father (r = 0.415, p <0.05) (see Table 2).
Further verification results, obtained after verifying correlations supported by the fourth
and fifth hypotheses are presented in Table. 3.
Thus it was found that the child's separation anxiety correlates negatively, statistically
significantly with maternal care received from her mother (r = -0.41, p <0.05). The child’s
separation anxiety is negatively correlated with the mother received care from both her parents (r
= -0.41, p <0.05).

Table 2. Pearson correlations between the current parenting style and anxiety.

Mother’s Father’s Total Mother’s Father’s Total

involvement involvement involvement autonomy autonomy autonomy

Separation anxiety -.39* -0.18 -0.30 -0.03 -0.02 -0.03

Social fobia 0.12 -0.06 0.07 -0.05 -0.00 -0.03
OCD 0.01 0.25 0.13 -0.06 .42* 0.24
Agoraphobia 0.03 0.25 0.15 -0.15 0.30 0.11
Fear of injury -0.25 -0.05 -0.16 -0.05 0.26 0.14
Generalised anxiety -0.14 -0.08 -0.12 -0.19 0.02 -0.09
Anxiety total -0.10 0.06 -0.02 -0.11 0.23 0.09

Note: * p<0.05; ** p<0.01: n=30

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Table 3. Pearson correlations between the original parenting style and anxiety

Father
Father O Care OP OP OP OP
Mother Father Mother Mother Father Father M M OP F F OP
care care care care C Care O mother Father M mother father F

Separation anxiety -.41* -0.29 -.41* -0.28 -0.15 -0.32 0.17 0.01 0.10 -0.01 -0.11 -0.09

Social fobia -0.02 -0.03 -0.03 -0.03 -0.18 -0.18 -0.19 -0.18 -0.21 0.03 -.38* -0.26
OCD -0.25 -0.10 -0.20 -0.16 -0.04 -0.14 0.20 0.05 0.14 0.03 -.39* -0.27
Agoraphobia -0.13 -0.31 -0.26 -0.29 -0.32 -.48** 0.15 0.08 0.13 0.10 -0.31 -0.16
Fear of injury -0.32 0.01 -0.17 -0.01 -0.22 -0.20 0.19 -0.14 0.02 -0.13 -0.22 -0.23
Generalized anxiety -0.30 -0.10 -0.22 -0.14 -0.16 -0.23 0.01 -0.12 -0.08 -0.16 -0.33 -0.33

Anxiety total -0.29 -0.20 -0.28 -0.22 -0.22 -0.34 0.13 -0.03 0.05 -0.01 -.36* -0.27

Note* p<0.05; ** p<0.01: n=30

The child’s social phobia correlated negatively statistically significant with father
overprotection, received from his father (r = -0.38, p <0.05).
The child’s obsessive-compulsive disorder correlated negatively statistically significant
with father overprotection, received from his father (r = -0.39, p <0.05).
The child’s agoraphobia correlated negatively statistically significant, with the subscale
father’s "care", associated to the original parenting style, respectively with the care received by
the father in his childhood (r = -0.48, p <0.01).
Total child’s anxiety correlated negatively, statistically significant with the subscale
"father overprotection" associated to the original parenting style (r = -0.36, p <0.05).

IV. DISCUTIONS

In the present research, the assumption that an association can be established between the
original and current parenting style was not confirmed.
Studies show that parenting style can be measured both by questionnaires, the choice
made for this study and by observing interactions between parents and their children
(IJzendoorn, 1992). A meta-analysis conducted on the basis of 30 studies on the transmission of
parenting model, IJzendoorn (1992) concludes that "the most promising and conclusive results
regarding the transmission of the parenting style were obtained in studies that used measurement
methods based on observation and those that have used the Adult Attachment Inventory for
operational current internal representation of experiences in childhood ".

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Testing hypotheses about original and current parenting styles and children anxiety
reveals the existence of statistically significant correlations of subscales of the parenting styles,
namely autonomy, care and involvement given to the child by his parents.
Regarding hypothesis 2 on the association between autonomy granted by parents and
children anxiety, a positive statistically significant correlation between the autonomy granted by
the father and the scores for obsessive-compulsive child, was achieved (r = 0.415, p˂0.05).
Traditionally, the autonomy granted by parents was considered the reverse of parental control
(Rapee, 1997), many studies focusing more on investigating control in its various aspects:
psychological control, behavioral, overprotection (Balash et al., 2006, Gere et al., 2012; Woods,
2006) and less on specific investigation of autonomy.
McLeod, Wood, Weisz (2007) explicitly define autonomy granted by parents and
establish that that low levels of granting autonomy are strongly correlated with high levels of
child anxiety, therefore a negative correlation between the two variables.
Bögels, Verhoeven and Bruggen (2012) consider the autonomy granted by the parents a
subdivision independent of the parenting style and from this perspective the results of this re-
search support those of this study: there are positive correlations between maternal and paternal
autonomy to children younger than 10 years.
Hypothesis 3 is only partially confirmed, marking a statistically significant negative
correlation between maternal involvement and separation anxiety (r = -0.39, p <0.05). Emotional
warmth of parents was negatively associated with anxiety, in other words, as the child feels more
affection from his parents, the chances for him to become anxious are smaller (Landis & Stone,
1952 as cited Erozkan, 2012). A mother who is careful and constant involved in her child's life
will provide him premises to perceive the world as a place that you can conquer, being able to
experience her knowledge without excessive fear of the unknown. The lack of maternal care and
the association with the child’s separation anxiety appear to be transmitted transgenerational
issues, the variable "care" corresponding to the scale applied to mothers, significantly and
negatively correlating with the child’s separation anxiety in this study (r = -0.41, p <0.05 )
(hypothesis 5).
It should be noted that in the studies that are based on the assumption that parental over-
protection and lack of autonomy are associated with various forms of anxiety, the results are
contradictory. Van Der Bruggen, Stams and Bögels (2008) conducted a meta-analysis on a group
of 1300 parent-child dyads, analyzing the data of 23 studies and show that there is a close
correlation between overprotection and child anxiety. On the other hand, Gere et al. (2012), in a
re-search conducted on a sample of 190 children, suggests that there isn’t a direct correlation
between parental overprotection, and this being mediated by children's behaviors associated with
anxiety.

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Our research hypotheses assumed a connection between the parenting style experienced
by parents in childhood, measured by the two subscales - "care" and "overprotection" and the
symptoms experienced by the child - anxiety. Regis rated results showed that the care perceived
by the mother and the overprotection perceived by the father correlated with certain forms of
anxiety. Hypothesis 5, partially confirmed, referred to the results reflected by the scores of the
care perceived by the mother in childhood that correlated statistically significant with those that
reflect the child's separation anxiety (r = -0.41, p <0.05). Corroborating confirmations for the
assumptions 3 and 5 on the scale involvement / maternal care - separation anxiety from the
perspective of the child and also the mother, provides an indirect evidence that, at least in terms
of maternal manifested care, the parenting style is passed on from one generation to another.
Under normal circumstances, a mother who was emotionally secure and has internalized
a positive relationship model with her own mother will transmit this relationship further, being
attentive to the needs of her child and constantly satisfying them (Bowlby, 1988; Main, Kaplan,
& Cassidy, 1985).
Hypothesis 4, partially confirmed, shows that there is a mild association between father’s
perceived overprotection and obsessive-compulsive symptoms (r = -0.39, p <0.05) and child’s
social phobia (r = -0.38, p <0.05). Although the correlation between the autonomy granted by
parents and anxiety is a positive one, the over protectiveness experienced by the father is
negatively correlated with certain forms of child anxiety. Confirmation hypotheses 4 and 5 leave
room for further discussion on how the parental vulnerabilities are transmitted to children, as
shown in studies conducted by Caspi, Bern, & Eider (1989).
The main limitations of this study are related to the small number of participants, the lack
of representativeness of the sample of Romania population, the non-experimental design of a
corelational type and other methodological factors that are being discussed below.
Lack of representativeness of the sample was given by the fact that families who
participed in the study belong to middle class, parents have higher education and have access to
the best educational information.
This non-experimental design of a correlational type of this study allows us to underline a
link between analyzed variables and to determine the intensity of this association, without giving
us clues about the direction of the association in question. For this reason we cannot affirm, for
example, that a negative parenting style causes the development of the child’s anxiety or on the
contrary, a child’s anxious behavior causes a certain style of parenting.
Investigation of the parenting style on both parents and children required a selection of
different work tools depending on the age of the subjects. Thus we chose PBI, applicable
retrospectively on parents and POPS, an adapted tool for children and adolescents, both scales
measuring how subjects perceive the manner in which they were or are educated. However the

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use of tools that operationalize somewhat different the parenting style has led to difficulties in
establishing statistically significant correlations and subsequently in identifying those elements
that could be transmitted from one generation to another. The instruments used in this study were
used in this research in a pilot study.
Another limitation of the study is the fact that both scales above are based on information
supplied by the beneficiary that had his parenting style evaluated. This evaluation involves a
degree of subjectivity which has not been corrected by another type of measurement, for
example observation or by a third party.
It is considered that the questionnaires of measuring parenting style and interviews,
underestimate the intensity of correlations between the parenting style and child anxiety,
compared to observational measurements (McLeod et al., 2007).
Another methodological factor highlighted by McLeod et al. (2007) with an influence on
the importance of the association between parenting style and child anxiety is the measurement
method of child’s anxiety. These authors found that the clinical samples, in which anxiety
disorders have a clear diagnostic, generated stronger correlations than when children’s anxiety
was assessed on the basis of questionnaires in a non-clinical sample. Our study falls in the last
mentioned category, this constituting itself into a possible explanation for the weak correlation
between certain types of anxiety and the subscales of parenting style.

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