M. Ed. Spl. Ed. (H.I. / I.D.

)
ODL Programme

AREA - A
A 1: DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION AND
SPECIAL EDUCATION

A COLLABORATIVE PROGRAMME OF
NETAJI SUBHAS OPEN UNIVERSITY
AND
REHABILITATION COUNCIL OF INDIA

1
 AREA - A CORE COURSE
COURSE CODE-A 1
TITLE-DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION AND SPECIAL EDUCATION
Chairman Prof. Subha Sankar Sarkar, Vice Chancellor,
Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata-700 064
Convenor Prof. Atindranath Dey, Director,
School of Education, Netaji Subhas Open University, Kolkata-700 064

RCI Expert Committee

Dr. Jayanthi Narayan Former Deputy Director, NIMH, Secunderabad.
Dr. Varsha Gathoo Head and Reader, Department of Education, AYJNISHD (D), Mumbai.
Dr. Sanjay Kumar Assistant Professor, DSMNRU, Lucknow,
Shri Ashok Chakraborty Ex- Chairperson, ZCC, RCI & Secretary, SHELTER.
Dr. Hemant Singh Keshwal Assistant Prof. of Special Education and Centre In- Charge, NIEPID- RC, Kolkata.
Shri Suman Kumar Assistant Professor of Speech & Hearing, AYJNISHD- RC, Kolkata.
Professor A. N. Dey Director, School of Education, NSOU.
Smt. Antara Choudhury Assistant Professor of Special Education, School of Education, NSOU.
NSOU Expert Committee [Board of Studies (BoS)]
Professor A. N. Dey Director, School of Education, NSOU.
Professor Dulal Mukhopadhyay Professor of Education (Retd), NSOU.
Shri Ashok Chakraborty Ex- Chairperson, ZCC, RCI & Secretary, SHELTER,
Professor Debasri Banerjee Professor of Education, Department of Education, University of Calcutta
Dr. Hemant Singh Keshwal Assistant Prof. of Spl. Education and Centre In- Charge, NIEPID-RC, Kolkata.
Shri Suman Kumar Assistant Professor of Speech & Hearing, AYJNISHD- RC, Kolkata.
Professor Swapan Kr. Sarkar Head, SoE, NSOU
Prof. Sanat Kumar Ghosh Professor of Education, SoE, NSOU.
Professor Sumanta Chattaraj Professor of Education, SoE, NSOU.
Smt. Swapna Deb Consultant, SoE, NSOU.
Smt. Antara Choudhury Assistant Professor of Special Education, School of Education, NSOU.
Dr. Abhedananda Panigrahi Coordinator, B. Ed., SoE, NSOU.
Shri Prabir Naskar Assistant Professor of Special Education, SoE, NSOU.
Title : Developments in Education and Special Education
Unit Name of the Unit Writer Name of the Editor
Unit-1 Dr. Keka Trivedi, Asst. Prof., PGIEW, Chandannagar, Hooghly, W.B. Prof. Sanat Kumar Ghosh,
Unit-2 Dr. Shyamashree Sur, Asst. Prof., Siddhinath Mahavidyalaya, Prof. of Education, SoE, NSOU
Panshkura, Purba Mednipur,W.B.
Unit-3 Dr. Abhedananda Panigrahi, Coordinator, B.Ed. NSOU, W.B.
Unit-4 Dr. Sairindhree Sen, Asst. Prof., Gopal Ch. Memorial College of Edu.,W.B.
Unit-5 Dr. Priyanka Bose (Das), Asst. Prof. Budge Budge College, (S) 24Pgs.,W.B.
General and Format Editing Smt. Swapna Deb, Consultant, SoE, NSOU.,
Smt. Mandira Chakraborty, Academic Consultant,
SoE, NSOU

Programme Coordinator Smt. Antara Choudhury, Asst. Professor of

Special Education, School of Education, NSOU.
The Self Instructional Material (SIM) is prepared keeping conformity with the M.Ed.Spl. Edn.(HI/ID) Programme as prepared and
circulated by the Rehabilitation Council of India, New Delhi and adopted by NSOU on and from the 2020-2022 academic session.
All rights reserved. No part of this work can be reproduced in any form without the written
permission from the NSOU authorities. Mohan Kumar Chattopadhyay
Registrar

2
 Prologue
I am delighted to write this foreword for the Self Learning Materials (SLM) of M
Ed in Special Education (ODL). The M Ed in Special Education in ODL mode is a new
academic program to be introduced at this University as per NOC issued by the
Rehabilitation Council of India, New Delhi and subject to approval of the program by
the DEB-UGC.
I must admire the emulation taken by the colleagues from School of Education
(SoE) of NSOU for developing the Course Structure, Unit wise details of contents,
identifying the Content Writers, distribution of job of content writing, editing of the
contents by the senior subject experts, making DTP work and also developing E-SLMs
of all the 16 Papers of the M Ed program. I also extend my sincere thanks to each of the
Content Writers and Editors for making it possible to prepare all the SLMs as necessary
for the program. All of them helped the University enormously. My colleagues in SoE
fulfilled a tremendous task of doing all the activities related to preparation of M Ed in
Spl Edn SLMs in war footing within the given time line.
The conceptual gamut of Education and Special Education has been extended to a
broad spectrum. Helen Keller has rightly discerned that "Have you ever been at sea in
a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in and the great
ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-
line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship
before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding line, and no way
of knowing how near the harbour was. "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry
of my soul, and the light of love shone on me in that very hour." So education is the
only tool to empower people to encounter his/her challenges and come over being
champion. Thus the professional Teacher Education program in Special Education can
only groom the personnel as required to run such academic institutions which cater to
the needs of the discipline.
I am hopeful that the SLMs as developed by the eminent subject experts, from the
national as well as local pools, will be of much help to the learners. Hope that the
learners of the M Ed Spl Edn program will take advantage of using the SLMs and make
most out of it to fulfil their academic goal. However, any suggestion for further
improvement of the SLMs is most welcome.

Professor (Dr.) Subha Sankar Sarkar

Vice-Chancellor, NSOU

3
 First Edition : December, 2019

Printed in accordance with the regulations of the Distance Education Bureau,

University Grants Commission, Government of India

4
 A1
DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION AND
SPECIAL EDUCATION
Unit 1: An Overview of Development of Education System
1.1 Shaping of Education in Pre-Independence India
1.2 Shaping of Education in Post-Independence India
1.3 Emerging Education in India and in the Global Context
1.4 Perspectives of Education for the Persons with Disabilities
1.5 Constitutional Provisions and Directive Principles Related to Education and Special
Education

Unit 2 : Issues in Indian Education with Special Reference to Persons with

Disabilities
2.1 Accessibility to School, Curriculum & Learning Resources and Attitudinal Barriers
2.2 Analysis of the Status of Elementary & Secondary Education for All. (SSA,
RMSA,) and Issues for Bridging Gaps
2.3 Ensuring Equity Principles across Disabilities, Gender, Caste, Socially
Disadvantaged Groups, Marginalized and their Specific Educational Problems
2.4 Challenges of Special Education, Inclusion, Systemic Reforms, Provisions and
Support System, Public Private Partnership & NGO Initiatives
2.5 Support Systems to Meet Diverse Learning Needs- Family, Community, School,
Peer, Administrative and Resource Support

Unit 3: Policies and Legislations for Education & Special Education Development of
Special Education in India
3.1 National Legislations (RCI Act 1992, PWD Act 1995, National Trust Act, Biwako
Millennium Framework)
3.2 International Legislations for Special Education and International Organisations
(UNESCAP, UNCRPD, WHO, UNICEF, NESCO, UNDP, Action Aid, CBM)
3.3 National Policies (POA 1992, SSA, RMSA and RUSA) & Government Schemes
and Provisions for Persons with Disabilities
3.4 Role of Governmental and non-governmental agencies in general and special
education

5
 3.5 Current issues- Identifications, Labelling, cultural and linguistic diversity &
advocacy

Unit 4 : Quality Issues in Education

4.1 Indicators of quality related to teaching - learning strategies, classroom
environment, and Student Assessment
4.2 Linking pedagogy with curriculum, contextual constructivism
4.3 Ensuring standards in Open & Distance Learning system - Non-formal education,
face-to-face vs. Distance mode
4.4 Special and Inclusive education - Adopting flexible strategies for the acquisition and
use of inputs and monitoring performance in inclusive set up
4.5 Quality enhancement in service delivery and community rehabilitation

Unit 5: Current Trends and Future Perspective

5.1 Education as a development indicator, and enhancer of development indicators
5.2 Education for sustainable development & Right based approach
5.3 International curriculum framework in the light of changing priorities and
international perspectives
5.4 Education for conservation of environment and social change
5.5 Education for individual and national development

6
 A1
Netaji Subhas Open DEVELOPMENTS IN
University EDUCATION AND SPECIAL
EDUCATION

A1 p DEVELOPMENTS IN EDUCATION AND SPECIAL

EDUCATION
UNIT p 1 AN OVERVIEW OF DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION SYSTEM 09 - 45

UNIT p 2 ISSUES IN INDIAN EDUCATION WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE

TO PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES 46 - 167

UNIT p 3 POLICIES AND LEGISLATIONS FOR EDUCATION & SPECIAL

EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN INDIA 168-221

UNIT p 4 QUALITY ISSUES IN EDUCATION 222-294

UNIT p 5 CURRENT TRENDS AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVE 295-314

7
8
Unit I p An Overview of Development of
Education System
Structure
1.1. Introduction
1.2. Objectives
1.3. Shaping of Education in Pre-independence India
1.4. Shaping of India in Post-independent India
1.5. Emerging Education in India and in the Global Context
1.6. Perspectives of Education for the Persons with Disabilities
1.7. Constitutional Provisions and Directive Principles Related to Education
and Special Education
1.8. Let us Sum Up
1.9. Unit End Exercises
1.10. References

1.1. Introduction
The modern Indian education system is carrying the legacy of British education system.
19th century onwards the modern education in India was started to influence the existing
traditional indigenous education in Indian. Starting from Wood’s Dispatch of 1854
to Sargent Report of 1944 in pre-independent India and University Education
Commission (1948-49) to RTE Act, 2009 and thereafter in post-independent India,the
education system had undergone several changes. Inclusive education is the order of
the day. Regular mainstream educational services combined with education of special
need children is a model often referred to as inclusion. Inclusive education is the
latest human face of special education which advocates integration, inclusion, no
rejection, exclusion or mere protection. It believes in conception of EFA as a matter
of human rights envisaged in UN Declaration in 1948. The human right issue has
percolated in the thinking of scholars resulting into mainstreaming and inclusion.
Inclusive education commonly embraces different aspect of special education. But
in its true sense it has a wider area, containing aspects of education, rehabilitation

9
and vocational empowerment of all types of educationally minorities besides the
children with special needs. Mainstreaming of handicapped children was first time
advocated by the Indian Education Commission (1964-66) in the ordinary schools to
establish social justice and to implement constitutional directive to education for all
up to 14 year olds. Gradually inclusive education became popular in Indian education
system with the advent of SSA and RTE, 2009. Inclusive education must be incorporated
in the teacher training course, as the teachers are responsible for creating inclusive
classrooms. This Unit has attempted to identify rights based inclusive policies in
Indian education, its needs and characteristics, issues and developments in the field
so far. The present Unit attempts a qualitative treatment of the subject.It discusses an
overview of the education policies, issues that helped in shaping up the existing
general education system in India and the policy developments in India and international
level on education of especially in CWD.

1.2. Objectives:
After going through the unit you will be able to -
1. Describe the salient features of educational policies in Pre-Independent India;
2. Discuss policies, issues and recommendations of Different Education Commissions
and Committees in Post-Independent India;
3. Define the concept and perspective of educational need of children with special
needs;
4. Discuss developments of Education for PWD in India and in global context;
5. Prepare a list of constitutional provision and Directive Principles related to
Education and Special Education.

1.3. Shaping of Education in Pre-Independence India

Shaping of education in pre-Independence India is very much remarkable because it
shaped the future structure of education in India mixing eastern and western knowledge.
It had an evolutionary process. From the late eighteenth century gradually missionaries
became active to introduce a theological type of western education in India. At the
beginning of nineteenth century, missionaries began to spread theology and education
both sometimes ignoring the scientific education. They encouraged the study of the
English language and literature; missionaries established different primary schools

10
for general learners and orphans. Among these missionaries Portuguese, Dutch, Danes
and British missionaries were very common. In this context of education in pre-
independent India, the year 1813 should be mentioned specially. In Charter Act of
1813, the clause related to education was accepted and provision was made for it by
setting aside Rs. 10,000 each year to be spent for education. In 1823, a committee of
Public Instruction was appointed to deal with the matter regarding education. In the
meantime, indigenous schools were formed and it was decided that all the schools
maintained by the government were placed under the Directorate of public instruction.
These included the Kolkata Madrasah, the Sanskrit College at Banaras and a few
other significant educational institutions. A fund was raised to promote education.
Later in the Charter of 1833, the amount to be spent on education was raised to Rs
1,00,000 by the company.
In spite of western line of education system in pre independent India, there was eastern
lines too, coming from the Upanishadic period and crossing the Buddhist and other
religious forms of education the eastern education was searching its own wing by
accepting the changes and current scientific ideas. In this aspect the school education
was affected much more. On 1800 A.D., both Fort William College and William
Carry’s Mission were established. From these two organizations and many books
were published. These books were written on different subjects. Apart from it, different
educational movements were started. Rammohan, Derozians and later Pandit Ishwar
Chandra Vidyasagar also helped a lot to reshape the educational system of India.
Modern education began in India with all these perspectives under the British rule.
Ideas of Rammohan Roy, Derozian and Vidyasagar helped the British government
very much to re-shape a new and modern education in India. Actually,new Indian
Education began with the combination of traditional elements such as Indian Mathematics
along with Europeans Logic, History, Philosophy etc.in the modern universities
established during the British rule in 19th century.
1.3.1. Macaulay’s Minute of 1835:
The most important shaping of education was done through the Macaulay’s Minute
(1835). At that time, the‘downward filtration theory’ was the basic approach in education.
When Lord William Bentinck was the Governor General,Lord Macaulay came to
India as a law member of the council of Governor General on 10th June, 1834. At the
peak hour of Anglicist-Orientalist controversy regarding the allotment of fund and
the medium of instruction, whether it would be indigenous language or English. To
resolve the controversy, Lord Macaulay submitted his minute on 2nd February, 1835

11
and as a result English became the medium of instruction. Thus, from 1835, the
foundation stone of the western system of education was laid in India under East
India Company. Since then a new approach emerged in the field of Indian Education
known as Downward Filtration Theory. In this respect the concept of model schools
and institutions came into being. Here, an opinion of Arther Mayhew can be quoted;
he said “Education is to be filtered to the common people drop by drop. In this way
in due course of time the higher classes of society could influence the common people”.
Actually, Macaulay presented the idea of Downward Filtration theory. According to
Macaulay if the upper classes in India were educated with western education it would
automatically flow downwards to the subaltern classes. However, it should be noted
that government began to take the measures to implement downward filtration theory
in education.
1.3.2. Wood’s Dispatch of 1854::
In this respect of downward filtration theory, the emergence of Wood’s Dispatchwas
found very significant in Indian education. The dispatch observed “the system of
Science and Philosophy which forms the barring of the east is full of grave errors and
English literature is at best deficient as regards all modern discovery and improvement”.
After discussion, Wood’s Dispatch declared that “we must empathically declare that
the education which we desire to see extended in India is that which has for its object
the diffusion of the impressed arts, Science, Philosophy and Literature of Europe, in
short of European knowledge”. This Despatch came into being on the 19thJuly, 1854.
The Wood’s Despatch formulated a definite educational policy and made the government
responsible for education. It recognized the necessity of vocational education. This
also emphasized the importance of teacher training and it is called “the Magna Carta
of Indian Education”.Wood’s Despatch advocated for the Grant-in-aid system and
downward filtration theory. In the words of Prof. S.N. Mukherjee it was the first
“authoritative declaration” on the part of British parliament about the educational
policy to be followed in India. We should quote here the opinion of Mr. M. R. Paranjpe
that “the Despatch no doubt did a lot towards the evolution of good system of education
in India”. Thus, the shaping of education in pre-independent India got an impetus
through the Wood’s Despatch. A new structure was made with a new dimension.
1.3.3. Principal educational events of British government:
From 1854, we have seen that Indian government took a very keen and continuous
interest in education. After the regime of east India Company the British government
came into being and that government also followed the responsibility. The Despatch

12
of 1854 was followed by the appointment of a Board of Control to plan the universities.
The endevour to shape the educational system was prominent. In 1857, Calcutta
University was established. From 1865 the Government of India began to survey the
education field of India and in 1882, the Indian Education Commission was appointed
by the orders of the Board of Control. Following are the major educational events
during this time.
1.3.3.1. Hunter Commission, 1882:
Hunter Commission of 1882 was appointed by Lord Ripon. Sir William Hunter was
the chairman of the commission. The commission submitted its report in March,
1883. It recommended a lot on primary education, school curriculum, training institutes,
secondary education, education department, indigenous education, female education,
Muslim education, Religious education, education for backward classes. The commission
also explained its view on Grant-in-aid system. In a nutshell it can be said that the
commission discussed a lot directed the way to shape the future of education system
in India.
1.3.3.2. Indian University Commission, 1902:
Lord Curzon became the Governor General of India in 1899. It is the time when the
wave of nationalism swept throughout the country and a cry for the “National Education
in India” was prominent. At this hour Lord, Curzon convened a secret conference at
Simla to introduce some reformation in the sphere of education. Indian University
Commission was constituted in 1902. This commission submitted a report which
according to Nurullah and Naik,”…does not contain any discussion of the fundamental
problems of the universities”, but at this time the commission proposed the recognition
of Indian universities. Government later passed the Indian University Act, 1904.
According to this Act,following important provisions were cropped up:
• Scope of functions of universities enlarged.
• Reforms in administrative sectors in universities done.
• A new education policy was advised to be taken.
Now, Curzon designed his educational policy and training of teachers, improvement
in curriculum, improvement in Grant-in-aid system, improvement in other sectors of
education was done. Moreover, establishment of Archeology department, Central
Education Department etc. was made possible. It was completely reshaping the education

13
not only government but other individual thoughts (like Gokhle) and endevour also
helped the field of education to achieve a new shape. Government began to implement
its education policy properly from 1913 and at last in 1917 another commission, the
Calcutta University Commission or Sadlar Commission came into being. The University
of Calcutta in the mean time became prominent university. Sadlar Commission, headed
by Mr. Michael Sadlar recommended a lot of proposal and the recommendation of
Sadlar Commission was accepted by the government with some nominal changes. In
the mean time national education movement was started. National education movement
between1890-1937 is important because through this national movement government
got many new suggestions.
1.3.3.3. Hartog Committee, 1929:
Hartog Committee was set up by the British government. This committee did an
extensive research on the wastage and stagnation theory. Wastage and stagnation
was a problem in the sphere of education, so to shape the arena of education the
wastage and stagnation should be researched properly. Hartog Committee with other
things did this. This committee made two initial recommendations; one was the
introduction of industrial and commercial subjects at the high school level. The other
was the provision for security in service for the teachers.
To sum up it can be said thatReport of Abott and Wood Committee of 1936 and the
Sergent Report of 1944 was the last effort to shape the education in pre-Independent
India. Sergent report (1944) was constituted for next forty years with its
recommendations. Reassessment of technical, vocational commercial education etc.
was discussed. India got her independence in 1947 so the Sergent Report (1944) was
abandoned at last.

1.4. Shaping of Education in Post-Independent India

Discussion of different noticeable features of education in India after independence
is very much important to know the educational history of our country. At the primary
stage India had to face problems to set its aim for education. After the implementation
of our constitution education was placed in concurrent list but centre and state reserved
their power to some educational sector of their own. Separate lists for centre and

14
state also existed. At this hour India remained under the supervision of Commonwealth
and followed the idea of capitalist trend in the sphere of education. It is quite clear
that government gave stress on higher education than primary education at this hour
and the design of education was made under the influence of west completely. The
University Education Commission was constituted for this (1948-49).
1.4.1. University Education Commission (1948-49):
On the 6th November 1948, the University Education Commission came into being
with Dr. Sarvapally Radhakrishnan as the chairman. This commission was also known
as “Radhakrisnan Commission”. The aim and objective of the commission was to
report on Indian University education and suggest improvements. This commission
gave stress on higher education. The democratization of education was also an aim
of this commission. This commission recommended a lot regarding teachers and
standard of teaching courses, general education, vocational education, post graduate
teaching and research, professional and vocational education, rural education system,
student welfare etc. To evaluate the commission’s report we should mention the opinion
of Dr. Rajendraprasad here, who said “the value of the University Education Commission
report lies very largely in the fact that it recognizes the necessity for a fundamental
change to deal with its educational problems on that basis. It has therefore had to
recommend many revolutionary changes. It has further the merit of not contemplating
a complete break with the past but concerning the best, that is available”
1.4.2. Mudaliar Commission (1952-53):
In the history of Post-Independent India, Mudaliar Commission was an important
commission which suggested improvement in Secondary education. The Secondary
Education Commission was constituted on September, 1952. Dr. Lakshman Swami
Mudaliar, the V.C. of Madras University headed the commission, so the name of the
commission was titled as Mudaliar Commission. This commission also recommended
a lot for Secondary education and vocationalisation of education was a suggestion of
Mudaliar Commission. It discussed the system of curriculum, administrative system,
study of language etc. Mudaliar commission gave stress on Secondary education and
its perspective along with the recommendation regarding examination system.
1.4.3. Indian National Education Commission (1964-66):
Indian National Education Commission was constituted on 1964 under the chairmanship
of Dr. D.S. Kothari, Chairman of U.G.C. and other dignitaries. This commission is
known as Kothari Commission which advocated for education revolution. Lifelong

15
and life needs education was founded through this commission. Education for national
objective was the prime criteria of this commission. Kothari commission expressed
its will to equalize the opportunity in the field of education and backed for the privilege
of backward classes. It is remarkable that “three language formulas” was recommended
by the Kothari commission. It put sufficient emphasis on education of girls and promotes
social justice. Rural and backward areas should be developed to spread education;
this was also a remarkable motto of Kothari Commission. The major recommendations
of Kothari commission should be mentioned here.
• Free and compulsory education and education for all
• Teachers must be educated properly
• Development of language should be done with three language formula. In this
respect regional language should be developed.
• Identification of talent and equalization of educational opportunity is necessary.
• Science education and research should be emphasized.
• Education for agriculture and industry is necessary
• Examination system, proper writing of textbooks, university education, other
education, spreading of literacy and adult education should be managed carefully
• Moreover, Kothari Commission advocated for secular education
Thus, it is seen that Kothari Commission recognized the importance of spreading
education with various ways. Social and economic viewpoints were discussed very
critically and elaborately.
1.4.4. National Policy on Education:
To discuss post-independence history of Indian Education, National Policy on Education
(NPE) should be discussed. The NPE of 1968, 1986, revised NPE or Janardan Reddy
Committee report (1992) should be discussed properly. Along with it the works of
the Review Committee, i.e., report of Rammurti Committee (1990) should be discussed,
where the role of Navodaya Vidyalaya, development of common school system, women
education, decentralized planning and movement of education, human value and other
things should be done. Primary and pre-primary education should be discussed with
care. Environmental studies should be done. Recognisation of teacher education with

16
N.C.T.E. should be mentioned in relation with post independent period of Indian
education.
Thus, it is seen that from 1947the government of India appointed three most important
commissions along with other committee and commissions to discover the defects in
the educational field and to reorganize the field of education. National Curriculum
Framework (NCF), Teacher Education Programme, National Curriculum Framework
for Teacher Education (NCFTE) and other schemes of studies are necessary for
betterment. It may be added that in post independent education in India many new
things are important to be noted. In the case of policy framing Central Advisory
Board of Education (C.A.B.E.) is important. Moreover in post independent India
four new principles of the educational administration are developed. They are the
universal access and right to education for all, democratization, equality and social
justice to be maintained in this sphere. Relevance and sustainable development in
the sphere of education along with structural and productive aspects, Public Private
Partnership or PPP model was accepted in many where. Inclusive education got
importance and measures for putting inclusion into practices have been taken into
consideration for education. Moreover the activities of R.C.I. (Rehabilitation Council
of India), 1992, N.C.T.E, N.C.E.R.T., S.C.E.R.T. U.G.C., environmental education,
N.C.F., role of NAAC, peace education, population education, and integration of
peace education in curriculum should be discussed properly. Moreover, vocational
and other education along with international outlook UNESCO recommendations
achieved a special position in the education sector of post independent India. Apart
from everything, it is hopeful that in post independent India education for sustainable
development gained its due importance and it is necessary to spread and to establish
an effective educational field for the people of India.

1.5. Emerging Education in India and in the Global Context

1.5.1. Indian and International Policy Developments on Education of CWD/
PWD:
There are currently estimated to be over 2,500 special schools in India as reported by
RCI (2000). The NPE was predated by the National Education Policy of 1968. While
the NEP also contained the essentials of an integrated schooling system for children
with and without disabilities, it did not get translated into a detailed set of strategies
for implementation. The NEP followed the recommendations of India’s first education

17
commission (Kothari Commission in 1966). Its recommendations included expansion
of education facilities for physically and mentally handicapped children and also the
development of integrated programs enabling children with disabilities to study in
general schools. The education of children with disabilities and special needs in India
was initiated in the late 1800s, with the establishment of special schools for the Deaf
in Bombay in 1883, and for the Blind in Amritsar in 1887. By 1900 numerous special
schools for the visually and hearing impaired children were set up across the country.
This initiated the tradition of special schools in the country and till the 1970s; this
was the dominant mode of service delivery for children with special needs (CSN). It
was only in 1974 that the scheme on Integrated Education of Disabled Children (IEDC)
broke new ground by stressing the need for educating children with mild to moderate
disabilities in regular school settings. However, the tensions between the role of
special and general schools for CSN continues today, even after the widespread
recognition that inclusion is seen as a more effective educational and social strategy
in most cases. The National Policy on Education (1986) brought the fundamental
issue of equality for CSN to the forefront. It stated that the “objective should be to
integrate physically and mentally disabled people with the general community as
equal partners, to prepare them for normal growth and to enable them to face life
with courage and confidence”. While the NPE helped set the stage for further integration
and inclusion, only in 1990 did the government provide teeth to the policy through
the adoption of the Plan of Action (POA). The POA ambitiously committed to universal
enrolment by 2000 for both children with and without disabilities. It also strengthened
the NPE by demanding that CSN be educated only in regular schools and not in
special schools as had been allowed earlier. The placement principle for CSN in
effect relegated special schools to the status of bridge schools. Children in these
schools were expected to obtain training in non-curriculum areas, to help them prepare
for general curricula, after which it was expected that they would be transferred to
general schools. By the mid-1990s, Government of India initiated the District Primary
Education Programme (DPEP) and its subcomponent known as the Integrated Education
of the Disabled (IED). The main aim of DPEP has been to universalize primary education,
including ensuring that CSN do not get sidelined in the process of expansion. Given
that micro-planning has been a key element of DPEP, the Center offered states assistance
to help plan execution of the IED. At present, DPEP is implemented in 23 districts of
3 states (Rajasthan, Orissa and West Bengal). Over 600,000 children with special
needs have been enrolled in regular schools under the program. The PWD Act itself
was an important intervening policy development in education. Its position on a
rights-based entitlement to basic education was clear, and consistent with India’s

18
international commitments on education of CWD. At the same time, its guidance on
modalities for ensuring realization of the right was less so, with all options for delivery
of education for CWD allowed for and not as much specific guidance on which was
the priority mode anticipated and in what circumstances other modes would be
appropriate. Just as importantly, it gave no guidance on who should take the decisions
on the most appropriate form of education delivery for a specific child with a disability.
Inclusive Education is a new approach towards educating the children with disability
and learning difficulties with that of normal ones within the same roof. It brings all
students together in one classroom and community, regardless of their strengths or
weaknesses in any area, and seeks to maximize the potential of all students. It is one
of the most effective ways of promoting an inclusive and tolerant society. It believes
in conception of Education for All (EFA) as a matter of human right envisaged in UN
Declaration in 1948. The human right movement has laid its foundation in building
international brotherhood, fraternity, harmony, removing barriers to participation,
access, retention, success in education, education for all for the sake of human resource
development. Thus its activities also include economically and socio culturally
disadvantaged population of learner with diverse learning need who generally keep
themselves away from regular community school education due to various limitations
of their own and regular school education system. It aims in removing locational and
organizational distances in schooling to a minimum, honouring human right to education
for all and implementing them in collaboration and harmony with the local community.
India is a signatory to or participated in the United Nations Rights of the Child,
United Nations Standard Rules on the Equalisation of Opportunities, the Jomtien
Declaration on Education for All and the Salamanca Statement and Framework for
Action.
1.5.2. Inclusion a holistic vision in global context:
According to UNESCO any child may experience a special need during the course of
educational years. Some children feel ‘left-outs’ and never enter school or enter only
for a few years and, as repeaters, become ‘drop-outs’ or, more correctly ‘pushed-
outs’, without their needs having been met. These children are a vivid illustration of
the failure of schools to teach rather than the pupils’ failure to learn. Inclusive education
refers to schools, centres of learning and educational systems that are open to ALL
children. For this to happen, teachers, schools and systems may need to change so
that they can better accommodate the diversity of needs that pupils have and that
they are included in all aspects of school life. The international community including
UN organizations and World Bank groups have admitted the entry of inclusive education

19
firstly for the children with special needs and then expand its beneficiary list to others
who are deprived of basic education due to their disadvantaged economic, linguistic,
socio cultural conditions. In this way education as a matter of human right could
eradicate illiteracy.
There has been a gradual though by no means linear strengthening of international
commitment to inclusive education of CWD over the past 2 decades. India has been
an important participant in these developments, and its own policy development in
large part tries to incorporate its international commitments into domestic policy on
IE. Some of the major milestones have been: The 1989 Convention on Rights of the
Child noted that “Parties shall respect and ensure the rights set forth in the present
Convention to each child within their jurisdiction without discrimination of any kind,
irrespective of the child’s or his or her parent’s or legal guardians’ race, color, sex,
language, religion, political or other opinion, national, ethnic or social origin, property,
disability, birth or other status.” While a general base, it was an important step in
reaffirming the right to education of CWD. However, unfortunately, the EFA declaration
in Jomtien in 1990 failed to mention explicitly the right of CWD to education. The
failure explicitly to mention CWD in Jomtien led to the Salamanca Declaration of
1994, which had an exclusive focus on children with special needs in the context of
EFA. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action has the most definitive
statement on education of children with special needs. Ninety-two countries (including
India) endorsed the Salamanca statement requiring that “ordinary schools should be
equipped to accept all children, regardless of their physical, intellectual, emotional,
social, linguistic or other conditions”. The declaration also states that “Educational
policies at all levels, should stipulate that children with disabilities should attend
their neighborhood school, that is, the school that would be attended if the child did
not have the disability”. The Declaration also commits that children with disabilities
and special needs must have access to regular schools which should accommodate
them within a child-centered pedagogy capable of meeting these needs. Unfortunately,
despite the Salamanca Declaration, the EFA declaration in Dakar in 2000 again failed
to mention CWD. Girls, ethnic minorities, and the poor are explicitly mentioned in
the Declaration, and there remains a commitment to education for all, but Dakar
represents a missed opportunity on IE. Hopefully, such stop-start initiative on IE will
end with the recently-approved UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with
Disabilities. Article 24 of the Convention very clearly recognizes the rights of CWD
to inclusive education. The key provisions are as follows: “States Parties shall ensure
that: a) persons with disabilities are not excluded from the general education system
on the basis of disability, and that children with disabilities are not excluded from
20
free and compulsory primary education, or from secondary education, on the basis of
disability; b) persons with disabilities can access an inclusive, quality and free primary
education and secondary education on an equal basis with others in the communities
in which they live; c) reasonable accommodation of the individual’s requirements is
provided; d) persons with disabilities receive the support required with the general
education system to facilitate their effective education; e) effective individualized
support measures are provided in environments that maximize academic and social
development, consistent with the goal of full inclusion.
1.5.3. Indian Scenario:
Education of children with disabilities in India, as all over the world, has moved
from segregation, special schools to integrated education. The Indian Education
Commission (1964-66) is the first Indian document to recommend for the education
of the handicapped children in the ordinary schools to establish social justice and to
implement constitutional directive to education for all up to 14 year old. Establishment
of common school was recommended. A special cell in NCERT has also recommended
for research, publication of special education teaching in India. There is a national
level central government sponsored scheme called Integrated Education of Disabled
Children (IEDC). This project was started in 1980s and designed based on the experience
gathered from a UNICEF assisted pilot project called PIED (project on integrated
education of disabled children). The declaration of 1981 as the “International Year of
Disabled Persons” (IYDP) by United Nations created mass awareness and was a
good break in India and other developing countries. In the mid-1980s many NGOs
implemented this IEDC with grants from government of India. This project is
implemented by the Ministry of Human Resource Development. This is basically an
itinerant resource teaching approach and one resource teacher was given to every 8
children with special needs. There are around 60,000 children with disabilities getting
access to education under this scheme. The NPE, 1986 pointed out the fact that despite
the enormous expansion of primary education in the post-independence period the
population of disabled children has not been adequately served as a part of UPE. It
also envisaged the establishment of common schools for children with locomotor
handicap or other mild to moderate handicaps.
Subsequently, Rehabilitation Council of India Act 1992 came into force under the
Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment from 22nd June, 1993. This Act also
underwent changes. The Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection
of Rights, and Full Participation) Act 1995 was passed in the Parliament. It ensured
access to education to every child with disabilities and cast special responsibilities

21
on the RCI to supply trained manpower. The PWD Act, 1995 was enacted by the
government of India to provide access to free education in an appropriate environment
to all learners with disabilities till he or she attains the age of 18 years. The Act
endeavours to promote integration of learners with disabilities in mainstream schools.
1.5.4. Inclusive Learning in India:
This philosophy of Inclusive Education came into existence in Indian Educational
policies with the advent of globalization, introduced in India since early 1990s.
• The National Curriculum Framework for school education (NCERT, 2000)
has recommended inclusive schools for learner with special education needs by
making appropriate modifications in the content, presentation, translation, strategies,
preparing teachers and developing learning friendly evaluation procedures.
• Sarva Siksha Abhiyan: Another programme was introduced by the government
of India was the Sarva Siksha Abhiyan. The thrust of the SSA was on providing
integrated and inclusive education to all children with special needs in general
schools. At the elementary level, under the SSA programme, over 14 lakh children
with disabilities have been enrolled.
• Right to Education Act, 2009: The Right of children to Free and Compulsory
Education Act came into force from April 1, 2010. This was a historic day for
the people of India as from this day the right to education will be accorded the
same legal status as the right to life as provided by Article 21A of the Indian
Constitution. Every child in the age group of 6-14 years will be provided 8 years
of elementary education in an age appropriate classroom in the vicinity of his/
her neighbourhood. No child shall be denied admission for want of documents;
no child shall be turned away if the admission cycle in the school is over and no
child shall be asked to take an admission test. Children with disabilities will
also be educated in the mainstream schools. All private schools shall be required
to enroll children from weaker sections and disadvantaged communities in their
incoming class to the extent of 25% of their enrolment, by simple random selection.
The National Commission for Protection of Child Rights (NCPCR) has been
mandated to monitor the implementation of this historic Right.
Although SSA has been operational since 2000-2001 to provide for a variety of
interventions for universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category
gaps in elementary education and improving the quality of learning. With the passage
of the RTE Act, changes have been incorporated into the SSA approach, strategies
and norms. Equity, to mean not only equal opportunity, but also creation of conditions

22
in which the disadvantaged sections of the society i.e. children of SC, ST, Muslim
minority, landless agricultural workers and children with special needs, etc. can avail
of the opportunity.
India has made progress in terms of increasing the primary education attendance rate
and expanding literacy to approximately three-quarters of the population in the 7-10
age groups, by 2011. India’s improved education system is often cited as one of the
main contributors to its economic development. During the Financial Year 2011-12,
the Central Government of India has allocated Rs 389.57 billion for the Department
of School Education and Literacy which is the main department dealing with primary
education in India. Within this allocation, major share of Rs 210 billion, is for the
flagship programme ‘Sarva Siksha Abhiyan’. This higher allocation was required to
implement the recent legislation ‘Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
Act, 2009. However, even after five years of implementation of National Common
Minimum Programme (NCMP), not much progress has been seen on this front. Although
the country targeted towards devoting 6% share of the GDP towards the educational
sector, the performance has definitely fallen short of expectations. Expenditure on
education has steadily risen from 0.64% of GDP in 1951-52 to 2.31% in 1970-71 and
thereafter reached the peak of 4.26% in 2000-01. However, it declined to 3.49% in
2004-05. There is a definite need to step up again. As of 2011, enrollment rates are
58% for pre-primary, 93% for primary, 69% for secondary, and 25% for tertiary education.
Despite the high overall enrolment rate for primary education, among rural children
of age 10, half could not read at a basic level, over 60% were unable to do division,
and half dropped out by the age 14. At the primary and secondary level, India has a
large private school system complementing the government run schools, with 29%
of students receiving private education in the 6 to 14 age group. As per the Annual
Status of Education Report (ASER) 2012, 96.5% of all rural children between the
ages of 6-14 were enrolled in school. This is the fourth annual survey to report enrolment
above 96%. Another report from 2013 stated that there were 229 million students
enrolled in different accredited urban and rural schools of India, from Class I to XII,
representing an increase of 2.3 million students over 2002 total enrolment, and a
19% increase in girl’s enrolment. In India’s education system, a significant number
of seats are reserved under affirmative action policies for the historically disadvantaged
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
It is observed that 73 million children of primary school age were out of school in
2010, down from a high of over 110 million out-of-school children in the mid-1990s,
according to new estimates by the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS). About

23
Eighty percent of Indian population lives in rural areas without provision for special
schools. It means, there are an estimated 8 million children out of school in India
(MHRD 2009 statistics), many of whom are marginalized by dimensions such as
poverty, gender, disability, and caste. Therefore, inclusive schools have to address
the needs of all children in every community and the central and state governments
have to manage inclusive classrooms. The government proposes to implement UEE
in a mission mode with a clear focus on providing quality elementary education to
children in the age group 6–14 years. It has allocated the following funds. Rs 40
billion (4000 crore) for elementary education and literacy, Rs 5 billion (500 crore)
for Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Rs 9.3 billion (930 crore) for nutritional support to primary
education, Rs 11 billion (1100 crore) for the District Primary Education Project, Rs 4
billion (400 crore) for Education Guarantee Scheme and Alternative Innovative
Education, Rs 5.2 billion (520 crore) for Operation Black Board, Rs 3.64 billion
(364 crore) for non-formal education, Rs 2.2 billion (220 crore) for teacher training
programmes and Rs 2 billion (200 crore) for adult education are allocated. The Ministry
of Human Resource Development has allocated Rs 315 million (31.50 crore) in the
2002–03 financial year for integrated education of disabled children. The Ministry
of Social Justice and Empowerment has allocated Rs 2.14 billion (213.56 crore) in
the 2002–03 financial year, of which Rs 700 million (70 crore) is given to NGOs. In
India, disability remains a welfare issue and is not seen as a development issue. This
is evident from the fact that disability is under the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment (formerly the RESOURCE ALLOCATION FOR EDUCATION OF
CHILDREN WITH DISABILITIES EXAMPLES OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION 12
Ministry of Social Welfare) and not under the Ministry of Human Resource Development.
Budgetary allocations are not enough to make significant impacts in the field of
education. Unless state governments allocate funds for inclusive education at different
levels, it will be difficult to achieve the goal of UEE because children with disabilities
will continue to remain outside the reach of primary education. In addition to the
lack of resources available, societal attitudes towards disability are also a hindrance
and need to be changed. This can influence actions at the classroom level. There is
also a need for convergence of services in special schools, integrated schools, home-
based services, and community-based rehabilitation programmes for promoting inclusive
education.

24
1.6. Perspectives of Education for the Persons with Disability
Of late the plight of the disabled children has attracted the notice of the world’s
sentiment and it has taken a positive thinking in order to solve this issue keeping in
mind the following in the human rights platform:
• Every child is unique,
• The self esteem of every child is crucial as how he or she will develop and learn
at his or her own pace,
• It is very important to stimulate and utilize as much as possible,
• Family members have been an important variable in student learning,
• Environment has important role to play in learning,
• Early intervention is needed, to promote to construct portfolio of each learner,
• Children have a right and need to be with a variety of children in order to learning
ability and be able to live in the real world,
• The concerned model must be community based, economically viable and socially
accepted.
The fundamental philosophy underpinning inclusion does not vary but it has been
defined in divergent ways by different authors. According to Evans (1999) inclusion
is “creating environments responsive to the differing developmental capacities, needs
and potentials of all children. For children with special needs, inclusion means a
shift in services from simply trying to fit the child into ‘normal setting’, with supplemental
support for their disabilities or special needs, to promote the children’s overall
development in an optimal setting”. Several declarations and meetings have instigated
the paradigm shift of special education for the persons with disability towards inclusive
education from mainstreaming. This includes the Alma Ata Declaration (1978), the
International Year of the Disabled (1981), the Convention on the Right of Child
(1989), the Education for All Forum (1990), United Nations Standard rules on
Equalisation of Opportunities for Persons with Disability (1993), Salamanca statement
and framework for Action on Special Needs Education (1994) and Dakar Convention
(2000).
In India also there has been a considerable shift in the understanding of disability,
from earlier medical interpretations of seeing disability as a deficit within the individual
to that of viewing it in the context of Human Right issues, following these international

25
events. The NPE, 1986 and the POA, 1992 gave the basic policy framework for
education. It emphasizes the then existing inequalities, reducing dropout rates, expanding
access to students out of the mainstream education system. The 93rd amendment of
the constitution of India has made education a fundamental human right for children
in the age group 6-14. This includes children with disability. India, being a signatory
of Salamanca Statement, endorsed inclusive education. It was followed by the PWD
Act, 1995 which promoted the integration of learners with disabilities in mainstream
school. Later on, NCF, 2000, SSA and RTE Act, 2009 ensured inclusive education in
elementary stage in India.
1.6.1. Characteristics of inclusive education:
The salient features of inclusive education are as follows:
(a) Inclusive education is a programme to be implemented simultaneously all over
the country so that at a given point of time no child, whether disabled or normal
remain out of school.
(b) Special infrastructure facilities in school are to be ensured.
(c) Attitudinal changes of common teacher and regular students are essential to
help accommodation of the disabled children.
(d) Teachers need to modify, improve or improvise teaching strategies suitable for
both disabled and regular children.
(e) Regular faculty exchange programme between regular and special school must
be encouraged.
(f) Teachers, administrators, community members around the school need to accept
the rights and privileges of disabled as those of their own children.
(g) Inclusive education intends not to discriminate the disabled children culturally,
economically and socially with the normal people and the integration in turn
contributes to the human resource wealth of the nation.
(h) Teachers need to keep abreast with the new methods, research findings and
innovations keeping regular contact with the specialists.
1.6.2. Need of Teacher Training:
First of all teachers need to understand and accept that it is their responsibility to
teach all children, since all children have right to education. Motivating teachers to
take on this responsibility can be the key to success. Secondly, Teachers need training
about inclusive principles and the basics of disability to ensure that their attitude and
26
approaches do not prevent disabled children from gaining equal access to the curriculum.
Problem based, on the job training is more effective than theoretical pre-service training.
Moreover, teachers should be trained to adapt to changing methodology based on
needs of children instead of sticking to only rote teaching. Finally, teachers need
access to easy-to-read information about international documentation, and how to
implement more inclusive practices.
Since 1981, systematic attempts have been made in the field of Teacher Training for
handling Special Needs Children. The NCERT has taken the leadership in this direction
in designing courses of short term duration mainly to integrate the integrated education
scheme floated by Government of India under Project Integrated Education of the
Disabled. NCERT has designed three level courses which are:
Level 1: One-week training of all primary teachers in the project area.
Level 2: In-service training for six weeks for selected teachers
Level 3: One-year multi-category training of teachers since 1987 in its Regional College
of Education.
Besides, a six month’s training course has been given to key persons at the NCERT
headquarters. Several courses have been designed by the Rehabilitation Council of
India (RCI). Degree courses have been started in some universities leading to B.Ed
and M.Ed leading to special education.
Generating scope for inclusive education in teacher training:
(a) Need for quality teacher education involving pre service training for all teachers
and staff development in the form of advance studies;
(b) Teachers must be aware of the basic physical, mental impairment, social barriers,
and factors of drop outs and diversified needs of the students. Therefore, the
teacher should be trained to identify, accommodate and address the special or
slow learners;
(c) Teachers should have minimum knowledge of utilizing multimedia in regular
classrooms and training of developing cost effective and educationally productive
learning support system;
(d) Changes in teaching methods include rearranging the classroom, encouraging
“buddy” system, introducing locally available material for play activities etc.
Teachers need opportunities to try out new methods, sharing ideas, and observing
other teachers using different methods;

27
(e) Teachers must be willing to undergo training and refresher courses to keep
themselves updated with outcomes of latest researches in content, curriculum,
technology and evaluation system;
(f) School heads require additional training in order to play an effective leadership
role;
(g) Teachers must be ready to interact with other schools of the locality, in order to
exchange views, experiences and share programme. Community participation is
also needed.
(h) Teachers should be trained to interact with parents of the special child or pupils
belonging to backward classes. Teachers should be able to give proper guidance
and counseling service to both the students with special need and their parents;
(i) Teachers must be trained to organize co curricular activities including games
and sports, cultural programme, visit to the places of interest, exhibitions, excursions
etc. for the students with diversified needs. The activities should be cooperative
rather than competitive in nature;
(j) Teachers must be aware of the Acts, laws, and regulations concerning the disabled
to derive full benefit of these legal provisions.
1.6.3. Policy and Reality:
SSA was launched in 2001, and it aims to provide eight years of uninterrupted, good
quality education to children between the ages of 6-14 years, and to have all children
in school, learning and completing primary and upper primary cycles by 2010. The
framers of SSA came to an early realization that their objectives could only be met if
the education of CSN was an important part of the program. The key provisions
under the SSA for integrating and including children with special needs is through:
(i) a cash grant of up to 1200 Rupees per CSN per year; (ii) district plans for CSN
that will be formulated within the above prescribed norm and (iii) the involvement
of key resource institutions to be encouraged. A specific feature of SSA is a zero-
rejection policy. This suggests that no child having special needs can be neglected,
nor denied enrolment on the basis of such concerns. The PWD Act provides, however,
a loophole in how this is defined in practical terms. It states that children will be
educated in an “environment, which is best suited to his or her learning needs” and
that it is possible that the special needs of a child compel him or her to be educated in
special schools. Where possible, the decision on the appropriate form of education is
taken jointly by resource teachers, parents, medical teams and regular teachers. SSA

28
itself provides useful flexibility to the local levels in making this determination, with
home-based support, all intended to bridge CSN into mainstream education. While
SSA offers each district to plan for its own future and for that of its inhabitants, the
centre is playing a useful role in disseminating good practice to help districts make
appropriate choices.
The year 2005 saw the most recent and comprehensive policy push from Government
of India on education of both children and adults with disabilities, in the form of the
Minister of HRD’s Policy Statement in March 2005, followed by a yearlong development
of a national Action Plan for Inclusion in Education of Children and Youth with
Disabilities. The Plan should, if effectively implemented, provide major impetus to
improving educational outcomes of CWD. At the same time, the draft Plan and
consultations around it suggest that there will remain major challenges in promoting
institutional coordination within and between levels of government and administration,
and in developing genuine partnerships with NGOs and civil society. This is part due
to an absence of a comprehensive diagnostic of existing initiatives during the Plan’s
development. Some of the resource materials from SSA authorities include a manual
for planning and implementation of inclusive education under SSA, documentation
of good NGO practice under SSA, documentation of good home-based practice in
special needs education, and a regular newsletter on inclusion. The objectives of the
National Action Plan for Inclusion in Education of Children and Youth with Disabilities
will be to:
(a) Ensure that no child is denied admission in mainstream education;
(b) Ensure that every child would have the right to access an anganwadi and school
and no child would be turned back on the ground of disability;
(c) Ensure that mainstream and specialist training institutions serving persons with
disabilities, in the government or in the non-government sector, facilitate the
growth of a cadre of teachers trained to work within the principles of inclusion;
(d) Facilitate access of girls with disabilities and disabled students from rural and
remote areas to government hostels;
(e) Provide for home based learning for persons with severe, multiple and intellectual
disability;
(f) Promote distance education for those who require an individualized pace of learning
(g) Emphasize job-training and job-oriented vocational training;

29
(h) Promote an understanding of the paradigm shift from charity to development
through a massive awareness, motivation and sensitization campaign.
It is clear that education policy in India has gradually increased the focus on children
and adults with special needs, and that inclusive education in regular schools has
become a primary policy objective. To open up the regular school system to disabled
children is not an easy task. It was, however, pointed out that a big gap exists between
this ideal situation and the present reality. There is an urgent need for interventions
for equipping general teachers with special skills, making general curricula, teaching
methods, evaluation procedures, learning material disability-sensitive and addressing
the attitudes or needs of other children in the school to ensure such interventions
benefit all children. It is important to have a holistic, comprehensive and inter-sect
oral approach where all pieces are put together. It is not enough to present and implement
one part only. An inclusion policy cannot stand-alone and “cannot be a substitute for
careful planning of interventions and systematic capacity-building for the implementers
of these interventions”.
The curriculum for “ALL” needs to be:
• Child centred: Children with disabilities need child-centred curriculum, which
takes into account the individual needs of children. The curriculum needs to set
specific, observable, measurable and achievable learning outcomes (SOMA).
• Flexible: A flexible, locally relevant curriculum, teaching and learning strategies
are intrinsically important for children with special needs to participate in the
educational process.
• Participatory: Children with special needs require a learning environment in
which they can actively participate in learning in small groups learning settings
• Partnership with parents: Partnership with parents is a key factor as children
learn not only in the classrooms but also at home.
1.6.4. Rehabilitation:
Rehabilitation is a treatment or treatments designed to facilitate the process of recovery
from injury, illness or disease to as normal a condition as possible. The education of
children and young people with special educational needs is a special domain within
the public education system. Although the education of disabled children, ensuring
that they acquire the knowledge and competencies specified by the curriculum of the
given public education system, is tied to special professional conditions, the feasibility
of these conditions and the functional quality of entire education system and their

30
inadequacy is detrimental to the entire education system. The rehabilitation of persons
with disability in India has been receiving attention during the last six decades. The
Rehabilitation Council of India Act came up in 1992 to formulate policies, design
courses, grant recognition to the institutes, maintain rehabilitation register and promote
research in rehabilitation and special education.
Thus, the major changes as regards persons with disability have been: change from
medical diagnosis to multi-professional assessment and treatment, treatment to education,
meeting categorical needs to individual needs and change from category specific
curricula and methods to appropriate variation in curriculum for all. There is a growing
recognition of special education needs, training of special need teacher, reorganization
of remedial teaching services, development of much closer relationship between the
staff and pupil of the special needs.

1.7. Constitutional Provisions and Directive Principles Related

to Education and Special Education
The makers of our Constitution knew that Independent India was going to face many
challenges. Foremost among these was the challenge of bringing about equality and
well being of all citizens. At the same time, the Constitution did not force future
governments to be bound by certain policy decisions. Therefore, some guidelines
were incorporated in the Constitution but they were not made legally enforceable; it
thought that the moral force, behind these guidelines would ensure that the government
would take them seriously. There are some changes regarding the 42nd Amendment
to the Constitution. During 1976 our constitution was amended in many of its
fundamental provisions. Under the Constitution of India, the Central Government
has been specifically vested with several educational responsibilities. Some of the
major constitutional provisions on education in India are as follows:
(a) Free and Compulsory Education:
The Constitution makes the following provisions under Article 45 of the Directive
Principles of State Policy that, “The state shall endeavour to provide within a period
of ten years from the commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory
Education for all children until they complete the age of fourteen years.”
The expression ‘State’ which occurs in this Article is defined in Article 12 to include
“The Government and Parliament of India and the Government and the Legislature
of each of the States and all local or other authorities within the territory of India or

31
under the control of the Government of India.” It is clearly directed in Article 45 of
the Constitution that the provision of Universal, Free and Compulsory Education
becomes the joint responsibility of the Centre and the States.
In the Constitution it was laid down that within 10 years, i.e., by 1960 universal
compulsory education must be provided for all children up to the age of 14, But
unfortunately, this directive could not be fulfilled. Vigorous efforts are needed to
achieve the target of 100 percent primary education. The Central Government needs
to make adequate financial provisions for the purpose. At the present rate of progress
it may, however, be expected that this directive may be fulfilled by the end of this
century.
(b) Education of Minorities:
Article 30 of the Indian Constitution relates to certain cultural and educational
rights to establish and administer educational institutions. It lies down:
(i) All minorities whether based on religion or language, shall have the right to
establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
(ii) The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions, discriminate against
any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a
minority, whether based on religion or language.
(c) Language Safeguards:
Article 29(1) states “Any section of the citizen, residing in the territory of India
or any part there of having a distinct language, script or culture of its own, hall
have the right to conserve the same.” Article 350 B provides for the appointment
of special officer for linguistic minorities to investigate into all matters relating
to safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the Constitution.
(d) Education for Weaker Sections:
Article 15, 17, 46 safeguard the educational interests of the weaker sections of
the Indian Community, that is, socially and educationally backward classes of
citizens and scheduled castes and scheduled tribes. Article 15 states, “Nothing
in this article or in clause (2) of Article 29 shall prevent the state from making
any special provision for the advancement of any socially and educationally
backward classes of citizens or for the scheduled castes and the scheduled tribes.”
Under Article 46 of the Constitution, the federal government is responsible for
the economic and educational development of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

32
 Tribes. It states. “The state shall promote with special care the educational and
economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular, of the
Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice
and all forms of exploitation.” It is one of the Directive Principles of State Policy.
(e) Secular Education:
India is a secular country. It is a nation where spirituality based on religion, had
always been given a high esteem. Under the Constitution, minorities, whether based
on religion or language, are given full rights to establish educational institutions of
their choice. Referring to the constitutional provisions that religious instructions given
in institutions under any endowment or Trust, should not be interfered with even if
such institutions are helped by the State.
Article 25 (1) of the Constitution guarantees all the citizens the right to have freedom
of conscience and the right to profess, practice and propagate religion.
Article 28 (1) states, “No religious instruction shall be provided in any educational
institution if wholly maintained out of state fund.”
Article 28 (2) states, “Nothing in clause (1) shall apply to an educational institution
which is administered by the State but has been established under any endowment or
Trust which requires that religious instruction shall be imparted to such institution.”
Article 28 (3) states, “No person attending any educational institution by the state or
receiving aid out of state funds, shall be required to take part in any religious instruction
that may be imported in such institutions or to attend any religious worship that may
be conducted in such institution or in any premises attached thereto unless such person
or, if such person a minor, his guardian has given his consent thereto.”
Article 30 states, “The state shall not, in granting aid to educational institution maintained
by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only of religion, race,
caste, language or any of them.”
(f) Equality of Opportunity in Educational Institutions:
Article 29(1) states “No citizen shall be denied admission into any educational institution
maintained by the State or receiving aid out of State funds, on grounds only of religion,
race, caste, language or any of them.”
The Fundamental Rights of the Indian Constitution has also adopted the fourfold
ideal of justice, Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. Our Constitution laid down that in

33
the eyes of law, everyone should have an equal status, to no one the justice be denied,
everyone should have liberty of thought, expression.
The fundamental right of equality clearly signifies that in the eyes of law no distinction
can be made on the basis of any position, caste, class or creed. Side by side the right
of equality of opportunities to all is also provided. The equality of opportunity is
meaningless, unless there are equal opportunities for one’s education.
The well-known Kothari Commission, 1964-66 recommended that Central Government
should undertake the responsibility in education for the equalization of educational
opportunities with special reference to the reduction of inter-state differences and
the advancement of the weaker section of the community.
(g) Instruction in Mother Tongue:
There is diversity of languages in our country. After the dawn of Independence, Mother-
Tongues have received special emphasis as medium of instruction and subjects of
study. In the Constitution of India, it has been laid down that the study of one’s own
language is a fundamental right of the citizens.
Article 26 (1) states, “Any section of the citizens, residing in the territory of India or
any part thereof, having a distinct language, script or culture of its own, shall have
the right to converse the same.”
Article 350 A directs, “It shall be endeavour of every state and every local authority
to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups.”
Secondary Education Commission, 1952-53 recommended that the mother tongue
or the regional language should generally be the medium of instruction throughout
secondary school stage subject to the provision that for linguistic minorities, special
facilities should be made available. Kothari Commission, 1964-66 has also said that
at college and university stage, mother tongue should be the medium. The medium
of instruction at school level is already mother tongue. This is not a new proposal.
(h) Promotion of Hindi:
The Indian Constitution makes provision for the development and promotion of Hindi
as official language. Article 351 enjoins the Union, the duty to promote the spread of
the Hindi language.”It shall be the duty of the Union to promote the spread of the
Hindi language, to develop it so that it may serve as a medium of expression of all
the elements of the composite culture of India.” In practice, Hindi is already largely

34
in use as a link language for the country. The educational system should contribute to
the acceleration of this process in order to facilitate the movement of student and
teacher and to strengthen national Unity.
(i) Higher Education and Research:
Parliament has the exclusive rights to enact legislation in respect of institutions and
Union Agencies mentioned in entries 63, 64, 65, and 66 of List. The entries which
give authority to the Government of India in education are mentioned below:
(i) Entry 63 of the Union List:
The institutions known at the commencement of this Constitution as the Banaras
Hindu University, the Aligarh Muslim and the Delhi University, and any other institution
declared by Parliament by law to be an Institution of National importance.
(ii) Entry 66 of the Union List:
Co-ordination and determination of standards in the institutions of higher education
or research and scientific and technical institutions.
(j) Women’s Education:
One of the unique features of Modem Indian Education is the tremendous advancement
of Women’s Education. Education of the girls is considered to be more important
than that of the boys.The Constitution makes the following provisions under different
articles:
Article 15(1) provides that the State shall not discriminate any citizen on groups only
of sex.
Article 15 (3) reads: “Nothing in this article shall prevent the State from making any
special provision for women and children.”
The well-known National Policy on Education was concerned about the status and
education of women in the country. It envisages that education would be used as a
strategy for achieving a basic change in the status of women. It opined that the national
system of education must play a positive role in this direction.
The Policy states, “Education will be used as an agent of basic change in the status of
women. In order to neutralize the accumulated distortions of the past, there will be a
well conceived edge in favour of women.”
(k) Education in the Union Territories:
Article 239 of the Constitution states, “Save as otherwise provided by Parliament by
Law, every Union Territory shall be administratered by the president acting to such
35
extent as he thinks fit through an administrator to be appointed by him with such
designation as he may specify.”
(l) Educational and cultural relations with foreign countries:
Entry 13 of the Union List reads Participation in international conferences, associations
and other bodies and implementing decisions made thereat.
Directive Principles of State Policy are included in Articles 36 to 51 in Part IV of the
Constitution. There are three guiding provisions under this category which provide
the basic framework for national policies and priorities in education. These are: ARTICLE
41 - It directs the State to make effective provision for securing the right to work and
right to education for all within the limits of, its economic capacities and development.
ARTICLE 45 - Being a very significant Article in the Directive Principles, this Article
laid down the foundation of free and compulsory education in the country. The Article
states that “the State shall endeavor to provide, within a period of ten years from the
commencement of this Constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children
until they complete the age of fourteen years”. Consequent upon the insertion of
Article 21A, making elementary education a fundamental right of all children between
the age group of 6-14 years, Article 45 has been amended so as to restrict its scope to
pre-primary education up to 6 years of age. No article in the Constitution works in
isolation. The same is true for Article 45. It ensures equality of educational opportunity
to all on the lines of Article 29(2) according to which admissions cannot be denied to
anyone on the basis of race, caste, language in any institution maintained by the
State. Article 21(A) which makes free and compulsory education to all as fundamental
right attaches utmost importance to Article 45. Also the five Articles - 15, 29(2),
l5(3), 46 and 29(1) entrust responsibility of equalisation of educational opportunity
in all parts of the country to the Government of India and to that end, to give special
assistance to the backward areas or States. ARTICLE 46 - It says the “State shall
promote with special care the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections
of the people in particular of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes and
shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation”. Thus, Article
46 along with other relevant articles pertaining to education ensures equality in
educational opportunities even by making special provisions for those who have
been left behind due to various reasons. It is possible to see both Fundamental Rights
and Directive Principles as complementary to each other. Fundamental Rights restrain
the government from doing certain things while Directive Principles compel the
government to do certain things. Fundamental Rights mainly protect the rights of
individuals while Directive Principles ensure the well being of the entire society.

36
As for any other group, education is critical to expanding the life prospects of people
with disabilities. In addition, the socialization of children with disabilities (CWD)
through education assumes an unusually important role in societies such as India
where social exclusion of PWD is significant. Despite its importance, educational
outcomes for children and adults with disabilities remain very poor. Illiteracy rates
both for all PWD and for school-age disabled children remain much higher than the
general population, and school attendance among school age CWD massively lags
that of non-disabled children.
The Persons with Disability (PWD) Act, 1995:
The PWD Act came into force on 1st January 1996, and was enacted in pursuance of
India’s obligation under the Proclamation on the Full Participation and Equality of
People with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region, which it adopted in December
1992. The Act provides for various measures for persons with disabilities to facilitate
their access to education, employment, basic infrastructure and social welfare measures.
Under the PWD Act, a ‘person with disability’ has been defined as any person having
40% or more of any of the following disabilities: (i) Blindness; (ii) Low vision; (iii)
Leprosy cured; (iv) Hearing impairment; (v) Locomotor disability; (vi) Mental
retardation; and (vii) Mental illness. This is a limited definition, as only persons who
fall within this definition as having 40% or more of the above 7 disabilities would be
categorized as persons with disabilities and would be entitled to get the benefits of
the rights and schemes under the PWD Act.The main rights available to persons with
disabilities are in the field of education in public schools, public employment,
infrastructure on the roads and in public transport and access to public buildings and
a grievance redressal procedure for protection of their rights.
Education of CWSN
Under the PWD Act, all children with disabilities below the age of 18 have the right
to free and compulsory education that is accessible. This goes even beyond the mandate
of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act, 2009 that calls for
free education to be provided to children up to the age of 14. The further obligations
placed on the government by the PWD Act with respect to formal education are that
efforts must be made to see that these children with disabilities are integrated into
regular schools that they attend, and that the setting up of special schools with vocational
training facilities should be encouraged at the local level in the Government and
private sectors, so that children across the country who require special education
have access to such schools in their areas. Section 39 of the PWD Act also requires

37
that 3% of all seats in Government and Government-aided educational institutions
be earmarked for children or students with disabilities. The PWD Act also requires
that the government formulate and implement schemes pertaining to non-formal,
functional education, in respect of the following matters:
(a) Conducting part-time classes in respect of children with disabilities who have
completed the fifth grade and could not continue full-time studies thereafter;
(b) Conducting special part-time classes to provide functional literacy for children
with disabilities in the age group of sixteen and above;
(c) Imparting non-formal education after an appropriate orientation;
(d) Imparting education through open schools or open universities;
(e) Conducting class and discussions through interactive electronic or other media;
and
(f) Providing every child with disability the requisite books and equipments, at no
cost.
Additionally, to facilitate equal opportunities in education for children with disabilities,
the government is obligated to promote research on assistive devices, teaching aids
and special teaching materials, and establish and assist special teachers’ training
institutions. Educational institutions are required to ensure that children with visual
disabilities are provided with scribes when required. To further facilitate the
mainstreaming of children with disabilities, the government is required to prepare a
comprehensive scheme providing for facilities or financial support for transport to
and from school, making school supplies available, scholarships, grievance redressal
for a modification of examinations and restructuring of the curriculum.
Employment of PWDs:
Chapter VI of the PWD Act, containing Sections 32 to 40, addresses the affirmative
action measures with respect to the employment of persons with disabilities. It requires
that at least 3% of all posts in all jobs under the government are required to be reserved
for persons with disabilities, with 1% each being reserved for persons with blindness
/ low vision, persons with hearing disabilities and persons with locomotor disabilities
/ cerebral palsy.
To ensure that reservations have meaning, the government is required to identify
posts in all public establishments that shall be reserved for persons with disability,
based on the suitability of such posts to each category of disability. The list of identified

38
posts so prepared is required to be revised in light of technological developments, at
regular intervals of a maximum of 3 years.
Under Section 34, vacancies are required to be advertised, with the details of the
reservations for the persons with disabilities, in the Special Employment Exchange
and, if not filled, shall be carried forward to the next recruitment year.
There are also many requirements of reasonable accommodations to be provided by
the Government under Article 38 of the PWD Act and to formulate schemes for the
relaxations of age limit, training,creation of an enabling environment and providing
incentives to employers.The government is also required to frame an insurance scheme
for its employees with disabilities, and is expressly prohibited from discriminating
against employees who acquire disabilities over the course of their employment as
well as employees with disabilities in the matter of promotions. Finally, for those
persons with disabilities who are registered with the Special Employment Exchange
and have not been able to find gainful employment for over 2 years, the government
is required to frame a reasonable scheme for unemployment allowance.
Accessibility:
Accessing public spaces and infrastructure are addressed in Sections 44 to 47 of the
PWD Act. Such measures include adapting public transport facilities for easy access
to persons with disabilities, installing auditory and tactile indicators on public roads
and pavements to aid those with auditory and visual disabilities, and installing ramps,
Braille symbols and auditory signals in facilities in public buildings and medical
institutions.
Statutory Authorities and Grievance Redressal:
The PWD Act provides for the appointment of a Chief Commissioner for Persons
with Disabilities at the central level under section 57 and Commissioners for Persons
with Disabilities at the state level under Section 60 of the PWD Act. The Commissioners
have the powers to
(i) Co-ordinate with the departments of the State Government for the programmes
and schemes for the benefit of persons with disabilities;
(ii) Monitor the utilization of funds disbursed by the State Government;
(iii) Take steps to safeguard the rights and facilities made available to persons with
disabilities;
(iv) Submit reports to the State Government on the implementation of the Act at
such intervals as that Government may prescribe and forward a copy thereof to
the Chief Commissioner.

39
In addition to these powers, the Chief Commissioner and Commissioners may of
their own motion or on the application of any aggrieved person or otherwise look
into complaints relating to deprivation of rights of persons with disabilities or the
non-implementation of laws, rules, bye-laws, regulations, executive orders, guidelines
or instructions made or issued by the appropriate Governments and the local authorities
for the welfare and protection of rights of persons with disabilities, and take up the
matter with the appropriate authorities. In order to enquire and adjudicate into these
complaints, the Chief Commissioner and the State Commissioners have certain powers
of civil court such as summoning of documents, etc.
Thus any matter of discrimination or denial by public authorities in matters of recruitment,
promotion, benefits that person with disabilities are entitled to may be brought before
the Commissioners for adjudication and under Section 62 of the PWD Act, , and they
can recommend appropriate action to be taken by the offending body.
The central government and many State governments have enacted rules under the
PWD Act which include rules on the procedure for filing complaints before the
Commissioners. The complainants do not require legal representation during the
proceedings, and generally, they may institute a complaint by submitting complete
details of their complaint and facts to the relevant Commissioner. In accordance with
the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Rules, 1996, complaints are ideally to be disposed of within 3 months
from the date of notifying the opposite party.In the event that any party is not satisfied
with the decision of the Chief Commissioner or the State Commissioner, the said
decision can be challenged in a writ petition in the respective state High Court by the
aggrieved party.
However, the PWD Act has been revised in 2016 in which recognised disability
conditions increased from 7 to 21 in RPWD Act, 2016.

1.8. Let us sum up

The existing education system in India has undergone several changes in last more
than two centuries. The modern Indian education dates back to 19th century. The
theological influence of western missionaries was profound in early 19th century.
They emphasized the study of English language and literature, ignoring the scientific
education. Gradually, British government started to shape the modern education in
India with the help of Rammohan Roy, Derozians, Pandit Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar

40
and other dignitaries and scholars. With this ancient Indian education was blended
with western education system. Wood’s Despatch, 1854 introduced the downward
filtration theory and Grant-in-aid system. Hunter Commission (1882) Indian University
Commission (1902 and 1904), Sadlar Commission (19130, Hartog Committee (1929)
and Sergent Report (1944) had recommended for the betterment of Indian Education
in Pre Independent era. In post Independent India, Government of India appointed
three major education commissions a number of committees for improvement of
education at different stages. Radhakrisnan Commission (1948-49), Mudaliar
Commission (1952-53) and Kothari Commission (1964-66) identified the flaws and
recommended for a better education system. NPE, 1968 and 1986 followed by POA,
1992 put forward new education system in India. Indian education started receiving
international outlook and UNESCO recommendation, being a signatory of the
international conventions. Universalisation of elementary education, Education for
All, inclusive education were the major areas of concern.
Inclusive education must respond to all pupils as individuals, recognizing individuality
as something to be appreciated and respected. It is not our education systems that
have a right to a certain type of children. Therefore, it is the school system of a
country that must be adjusted to meet the needs of all its children. Emphasising
inclusive education does not rule out special schools or centres. They would still be
required to cater to children with profound and complex difficulties in need of more
specialized and extensive help. It has also in principle committed to a progressive
menu of options for delivering education to children with special needs. However, it
is clearly struggling to turn policy into effective practice for a variety of reasons. The
weakness of identification is in part lack of local capacity, for which there remain
major training needs. Improved initial identification needs to be complemented with
strengthening of SSA’s simple systems for ongoing school-based assessment of emerging
(and often easily reversible) disabilities. The provisions of the PWD Act to support
children with disabilities in reaching school also need more serious attention.
Government ofIndia should require all states to develop a strategy for delivering
education to children with special needs, in order that SSA and other central funds
can be allocated in a less mechanical manner. .
The Constitution of India under Chapter III guarantees fundamental human rights to
all persons. The right to equality is enshrined in Article 14 of the Constitution and
recognizes that all persons are equal before the law. Persons with disabilities are
entitled to this guarantee to not be discriminated against in any manner and to be
treated equally, which includes the requirement for special treatment where required.

41
Similarly, Article 15 and 16 prohibits discrimination on the grounds of “religion,
race, caste, sex, place of birth or any of them and guarantees equal opportunity in
matters of public employment. Article 16 (3) & (4) provides that the State can make
provision for the reservation of appointments or posts in favour of any backward
class of citizens which, in the opinion of the State, is not adequately represented in
the services. It is on the basis of Article 16, that the guarantees to reservation and
equal opportunity in public employment are made under the PWD Act. The right to
equality has been upheld for persons with disabilities not to be discriminated and to
be provided equal opportunity in recruitment to the civil services. Article 21 of the
Constitution guarantees the right to life to all persons, which has been interpreted by
the Supreme Court to include the right to live with dignity, the right to livelihood, and
the right to education. Article 21A guarantees the right to free and compulsory education
for all children between the ages of 6-14 years.
Chapter IV of the constitution contains the Directive Principles of State Policy. The
Directive Principle provided in Article 38 says that the State Policy has to be directed
to minimize inequalities, secure right to an adequate means of livelihood and also
secure that the operation of legal system promotes justice. Under Article 41, the
State shall make provisions for ensuring the right to work, education and public
assistance in case of unemployment, old age, sickness and disablement and in other
cases of undeserved want. The State shall endeavour to provide for free and compulsory
education for all children until they complete the age of 14 years and under Article
46 the State has also the responsibility of promoting with special care the educational
and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people. All these provisions are
equally applicable to the persons with disabilities.
The denial or violation of any of these rights would entitle any person to approach
the High Courts or the Supreme Court in their writ jurisdictions under Articles 226
and 32, respectively, if there is no other alternative or equally efficacious remedy
available.

1.9. Unit End Exercises

2. Write a short note on Macaulay Minute of 1835
3. What is downward filtration theory in British Indian education?
4. What is known as Magna carta of Indian education? And why?

42
5. State the major recommendations of Hunter Commission, 1882?
6. State two major recommendations of Hartog Committee, 1829 on wastage and
stagnation?
7. What are the major recommendations of University education Commission, 1948-
49?
8. What is “three language formula” of Kothari commission?
9. Write short note on Special education in India
10. What is inclusive education?
11. Name the important international events to promote EFA?
12. What is IEDC?
13. Briefly state the features of Sarva siksha Abhiyan.
14. What are the objectives of Right to Education Act, 2009?
15. What are the functions of RCI?
16. Why is teacher training important for implementation of inclusive education?
17. Discuss the role of N.C.E.R.T. in teacher training for inclusive education.
18. What is directive principle?
19. Briefly discuss the constitutional provisions related to education.
20. Name the disabilities included in PWD Act, 1995.

1.10. References
Books:
• Aggarwal, J.C. (2000). Educational Reforms in India for the 21st Century, Shipra
Publications, Delhi
• Aggarwal, J.C. (2004). Development and Planning of Modern Education, Vikash
Publishing House, New Delhi
• Aggarwal, J.C. (2004). Landmarks in the History of Modern Indian Education,
Vikash Publishing House, New Delhi , ISBN:81-259-1614-8
• Banerjee, J and Nag, Subir (2011). Educational Management, Rita Book Agency,
Kolkata, India

43
• Biswas, P.C. (2003). Random Thoughts on Inclusive Education, Smt Sukla Biswas,
Kalyani, Nadia, West Bengal
• Chakraborty, A. and Md Islam, N. (2012). Sikshar Itihas O Samprotik Ghatona
Probaho, Classique Books Kolkata, india. ISBN: 81-87616-59-8
• Dash, M. (2000). Education in India-Problems and Prospects, Atlantic Publishers
and Distributors, Delhi
• Ghai, A. (2008). Gender and inclusive Education at All Levels. In V. Prakash
and K. Biswal (Eds), Perspectives on Education and Development Revisiting
Education Commission and After. (pp. 301-309 ), Shipra Publications, New Delhi,
India
• Haldar, G. (1984): Sikshan Prasange Bharatiyo Sikhar Itihas-Adhunik jug, Banerjee
publishers, Kolkata
• Jha, M.M. (2008). Inclusion in Indian Education Policies: Revisiting Equality
in the Kothari Commission Report. In V. Prakash and K. Biswal (Eds), Perspectives
on Education and Development Revisiting Education Commission and After.
(pp. 241-250), Shipra Publications, New Delhi, India
• Mukhopadhyay, S. (2008). The Education Commission’s Vision on Inclusive
Education: Beginning of a Long Journey. In V. Prakash and K. Biswal (Eds),
Perspectives on Education and Development Revisiting Education Commission
and After. (pp.261-279), Shipra Publications, New Delhi, India
• Naik, J.P. and Nurullah, S (1995): A Students’ History of Education in India
1800-1973, Macmillan and Company, Delhi
• Pal, D., Thakur, D. and Haque, H. (2014). Bharatiya sikshar dhara, Rita Book
Agency, Kolkata, India
• Purkait, B.R. (2007): Milestones in Modern Indian Education for B.T., B.ED,
M.A., M.SC (Education) of Different Indian Universities, New Central Book
Agency, Kolkata.
• Rao Indumathi, (2001),Understanding inclusive education from heart, EENET
newsletters and web publication
• Rao Indumathi, (2002) Country status on inclusive education/special needs
documentation good practices, UNICEF, Regional Office
• Roy, Sushil (2006). Sikshan Prasange Bharater Siksha, Soma Book Agencies,
Kolkata
44
Webpage
• http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR, retrieved on 18.12.2015
• http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/education/news/Enrolment-in-schools-
rises-14-to-23-crore/articleshow/18123554cms, retrieved on 18.12.2015
• http://www.icbse.com/right-to-education-act retrieved on 18.12.2015
• http://www.mhrd.gov.in/rte retrieved on 18.12.2015
• http://www.mhrd.gov.in/sarva-shiksha-abhiyan retrieved on 19.12.2015
• http://www.mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/
specialneeds.pdf retrieved on 19.12.2015
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Education_in_India retrieved on 18.12.2015
• Rao, I. (2003) Inclusive Education in the Indian Context,Paper prepared for the
presentation in the meeting on inclusive education organised by NCERT, 16-17
September 2003, New Delhi, retrieved from http://www.eenet.org.uk/resources/
docs/inclusive_education_indian.php on 01.05.2017
• Singh, J.D. (2016), INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN INDIA – CONCEPT,
NEED AND CHALLENGES (PDF Download Available). Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
301675529_INCLUSIVE_EDUCATION_IN_INDIA_-
_CONCEPT_NEED_AND_CHALLENGES retrieved on 20.04.2017
• UNICEF (2003), Examples of inclusive education; India, UNICEF regional
office for South Asia, Kathmandu, retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/rosa/
InclusiveInd.pdf on 01.05.2017

Edidor’s Comments:
• Modestly developed
• May be accepted as the foirst draft

45
Unit- 2 p Issues in Indian Education with Special
Reference to Persons with Disabilities
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Accessibility to School, Curriculum & Learning Resources and Attitudinal
Barriers
2.3.1 Accessibility to School
2.3.2 Accessibility to Curriculum
2.3.3 Accessibility to Learning Resources
2.3.4 Attitudinal Barriers
2.4 Analysis of the Status of Elementary & Secondary Education for All
(SSA, RMSA) and Issues for Bridging Gaps
2.4.1 Analysis of the Status of Elementary Education for All (SSA)
2.4.2 Analysis of the Status of Secondary Education for All (RMSA)
2.4.3 Issues for Bridging Learning Gaps
2.5 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Disabilities, Gender, Caste, Socially
Disadvantaged Groups , Marginalised and their Specific Educational
Problems
2.5.1 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Disabilities
2.5.2 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Gender
2.5.3 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Caste and Socially Disadvantaged
Groups
2.5.4 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Marginalised
2.6 Challenges of Special Education, Inclusion , Systemic Reforms, Provision
and Support System, Public Private Partnership & NGO Initiatives

46
 2.6.1 Challenges of Special Education and Inclusion
2.6.2 Systemic Reforms, Provision and Support System
2.6.3 Public Private Partnership & NGO Initiatives
2.7 Support System to meet Diverse Learning Needs- Family, Community,
School, Peer, Administrative and Resource Support
2.7.1 Support Service System for Inclusive Education
2.7.2 Support Service System for Inclusive Education by Family,
Community, School , Peer Administration 2.7.3Support System
to meet Diverse Learning Needs- Resource Support
2.8 Let us sum up
2.9 Unit End Exercises
2.10 References

2.1 Introduction
Education of children with special needs has come a long way; from special
education tointegrated education and from integrated education to inclusive education
(access to the mainstream). It requires education of children with special needs in
regular schools, in their owncommunity and by regular teachers. Inclusion
is not confined under the special education field only. Inclusion values diversity.
Every learner’s fundamental right is to learn. Having proper accessibility to school,
curriculum and resources every child will learn better. Implementing the principles
of Education for All (EFA) , SSA and RMSA are doing their job successfully
indiscriminating class, caste , gender , socially disadvantaged and marginalized
groups. Proper support service system is needed to bridge the learning gaps and
meet their specific educational needs.

2.2 Objectives
After completing this unit, learners will be able to:
Ø Identify the needs of accessibility of schools, diversified curriculum and
learning resources

47
 Ø Know the attitudinal barriers in inclusive education
Ø Assess the status of elementary and secondary schools(SSA,RMSA)
Ø Identify the issues of bridging gaps for pupil backward in studies
Ø Identify the causes of challenges in inclusive education
Ø Assess the importance of support service system to meet different learning
needs

2.3 Accessibility to School, Curriculum & Learning Resources

and Attitudinal Barriers
2.3.1 Accessibility to School
What is Accessibility?
Accessibility is a broad concept that encompasses the usability of
environments, amenities and resources by persons with disabilities.
Environments include physical spaces such as schools, playgrounds and
Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) facilities. Amenities include facilities
such as a pump, well or school furniture within a classroom. Within the
context of schools, resources include books and other learning materials,
as well as computers, computer software and internet services where they
are available.
Involving children with disabilities and their parents directly in the design
process is one of the easiest and most effective ways to create schools that
are truly inclusive and reflective of local needs. Children with disabilities
and their parents are experts on their own needs and abilities, and are a
great source of knowledge and design ideas.
Accessibility is an enabler that allows children and adults with disabilities
to enjoy their rights and entitlements. It is also a precondition for children
and adults with disabilities to live independently and participate fully and
equally in society.2 Furthermore, UNICEF’s involvement in school
construction provides an excellent opportunity to advocate for the quality
of learning environments within the local context through the implementation
of design and construction excellence.

48
Schools are often the centre of communities, both physically and figuratively.
School facilities are frequently also the location for community meetings
and other events, and are used as shelters in the event of emergencies such
as natural disasters and conflict. As such, integrating accessibility into the
design of schools benefits not only the children but also the entire community.
The design and improvement of physical accessibility of schools is part of
the social change required to implement inclusive education.
Integrating accessibility into the design of schools is usually viewed as
being very expensive, adding significantly to the construction cost. However,
the reality is that when accessibility is integrated at the planning stage for
new school construction, it adds very little to the construction cost. In fact,
the World Health Organization’s (WHO) 2011 World Report on Disability
notes that, “In new construction, full compliance with all the requirements
of accessibility standards is generally feasible at one per cent of the total
cost.”
Enhancing accessibility need not be expensive. Inexpensive upgrades to a
school might include: adding handrails to a stair; using community resources
to build a wooden ramp to overcome a change in level; or re-painting
doors to make them more visible to children with low vision.
It is also clear that the cost to society of creating inaccessible schools is
very high. If children with disabilities cannot attend school because the
building or curriculum is inaccessible, there are many indirect costs. They
include child-care costs for parents when their child cannot attend school,
and loss of earnings for families if someone has to stay home to look after
their child.
The creation of accessible school buildings alone will not provide appropriate
access to education for all children. The abilities of children with disabilities
can be greatly enhanced if appropriate assistive devices and technologies
are available to support their learning needs. An assistive device is a tool,
technology or other mechanism that enables a person to do everyday tasks
such as moving through the community, lifting an object or reading a
book. Assistive devices help people with disabilities to maintain their
independence at home, at school and within the community. These devices

49
and technologies, whether used as a mobility aid by an individual or as a
communication aid within a classroom, can support a child with a disability
to learn. They promote and facilitate inclusive education, whether this is
allowing a child to get to school in a wheelchair or helping them understand
a lesson through Braille or text-to-speech technology.
Reasonable Accommodation means necessary and appropriate modification
and adjustments not imposing a disproportionate or undue burden, where
needed in a particular case, to ensure to persons with disabilities the enjoyment
or exercise on an equal basis with others of all human rights and fundamental
freedoms (Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities – Article
2, Definitions).
It should also be recognized that children with disabilities have unique
needs that need to be met if they are to succeed at school. Specific
accommodations catering to the needs of individual children are also required
alongside addressing the general accessibility of schools. For example, a
school may have many accessible features such as ramps, wider doorways
and accessible toilets etc., but if a child with a disability does not have an
assistive device to get to school and access her classroom, she is denied
the right to an education. The provision of a wheelchair by the school
administration would be a reasonable accommodation of the child’s needs.
Similarly, a child who has a vision impairment, has a learning disability
or has limited use of his hands, may need assistance to complete a written
test. Allowing the child more time to take the test and providing a writer
would be a reasonable accommodation. Such reasonable accommodations
are critical to ensuring that children with disabilities can truly realize their
right to an education.
There is a very strong social, sustainable and economic rationale for the
integration of accessibility into the design and construction of schools, as
well as the development of inclusive curriculum and learning resources,
supporting the goals of UNICEF’s Strategic Plan 2014-2017 to, “Improve
learning outcomes and equitable and inclusive education”, and “Provide
safe drinking water, sanitation and good hygiene facilities in schools (with
attention to the needs of girls)”.4 The creation of inclusive schools also
directly contributes to achieving the proposed Open Working Group
50
Sustainable Development Goals, specifically Goal 4: to “Ensure inclusive
and equitable quality education and promote life-long learning opportunities
for all”. Furthermore, accessibility is a fundamental component of UNICEF’s
Child Friendly School (CFS) initiatives.
2.3.2 Accessibility to Curriculum
Curriculum Adaptation
Curriculum adaptation is an open-ended progressive process that adapts
stipulated program to meet the demands of students with special educational
needs. It facilitates the teaching process to welcome needs and interests of
all students with various abilities and disabilities. To build a sound and full
relation between individual and class curricula a teacher/special needs
educator needs empirically tested model which fills all the gaps between
the two curricula. Curriculum Relation Model by Johnsen (2012) reflects
important aspects for meaningful and individually adapted curriculum. In
this model the main areas are: the pupil/s, educational intentions, educational
content, methods and organization, assessment, communication, care, and
context/frame factors. The seven aspects are embraced by contextual aspects
within which the inner activity of schooling is situated (Johnsen, 2012).
These aspects are elaborated below.
Individual Education Plan :
An Individual Education Plan (IEP) is a written document developed for
a student with special educational needs; it describes the student’s current
needs, performance and goals for the school year, the particular special
educational services to be delivered, and the procedures by which outcomes
are to be evaluated (Kirk et al, 2012). The IEP also assists teachers monitor
the student’s development and provides a framework to deliver information
about student’s achievements to parents. The IEP is updated regularly to
note any changes in student’s education program that appear to be necessary
after the assessment of student’s annual progress. IEP is prepared through
a collaboration of the school, parents, the student (where appropriate) and
other relevant personnel or agencies. IEP refers to adapted aspects of
educational program and focuses attention on priority needs. Only certain
aspects of the curriculum which arises from assessment need to be modified.

51
The amount of modification and support depend on individual learning
needs of CSN. IEP is an effective educational tool to support CSN to learn
to leave school with the skills necessary to participate to the level of their
capacity in an inclusive way in the social and economic activities of society
and to live independent and fulfilled lives (NCSE, 2006).
2.3.3 Accessibility to Learning Resources
Accessibility and Universal Design
In 2012, the Centre of Inclusive Design and Environmental Access developed
the following eight goals of universal design: 7
Goal 1: Body Fit Goal 2: Comfort Goal 3: Awareness Goal 4: Understanding
Goal 5: Wellness Goal 6: Social Integration Goal 7: Personalization Goal
8: Cultural Appropriateness
The goals of universal design are presented below, along with some examples
of how they might apply to a school project.
One of the fundamental concepts of inclusive education is to address the
individual needs of learners, including the needs of children with disabilities.
Inclusive educational environments also promote better social equality among
all children.
Adopting an inclusive approach requires the commitment of ministries of
education, regional and local school administrations, principals and teachers,
all working together to adopt and implement the following strategies:
• Value all students and staff equally, including staff, children and youth
with disabilities.
• Acknowledge the rights of children and young pupils to an education
in their locality.
• Increase the participation of students in cultural events, curricula and
the communities of their institution.
• Examine the cultures, policies and practices of the institution to respect
the diversity of learners in the community.
• Assess digital barriers to learning and participation for all students.
Ensure that everyone has access, not just those with visible impairments
52
 or those categorized as ‘having inclusive educational needs’ or learning
disabilities.
• Review attempts to overcome education barriers to access and
participation and learn from both mistakes as well as successes.
• Improve institutions for all people with disabilities in the community
as well as for the students of the school.
• Foster mutually sustaining relationships between learning institutions
and communities. Recognize that inclusion in education is an important
part of inclusion in the greater society.
Central to the implementation of an inclusive education strategy is making
books and other types of learning resources available to all students in a
format that they can read or use and understand. This section of the booklet
will overview the types of information typically found in classrooms and
provide guidance on the types of alternate accessible formats that will
benefit many students with disabilities.
Books and Other Printed Documents Much of the learning in classrooms
is structured around reading, understanding and discussing printed materials
such as books, newspapers and magazines. If a child cannot read a book
because of a visual, cognitive or learning disability, the information in the
book should be available in an alternate accessible format that can be used
by the child.
Alternate Formats to Print that are Commonly Used
Braille Braille is a tactile lettering system consisting of raised dots that a
child or adult with a vision impairment can be taught to use by reading
using their fingertips. Patterns of raised dots are used to represent letters
and words. Once children know Braille, they can share in discovering new
information independently about the
Why is print information inaccessible to some children?
You have to be able to see it and you have to be able to see it clearly,
which impacts children with blindness or low vision. You may have to be
able to hold it in order to read it or turn pages to access it, which impacts

53
children with little or no dexterity (perhaps due to paralysis, missing limbs
or temporary injury). You have to be able to understand what’s written for
it to be useful, which impacts children who don’t or can’t read the language
of the printed text, children who have limited literacy or those who have
a range of cognitive or learning disabilities.
world in the same way that any reading child does. But this can only
happen if the training and the materials are available in Braille.
Computerized Braille production is available and is an accepted method
for providing Braille documents all over the world. As such, Braille printed
materials should be available in all schools attended by children who can
read Braille. However, it should be noted that not all children with vision
loss can read Braille.
Audio Books An audio book is a recording of a book being read aloud,
supplemented with verbal descriptions of photographs, illustrations and
other graphic content contained within the printed book. The four most
common formats used for digital audio books are: UNICODE, Electronic
(e-book), EPUB 3, and DAISY.
Digital recording provides additional benefits over analog recording, including
smaller storage space requirements, bookmarking and tagging. As such it
has become the preferred choice for audio books within some developed
countries. Efforts are under way to ensure that the benefits of this technology
are also readily available to developing countries.
Digital audio books are an effective vehicle for learning and should be
available to children with disabilities who need them.
Large Print Making printed information available as large-print documents
is a cost-effective way to support the learning of some children with vision
loss. Computers make it easier for schools to produce large-print books
themselves if an electronic version of the text is available. Where an
electronic text is not available, a computer equipped with a document
camera and image-enlarging software can scan and display enlarged images
of text and graphics on a computer monitor. Such software can also adjust
the colour and contrast of text to maximize legibility for students with
vision loss. Where document cameras are not available but computers are,
54
volunteers can re-type the book content to create an editable electronic
version. Handheld magnifiers can also provide a low-tech solution where
it is difficult to produce large-print materials in the absence of computers.
Similarly, the availability of a document camera and image-enlarging software
will greatly enhance accessibility for others. Supplying books and written
information in formats that children with visual or print disabilities can
use freely by themselves is a key element of inclusive education. When
implementing alternate formats, consider:
• In today’s world, computers are playing a key role in production and
dissemination of information in accessible formats. Whenever it is
available, use computer technology. Where computers may be scarce,
many smart-phone applications may be used. Where the cost for the
creation of large-print alternatives is not manageable or equipment is
not yet available, handheld magnifiers can also be used.
• Accessible materials should be available to children with disabilities
at the same time that information is available to other students as
printed documents.
• Accessible materials should be available to students at no extra cost to
that of the printed documents.
e-text Readers E-text readers read text aloud from electronic documents or
websites displayed on a computer, tablet, mobile phone or other electronic
device. An e-text reader can read electronic text, but it cannot read a
photograph, illustration or other graphic material. In an accessible document,
any graphics will have a written description linked to them. This is referred
to as an alternate text or ‘alt text’. If a website or electronic document
includes alternate text descriptions for the graphic contents, the e-text
reader will read aloud the alternate text.
The easiest and most cost-effective way of providing accessible information
to students with vision loss is with e-text reading software. However,
written materials must first exist in an electronic format that is recognized
by an e-text reader and the school must have access to computers, tablets,
mobile phones or other electronic devices for this solution to work.

55
Students with other types of disabilities, such as dyslexia, can also benefit
from e-text reading software. Used appropriately, it can enhance reading,
spelling and grammar skills for any student.
It should also be noted that not all electronic documents are able to be read
by e-text readers. For example, one of the most commonly used file formats
is a pdf (portable document file), which can sometimes be problematic if
the author does not plan for accessibility. The format of documents should
be compatible with the available e-text reading devices.
Electronic Documents
As technology continues its rapid evolution, children are increasingly creating
and using electronic documents in their learning activities at school. Electronic
documents are an excellent resource for children with vision loss and other
types of disabilities as they can be created to be read using an e-text
reader, as well as checked for spelling and grammar errors. The usability
of such electronic documents can be greatly enhanced if they are created
as accessible electronic files rather than simply plain text.
In addition to the written content of the document, accessible electronic
files incorporate hidden information about how the document is organized,
words that are emphasized, titles and headers, etc. E-text readers and
screen-reading software use this hidden information to make electronic
documents easier to read, navigate and understand. Commonly used word
processing programmes can easily create accessible electronic files if the
author uses the document style features typically provided.
When information is provided in an accessible electronic file it is easy to
convert the information into other accessible formats, including: high-
contrast print; large print; Braille; other languages; other electronic formats;
spoken word; and sign language. As such, schools should teach their teachers
and students how to create accessible electronic files, so materials can be
easily converted and shared with children with disabilities.
Websites and Other Online Teaching Resources
The information resources available through the internet are increasingly
being used within classrooms as a key curriculum component. Children

56
with disabilities should be able to access these online resources, along
with their classmates. Screen-reading and e-text software provide a relatively
inexpensive and readily available method for children with disabilities to
participate in these online learning activities.
However, e-text and screen-reading software is of limited use if the websites
accessed are not designed to be accessible. Accessible websites are sites
that have been designed to meet a set of guidelines (Web Content Accessibility
Guidelines [WCAG]).8 When ministries of education, regional and local
school administrations, school principals and teachers are creating web-
based learning resources, they should ensure that WCAG guidelines have
been met.
Film, Video and Broadcast Resources
Films and other audio-visual materials are frequently used by teachers
within the classroom as a learning resource. The use of traditional film
media is rapidly being overtaken by DVDs as well as online streaming
services such as YouTube.
Children who are deaf, deafened or hard-of-hearing will benefit from having
captions (sub-titles) to supplement the audio components of the film or
video. Such captioning must be synchronized with the action. Where media
is used in the classroom which is not captioned, one strategy would be to
provide a written transcript for students with hearing loss. Alternatively, if
the child knows sign language, provide an interpreter to sign the audio
content of the film/video.
Children with vision loss will benefit from having described video content.
Described video is additional audio information which describes the context
of the film/video and the information which is not obvious from simply
listening to the soundtrack. When choosing film and other audio-visual
resources for use in the classroom, every effort should be made to use
media that incorporates captioning and described content. If captioning
and described content are not available, support for children with disabilities
should be provided.
Software and Hardware Considerations Including children with disabilities
into classroom learning activities may require providing assistive technologies
57
specific to the needs of the child. The array of such technologies is vast
but can be generally categorized in six areas.
Alternate Access Hardware Alternate access hardware is a tool that offers
students access to a computer using a variety of devices. These tools
include alternate keyboards, key guards, alternate mice, touch screens,
switches, switch interfaces and more. Hardware may also include simple
low-tech devices, such as a pencil-holder grip that allows a student with
limited fine motor skills to use a pencil to tap the keys of a keyboard.
Alternate Access Software Alternate access software offers students access
to curriculum materials using a variety of methods. These tools can include
supports for reading, written output, organization, computer control, text-
to-speech conversion and speech-to-text conversion. While software products
typically have to be purchased, there are many excellent open-source products
available for free (see references below).
Communication Hardware Communication hardware allows students to
participate and communicate in the classroom during lessons. These tools
can include low-tech equipment such as symbol/picture boards, eyegaze or
eye-pointing systems, head-pointing devices, keyboards, touch screens and
high-tech equipment such as portable and/or handheld computers equipped
with Augmentative and Alternative Communication (AAC) software.
Communication Software Communication software allows students with
communication disabilities to participate in classroom discussions using
alternate methods. These tools include support for reading, written output,
organization, computer control and more. Some examples include Boardmaker,
Tobii Communicator, The Grid 2 and Prologue2Go.
Vision Hardware Vision hardware allows students with low vision or blindness
to access written material in the classroom and on the internet. These tools
include: Braille Writers for the creation of Braille documents; enlarged
keyboards for their easily read keys; portable note-takers for zooming in
on a chalkboard and recording a teacher; and various magnifiers. Low-
tech solutions that can be used to enhance access to curriculum materials
for children with low vision include: Braille slate and stylus for writing
Braille; Taylor frame for teaching maths; writing guide and regular Dictaphone

58
for recording lessons; and models of different objects, tactile maps, globes,
cardboard and thread for making tactile learning materials from scratch.
Vision Software Vision software is a class of high-tech tools that can allow
a student access to the curriculum. These tools include screen readers,
scan-and-read systems and digital book readers. Access to this software
can be made in conjunction with the learning assistance teacher, special
education technology consultants and the recommendations provided by
the educational psychological assessment. The appropriate software can be
determined through trials to determine the right fit for each student and
what type of support is available.
UNICEF is putting together a database of assistive technologies which are
useful for children with disabilities.
In an inclusive classroom, decisions regarding alternate-access hardware
and software for students are best made in conjunction with occupational
therapists, physiotherapists and ophthalmologists, etc. who are familiar
with the student’s abilities and needs. Through a functional skills assessment,
teachers can request from the administration the hardware supports required
for their students with disabilities. Where such support is not available for
teachers, the experts/resource organizations referenced below may provide
guidance.
Evolving computer and smart-phone technology and applications are making
it easier and more cost effective to provide appropriate learning resources
for children with disabilities, allowing them the same opportunities to
succeed in their education as their peers. Non-technology solutions continue
to also be important such as pencil grips, word cards, photo albums, magnifiers
and stencils.
Goal 1: Body Fit Accommodates a wide range of body sizes and abilities.
Examples:
• Pathways, hallways and doors are wide enough to accommodate
wheelchairs and other types of assistive devices.
• School desks are appropriately sized for the age of the children using
them.

59
• Handrails are shaped and sized for small hands.
• Larger-sized buttons on switches and other operating devices for those
with functional limitations of reduced fine motor control or manual
dexterity. Highcontrast colours/tones distinguish them from their
surroundings.
Goal 2: Comfort Keeping demands within desirable limits of body function.
Examples:
• No step entry to buildings for all users.
• Where ramps are used, they are not too steep.
• Doors are not heavy to open. Simple design of door handles such as
levers, instead of knobs, that enable a child with limited hand movement
to open the door.
• The blackboard and shelves are within reach of all children to write
comfortably, including wheelchair users and persons of shorter stature.
• Illumination, heat and humidity levels within classrooms can be controlled.
• Background noise is minimized.
Goal 3: Awareness Ensuring that critical information is easily perceived
using different senses.
Examples:
• Signs incorporate high colour and tonal contrast, tactile information
and pictograms.
• Signage lettering is large enough to be viewed from a distance appropriate
to the information provided.
• Sign-language interpretation and/or assistive listening systems are
available for children who are deaf or hard of hearing.
• Educational materials made available in alternate formats such as Braille,
audio, closed captioning (CC), etc.
• Colour and tonal contrast between the wall and floor surfaces.
Goal 4: Understanding Making methods of operation and use intuitive,
clear and unambiguous.

60
Examples:
• Room signs are consistently located at the same height on the latch
side of doors.
• Colour coding is used to identify similar elements and spaces, e.g.
doors to classrooms are a different colour from doors to offices.
• Pictograms are used wherever possible.
Goal 5: Wellness Contributing to health promotion, avoidance of disease
and prevention of injury.
Examples:
• Gender-appropriate toilets are available.
• Handrails provided on both sides of stairs and ramps.
• Guards used where overhead obstructions are low enough that someone
may hit his or her head.
• Classrooms are located away from odour sources (such as toilets) and
are well-ventilated.
Goal 6: Social Inclusion Treating all groups with dignity and respect.
Examples:
• School entrances accommodate all children, including children with
disabilities.
• Children with disabilities are included in classrooms with other children
of their own age.
• ‘Special’ facilities for children with disabilities are avoided. If provided,
they should maximize inclusion.
• The same learning resources are used for all children.
Goal 7: Personalization Incorporating opportunities for choice and the
expression of individual preferences.
Examples:

61
• Toilets provide each gender with appropriate level of privacy and
safety. Menstrual hygiene needs do not limit girls with disabilities’
attendance at school.
• Where stairs are used, ramps also available in the same location. •
Learning resources appropriate for left- and right-handed users, such
as scissors.
Goal 8: Cultural Appropriateness Respecting and reinforcing cultural values,
and the social and environmental context of any design project.
Examples:
• School designs reflect cultural norms.
• Gender-appropriate facilities are available, such as toilets for girls
with privacy.
• Learning resources incorporate culturally appropriate information and
examples.
2.3.4 Attitudinal Barriers
Barriers to Inclusive Education
Inclusive education is a binding and priority for government of India. However, a
wide gap in policy and practice exists in the country with respect to inclusive
education. There are a number of barriers that hinder proper practice of inclusive
education in our country. Based on the literature and personal experiences, the
authors believe these barriers to include the
following:
1. The inefficiency of teachers to develop and use instructional materials for
inclusion students (Coskun, Tosun, & Macaroglu, 2009)
2. Attitudes towards inclusion and disability among teachers, administrators and
policy planners
3. Attitudes of parents of children without disabilities
4. Lack of awareness about children with disabilities among general teachers
(Unianu, 2012)

62
5. Improper curriculum adaptation
6. School environment
7. School management
8. Support services
9. Family collaboration
10. Insufficient and improper pre-service teacher education
11. Negative self-perceptions of children with disabilities
12. Negative attitudes of normal peers
13. ICT availability and related competencies
14. Improper policy planning and lack-luster implementation
15. Difficulties in physical access
16. Expenses involved
The barriers mentioned here do not form an exhaustive list but authors believe that
not much are left out. In addition to above, skills of teachers which are responsible
for implementing inclusive education are also not up to as desired and necessary
for inclusion. Das, Kuyini and Desai (2013) examined the current skill levels
of regular primary and secondary school teachers in Delhi, India in order to
teach students with disabilities in inclusive education settings. They reported
that nearly 70% of the regular school teachers had neither received training in
special education nor had any experience teaching students with disabilities.
Further, 87% of the teachers did not have access to support services in their
classrooms. Finally, although both primary and secondary school teachers rated
themselves as having limited or low competence for working with students
with disabilities, there was no statistically significant difference between their
perceived skill levels.
There are various types of barriers that can be eliminated to promote more
inclusive environments. Some common barriers are as follows:
• Institutional barriers and attitudes towards children with disability:
Children with disabilities are not valued within some societies, which

63
is often reinforced through institutional policies and practices that
exclude and segregate. Article 24 of the CRPD specifically addresses
the rights of children with disabilities to attend school, at all levels.
Not only do children with disabilities have the right to attend school,
but the Convention states that children with disabilities have the right
to attend inclusive mainstream programmes rather than segregated
programmes. • Social stigma and attitude linked with disability:
Stereotypes linked to disability lead to negative attitudes towards children
with disabilities and their education (such as that the child is ‘defective’
or that the disability is a punishment for ‘sins’). Parents, teachers and
school managers often ignore the rights and needs of children with
disabilities, which results in discrimination and discourages parents
and children with disabilities from attending school. • Barriers
to access information and educational material: In many schools,
educational materials and teaching methods remain inaccessible for
children with sensory impairments (visual, speech and hearing) as
well as learning and other developmental disabilities. Inclusive teaching
methods as well as learning materials should be provided to children
with disabilities in inclusive settings. • Barriers to access physical
infrastructure: Inaccessible and faulty designs create physical and
architectural barriers for children with disabilities and their families.
This hampers accessibility to education, both services and facilities. •
Limited understanding and awareness of accessibility, disability and
ability: Accessibility is often over-simplified, such as thinking that
providing a ramp will address all of the accessibility needs within a
school. Accessibility should be considered at every stage of a child’s
journey from home to their classroom, and for every activity within
the school. For example, providing a ramp will not help a child with
a vision or hearing disability.
One of the most powerful ways to address such barriers in the
development of schools is to involve the local community, including
children with disabilities and their families, in a meaningful way within
the planning and decision-making processes of a project. Children
with disabilities and their parents are experts on their own needs and

64
 can often bring innovative and cost-effective ideas to the table. Their
participation will help the entire community to better understand the
needs of children with disabilities and contribute to their integration
into the community.
Psychological Barrier
a. Contempt Psychology
Since some primary and middle schools value intelligence cultivation rather than
holisticdevelopment and comprehensive education, and pursue enrolment rate
superficially,some challenged and underprivileged students encounter difficulty in
beingaccommodated in classes when they are in high school. Therefore, a general
contemptpsychology that the student with special needs are backward and cannot
be successfullyassimilated in the educational ambience of the class create a
psychological barrier thataffects the transaction of content and leads to development
of a sense of negativity and
low self-confidence in the special needs learners themselves.
b. The Fear Psychology
Effective learning is largely dependent on the emotional wellbeing of the learners
andit is a matter of paramount importance to recognize the social, cultural, economic
andpolitical influences that affect the minds of the learners with special needs and
generatesfear. Most common factors that breed fear in the learners and disrupts the
emotionalwellbeing of a learner, thereby creating a major barrier to learning are as
follows:
i. Physical abuseboth at the seat of learning and at home
ii. Emotional abuse at school or home
iii. Sexual abuse both at the seat of learning and at home
iv. Substance abuse , forced in most cases
v. political violence in terms of civil war, racial discrimination
vi. violence and hatred based on religious fanaticism that subjects young learners
toterrifying situations, threats and exclusion
c. Shyness

65
Exclusion for a very long time, as in the case of the first generation learners, may
leadto a deep seated feeling of diffidence and shyness that creates a major
psychologicalbarrier in effective learning and academic enquiry. Learners from
families affectedwith AIDS and similar diseases usually encounter exclusion in
one form or the otherand develop an innate shyness when positioned with peers
within the classroom situation.
d. Inferiority
When taking part in the physical as well as intellectual activities, some students
areinactive or slow for their low intellectual capabilities/ low levelof fitness and
the lackof perceptual ability. So when they see the other students doing well while
they stillperforming poorly after several times of practice, they then start thinking
that they areborn with low capacities, and lose confidence to practice again. A
sense of inferiority,dejection and low motivation creeps in and this affects the
enthusiasm to learn. Inferiority is thus a major psychological barrier to learning.
e. Boredom
In most cases the prevalent education system follows a predetermined fashion
oftransaction with little or no scope for addressing the individual needs of the
diverselearners, especially the gifted learners and the challenged or low achievers.
Thepreconceived pattern of teaching generates a sense of deep seated boredom for
thelearners on two levels. On one hand the gifted learners fail to find intellectual
motivationin dragging classes that deal with content that appear to be repetitive
and uninspiring.On the other hand the challenged learners find it difficult to grasp
the lesson in class astheir individual difficulties are not considered or catered to.
Thus they are also subjectedto boredom that creates a barrier to effective learning
and causes multiple forms ofdiversion.
f. Conformity
Following the crowd is the main feature of conformity. If there are several students
fullof enthusiasm, others will be affected by this kind of atmosphere . It is no
doubt thatsuch a class is an efficient one. However diverse learners, in their natural
psychologicalurge to conform often find themselves lagging behind either due to
intellectual, physicalor economic reasons. This creates great psychological pressure
and a barrier to effectivelearning. On the other hand, general low motivational

66
level or contempt towards atopic or lesson creates a ripple effect of general negligence
towards that subject by althe learners involved. This in its turn creates a barrier to
effective learning.

g. Labelling
In most cases regular teachers tend to categorize and address different children by
alabel. Some of the negative effects of labelling are -
i. Labels tend to divert human attention to only a specific feature of a learner
andthus the learner, once labelled, always is judged by all teachers and peers
in termsof the characteristics associated with that particular label. In most
cases it is anegative aspect or a disability of the learner that is picked for
labelling and thiscreates a great barrier to learning by forcing the learner into
a persistent reminder of a particular inability and results in loss of confidence
and motivation to learn.
ii. Teachers and parents are found to have low expectations of the performance
of achallenged learner and the labels reflect the feeling. The labels in their
turn, lowerthe performance level of the learner. This creates a psychological
vicious cycle.
iii. Labels create a sense of stigmatization, shame, helplessness and inferiority
thatimpedes effective learning.
iv. Labels lead to rejection by peers and generate a psychological negativity
andexclusion that impedes effective learning.
v. Labelling leads to development of a poor self-concept.
h. Lack of Accountability
A special needs learner admitted to a regular school is often considered to be the
soleresponsibility of the special educator and this psychological state leads to a
lack ofaccountability for the poor level of learning of the learner with special
needs. If aschool does not have a special educator, then the education of the
special needs learneris jeopardized. Education of a special needs learner should be
the responsibility of allthe teachers, the administration as well as the others involved

67
with the educational institution. All should be collectively accountable to the
community.
i. Peer Rejection
When enrolled in a regular school, a special needs learner may be subjected to
bullying,teasing and rejection that creates considerable psychological pressure upon
the childand impedes learning. Lack of acceptance is a major psychological barrier
that must beeradicated for effective learning and inclusion.
j. The Character of the Class and the Stress of Evaluation Criterion
Most educational institutes follow predetermined homogenous pattern of evaluationand
teaching though they are inclusive in nature due to policy and regulations. Thiscreates
considerable stress on the learners with special needs and the homogeneousevaluation
criterion adds to the extra pressure since different learners with differenttypes of
special needs fail to live up to the desired standards. There may be gracemarking
or a total condoning of the poor performance of the diverse learners with noplanning
for differentiated instruction and evaluation, but that build up a sense ofinferiority
and exclusion which impairs learning in the long run.
k. The Movement Difficulty of the Students
Psychological barrier emerges easily if the risk in the complexity of the project is
closeto or more than the students’ maximal endurance capacity. Minority special
needs studentshave abilities that are usually low, and there are usually two different
mental reactionsfound by studies. One is novel and positive emotional experience.
Some students thinkthat they can complete the assignment in the prevalent learning
environment as long asthey are careful, but they become over cautious, timid and
nervous. On the contrary,other students lose confidence in themselves because of
the fear of danger, thinking it istoo difficult to move safely in the prevalent classroom
arrangement and learningenvironment. When injury or accident happens, their fear
factor is even more aggravated.
l. Tension between Teachers and Students
Favouritism often tends a select few to enjoy all the attention and appreciation in
ageneral diverse class and frequently breeds an unwarranted feeling of rejection
andeven unjust evaluation among the less favoured diverse learners. The feeling is
strongerin case of learners with special needs who already harbour a sense of

68
inadequacy andinferiority in their hearts. A kind of loneliness and depression make
the individualpsychology lose balance. It is easy to cause psychological barriers if
the individualsense of distance and apathy between the teacher and the taught is
not addressed andresolved.
m. Attitudinal barriers
Attitudes are basic and pervasive aspects of human life, reflecting one’s thoughts,
feelingsand action. Allport (1954) suggested that an attitude is basically a readiness
to respondin a particular kind of way and is directed by an individual’s psychological
inclinationto evaluate and judge people and things. Attitudinal barriers are the
most basic andcontribute to other barriers. For example, some people may not be
aware that difficultiesin getting to or into a place can limit a person with a disability
from participating ineveryday life and common daily activities. Examples of attitudinal
barriers include:
Stereotyping: People sometimes stereotype those with disabilities, assuming theirquality
of life is poor or that they are unhealthy because of their impairments.Prejudice,
and discrimination: Within the school, these attitudes may come frompeople’s
ideas related to disability. People may see disability as a personal tragedy,as something
that needs to be cured or prevented, as a punishment for wrongdoing, or as an
indication of the lack of ability to behave as expected in society. Thispsychological
state creates a general lack of empathy for the challenged and it isreflected in
behaviour and teaching. This creates a serious barrier to learning.However, society’s
understanding of disability is improving as we recognize “disability”as what occurs
when a person’s functional needs are not addressed in his or her physicaland social
environment. By not considering disability a personal deficit or shortcoming, and
instead thinking of it as a social responsibility in which all people can be supported
to live independent and full lives, it becomes easier to recognize and address
challenges that people with disabilities experience.Parental Apathy: Parents are
often not in favour of sending challenged children toregular schools considering it
a waste of time and money, while parents of regularchildren also have attitudinal
problems in sending their wards to a school thatadmits challenged learners on the
grounds that education of their wards would beaffected by studying with special
needs children and that the regular learners mayimitate undesirable behaviours and
manners of the marginalized learners. Thiscreates a barrier to effective learning.

69
These psychological barriers may be minimized in many ways , a few of which
aregiven below. A teacher may:
a. Avoid making assumptions about a student’s disability or capabilities;
manypersons with disabilities talk about being frustrated with people assuming
whatthey can or cannot do.
b. Encourage students with disabilities to come forward and speak to you about
theway they learn and what may be “disabling” in your course, classroom, or
teaching.Remember that students with disabilities do not have to disclose
their disabilityto their professors or to anyone else in the academic environment
in order toreceive accommodations.
c. Respect the privacy of students with disabilities.
d. Insist on professional, civil conduct between and among students to respect
people’sdifferences and create an inclusive environment.
e. Engage in the accommodation process at your university in good faith
andimplement appropriate accommodations.
Attitudinal Barriers to Inclusive Education
In addition to many other requirements, implementation of inclusive education
immensely requires positive attitudes towards inclusion and disability among
teachers, parents, peers, administrators and policy planners. However, negative
attitudes are still persisting among these in many cases. This is adversely affecting
inclusive education scenario in India.
Mainstream teacher attitudes may be a contributory barrier to successful inclusive
practices (Avramadis, Bayliss, & Burden, 2000; Bender, Vail, & Scott, 1995;
De Boer, Pijl, &Minnaert, 2010). Teachers tend to be broadly positive about the
principle of inclusion while at the same time viewing its practical implementation
as problematic (e.g., Avramidis & Norwich, 2002; Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996).
However it has been argued that neutral, even negative, attitudes toward inclusion
may better characterize teacher viewpoints (De Boer et al., 2010; Soodak, Podell
& Lehman, 1998). Indeed teachers in mainstream schools were less positive about
the potential of children with learning disabilities than special school teachers.
The inclusion of children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties has
consistently been reported as a particularly problematic for teachers, and is

70
accompanied by negative teaching attitudes (Cook, 2001; Cook, Cameron &
Tankersley, 2007; Hastings & Oakford, 2003; Shapiro, Miller, Sawka, Gardill, &
Handler, 1999). These are children whose learning in the classroom is compromised
by complex and long-term difficulties in managing their behavior, emotions and
relationships (Simpson, Bloom, Cohen, Blumberg, & Bourdon, 2005). Unlike
other groups of students with special needs, they are still as likely to be placed
in specialist provision now as 30 years ago (Cooper, 2004). This group is mainly
male, with a majority from low socio-economic status backgrounds, and with
lower educational attainment than their peers (Farrell & Tsakalidou, 1999; Simpson
et al., 2005).
Teachers with negative attitudes believe that inclusion is a burden on teachers
and they should receive special service delivery in special education settings
to avoid the negative impact on their typically developing peers in the regular
classroom (Zambelli & Bonni, 2004). A number of studies found that general
education teachers are not supportive of inclusion. Hammond and Ingalls (2003),
for example, concluded that most of the teachers did not support inclusion, albeit
their schools had inclusive programs. Burke and Sutherland (2004) found
similar results where in-service teachers’ attitudes toward inclusion were
negative. Other studies found that general education teachers are less supportive
of inclusion (Armstrong, Armstrong, Lynch, & Severin, 2005; De Boer, Pijl, &
Minnaert, 2010; De Boer, Pjil, & Minnaert, 2011). Rakap and Kaczmarek
(2010) investigated Turkish general education teachers working in public elementary
schools regarding the inclusion of students with disabilities in their classrooms
and their readiness to include students with severe learning disabilities. The
results indicated that the teachers had negative attitudes towards the inclusion of
students with disabilities into regular education classrooms.
School principals too have a central role in promoting an inclusive ethos within
their schools. This implied that school principals have a crucial role within their
school to communicate their expectations regarding inclusive practices clearly to
their teaching staff (MacFarlane &Woolfson, 2013). Although no research could be
located in Indian settings by the authors, but they believe that negative attitudes
are quite prevalent among teachers, parents, peers, administrators and policy
planners towards disability as well as inclusive education.

71
Teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education could be formed and developed in
the context of an educational system which can provide some specific conditions
in order to have a good practice in this field. Those conditions refer to a restructure
of the curricula, more help from support teachers, more time for preparing the
educational activities, decreasing the number of students in one class, creating
and developing opportunities for interactive partnerships between teachers,
students, support teachers and parents and so on. The reform of the
curriculum should be made in parallel with a proper training for teachers
regarding their knowledge of inclusion and its principles. The difficulties are
inherent to any change or reform, but it is necessary to develop an educational
system which can properly respond to all the needs, characteristics and individual
differences of all children in school (Unianu, 2012).
The separate teacher education programs for regular and special education do
not equip teachers with an integrated knowledge of the expected roles, functions
and responsibilities to meet the diversity of learning needs in the classroom. A
need is being felt for a new paradigm for the preparation of teachers. There exists
the need for teacher educators of regular and special education at all levels of
teacher education to develop a “whole faculty approach” in facilitating an inclusive
pre-service teacher education curriculum embedded across all discipline areas
(Jelas, 2010).
Within a tradition of a dual regular and special education system in India, the
Government is promoting educational reforms that encourage an inclusive approach
to education. A move towards an inclusive approach to education in India is being
promoted through collaboration and support between teachers trained in
regular and special education. Thus, different perceptions of pre-service
teachers preparing to work either in elementary schools or in special schools
are a particular concern for people devoted to inclusive education. A need is being
felt for better teacher preparation due to the very low understandings of
inclusive education and pre-service teachers’ perceived lack of skills, knowledge,
experience, and/or training for an inclusive approach.
Investigating the determinants of teachers’ attitudes and behaviour and their
relative importance is crucial for improving teaching practices, initial teacher
education and professional development opportunities for effective inclusion of
children with special needs (MacFarlane & Woolfson, 2013).
72
Summing up, authors feel and believe that many initiatives have been introduced
at all levels to implement inclusive education in India but the road ahead is still
quite long.
Attitudinal barriers are behaviors, perceptions, and assumptions that discriminate
against persons with disabilities. These barriers often emerge from a lack of
understanding, which can lead people to ignore, to judge, or have misconceptions
about a person with a disability. Examples of attitudinal barriers include:
l Assuming a person with a disability is inferior.
l Assuming that someone with speech impairment cannot understand you.
l Forming ideas about a person because of stereotypes or a lack of knowledge.
l Making a person feel as though you are doing them a “special favour” by
providingtheir accommodations. As an educator, there are a number of ways
you can help remove attitudinal barriers.
You could:
l Avoid making assumptions about a student’s disability or capabilities; many
personswith disabilities talk about being frustrated with people assuming what
they can or cannot do.
l Encourage students with disabilities to come forward and speak to you about
the way they learn and what may be “disabling” in your course, classroom, or
teaching. Remember that students with disabilities do not have to disclose
their disability to their professors or to anyone else in the academic environment
in order to receive accommodations.
l Respect the privacy of students with disabilities.
l Insist on professional, civil conduct between and among students to respect
people’s differences and create an inclusive environment.
l Engage in the accommodation process at your university in good faith
andimplement appropriate accommodation
Intentional attitudinal barriers.
All of the students in the focus groups reported instances of isolation, physical
bullying, or emotional bullying. Isolation took the form of either being ignored or
having difficulty forging friendships. Physical bullying usually related to people
pushing the student’s wheelchair without permission, and in one instance, being
73
purposely knocked out of the wheelchair. The most frequent attitudinal barrier
mentioned was that of emotional bullying. The students indicated that this was the
most hurtful and included name calling, pointing, mouths dropping open, being
ridiculed, being labeled as “stupid,” condescending attitudes by teaching staff, and
generally being treated differently from other students. For example, one youth
reported that her peers “just stare at you and point and then whisper to each other
. . . all they have to do is ask me about my disability, but they don’t.”
Unintentional attitudinal barriers.
Unintentional attitudinal barriers relate to a lack of knowledge, education,
understanding, or effort on the part of the educational system or staff. From the
entire sample, the most frequently reported barrier was a lack of understanding by
teachers and support staff. This took the form of being given inappropriate substitute
work when too busy to adapt the curriculum, always being assigned as a teacher’s
helper in physical education classes instead of adapting or equalizing the playing
field, excluding children with special needs from certain classes without reason, or
not understanding their physical capabilities or limitations. As one youth reported,
“I can deal with water fountains being too high, but when a teacher reprimands me
for talking too loud because I am trying to tell someone behind me to stop pushing
me in the wrong direction, that is not fair. They are behind me and can’t hear me
unless I speak loudly.” Another unintentional attitudinal barrier reported was the
failure to plan or get advice for wheelchair access when building or renovating a
school.

2.4 Analysis of the Status of Elementary & Secondary Education

for All (SSA, RMSA) and Issues for Bridging Gaps
2.4.1 Analysis of the Status of Elementary Education for All (SSA)
SSA and Inclusive Education
INCLUSIVE EDUCATION IN SSA
The key objective of SSA is Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE).
Three important aspects of UEE are access, enrolment and retention of all children
in 6-14 years of age. This goal of UEE, has further been facilitated by the Constitutional
(86th Amendment) Act, making free and compulsory elementary education a
Fundamental Right, for all the children in the age group of 6-14 years. This Amendment

74
has given a new thrust to the education of Children With Special Needs (CWSN),
as without their inclusion, the objective of UEE cannot be achieved. In-fact inclusion
of one of the groups, which is extremely crucial for UEE, is perhaps that of the
CWSN. Hence, education of CWSN is an important component of SSA.
Provisions for CWSN under SSA SSA provides upto Rs.1200/- per child for the
inclusion of disabled children, as per specific proposal, per year. District plan for
children with special needs is formulated within the Rs.1200/- per child norm. The
interventions under SSA for inclusive education are identification, functional and
formal assessment, appropriate educational placement, preparation of Individualized
Educational Plan, provision of aids and appliances, teacher training, resource support,
removal of architectural barriers, research, monitoring and evaluation and a special
focus on girls with special needs. The guidelines on inclusive education in SSA are
given at Annex-I.
SSA’s Policy on Inclusion SSA ensures that every child with special needs, irrespective
of the kind, category and degree of disability, is provided meaningful and quality
education. Hence, SSA has adopted a zero rejection policy. This means that no
child having special needs should be deprived of the right to education and taught
in an environment, which is best, suited to his/her learning needs. These include
special schools, EGS, AIE or even home-based education.
The major thrust of SSA is on inclusion or mainstreaming CWSN into the fabric
of formal elementary schooling. Experiences of programmes like DPEP and various
research findings have shown that inclusion is best determined by the individual
needs of the child. Most children with special needs can be enrolled and retained
in regular schools if adequate resource support is provided to them, whereas there
are others who might have to be provided some kind of pre-integration programmes,
before they can be mainstreamed in a classroom. There might also be still some
CWSN with severe profound disabilities, who would require an educational programme
and intensive specialized support completely beyond the purview and scope of a
formal school in the current situation.
Thus, SSA has adopted a more expansive and a broad-based understanding of the
concept of inclusion, wherein a multi-option model of educating CWSN is being
implemented. The dual objective of embracing this model is to bring more CWSN
under the umbrella of SSA and to provide to CWSN appropriate need based skills,

75
be it vocational, functional literacy or simply activities of daily living. Further, an
attempt is being made to provide these skills in the most appropriate learning
environment.
C:\Documents and Settings\nic0100\Desktop\richa\May 2007 IE writeup[1]..doc
Efforts so far The implementation of this multi-option model of inclusion in SSA
has been made possible due to the flexibility offered to each State by the programme.
Although most SSA States have identified and enrolled CWSN in schools, they
differ in the approaches and strategies adopted to achieve the ultimate objective of
inclusion. States like A.P., Bihar, Madhya- Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan and U.P.
have conducted residential bridge courses for CWSN with the main objective of
preparing CWSN for schools, thereby endeavouring better quality inclusion for
them. Whereas Rajasthan is conducting these bridge courses entirely through NGOs,
U.P is conducting them through the resource teachers especially recruited by the
District SSA Societies for this purpose. Andhra- Pradesh has adopted a mixed
model, with some districts conducting these courses through NGOs and others
through the District SSA Societies. Besides this AIE model, 11 States are also
covering CWSN through the EGS. So far in SSA, 112033 CWSN are being covered
through AIE/EGS in 17 States.
Another practice adopted by SSA States (21 States so far) is that of the home-
based education for children with severe-profound disabilities with the objective
of either preparing CWSN for schools or for life by imparting to them basic living
skills. Again States have adopted different ways to provide home-based support to
CWSN. States like Himachal-Pradesh and Uttarakhand are using NGOs for this
purpose, whereas States like Haryana and Kerala have appointed resource teachers
who visit the homes of CWSN to provide them basic functional skills. Still other
States like Tamil- Nadu are using special schools as resource centers to provide
short-time or part-time help to individual children with special needs and their
parents. Parental counseling and vocational training are two important aspects of
the entire home-based instruction programme. Through home-based education, SSA
has been able to cover 77140 CWSN. A notable feature of this programme has
been an increased and a sustainable school- community linkage by actively involving
parents in the educational process of their CWSN.

76
No matter what the educational setting, it is widely accepted that there can be no
inclusion of CWSN without adequate resource support. This aspect has been
taken care of in SSA mainly through NGOs, inclusive education resource teachers
(IERTs), volunteers or by imparting long- term training to regular teachers on
inclusion. States like Haryana have opened model inclusive schools in every block
and equipped them with all possible facilities (like transport, equipment for physio-
therapy, occupational therapy, resource teachers etc.) mainly to provide all kinds
of support services, including remedial teaching to CWSN.
22 States have appointed 6678 resource teachers and 687 NGOs are involved in
the IE programme in 28 States. An important and unique facet of this involvement
is the range of activities that the NGOs have undertaken in the States for IE. These
activities vary from planning for inclusion as in West- Bengal, to implementation
and monitoring of IE, like in Tamil- Nadu. Other States have engaged NGOs for
designing and initiating innovative programmes. These include theme-based camps
in Orissa and development of low-cost/ no- cost simulation park for social inclusion
of CWSN in every BRC of Tamil- Nadu to training of Key Resource Persons from
the C:\Documents and Settings\nic0100\Desktop\richa\May 2007 IE writeup[1]..doc
Families of CWSN in West- Bengal and preparation of adapted TLM for CWSN
in Karnataka.
Two additional forms of resource support, complimentary to each other, being
provided to CWSN are through assistive devices and barrier free access. Both of
these aim enhancement of the functional capacity/ mobility of CWSN to promote
their easy access to the schools. 7.11 lakh CWSN (76.44% of the CWSN requiring
aids and appliances) under SSA have been provided assistive devices through
various modes. Some States like Haryana, Himachal Pradesh and U.P. have converged
with District Disability Rehabilitation Centers, local Red Cross, Composite Regional
Centers, NGOs etc. and some States like Kerala and A.P. have made arrangements
to provide the necessary equipment to CWSN through the State Government supported
organizations – like A.P. Viklaangula Corporative Corporation (APVCC) and Kerala
State Electronic Development Corporation (KELTRON). However, the largest provider
of aids and appliances to CWSN under SSA is ALIMCO (Artificial Limb
Manufacturing Corporation of India), a public sector undertaking functioning under
the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (MoSJ&E) with which an agreement

77
has been signed at the national level, as per which 60% of the cost of the assistive
devices would be borne by MoSJ&E and 40% by the State SSA Societies.
Schools are being made more disabled friendly by incorporating barrier free features
in their designs 5.02 lakh schools have been made barrier-free and very focused
efforts are being made by all the States to cover more schools in a phased manner.
The Outcome These practices and innovations in SSA are no doubt leading to a
gradual increased identification of CWSN. From 14.59 lakh CWSN identified in
2003-04, 30.38 lakh have been identified in 2006-07. Similarly, the enrollment of
CWSN in 2006-07 has gone up to 19.97 lakh CWSN as compared to 11.71 lakh
CWSN in 2003-04. More CWSN are likely to be covered this year through
various interventions and strategies. The current coverage of CWSN is 21.86 lakh
(71.99%).
Besides increasing the physical coverage, the expenditure on inclusive education
in SSA has also shown an upward trend. From a mere 26% expenditure in 2003-
04, the States have shown an overall expenditure of 65.50% on CWSN inclusion
related activities in 2005-06.
The Challenges It can be seen from the foregoing that several novel initiatives
have been taken up to address the divergent needs of special children. An endeavour
has also been made to develop in teachers, the necessary attitude, skills and
competencies required to deal effectively with children with various special educational
needs. The focus of SSA is now on reaching out to those out of school CWSN, not
covered so far and developing a strategy that will ensure that every child with
special needs receives continuing on site support. This perhaps is the biggest
challenge of all and a crucial determinant of the success of the inclusive education
programme under SSA.
C:\Documents and Settings\nic0100\Desktop\richa\May 2007 IE writeup[1]..doc
However, there are a few important issues in IE that also need to be adequately
addressed. These have been listed below:
• The percentage of CWSN identified seems to be low, being only 1.54 % of
the total child population in SSA in comparison to Census 2001 data, wherein
2.1% of the population has been found to have some disability. Hence, States
should streamline their identification procedures

78
• Retention of CWSN after their identification and enrollment should be monitored
and encouraged so that they complete the cycle of elementary education
• States to maintain their efforts to provide more assistive devices to CWSN as
76.4% children have got the required equipment
• Effective monitoring mechanisms should be developed by the States to assess
both the quantitative and qualitative progress and problems in IE
• Emphasis should now to be on classroom practices and teaching methods
adopted by teachers for effective classroom management of CWSN
• To ensure that every child with special needs receives continuing on site
support
• Involvement of more NGOs in the IE programme of SSA needs to be strengthened
• Only 47.14% schools have been made barrier-free. This aspect of IE in SSA
needs more focus
• Although States have increased pace of expenditure, it needs to be further
geared up.
C:\Documents and Settings\nic0100\Desktop\richa\May 2007 IE writeup[1]..doc
“Education is a human right with immense power to transform. On its foundation
rest the cornerstones of freedom, democracy and sustainable human development.”
Kofi Annan
The Right to Education is one of the essential rights in the contemporary time.
Education is a fundamental human right and essential for the exercise of all other
human rights. This right is essentially important to bring out the inner potentialities
of human beings and makes them capable for a life worth living. It promotes
capabilities of individuals and yields important development benefits by empowering
them. The word ‘education’ can be defined both in narrow and broad sense as well.
In narrow sense, it refers to the formal institutional instructions that are received
under formal environment, with fixed curriculum, at a fixed period of time under
the guidance of specially trained teachers. In a wider sense education may be
described as all such activities by which a human group transmits to its descendants
a body of knowledge and skills and a moral code which enable the group to
subsist. It is a lifelong process associated with an individual through which he/ she

79
acquires knowledge, wisdom and experiences at various stages of life. The process
of education brings a formative and additive effect on the personality of the individual
which is instrumental in bringing about social change and development. In the
discussion of human rights, education has now been considered as the basic right
of human beings. Being recognised as a right, it puts legal obligation on the state
should make adequate provision for educating its people who do not have education.
In addition to this access to education provisions, the right to education also
encompasses the obligation on the state to rule out discrimination at all levels of
the educational system, to set minimum standards and to improve the quality of
education. The states are now obliged to make provisions so that every child
should have equal access to both primary and secondary education as well. The
Children With Special Needs (CWSN) being the most neglected community of
society entitle right to development through education. Education of CWSN is an
important component of the whole structure of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA), an
education programme launched by the Government of India to ensure education
for all. A new programme, “inclusive education” has been adopted to include
CWSN in the normal school education with the other children. SSA has adopted
different strategies and schemes to enrol CWSN under education programme.
Identification, functional and formal assessment, educational placement, aids and
appliances, support services, like special educators, speech therapist, physiologist,
counsellor, vocational education; teacher training, special teaching-learning materials,
resource support, individualised educational plan, parental training and community
mobilization, removal of architectural barriers, research, monitoring and evaluation,
home-based education are some of the strategies adopted by SSA to ensure education
of the CWSN.
Department of School Education & Literacy is implementing the Centrally Sponsored
Schemes of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) at elementary level and Rashtriya
Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) at secondary level, whereby provision is
made for inclusive education of children with special needs (CWSN), besides
other components.
The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan is the main programme for universalising elementary
education for all children between 6-14 years of age. Its overall goals include
universal access and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in
education and enhancement of learning levels of children. SSA focuses on providing
inclusive education to CWSN, wherein children with and without disabilities participate

80
and learn together in the same class. The major interventions for the education of
CWSN are identification, functional and formal assessment, appropriate educational
placement, preparation of Individualized Education Plan, provision of free aids
and appliances, transport and/or escort support, teacher training, appointment of
resource teachers, therapeutical support and barrier free access.
Under SSA, during the year 2017-18, 3762 assessment camps have been conducted,
65596 CWSN provided assistive devices, 16731 visually impaired children provided
Braille Books and 37741 low vision children have been provided large print books,
till 30.09.2017. Further, transport and escort support has been provided to 92539
and 75889 CWSN respectively. Therapeutical support has been provided to 137507
CWSN and 222602 teachers have been given training on curricular adaptations.
SSA provides approval @Rs. 3000/- per child per annum, of which at least Rs.
1000/- per child can be earmarked for engaging resource teachers exclusively for
CWSN. SSA also has a provision of engagement of two resource persons per
Block Resource Centre for CWSN. 18,934 such resource persons and resource
teachers are currently engaged under SSA. These resource persons/teachers are
technically qualified to teach CWSN.
The National Council of Educational Research & Training has developed exemplar
material on curricular adaptations, inclusive teaching and how to adopt flexibility
in evaluation for children with disabilities in inclusive classrooms. These handbooks,
meant for primary and upper primary level teachers, cover all disabilities, including
cognitive and intellectual disabilities, and have been disseminated to all States and
UTs.
Under SSA, a series of five training modules has also been developed in collaboration
with the World Bank. These modules aim to prepare teachers to work with children
of all disabilities including children with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Deaf blindness
and hearing impairment in mainstream inclusive environments.
At the secondary level, the Ministry is implementing the scheme of Inclusive
Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) as part of RMSA with an
objective to provide all students with disabilities an opportunity to complete four
years of secondary schooling (Class IX to XII) in an inclusive and enabling
environment. Under IEDSS component, central assistance is provided for student
oriented assistance @ 3000/- per child per annum, besides support for engagement
of special teachers, equipping resource room, making school barrier free, orientation
of parents, administrators, educationists etc.

81
2.4.2 Analysis of the Status of Secondary Education for All (RMSA)
Inclusive Education and RMSA
Inclusive Education of the Disabled at Secondary Stage
You are here
Overview
The Scheme of Inclusive Education for Disabled at Secondary Stage (IEDSS) has
been launched from the year 2009-10. This Scheme replaces the earlier scheme of
Integrated Education for Disabled Children (IEDC) and provides assistance for the
inclusive education of the disabled children in classes IX-XII. This scheme now
subsumed under Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan (RMSA) from 2013. The
States/UTs are also in the process of subsuming under RMSA as RMSA subsumed
Scheme.
Aims
To enabled all students with disabilities, to pursue further four years of secondary
schooling after completing eight years of elementary schooling in an inclusive and
enabling environment.
Objectives
The scheme covers all children studying at the secondary stage in Government,
local body and Government-aided schools, with one or more disabilities as defined
under the Persons with Disabilities Act (1995) and the National Trust Act (1999)
in the class IX to XII, namely blindness, low vision, leprosy cured, hearing impairment,
locomotory disabilities, mental retardation, mental illness, autism, and cerebral
palsy and may eventually cover speech impairment, learning disabilities, etc. Girls
with the disabilities receive special focus to help them gain access to secondary
schools, as also to information and guidance for developing their potential. Setting
up of Model inclusive schools in every State is envisaged under the scheme.
Components
• Student-oriented components, such as medical and educational assessment,
books and stationery, uniforms, transport allowance, reader allowance, stipend
for girls, support services, assistive devices, boarding the lodging facility,
therapeutic services, teaching learning materials, etc.

82
• Other components include appointment of special education teachers, allowances
for general teachers for teaching such children, teacher training, orientation of
school administrators, establishment of resource room, providing barrier free
environment, etc.
Implementing Agency
The School Education Department of the State Governments/Union Territory (UT)
Administrations are the implementing agencies. They may involve NGOs having
experience in the field of education of the disabled in the implementation of the
scheme.
Financial Assistance
Central assistance for all items covered in the scheme is on 100 percent basis. The
State governments are only required to make provisions for scholarship of Rs. 600/
- per disabled child per annum.
The IEDSS (Inclusive Education of the Disabled at the Secondary Stage) scheme
launched in the year 2009 focuses on children with disability at secondary stage
of their education i.e. from the IX to XII. The scheme has been merged with
RMSA (Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan) and aims at enabling children
with disability, along with other children in need, to pursue secondary education,
post the completion of elementary education. The scheme covers all children studying
at the secondary stage in Government, local body and Government-aided schools,
with one or more disabilities as defined under the Persons with Disabilities Act
(1995) and the National Trust Act (1999) in class IX to XII. The goal of the
scheme is to increase the gross enrolment ratio by providing accessibility in terms
of a secondary school within reasonable distance, quality of education and removal
of social and economic barrier within 5 years (2013-2017)
Implementation of Scheme:
RMSA approved 10513 new secondary schools, out of which, 9239 new secondary
schools have been made functional. The existing 35539 schools have been approved
of strengthening 24581 new science labs, 30761 art/craft/culture rooms, 19510
toilet blocks, 12275 drinking water facilities and 2130 residential quarters. Out of
these 7315 science labs, 5324 computer rooms, 7406 libraries, 7959 art/craft/
culture rooms, 5975 toilet blocks, 4255 drinking water facility and 441 residential

83
quarters have been completed. 51750 additional classrooms have been approved,
out of which 14644 have been completed and 12562 are in progress. With regard
to teachers, 107480 teachers (including 41507 additional teachers) have been sanctioned
for secondary schools. Out of which 59353 teachers have been appointed.
Inclusion under the scheme:
The framework of the RMSA provides for various measures including intensive
micro-planning to provide flexibility to develop context-specific interventions,
reduction of educational inequalities by giving priority to the children in need
areas and population sectors, regular enrolment drives, special camp and bridges
courses, open and distance learning, providing hostel facilities, monitoring attendance
in pockets identified for intensive activities, special coaching classes/remedial classes
especially for educationally minority girls and children who are not doing academically
well, teacher sensitization programme, etc. for ensuring access to these groups..
Improvement of quality of education:
With a view to enhance quality of secondary education in the Government secondary
schools, the scheme provides for Additional Teachers to improve PTR, Teachers,
Headmasters and staff for new secondary school, In-service training for principals,
teachers (since State Governments support grant in aid schools mostly for salary
of the teachers, in-service training of teachers is provided under RMSA for Grant
in aid schools for their capacity building), Leadership and Professional development
programme of headmasters, Excursion trip for Teachers, Providing of Math Lab
kits, Science Lab kits, Excursion trip for students of classes IX or X, Remedial
teaching (bridge courses), enhancement of learning achievement for poor students,
Providing lab assistant and clerk. 105722 teachers (include 41507 additional teachers)
have been sanctioned for secondary schools, out of which 46120 teachers have
been appointed.
Analysis:
The global EFA (Education for All) initiative provided an added impetus to the
programmes for achieving the goal of Education for All in India. The Gross Enrolment
Ratios in primary (Classes I-V; age 6-10 years) and upper primary education (Classes
VI-VII; age 11-13 years) during 2000-01 were 95.7 % and 58.6 % respectively.
The gender gaps in GERs at the primary and upper primary levels respectively

84
were 19 percentage points and 16.8 percentage points during 2000-01. The Gross
Enrolment Ratio in secondary/ higher secondary education (Classes IX-XII; age
14-17 years) was only 33.7 %. The overall drop-out rates in Classes I-V, Classes
I-VIII) and Classes I-X were 40.7 %, 53.7 % and 68.6 % respectively.
The lower NERs at upper primary (64.2 % in 2013-14) and secondary level (41.9
%) are a matter of great concern. One of the priority tasks in the context of EFA
goals is achieving further progress towards universal enrolment and retention of
enrolled children at the upper primary and secondary stages of education. Drop-out
rates in elementary and secondary education: The XIth FYP (Five Year Plans) had
targeted a reduction in dropout rates from 50 % to 20 % at the elementary stage.
Even though the drop-out rates at elementary and secondary stages of education
have been declining, the progress has not been satisfactory. The low NER (Net
Enrolment Ratio) at the upper primary level and the increasing enrolment gap from
elementary to secondary level suggests that although a larger number of children
are entering the educational system, a significant proportion of them are not progressing
through the system to complete elementary/secondary cycle of education. Though
the drop-out rate is a matter of concern in the case of all categories of students,
drop-out rates among disadvantaged groups, especially for girls from these groups,
remain higher than the national average. This brings into focus the need to undertake
measures to improve retention in schools of children from socially and economically
disadvantaged communities.
Children with special needs constituted a significant proportion of OoSC (Out of
School Children) in 2009. It was found that children with disabilities constituted
about 34.2 % of OoSC in 2009. The maximum number of OoSC belonged to those
with mental disabilities (48 %), followed by children with speech disabilities (37
%). This situation highlights the needs to equip the schools to address the challenging
needs of mentally challenged children who are both socially and educationally
disadvantaged.
Status of Secondary Education for All (RMSA)
Secondary Education for All with special reference to Inclusive Education
FRAMEWORK
Generally, it can be assumed that integration or inclusive education depends upon
what teachers do in classrooms. The way in which teachers realise inclusion within

85
their classrooms can take different forms. It is the goal of this study to describe
these different approaches and to make this information available for others. Identifying
various models of dealing with differences in classrooms - variously known as
‘differentiation’, ‘multi-level instruction’ as well as other terms - therefore forms
the main task of this study. However, it should be clearly noted that the existence
of different models of dealing with differences in classrooms depends not only on
teacher factors, but also on the way in which schools organise their educational
provision. This fact is particularly relevant for education within the secondary
sector.
Classroom Practice and Teacher Factors
Inclusion largely depends on teachers’ attitudes towards pupils with special educational
needs (SEN) and on the resources available to them. In a number of studies, the
attitude of teachers towards educating pupils with SENs has been put forward as
a decisive factor in making schools more inclusive. If mainstream teachers do not
accept the education of these pupils as an integral part of their role, they will try
to ensure that someone else (often the specialist teacher) takes responsibility for
these pupils and they will organise covert segregation in the school (e.g. the special
class).
The different types of resources available for teachers includes not only teaching
methods and materials, but also time available for instruction and the knowledge
and skills teachers have acquired through training and experience. All these resources
can be drawn upon when dealing with differences in classrooms.
Teaching pupils with SEN in the mainstream classroom invariably involves deviation
from the ‘regular’ programme. Teachers are confronted with the question of how
to educate these pupils. Pupils with SEN may require more instruction time or
other learning methods and professional knowledge. In that case, teachers will feel
the need for more time, materials and knowledge. Generally, this can be achieved
in two ways: by an increase in resources (more time allocated to teachers) or by
rearranging available resources (different uses of available time).
Increasing available time (e.g. through the use of educational assistants) or enhancing
teachers’ professional knowledge (e.g. consultation teams) are ways of increasing
the necessary resources for inclusive education, but teachers may also need to re-
arrange resources specifically related to the pupils in the classroom. Teachers can,

86
for example, encourage above-average pupils to work more independently, to work
with ICT tools and to help each other, so that more teaching time is left for pupils
with SEN.
To realise the inclusion of these pupils in mainstream education, teachers will try
to enhance the level of resources and differentiate between pupils with respect to
the amount and type of resources available to them. The argument is that the
successful inclusion of pupils with SEN largely depends on the availability of
resources in the mainstream classroom, but also on the way teachers differentiate
the resources between pupils.
A final important issue at the teacher and classroom level is a teacher’s sensitivity
and skill in relation to enhancing significant social relationships between pupils.
For pupils with SEN - and their parents - in particular, meaningful interactions
with nonSEN peers are of the utmost importance. The teacher requires the right
attitude, but also needs a good understanding of how to develop these interactions
and relationships.
In summary, teachers’ attitudes, available instruction time, the knowledge and
skills of teachers, teaching methods and materials seem to be important pre-requisites
for successful special needs education within mainstream settings.
School Factors
It is clear that providing for pupils with SEN is not only a question of necessary
resources at the classroom level. It should be recognised that the organisational
structure at the school level also determines the amount and type of resources
teachers can use in teaching pupils with SEN.
In relation to secondary schools with a variety of subjects and usually with
subjectspecific teachers, the organisation of how to deal with pupils with SEN is
particularly relevant and challenging. On the basis of earlier studies, it is generally
accepted that the inclusion of pupils with SEN is very complex in secondary
schools. In primary schools, the co-ordination and planning of support for pupils
with SEN is already challenging; this was demonstrated in the European Agency
project investigating classroom practices within primary education. In secondary
education, there is an expectation that inclusion is even more challenging as educational
provision is usually organised according to the different subjects of the curriculum

87
and the number of teachers involved in delivering the curriculum is usually far
higher.
Support can also be made available through external support services such as
school advisory centres or specialist visiting support staff. In summary, the issues
involved in organising inclusive education at the school level centre upon structures
for providing special support within schools, the involvement of external special
education services and the internal school structure. These are all conditions for
the organisation and provision of support.
The Main Questions
Generally, it can be assumed that inclusive education depends on what teachers
do in classrooms. The way in which teachers realise inclusion within the classroom
can take different forms. It is the goal of this study to describe these different
approaches and to make information on them more widely available for others. To
identify various models of dealing with differences in classrooms forms the main
task for this study. However, it should be clear that the existence of different
models of dealing with differences in classrooms depends not only on teacher
factors, but also on the way in which schools organise their educational provision.
This is particularly the case within secondary schools.
APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY
The Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice in Secondary Education project
consisted of three different stages.
During the first stage - the focus of this study report - systematic literature reviews
were conducted. Through the description and analysis of European and other
international literature, an attempt has been made to address the question of what
works in inclusive settings. Different criteria were used for selecting articles, books
and other documents for this stage of the study. These are discussed below. National
Co-ordinators of most countries of the European Agency submitted reports that
contained an overview of the existing literature in their languages and descriptions
of current problems within the context of inclusive education in their countries.
Alongside the reports of the participating countries, a more general international
literature review was conducted.
Within the second stage of the project, examples of good practice were selected,
described and analysed. These examples are described in the Country Reports
88
presented within the Inclusive Education and Classroom Practice in Secondary
Education (IECP) web area: www.european-agency.org
In third and last stage of the project, a selection of examples of good practice in
action were visited and evaluated. During this phase, exchanges of experts from
participating countries were organised in order to maximize learning from other
experiences and identify solutions for certain problems within the context of inclusive
education. Every location selected was visited and described and the findings are
also available through the Expert Visit reports in the IECP web area.
The remainder of this report presents the findings of the first stage of the project.
Below the approach for the literature reviews is described in detail.
The goal of the overall literature review was to gather information about possible
models of classroom practice in inclusive settings and the effects of these approaches
on pupils with SEN or their peers. The European Agency project manager co-
ordinated a literature review from an international perspective (see Chapter 4); the
National Co-ordinators representing countries participating in the project were
asked to conduct a literature review within their own country (Chapter 5).
National Co-ordinators were asked to collect all relevant information available
from their own countries’ perspective – either in an international language or in the
country’s own language, but always referring to the situation in that specific country.
National Co-ordinators were asked to collect information (from articles, books,
theses, reports etc), to describe the findings systematically and to write a synthesis
of these findings.
The combined literature review was focused on the ‘state of the art’ of classroom
practice in a given country. The central question was: what works?
The overview of available literature considered the following questions:
• What arrangements and factors within the context of the curriculum (classroom
practice, teaching methods, educational organisation and so) are considered as
essential for meeting the needs of pupils with SEN in mainstream classrooms?
• What is known about the outcomes of these approaches (at the pupil
level)?

89
2.4.3 Issues for Bridging Learning Gaps
Based on the available studies conducted around the challenge faced by the first
generation learners in India, these challenges can be categorized in four major
parts:
i. Socio-economic and cultural
ii. Educational environment at home
iii. Academic challenges inside classroom
iv. Psychological or non-academic challenges.
The challenges faced by first generation learners in both the contexts are to an
extent similar which can be attributed to their similar socio-cultural backgrounds.
As an educational institution the govt. school seems to have marginally higher
teacher intervention to address the concerns of such students. Numerous co-curricular
activities are introduced to the govt. school children, thereby providing them more
exploration opportunities for all-round development. This is lacking in government
schools which concentrate only on academics and exposure to co-curricular activities
is minimal (one sports event in the entire academic year) combining the impact of
factors like teacher intervention and parental support on student confidence in
terms of the challenges faced by them.
This creates an imbalance which could be attributed by lack of parental support.
This may be due to parental motivation and student aspirations which are higher
for government school children. In both the cases the micro system of the child is
not in sync which in turn affects her development and learning levels.
It emerged during the study that elder siblings play a crucial role in supporting
education of younger ones. In many cases, elder siblings are observed to help the
respondents in their studies. In a research, ACADEMIC CHALLENGES FACED BY
FIRST GENERATION LEARNERS IN AN NGO-RUN SCHOOL VIS-A-VIS
GOVERNMENT SCHOOL IN THE NAINITAL DISTRICT (UTTARAKHAND) OF
NORTHERN INDIA By Garima Awasthy & Varun Khimani as Introduction to
Research course In MA Education submitted at Azim Premji University, Bangalore
May, 2015, all the First Generation Learners who elder siblings have responded
that they receive help from them in homework and their notebooks are checked by

90
them. Also, the responsibility of household work lies solely on their shoulders and
the younger siblings are relieved from them. These dynamics could be explored
through further research in future and study how lack of parental support in academics
can be overcome by educating the eldest child in the family. None of the literature
reviewed for this study had highlighted this factor.
Exam marks being the only form of indicator for parents to follow up on their
child’s performance and thus in deciding a child’s further education, it becomes
important that results are actually reflecting child’s knowledge. A comprehensive
and continuous evaluation (CCE) approach to assess students could work towards
it and also help in reducing child’s anxiety towards examinations. This contributes
as a major factor in deciding a child’s further education. Amaya (name changed),
who sends her children to government school explain- ‘ the elder child entered
schooling at a later age and is unable to cope-up with the studies… the age of
learning has went by and so she will only study till 8th class as education is of no
use to her. However she (pointing towards the younger child) can study as much
as she wants.’ Many parents expressed this view that as far as their child is doing
well in studies they will continue their education. Therefore, it is important for the
child to perform well in school so as to reduce the dropout rates.
To conclude, “Those who are first generation learners today should be facilitated
with proper educational opportunity. But as and when they get education and
employment, their next generation no longer remains first generation learners”. -
Shovan Ghosh (Ghosh, S. (2014). THE SILENT EXCLUSION OF FIRST
GENERATION LEARNERS FROM EDUCATIONAL SCENARIO—A PROFILE FROM
PUNCHA BLOCK OF PURULIA DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL . International Journal
of Developmental Research, 804-811.)
Some Ways Suggested to Meet the Learning Gaps of the Students [2006 the
Cambridge Primary Review (CPR)]
1. Help schools tackle educational disadvantage and close the attainment gap.
Child poverty currently affects between 17% and 26% of Britain’s children, depending
on whether you use the relative or absolute poverty measure, and poverty and
social disadvantage impact directly on children’s educational progress and attainment.
Despite a long succession of government initiatives aimed at tackling the problem,
most recently through the pupil premium, the challenges remain severe. There’s a

91
great deal that expert and inspirational teachers and school leaders working against
the odds can do and have done and we must learn from them. But for their work
to achieve its full impact, it must be supported by the country’s wider economic,
social and educational policies. All too often, such policies pull in different directions.
2. Give children a real say in their learning.
We must celebrate children’s voice and rights in school and the classroom. As the
UN Convention on the Rights of the Child points out, children should “have a
right to be involved in decisions about their own learning”. This influence should
extend to pedagogy as well as school councils, for the classroom is where citizenship
starts, and we know that discussion, dialogue and argument are very powerful tools
for learning.
Primary education should not just be about preparing children for secondary school.
We need to sort out what primary education is for, and ensure that aims driving
the curriculum and are not merely cosmetic. To say, as the government does, that
the main aim of primary education is to make children ‘secondary ready’ is to
undervalue children’s huge potential for development and learning during the primary
years. Education is about the here and now as well as the future, but schools
should also address the wider condition and needs of children and society in
today’s complex world. Children leaving primary school should of course be ready
for what follows, but what follows year 6 is life, not just year 7.
3. Make ‘breadth and balance’ more than a slogan. Take seriously the curriculum
beyond the 3Rs.
While primary schools must and do insist on the importance of literacy and numeracy,
they should also lay foundations in other areas – in spoken language, science, the
arts, the humanities, in physical, emotional and moral development and lived
experience. These are in their different ways no less important for children’s future
learning, choices and lives; they might actually make children more “secondary
ready” than the 3Rs alone.
The CPR argues against the old two-tier curriculum – where the basic subjects are
covered in depth while the rest of the curriculum is in some schools treated seriously
but in others is left to chance, and where the idea of ‘standards’ is confined to the
3Rs. This approach undermines the cultural and economic worth of the non-core

92
subjects and flies in the face of research that shows how learning in one area
enhances learning in others. Without deflecting attention from the importance of
literacy, CPRT argues for a primary curriculum whose core includes essential
knowledge, skills and experience drawn from all subjects, not just three of them.
4. Increase the focus on evidence-based pedagogy.
It’s only through teaching that the curriculum comes alive for children. And it’s
only through understanding the art, science and craft of teaching – from research,
inspection and shared experience – that teachers can inform and refine their practice.
Relying on habit or official pronouncements isn’t enough. A greater focus on what
evidence tells us about effective teaching and learning will enable teachers to help
every child achieve the highest possible standard in all aspects of their education.
5. Assessment should be about more than just test results.
Where assessment and standards are concerned we need a wider practical repertoire
and a more sophisticated vocabulary. We must devise approaches that enhance
learning as well as test it, that support the curriculum rather than distort it, and that
pursue high standards in all areas of learning, not just the core subjects. It’s no
longer acceptable that tests at a moment in time and in a narrow spectrum of
learning are treated as measures of a child’s entire educational attainment or of
everything that schools aim to provide. Tests have their place, but both assessment
and accountability should be about much more than test results.
6. Schools should connect with the community.
Britain has immense demographic, economic, cultural and linguistic diversity, which
creates a vast array of educational circumstances and needs. The best of our schools
don’t just work closely with their local communities but make the curriculum
responsive to local needs and opportunities and live the very idea of community
in their everyday work and relationships.
7. The discourse of educational policy must change, and radically
As recent events have shown, policymakers tend to be interested only in evidence
that fits their ideology or prejudice, and they may ignore or even abuse those who
provide evidence that doesn’t fit the political bill. Deep and lasting improvements
in our education system will be achieved only when policymakers are even-handed
rather than selective in their use of evidence and when they speak about education
in a way that exemplifies the educated mind rather than demeans it

93
2.5 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Disabilities, Gender, Caste,
Socially Disadvantaged Groups , Marginalised and their Specific
Educational Problems
2.5.1 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Disabilities
The Agency Key Principles reports published in 2003 and 2009 have highlighted
recommendations regarding aspects of educational policy that seem to be effective
in supporting the inclusion of learners with different types of special educational
needs (SEN) and that also underpin the principle of quality education for all. This
current document draws on evidence from Agency work since 2003, and summarizes
the key principles for practice that appear to be crucial in providing quality support
to learners with different needs in mainstream settings. Some key European and
international guiding principles for inclusive education are outlined at: http://
www.european-agency.org/agencyprojects/key-principles/a-european-and-international
approach-to inclusive-education. A number of more recent publications also highlight
the need for schools to become better at educating all learners in their co
mmunities and provide the context for the current work. Building on the UNESCO
Policy Guidelines on Inclusion in Education (2009), it is increasingly recognized
that inclusion and quality arereciprocal – that an inclusive ethoscan make a significant
contribution to the quality of education for all learners. The role of inclusive
education inthe development of a more just, equal and democratic society where
diversity is celebrated is also considered to be of increasing importance. Such
development involves principles such as equal opportunities, non-discrimination
and universal access and needs to take account, in particular, of the individual
needs of learners who are at risk of social exclusion and marginalization.
The Council of the European Union (2009) stresses that: ‘Education should promote
intercultural competences, democratic values and respect for fundamental rights
and the environment, as well as combat all forms of discrimination, equipping all
young people to interact positively with their peers from diverse backgrounds’ (p.
3). This is also reinforced by the Conclusions of the Council of Ministers on the
social dimension of education and training (2010) which note that education systems
across Europe need to ensure both equity and excellence and recognize that improving
educational attainment and key competences for all are crucial not only to economic
growth and competitiveness but also to reducing poverty and fostering social inclusion.
94
Defining equity, the Commission of the European Communities (2006) states that
it is: ‘…viewed as the extent to which individuals can take advantage of education
and training, in terms of opportunities, access, treatment and outcomes’ (p. 2). The
OECD (2007) links equity to fairness and states that personal and social circumstances
should not be an obstacle to achieving educational potential. The United Nations
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2006) (UNCRPD)and in
particular Article 24 on Education also advocates inclusive education and together
with theoptional protocol has been ratified by a growing number of Agency member
countries and the European Union (see: http://www.un.org/ disabilities/
latest.asp?id=169). The EU Disability Strategy 2010–2020 aims to align EU policies
with the UNCRPD. The World Report on Disability (2011) emphasizes the importance
of appropriate training for mainstream teachers if they are to be confident and
competent in teaching children with diverse educational needs. The report notes
that teacher education programmes should be about attitudes and values, not just
knowledge and skills. Inclusion is a widely debated issue across Agency member
countries and although there is variation in the approaches taken to providing for
the diverse needs of learners, in particular those needing additional support due to
special educational needs and disability, there are also a number of common elements
focusing on raising the achievement of all learners.
One of the greatest problems faced by the world today is the growing number of
individuals who are excluded from meaningful participation in the economic, social,
political and cultural life of the society. The EFA Global Monitoring Report
(2008, 2009) sends a warning to governments that goals of EFA can’t be met by
2015 if the problem of inequality in education is not dealt properly, as education
leads to an empowered and fulfilled life. Keating (1996) successful change or
transformation in the next century depends on the creation of a “learning society”.
The first step to achieve this goal is to provide learning opportunities that will
foster the full development of learning potential in all learners. This has an implication
for providing personally challenging, individually appropriate educational programme
to all students, even those with exceptional learning needs. This is possible only
in a flexible education system that assimilates the needs of a diverse range of
learners and adapts itself to meet these needs. According to the 2005 Global
Monitoring Report, “Education should allow children to reach their fullest potential
in terms of cognitive, emotional and creative capacities”. Education for All means

95
ensuring that all children have access to basic education of good quality by creating
an environment in where learners both able and enabled to learn can learn. Such
an environment must be inclusive, effective, friendly and welcoming to all learners.
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that 10% of any population is
disabled (Thomas, 2005a). Also, DFID (2000) highlighted the relationship between
disability and poverty. It was pointed out that disability could be the reason for
poverty because it can lead to isolation and economic strain for the whole family,
also the denial of education because of disability can lead to a lack of employment
opportunities. Similarly, poverty can lead to malnutrition, dangerous working and
living conditions (including road accidents) bad health and maternity care, poor
sanitation, and vulnerability to natural disasters – all of which can result in disability.
It is clear that if this group is ignored then it is very difficult to achieve the
complete developmental goal. According to an estimate only 2.5-6% of the population
may have a disability, with approximately 98% of children with disabilities not
attending any type of educational institution, the current provision (specialist or
mainstream, government or NGO) is clearly not enough to attain EFA. At the core
of inclusive education is the human right to education, pronounced in the Universal
Declaration of Human Rights in 1949 but disability is clearly a development issue
that we ignore at a price, including that of human rights. Alur (2002) stated that
if a person with a disability is dehumanised by cultural belief or stigma, as they
are in India, then they can be invisibilised and not considered worthy of rights.
While there are also very important human, economic, social and political reasons
for pursuing a policy and approach of inclusive education, it is also a means of
bringing about personal development and building relationships among individuals,
groups and nations. The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action (1994)
asserts that:” Regular schools with inclusive orientation are the most effective
means of combating discrimination, creating welcoming communities, building an
inclusive society and achieving education for all”
Recommendation to Ensure Quality Education for All
The priorities of the Global Education First Initiative in India find resonance in the
targets of the Right to Education Act. With 31 March 2015 approaching as the
second important milestone of the RTE targets, recommendations to accelerate
efforts to implement RTE targets for policy makers, educationists and practitioners
are suggested:
96
 1. Increase enrolment and ensure retention of out of school children (OOSC),
especially children from backward communities, through improved identification
system for OOSC and their mainstreaming into age appropriate classes
2. Enhance reading, writing, speaking and numerical skills by introducing effective
early grade reading and math approaches and expanding Quality Early Childhood
Education
3. Adapt curriculum and train teachers for inclusive education to ensure quality
education for children with disabilities
4. Strengthen Teacher Management Policy to attract qualified staff, ensure quality
teacher training and provide on-the-job support
5. Establish a robust system for learning assessment to improve teaching learning
outcomes
6. Integrate child-friendly principles into state education planning to ensure that
schools have the infrastructure and are equipped with age appropriate teaching
learning materials
7. Promote use of information and communications technology to expand access
and improve quality of learning and teaching
8. Ensure appropriate infrastructure including separate toilet facilities for adolescent
girls for gender parity
9. Mainstream Global Citizenship Education in the education system by promoting
transformative teaching that promotes critically thinking and encourages
engagement with local and global communities
2.5.2 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Gender
The sustainable development agenda must be rooted in principles of human
rights, human security, equality and social justice so that nobody is left behind.
Sustainable development will not be achieved unless the needs and rights of all
people are fulfilled, especially those living in poverty or otherwise discriminated
against. Priority must be placed on ending gender inequality as the most pervasive
form of inequality and on advancing the rights of women, adolescents and youth
as the largest groups facing systematic inequality worldwide.
Beyond the harm and injustice caused to individuals and communities,
inequalities—especially as faced by women, adolescents and youth—perpetuate

97
poverty, stall development progress, reduce economic efficiency, hinder growth,
threaten social cohesion and stability, and undermine human capital accumulation.
In addition to addressing its symptoms and consequences, the SDGs must
tackle the root causes of inequality, by addressing and reforming discriminatory
laws, policies, institutions and practices based on gender, age, race, class, ethnicity,
disability, HIV or migrant status, sexual orientation and gender identity, or any
other factor. This also means that especially marginalized or vulnerable groups
must be ‘counted’ and the ‘data revolution’ supported to that end. These groups
include adolescent girls, communities living in conflict-affected settings and
environmentally-fragile areas, slum dwellers, rural populations, indigenous
communities, migrants, older persons, people living with HIV and disabilities,
those in high-risk occupations, domestic work and other parts of the informal
sector, among others.
Investments in gender equality and the human rights of women and girls have
high payoffs for the well-being of children and families, poverty reduction, economic
growth, environmental stewardship and inclusive governance, with multiplier and
inter-generational effects across development objectives.
Gender equality and the human rights and empowerment of women and girls
must be a stand-alone goal as well as mainstreamed across all other goals,
targets and indicators. A major lesson learned from the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) is the shortcomings of a fragmented approach to advancing gender
equality. To be effective, a gender equality goal should encompass commitments
and targets across the range of social, economic, cultural, civil and political rights,
including to: end gender-based violence and harmful practices, including child,
early and forced marriage, and ensure universal access to critical services for all
survivors; fulfill sexual and reproductive health and rights; secure equal economic
opportunities and access to productive resources, including land, inheritance and
property rights, financial services and agricultural supports; equal social protection;
and increase women’s leadership and participation in public and private decision-
making.
Investments in adolescents and youth should be prioritized, with a focus on
adolescent girls, including targets on school completion through at least secondary
education and gender parity at all levels of education; universal access to

98
comprehensive sexuality education for all young people, both in and out of school;
youth-friendly sexual and reproductive health information and services; and decent
work with decent wages.
Policy Recommendations
1. Guarantee equality before the law and non-discrimination for all people in
the exercise of their human rights and fundamental freedoms, across the range
of social, cultural, economic, civil and political rights, including in accessing social
benefits, health services, educational and employment opportunities, in forming a
family, in fulfilling their right to self-expression, to seek and impart information,
to freedom of organization and assembly, and to freedom from violence and harassment,
regardless of sex, age, race, ethnicity, income, occupation, marital, HIV, disability
or migrant status, sexual orientation and gender identity, or on any other grounds.
2. In relation to a stand-alone goal on gender equality and the human rights
and empowerment of women and girls, and mainstreaming gender across the
new development framework:
Enact and revise legislation and policies to protect the human rights of women and
girls and revoke all discriminatory legislation to eliminate gender- and age-
discriminatory provisions;
Respect, protect and fulfill the sexual and reproductive health and rights of women
and adolescent girls through legal, policy and regulatory provisions, including to
prohibit violations of these rights, such as spousal and parental consent requirements;
prohibitions on contraceptive methods; forced sterilization and forced abortion on
any grounds, and mandatory testing for pregnancy or HIV;
Enact and enforce legislation and adopt adequately-resourced national multi-sectoral
plans of action and programmes to end gender-based violence, involving the police,
housing, health, education, social service, labour and immigration sectors, including
to address domestic and sexual violence, marital rape, trafficking, sexual harassment
and traditional harmful practices; modify laws and practices that exonerate perpetrators
from punishment (such as for marrying the victim); and eliminate sexual violence
from amnesty provisions in post-conflict settings;
Ensure universal access to critical services for all victims/survivors of gender-
based violence, that are comprehensive, accessible and coordinated across sectors,

99
and that include, at a minimum: 24-hour hotlines; psychosocial and mental health
support and counselling; health services, including for treatment of injuries and
sexual and reproductive health; post-rape care, including emergency contraception,
post-exposure prophylaxis for HIV prevention and access to safe abortion services
in all cases of violence, rape and incest; police protection, safe housing and shelter;
documentation of cases, forensic services, legal aid and access to justice; and
referrals and longer-term support for women and their children, including for housing,
education, employment and income-earning opportunities;
Strengthen legal measures and community mobilization to end child, early and
forced marriage and female genital mutilation;
Increase women’s leadership in decision-making, including through temporary special
measures for political participation at local and national levels of government, in
parliament, in multinationals, the private sector, the media, science, research and
technology;
Ensure the participation of women in conflict resolution, peace-building negotiations
and post-conflict policy-making, and investments in gender equality and the integration
of gender perspectives across national plans and programmes, including in humanitarian
situations;
Enact environmental and climate change policies that ensure women’s participation
in decision-making, management and governance of natural resources, and ensure
climate change prevention and adaptation policies consider the specific needs of
women and girls;
Enable the role of women’s human rights defenders and protect them from intimidation
and violence.
3. In the area of Health:
Ensure women’s equitable access to quality, affordable health care throughout the
life-cycle, including to address priority needs related to newborn and child health,
sexual and reproductive health, non-communicable diseases including breast and
cervical cancers, malaria, tuberculosis and HIV and AIDS-related prevention and
services, mental health and depression treatment, and gender-based violence-related
services and supports, including for post-rape care;
Accelerate implementation of universal access to quality, integrated and affordable
sexual and reproductive health information, education and services throughout the

100
life-cycle, with emphasis on women and adolescent girls, as a priority of the health
sector and in universal health coverage schemes.
4. In the area of Education:
Improve access to quality education, with particular attention to girls’ retention
and completion rates at all levels of education, and the elimination of female
illiteracy;
Provide universal access to comprehensive sexuality education for all young people,
both in and out of school, linked to youth-friendly sexual and reproductive health
services, with particular attention to adolescent girls;
Prohibit the expulsion of girls from school due to pregnancy, motherhood or marital
status, and provide special supports for pregnant girls and young mothers to enable
them to complete their education and balance education and family responsibilities;
Eliminate gender stereotypes and biases in curricula and teaching practices, and in
the transmission of occupational aspirations;
Make schools safe spaces for girls, free of sexual harassment, sexual violence and
bullying.
5. In the area of Employment, Decent Work and Livelihoods:
Protect human and labour rights and eliminate exploitation in all its forms, with
particular attention to women, girls, low-income workers and migrants, including
domestic workers;
Secure women’s equal access to economic, employment and livelihood opportunities,
including through legal and policy provisions, for decent work and equal pay with
men; social protection, including for informal sector workers and with special
attention to vulnerable groups, such as female-headed households, including girl-
headed households; equal land, property and inheritance rights; access to farming
supports, productive assets, banking and financial services, technologies and ICTs,
and the ability to start and register a business; and creation of employment opportunities
for older women, especially important in countries without strong social security
systems;
Ensure that policies for full, productive and decent employment and livelihood
opportunities for youth have a special focus on young women’s equal opportunities;

101
Prohibit employment discrimination against women based on pregnancy or
motherhood;
Redress the disproportionate burden of unpaid care work on women and girls and
inefficient time-use related to their gender and reproductive roles, including through
family-friendly policies for affordable child care, support for care of the elderly, ill
and disabled, maternity and paternity leave employment policies, as well as access
to time- and energy-saving technologies (e.g. for water, cooking fuel, electricity,
etc.);
Undertake public education on the importance of gender equality and shared rights
and responsibilities with men and boys, including in household management, sexual
and reproductive health and rights, and childrearing.
2.5.3 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Caste and Socially Disadvantaged
Groups
Empowerment of the Socially Disadvantaged Groups viz., the Scheduled Castes
(SCs), the Other Backward Classes (OBCs) and the Minorities continues to be on
the priority list of country’s developmental Agenda, as they still lag behind the rest
of the society due to their social and economic backwardness. Their share in the
country’s total population is quite substantial, as SCs account for 179.7 million,
representing 17.5 per cent and Minorities being 188.9 million, representing 18.4
per cent in 2001 (projected on the basis of the trend of their decadal growth rates,
in the absence of the data of 2001 Census). The population of OBCs, as estimated
by the Mandal Commission, constitutes 52 per cent of country’s total population
(appears to be on a high side because of the possibility of certain communities of
SCs and Minorities featuring in the list of OBCs).
CONSTITUTIONAL SAFEGUARDS
• Recognising the relative backwardness of these weaker sections of the society,
the Constitution of India guarantees equality before the law (Article 14)
and enjoins the State to make special provisions for the advancement of
any socially and educationally backward classes or for SCs (Article 15(4)).
It also empowers the State to make provisions for reservation in appointments
or posts in favour of any backward class of citizens (Article (16(4)). The
Constitution of India also states categorically that untouchability is abolished

102
 and its practice in any form is forbidden (Article 17). Further, it enjoins the
State to promote, with special care, the educational and economic interests
of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of SCs and promises
to protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation (Article
46). Reservation of seats for SCs in the democratic institutions (Article
330) and in services (Article 335) is another measure of positive discrimination
in favour of these Groups. It empowers the State to appoint a Commission
to investigate into the conditions of socially and educationally backward
classes (Article 340) and to specify the Castes to be deemed as SCs (Article
341).
• In the case of Minorities, the Constitution adopts certain safeguards to
recognise their rights in conserving their culture and establish and administer
educational institutions of their choice under the Articles 29 and 30. While
the Article 350(A) advocates instructions in the mother tongue at the primary
stage of education to children belonging to Linguistic Minorities, Article
350(B) provides for a Special Officer to safeguard the interests of the
Linguistic Minorities. Besides these specific Articles, there are also a
number of Constitutional provisions enabling protection andpromotion of
the interests of these Socially Disadvantaged Groups.
POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES : A REVIEW
• The developmental planning launched in 1951 through the First Plan (1951-
56) envisaged that the programmes under various sectors of development
would benefit all sections of the population including SCs, OBCs and
Minorities. But, unfortunately, it never happened so. Therefore, special
programmes under the Backward Classes Sector were formulated, keeping
in view the special requirements of SCs. The Second Plan (1956-61) promised
to ensure that the benefits of economic development accrue more and more
to the relatively less privileged classes of society in order to reduce inequalities.
The Third Plan (1961-66) advocated greater ‘equality of opportunity’ and
a reduction in disparities in income and wealth and the even distribution
of economic power. The Fourth and Fifth Plans (1969-78) envisaged the
‘basic goal as rapid increase in the standard of living of the people through
measures which also promote equality and social justice’. One of the important
features of the subsequent Annual Plan (1979-80) was the launching of the
103
 special mechanism of Special Component Plan (SCP) for SCs to ensure
that these groups receive their due share of funds/benefits from the other
developmental sectors.
• The Sixth Plan (1980-85) marked a shift in the approach to the development
of SCs. Special emphasis was laid on the implementation of the newly
launched SCP for SCs facilitating easy convergence and pooling of resources
from all the other developmental sectors in proportion to the population
of SCs and monitoring of various developmental programmes for the
benefit of SCs. In the Seventh Plan (1985-90), SCP for SCs was strengthened,
while the other schemes for the welfare and development of SCs continued.
There was a substantial increase in the flow of funds for the development
of SCs under SCP from State Plans, Central Plans, Special Central Assistance
(SCA) and Institutional Finance resulting in the expansion of infrastructural
facilities and enlargement of their coverage. Priority in the Seventh Plan
was given to the educational development of SCs. Another important
achievement of this Plan was the setting up of aNational Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes Finance and Development Corporation (NSFDC) in
1989 to extend loans-cum-subsidies and thus encourage these Groups to
become gainfully engaged in various income-generation activities.
• The major objective of the Eighth Plan (1992-97) was to intensify the
efforts and to bridge the gap between the development of SCs, OBCs and
Minorities and other sections of the society, so that by the turn of the
century these disadvantaged sections of the population could be brought on
par with the rest of the society. It was envisaged that all forms of oppression
of SCs, suppression of their rights, untouchability, non-payment of minimum
wages etc., would be eliminated, so as to enable them to avail of the
benefits of all developmental efforts. Although the efforts have paid
dividends with regard to improvement of socio-economic status of these
groups, the benefits were, however, not evenly distributed among all
communities. As such, a lot remains to be done to achieve the goal of
bringing these groups on par with the rest of the society. For the economic
development of SCs, OBCs and Minorities, the following three Nationallevel
Apex bodies were set up to act as catalytic agents in developing schemes
for employment generation and financing pilot projects viz. i) The National

104
 Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation (1992); ii) The
National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation (1994-95); and
iii) National Safai Karamchari Finance and Development Corporation (1996-
97).
• The Ninth Plan (1997-2002) was committed to empower the Socially
Disadvantaged Groups as agents of socio-economic change and development
through - creating an enabling environment conducive for SCs, OBCs and
Minorities to exercise their rights freely, enjoy their privileges and be able
to lead a life with confidence and dignity on par with the rest of the
society; ensuring removal of disparities; eliminating exploitation and
suppression and providing protection to the disadvantaged groups; ensuring
developmental benefits to ‘reach the un-reached’ through equitable distribution
and social justice; ensuring participation of these Groups in the process of
planning not merely as beneficiaries but also as participants in planning
programmes and their implementation; accelerating the on-going process
of improving socio-economic status through the effective implementation
of various policies and programmes to bring them on par with the rest of
the society; and ensuring a certain percentage of funds/benefits from all the
relevant programmes to flow to women belonging to these groups who are
the most affected. As most of the Ministries/Departments implement
programmes common for both SCs and Scheduled Tribes (STs), including
earmarking of a percentage of funds/ benefits under SCP for SCs and
Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP) for STs, reference about STs also appears in this
Chapter.
• The approach adopted towards empowering these Groups in the Ninth Plan
was holistic in nature, to accomplish their all round development through
(i) Social Empowerment; (ii) Economic Empowerment; and (iii) Social
Justice with an inter-sectoral focus and inputs from both governmental and
non-governmental agencies. The same is sought to be achieved through the
efforts put in by various welfare-related Ministries/ Departments and the
nodal Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment which is responsible for
the development of SCs, OBCs and Minorities. They include the following:

105
Education & Literacy
• Education being the most powerful instrument for empowering the Socially
Disadvantaged Groups, the Ninth Plan committed to achieve the same through
universalisation of primary education by 2005 with a special focus on low-
literacy pockets and on the educationally backward communities like SCs,
OBCs and Minorities.
• In pursuance of the commitments made by the National Policy on Education,
1986 and in recognition of education as a Fundamental Right (yet to be
announced), the Department of Education continued to take various steps
to reduce drop-out rates and increase school enrolment and retention rates
amongst the children belonging to SCs, OBCs and Minorities. The following
special provisions for SCs have been incorporated in the existing schemes
of the Departments of Elementary Education & Literacy and Secondary
Education & Higher Education - relaxed norms for opening ofprimary schools;
a primary school within one km walking distance from habitations of 200
population instead of habitations of 300 population; and abolition of tuition
fee in Government schools in all states, at least up to the primary level.
Most of the states have already abolished tuition fee for SC students up to
the Senior Secondary level, along with incentives like provision of free
textbooks, uniforms, stationery, school bags etc. to these students. The other
major programmes of the Department of Elementary Education & Literacy
having relevance to SCs and OBCs include - the District Primary Education
Programme (DPEP), Lok Jumbish, Shiksha Karmi, Non-Formal Education
(NFE) and National Programme for Nutritional Support to Primary Education
(popularly known as Mid-Day Meals).
• One of the strategies of the programme of Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) is
the educational development of children belonging to SCs, OBCs and
educationally-backward Minorities. SSA is a historic stride towards achieving
the long cherished goal of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE)
through a time-bound integrated approach, in partnership with the states.
SSA aims to universalise elementary education to cover all children in the
6-14 age-group by 2010 through the community-owned and mission-mode
approach. It also envisages bridging of gender and social gaps through a
special focus on the children of SCs, STs and other disadvantaged groups.
106
 • The DPEP aims mainly at providing access to primary education for all
children, reducing primary drop-out rates to less than 10 per cent and increasing
learning achievement of primary school students by at least 25 per cent. It
is also meant to reduce the gap among gender and social groups to less than
5 per cent. The NFE programme lays emphasis on girls, working children
and those belonging to SCs. At present, there are 2,92,000 NFE centres
covering about 7.3 million children in 25 States/UTs. The major thrust of
the National Literacy Mission, which aims to attain full literacy, i.e. a
sustainable threshold level of 75 per cent by 2005, is on the promotion of
literacy among women, SCs, STs and OBCs. This is reflected in the fact
that a high 61 per cent of learners are females, while 23 per cent belong to
SCs and 13 per cent to STs.
Janshala, yet another community-based primary education programme, aims to
make primary education more accessible and effective, especially for girls and
children of deprived communities, marginalised groups, SCs, STs, Minorities, working
children and children with special needs. Janshala is a block-based programme
with emphasis on community participation and decentralisation. This is the first
ever programme in the world where five United Nations agencies have collaborated
and pooled resources to support an initiative in education. The programme now
covers 105 blocks in 9 states - Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Karnataka,
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh – with a total
project outlay of Rs. 98.29 crore. Janshala programme is to run for five years from
1998 to 2002.
• To enable SC and ST students to pursue higher technical studies, the following
special provisions have been extended by the Department of Secondary &
Higher Education : reservation of seats for SCs/STs in the Central Government
institutions of higher education, including Indian Institutes of Technology
(IITs), Indian Institutes of Management (IIMs), Regional Engineering Colleges
(RECs), Central Universities, Kendriya Vidyalayas and Navodaya Vidyalayas,
etc.; relaxation in the minimum qualifying cut-off percentages for admission
to universities, colleges and technical institutions; remedial and special
coaching for SC/ ST students to improve academic skills and linguistic
proficiency and raise their level of comprehension. The IITs have a scheme
to provide one year’s preparatory course for SC/ST students who fail marginally

107
 in the entrance examination. Out of 43,000 scholarships at the secondary
stage for talented children from rural areas, 13,000 are reserved exclusively
for SC/ST students. Besides, 70 scholarships are reserved exclusively for
SC/ ST students under the National Talent Search Scheme. SC/ST candidates
are provided relaxation up to 10 per cent of cut-off marks for the Junior
Research Fellowship (JRF) test and all SC/ST candidates qualifying for the
JRF are awarded fellowships. Around 50 Junior Fellowships are awarded
every year in sciences to SC/ST candidates who appear in the National
Eligibility Test (NET) and qualify the eligibility test forlecturership. Also,
special attention is being paid to 146 districts identified as low female
literacy districts.
• The scheme of Area-Intensive Programme for Educationally Backward
Minorities provides basic infrastructure and facilities in the areas with a
concentration of educationally backward minorities and which do not have
adequate provision for elementary and secondary education. Under this
scheme, 100 per cent financial assistance is given to State Governments
and voluntary organisations for the establishment of new primary/upper
primary schools and multi-stream residential higher secondary schools for
girls belonging to those groups. The scheme covers 325 Blocks in 13 states
and 3 UTs and 4 districts in Assam.
• To enhance skills and linguistic proficiency in various subjects, special
coaching is provided to SC students. The scheme is in operation in 26
universities and 449 colleges. Coaching for students belonging to educationally
backward minority communities to compete in various competitive
examinations is being provided through 77 coaching centres, including 10
coaching centres for women functioning in 22 universities and 55 colleges.
To facilitate educational development amongst the Minorities, the Scheme
for Modernisation of Madarsa Education continues to encourage traditional
institutions like Madarsas and Maktabs to introduce Science, Mathematics,
Social Studies, Hindi and English in their curriculum. Hundred per cent
financial assistance is provided for the appointment of qualified teachers
2.5.4 Ensuring Equity Principles Across Marginalised and their specific
Educational Problems.
Marginalization: Multiple Diagnoses, Multiple Prescriptions
To describe marginalization is not to explain it. Noting that poverty exists does not
lead directly to a strategy for eliminating it. Nor does refining the definition and
measures of marginalization lead to a reliable prescription for overcoming it. The

108
multi-dimensionality of marginalization – that is, its complexity – plagues policy-
makers. There is little agreement in the academic literature or in policy networks
about how to understand the “real problem.” A number of competing diagnoses are
available to account for unequal, and even polarized, distributions of income,
capacity and power, all of which prevent real inclusion. Take, for example,
homelessness. Homelessness and inadequate housing have emerged as central social
issues. Lack of access to affordable, adequate housing and safe neighbourhoods
means that a range of people – from single men to families with children – are
living on the margins of society and calling the streets of our cities home. Many
are also on the margins of the labour force, working but not earning enough to
support themselves and their families. There is a risk of reproducing marginality
from one generation to the next, as schooling is mortgaged due to the inability to
attend, to concentrate, or to thrive because of inadequate housing, food or income
in general. Governments and the voluntary sector struggle to address the crisis,
developing initiatives to deal with homelessness, to provide school lunches and
breakfasts, and to enlarge food banks, as well as to redistribute income to seniors
and families with young children and to promote training. Nonetheless, the underlying
problems remain.
In large part, the difficulty of solving these problems, and the tenacity of the
conditions that are indicators of marginalization, can be attributed to rapid changes
associated with large trends such as globalization, new information technologies,
restructured labour markets, and new ideologies.
To say that they are “attributable” to such social, technological, economic and
political changes, however, is not to account for them sufficiently to develop a
coherent policy analysis. More is needed.
Seeking an identification of more proximate causes of marginalization forces us to
recognize that a variety of sometimes competing theoretical explanations is available.
Rather than skirting the issue of varying interpretations, this Backgrounder will
embrace this diversity and work with three different diagnoses of marginalization,
assessing the ways they construct the problem and the solutions proffered. There
is a preliminary classification of the three diagnoses.
Such variety in analysis is not necessarily a problem, in and of itself. However, in
this case, it does contribute to confusion because the different diagnoses actually

109
lead to different policyprescriptions. Each diagnosis identifies the problem differently
and puts the accent on different interventions. As a result, the implications for
policy action are not the same.
Therefore, the goal of this Backgrounder is to begin the sorting process, seeking
to identify any convergence in policy prescriptions and directions. To do so, it
surveys the three different diagnostic angles for analyzing marginalization that are
shown in Table 2, and asks:
What is marginalization? What forms does it take?
Who is being marginalized?
Why is marginalization occurring?
These questions will be asked of the three main diagnoses. In identifying the
answer to the questions, we quickly find an additional complicating element. Each
diagnosis has spawned several theoretical versions or analytical packages. Therefore,
each diagnosis and these packages must be “unpacked.” Only by doing so will it
be possible in the last section to begin to point to potential convergence and
agreements about policy direction. The reader must note, of course, that in identifying
these three diagnoses and their different versions, we are working with ideal types.
They are analytical creations presented for purposes of discussion. Few individual
authors or studies are likely to represent “pure examples” of the class to which
they are assigned.
Why Inclusion? – Rationale & Rights
Exclusion from meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and
cultural life of communities is one of the greatest problems facing individuals in
our society today. Such societies are neither efficient nor desirable. Despite encouraging
developments, there are still an estimated 115-130 million children not attending
school. Ninety percent of them live in low and lower middle income countries, and
over 80 million of these children live in Africa.1 As alarming are the countless
others within the school system being excluded from quality education. Among
those who do enrol in primary school, large numbers drop out before completing
their primary education. Current strategies and programmes have not been sufficient
to meet the needs of children and youth who are vulnerable to marginalization or
exclusion. In the past, efforts have consisted of specialized programmes, institutions

110
and specialist educators. The unfortunate consequence of such differentiation, although
well intended, has often been further exclusion. Achieving the EFA and Millennium
Development Goals by their assigned time lines will require unprecedented intersect
oral and interagency collaboration among partners. Education must be viewed as
a facilitator in everyone’s human development and functionality, regardless of
barriers of any kind, physical or otherwise. Therefore, disability of any kind (physical,
social and/or emotional) cannot be a disqualifier. Inclusion, thus, involves adopting
a broad vision of Education for Allby addressing the spectrum of needs of all
learners, including those who are vulnerable to marginalization and exclusion.

2.6 Challenges of Special Education, Inclusion , Systemic Reforms,

Provision and Support System, Public Private Partnership &
NGO Initiative
2.6.1 Challenges of Special Education and Inclusion
Challenges to Inclusive education :
Education of children with special needs has come a long way; from special
education to integrated education and from integrated education to inclusive
education (access to the main stream). It requires education of children with special
needs in regular schools, in their own community and by regular teachers.
Inclusion values diversity. It acknowledges every learner’s fundamental
right to learn and accepts that every child has unique abilities and needs.
This has been supported by a number of policies and programmes from time
to time. The Education Commission (1966) drew attention to the education of
children with disabilities. The National Education Policy (1968) followed
the commission’s recommendations and suggested the expansion of
educational facilities and development of an ‘integrated programme’ to
enable the handicapped children to study in regular schools. The scheme,
Integrated Education for Disabled Children (1974) laid emphasis on enrolling children
with disabilities in regular schools. The World Declaration on Education
for All (1990), the District Primary Education Programme (1994), the
Persons with Disabilities Act (1995), recommended changes in curriculum,
assessment and removing architectural barriers, the Serva Shiksha Abhiyan
(2000), the Constitutional Provision, Article 21, for making education a fundamental

111
right which covers all the children, Right to Education Act (2009)
wereinstrumental for accelerating the pace of all the efforts made in this direction.
The National Policy on Education (1986) and revised policy in (1992)
are the guidingpolicies at all levels as it promoted the integration of children
with mild disabilities into themain stream and stated ‘the objective should be
to integrate the physically and mentallyhandicapped with the general
community as equal partners, to prepare them for normalgrowth, and to
enable them to face life with courage and confidence.’
In spite of all the efforts made in this direction many children with special need
do not haveaccess to education. The Rehabilitation council of India estimates
that 30 million childrenwith special needs are in need of education; it aims
to educate 10% of children by 2020(Draft National Policy on Special
Education, 2002). On the other side the regular schoolswith inclusive orientation
face many barriers and challenges. Some of the challenges are –
• Lack of access to the main stream: At present only 4 to 5% children with
specianeeds out of 30 million have access to education. Many schools do
not showwillingness to cater to the needs of these children.
• The whole idea of inclusive education is defeated due to lack of
awareness, positive attitude and sensitivity on the part of teachers, classmates,
parents and community and as a result these children experience discrimination.
• Lack of trained teachers: Teachers lack competence and will to
modify methodology as per the need of children with special need and other
children.
• Large class size: There are normally 60 to 70 students in a class which
makes individualized attention very difficult and teachers find it all the more
difficult with children with special needs.
• Lack of child-centred and relevant Curriculum: The curriculum lacks flexibility
and does not provide choice to these children. The teaching-learning material
is also not appropriate for children with and without special need.
• Lack of proper infrastructure
• Lack of participatory activities: Children with special need require such learning
environment in which they can learn by participating in small groups.

112
According to Dr. Melissa Heston, Associate Professor of Education, University of
Northern Iowa ‘When good inclusion is in place, the child who needs the inclusion
does not stand out. The inclusive curriculum includes strong parental involvement,
students making choices, and a lot of hands-on and heads-on involvement.’
To be able to deal with all the challenges mentioned above it is necessary to
sensitize people about it and focus on providing education of three H - Head,
Heart and Hand especially education of the Heart which is related to feeling
aspect. As the formal schooling is rigid in terms of time, curriculum, learning
pace,evaluation, and is unable to accommodate and retain children with
special needs it is necessary to look for an alternative strategy and approach.
Providing education to all including children with special need is the need of the
hour and is one of the goals of all the conventional, correspondence and distance
education institutions. National Policy on Education (1986) also states that ‘future
emphasis shall be on Distance and Open Leaning system to provide opportunity
to the target groups’. Though the experience of learners with special need will not
be the same as studying in the main stream but the educational needs of people can
be addressed to a large extent.
2.6.2 Systemic Reforms, Provision and Support System
Concept of Support Services
Support in the present case denotes an inclusive education system that enables
childrenwith special educational needs to realise their potential. There are six
types of principal requirement needed for support services of the learner. These
are:
l All children with special educational needs are welcome and are able to enrol
intheir local schools
l All educational supports are allocated equitably to schools in line with
theeducational needs of students.
l All students with special educational needs have access to available
educationalsupports in line with their needs.
l Students with special educational needs have an individualised assessment
whichinforms teaching and learning, and forms one part of an ongoing and
cyclicalprocess of assessment, intervention and review of outcomes.

113
l Available resources are used to maximum effect to derive improved outcomes
forchildren; State services work together to achieve this.
l Parents’ role as the natural and primary educators of the child is respected.
Pause & Reflect:
Point out three special needs of children and indicated the required support services
forthem.
Need for Support Services
The support service is very essential part of children with special needs because
with the help of support service a child can optimise the impact of education, and
therebyachieve more in life. Support Services can be fostered by the school and
otherprofessionals who work with children with special needs. So, when choosing
a schoolfor your child, you may take note of the following points as a check list
of availablesupport service in educational needs:
l Collect information on all the educational options that may be accessible to
yourchild.
l Use your own knowledge of your child’s learning and social needs.
l Look for professional advice from those who have assessed your child, for
example,psychologists, teachers, speech and language therapists.
l Speak to other parents who have children in schools that have places available.
l If your child is moving on to a new school, make appointments with the
teacher,ask the class teacher who has previously taught your child and pass on
suchinformation to the new teacher, speak to the principal and others teachers
as andwhen they are available.
Pause & Reflect:
When would you feelfor the need for support services in school?
Types of Support Services
There are different types of support services in this related area, which ought to
bemade available:
a. Public Health Nursing Service
The public nursing service carries out developmental examinations five times during
achild’s life. These examinations happen at the following stages:

114
l at birth;
l at 3 months;
l between 7 and 9 months;
l between 18 months and 2 years; and
l at 3 to 4 years.
l Doctor
Doctor provides a community-based service to children aged 9 months to 13
years. Theservices include:
l Developmental clinics
Special clinics are provided for children aged from 9 months to 1 year. At
these clinics,children are assessed for all aspects of development such as
physical ability, behaviour,hearing, sight and so on.
l School assessments
This service, for children aged up to 13, assesses children for difficulties such
as failureto thrive, growth disorders, hearing and sight problems and so on.
l Child immunisations
BCG clinics are held once a month.
l Medical assessments and advice
Community health doctors assess people’s health for certain social welfare
benefits such as Mobility Allowance and for motorised transport grants.
l Health promotion talks
Community health doctor gives talks in schools and pre-schools for parents,
teachersand children.
c. Speech and Language Therapy Service
The speech and language therapy service assesses diagnoses and manages the
treatmentof speech, language and communication difficulties with children
aged up to 18 andhelps people with speech and language problems to speak
more clearly.

115
d. Occupational Therapy Service
This is an occupational therapy service for children with a physical disability (and
theircarers) to help them achieve the best possible level of independence within
theircommunity. The children receive the service in their home helps develop and
maintainskills for daily living. It is long-term and focuses on dressing, feeding and
play.
e. Primary Care Psychology Service
This is a community-based service for children aged 18 or under with social,
emotionalor behavioural problems. The service aims to identify and treat these
problems early. Italso acts as an advice agency.
f. Physiotherapist
The service deals with children experiencing delay in the development of their
movement and muscles, which might be affecting their balance or the way they
walk. Physiotherapyassessment of the child involves assessing their quality of
movements, movementrestrictions, and how their bones are developing.
g. Early Intervention Team
The Early Intervention Team is a community-based team of professionals who
assessand help children aged 5 or under who may have delayed development or
disabilities. Inparticular, they help children who may have a non-specific diagnosis,
mild learningdisability, dyspraxia (a developmental co-ordination disorder), specific
languageimpairment and so on. Between them, the team offer speech and language
therapy,physiotherapy, psychology, occupational therapy and social work services.
They workwith existing services to make sure the child’s needs are met.
h. Child Protection and Welfare Social Work Service
Child protection and social work services are in place to help children aged under
who are not receiving enough care and protection. The service mainly identifies
childrenwho are not receiving proper care and attention and will respond appropriately
to thesesituations.
i Dental Service
The dental service is available to children aged up to 16 years. Emergency
dentaltreatment is available for all children up to 16 years of age from 9am each
day throughthe local health centres.

116
j. Community Ophthalmology Service (eye care)
An ophthalmology service should provide to all learner in primary school children.
Arange of eye tests and treatments are provided to meet the child’s eye care needs.
k. Audiology Service (hearing)
The service provides amplification devices (hearing aids) to people with a
hearingimpairment and gives advice and information to help them overcome or
reduce theeffects of their hearing difficulties. Services include are hearing tests;
fitting of hearingaids; technical support and repairs for hearing aids that were
provided by the audiologyservice.
Pause & Reflect:
What kind of health services are required in your nearby in your school?
Role & Responsibilities of stake holders towards Support Services
The most important work of a stakeholder towards learner support services is to
carryout tasks at various levels. If you are successful, the system is going to be
successful.Let us understand the role of stake holders in the process. These are:
l Facilitating the process of making community more inclusive:
School is part of the community. The school will have all the desirable and
undesirablecharacteristics which are found in the community. If the community is
not positive andpro-active about the disability issues,the school will notfunction
accordingly in thatcommunity. It is necessary to work on facilitating the process
of tuning the communityto be more disability friendly.So role& responsibilities of
the stake holders are:
Community mobilization
Awareness activities
Celebration of world disabled day / world deaf day etc.
Screening of babies in community
Referrals for families in community
Support services for those who are not directly associated with your school
Prevention camps for community

117
Writing awareness articles in popular media
Assist in fund raising activities for aids and appliances for those who need.
l Tuning the school environment to suit the needs of the learner. The practical
activities may be:
Preparing suitable reusable TLM (Teaching Learning Material).
Knowing the list of curricular adaptations required for the general and differentabled
students
Suggesting, demonstrating and reviewing benefits of curricular adaptations to the
teachers or school authorities;
Advising class teachers on inclusive strategies
Modifying academic assignments whenever necessary in consultation with the class
teacher.
Suggesting adapted evaluations;
Co-teaching or team teaching of general classes;
Collaborating with the general class teacher of the Student with special needs for
fulfilling communicative or academic needs.
Sensitizing peers.
Pause & Reflect:
Mention three activities to bring up a change favourable towards special need
learnerof your community.
l Family advocacy and empowerment
Following work areas will empower the families of special need children.
Ensuring involvement of the family in preparing TLM. (Teaching Learning Material)
Providing needs based guidance and counselling.
Identifying recourses within the family to facilitate better education.
Involving families in IEP preparation and implementation.
Assisting family - to - family links so that families work towards similar goals.

118
Stake holders can give or arrange for demonstrations of small activities like reading,
assessing literacy skills, preparing experience workbooks, games etc.
l Individualized coaching.
Individualized coaching means actual teaching on one-to-one basis. It is also called
pull out teachings because one of the learners is pulled out of the large group
(classroom) and is placed individually for a particular time.
Important points to be noted about Individualized additional coaching:
1. This individualized coaching is not in place of classroom teaching, it is over and
above the classroom teaching.
2. The individualized sessions should not be scheduled during school hours. Mostly
these are scheduled just before or after school hours.
3. The frequency of these individualized sessions may vary from student to student.
However, ideally each student should at least get 3-4 hours individualizedcoaching
per week.
4. Involve parents in this effort. Let them be either observers or be part of thesessions.
Educated parents can be given tasks to complete which will empowerthem.
5. Individualized coaching sessions should go hand in hand with whatever ishappening
in the classrooms. At the same time the objectives and activities shouldadhere
to the formulated IEP
6. Lastly and most important think that every session should be planned thoroughlyand
implemented systematically. Monthly objectives need to be stated clearly.Ongoing
evaluation of the learner’s learning is important on regular basis
7. The speech and language therapist assesses diagnoses and manages the treatmentof
speech, language and communication difficulties with children aged up to
18and helps people with speech and language problems to speak more clearly.
8. The Physiotherapist assesses and deals with children experiencing delay in
thedevelopment of their movement and muscles which might be affecting their
balanceor the way they walk and also assessing their quality of movements,
movementrestrictions and how their bones are developing and help to carry on
with exercisesat home.

119
Planning & Implementing IEP & Student Support in Learning
Planning IEP & Student Support in Learning: Planning is the most important
part ofIEP. So Planning includes:
l essential information including medical, social, and educational backgroundthe
present levels of educational performance of the student.
l instructional strategies, responsibilities and materialsassessment criteria for
measuring attainment of, or progress toward, objectives;
l record of progress at target datespersons responsible for the implementation of
the Individual Education Planincluding parents.required adaptations, modifications
and supports;
l the period of time and process for review of the Individual Education Plan.
Implementing IEP & Student Support in Learning
The effectiveness of the student’s IEP can be assured only with proper
implementationand monitoring of the plan. Proper implementation and monitoring
depends onappropriate sharing of information among those involved with
thestudent and on regularevaluation of the student’s achievement and
progresstowards meeting the goals andexpectations set out in the IEP.The
systematic implementations are:
a. Effective implementation of a student’s IEP is a dynamic process that involves:
l Providing the student with opportunities
l On ongoing assessment of the student’s progress
l Identification of changing student needs
l Review and revision of the daily plan
b. Establish and implement a daily plan. A daily plan is designed to:
l serve as an instructional guide
l provide a mechanism for recording student progress and achievement
l to supportteam make decisions about the effectiveness ofstrategies and materials
l facilitate communication among team members
l provide accountability

120
c. Effective daily plan includes a concise description of the student’s performance
objectives
l environments where each performance objective will be taught and practiced
strategies to be used
equipment and materials required team member responsibilities
l evaluation criteria and record-keeping tools
Monitoring of Adaptation & Accommodation Plan
Mention the with Block II??
Monitoring of adaptation &accommodation plan for student with disabilities
in an
inclusive setting
I. Types of Disabilities and Implications for Learning
l Demonstrate an understanding of and ability to plan for: type,
identificationandcharacteristics of different types of disabilities, as well as
effective, evidencebasedinstructional practices and adaptations.
l Demonstrate an understanding of the legal rights and responsibilities of the
teacherrelated to special education referral and evaluation and the rights and
proceduralsafeguards that students are guaranteed.
l Demonstrate an understanding of possible causes and implications ofover
representation of minorities in special education to avoid misinterpretationof
behaviours that represent cultural, linguistic differences as indicative of
learningproblems.
II. Cognitive Skill Development to Ensure Achievement of Students with
Disabilities
in Standards Aligned System to include All School Environments
l Design learning environmentsfor improvement of memory, attention,
perception,action, and problem solving.
l Describe the developmental patterns of change in physical, cognitive,
andpsychosocial areas that have been identified for each stage of development.
121
l Specify the experiences children need from birth to age eight to prepare them
tolearn, read, and succeed in school.
III. Assessments
Identify, administer, interpret, and plan instruction based on each of the
differentfollowing assessment components in a standards aligned system. These
are:
l Authentic - A form of assessment in which, students are asked to perform
realworldtasks that demonstrate meaningful application of essential knowledge
andskills. The assessment usually includes a task for students to perform, and
arubric is used to evaluate their performance. Example: Portfolios
l Screening- Screening assessments are used to determine which students may
beat risk. Poor performance on the screening assessment identifies those
studentsneeding additional, in-depth assessment of strengths and weaknesses.
Example:Reading, Writing etc.
l Diagnostic - The purpose of diagnostic assessments is to ascertain, prior
toinstruction, each student’s strengths, weaknesses, knowledge, and skills.
Usingdiagnostic assessments enable the instructor to remediate students and
adjustthe curriculum to meet each pupil’s unique needs.Example:The Unit
Pertest
l Formative- Formative assessments can consist of formal instruments or
informalobservations. Formative assessments are classroom based assessments
that allowteachers to monitor and adjust their instructional practice in order
to meet theindividual needs of their students. Example:Semester wise test.
Use of Assistive Technology in Classroom
Technology has great potential in providing access for all learners and the ability
toaccess the education curriculum. Assistive technology is a generic term that
includesassistive, adaptive, and rehabilitative devices for individuals with
disabilities and includes’virtually anything that might be used to compensate
for lack of certain abilities rangingfrom low-tech devices like crutches or a
special grip.
Benefit:
l Easy-to-access Course Material-Multimedia- It is easy to understand
coursematerial.

122
l Wide Participation -Learning material can be used for long distance learning
andare accessible to a wider audience.
l Improved student writing -Convenient for students to edit their written work.
l Subjects made easier to learn -Many different types of educational software
aredesigned and developed to help users to learn specific subjects/topics easily.
l More open structure to measure and improve outcomes with proper structuring.
Support to Parents
When parents learn that their child has a disability or a chronic illness, they begin
ajourney thattakes them into a life that is often filled with strong emotion, difficult
choices, interactions with many different professionals and specialists, and an ongoing
need forinformation and services.Support is a variety of service options and assistance
to parents provides them with”whatever it takes” for them to live as much like
other parents as possible and enablesthem to stay together. The supports are:
l Parents should be provided the opportunities about their children aware
theirdisability and other demographic factors.
l Parents should be helps to make their child acquire moral development.
l Parents should be provided the knowledge of how people keeps link with
eachother.
l Availability of best educational options in Mainstream support services also
selfcontained classroom and Work schedules.
l Parents should be conscious about children regarding any additional
disabilities.Such as Visual, Motor, cognitive, attention/Behavior and other
condition
l Knowing about the expectations regarding benefits of assistive devices.
Specialized Services
Introduction:
Specialized Services seek to provide students with special needs the opportunity
toparticipate fully in the educational programs and benefit from all aspects of life
throughthe use of reasonable and appropriate accommodations and support services.

123
Disability Specific Multi-disciplinary services
The service will provide Equipment and Modification Service assessors,
assessment,intervention and management services to promote rehabilitation /
habilitation outcomesfor children who have suffer in different disability.
Service Type
The types of services that are included in this service specification are:
l allied health assessment and need for intervention
l provision of appropriate therapies to facilitate and enhance the development
of :
- Neurological and Motor Skills Function
- Swallowing and Feeding Skills
- Respiratory Skills and Function
- Speech, Language and Communication
- Occupational Therapy
- Physical Therapy
l Psychological Services
- Medical Services
- Nutrition Services
- Social Work Services
- Assistive Technology Devices
l Follow-up after invasive intervention or a medical episode related to the
child’sdisability and support their families.
l As the child begins the transition from early childhood services into school
basedservices the child to entitle to enjoy the usual official and govt. support.
Pause & Reflect
Does your school provide any nutrition services to the learners? How far are
parentsopen to accepting this?

124
Adaptive Physical Education (APE) & Sports
Adapted physical education is an individualized program of instruction created
forstudents with disabilities that enables success in physical education. In the
givencontext, to “adapt” means the ability “to adjust” or “to fit” modifications to
meet theneeds of students. APE is a sub discipline of physical education and
encompasses thesame components associated with physical education, providing
safe, personallysatisfying and successful experiences for students of varying
abilities.Physical activity is one of the few areas that allows for the development
of all threedomains that are so important to growth and development. The following
tablesummarizes its essence:
Psychomotor Domain
l Balance, coordination,eye-hand coordination,etc.
l Gross motordevelopment
l Development of body/kinaesthetic/tactile andspatial learning styles
l Cardiovascular fitness
l Muscular strength andendurance
l Flexibility
Cognitive Domain
l Development oflearning styles: musical/rhythmic, verbal/spatial, auditory/
verbal,naturalist, &
Mathematical/logical.
l Number awareness &math concepts.
l Vocabulary, literacy,and reading skilldevelopment.
l Learning and followingdirections
l Following auditory cuesor visual cues
l Sequencing skills
l Problem solving
Cognitive Domain
l Non-competitive
l Non-aggressive

125
l Non-violent
l Gender equal
l All-age inclusive
l Culturally adaptive
l Work alone, with apartner, or in a smallGroup
l Development of intraandinterpersonallearningstyles
The Role of Paraprofessionals in Assisting Adapted Physical Education Teachers
Paraprofessionals can play an important role in assisting students with disabilities
inthe general physical education setting. These individuals assist in the provision
ofadapted physical education services under the supervision of an adapted
physicaleducation teacher. Support personnel enhance the level of instruction in
the physicaleducation setting in numerous ways:
l Providing extra verbal and visual cues for students with disabilities
l Modelling desired movement or behaviour
l Providing simplified instructions
l Encouraging involvement of other student’s/peer buddies during physicaleducation
l Assisting students so they can successfully participate in the general
physicaleducation setting
l Monitoring student behaviour
l Assisting students with transitions in the classroom
2.6.3 Public Private Partnership & NGO Initiatives
Concept of Partnership and Collaboration
As a teacher you know that students in your classrooms are of different learning
abilities, and thus they require individual support for their respective learning. It
is well known that, over the last three decades, school populations have become
increasingly diverged, with students coming from a broad range of cultures,
socioeconomic backgrounds, home-language environments and family structures,
as well as having a varied range of abilities (Meadan& KondaAmaya,2008). Providing
a quality education for all students in an inclusive setting is therefore, acknowledged
126
as the most challenging issue in educationtoday (Amer, et. al., 2009)Partnership
Collaboration Partnership with Collaboration
[Source: Helene Aarones ] Partnership is a relationship created through an expressed
or implied
commitment between/ among two or more parties who join together to achieve
common goal combing their abilities or assets to accomplish that. It works best
when - (i) the common goals are better achieved together than separately, (ii) an
evident and tangible benefit to all partners, (iii) Effective fundraising tools in
place, (iv) good governance practices etc. Collaboration is an open and inclusive
process, a tool to engage a broad array of diverge entities to come together to find
solutions for any issue/ problem. It is also a decision-making tool to find the best
creative outcome
on that issue / problem. Partnership with collaboration is a decision-making process
when the problem
is huge and beyond capacity of an individual or a group to handle. There is no
right way to collaborate to solve any problem, but putting your heads together you
will feel more comfortable with the problem
Planning for Collaboration
Students with special and exceptional needs, by and large, are placed in inclusive
learning settings, more frequently than in the past. For general educators with a
limited special needs education background, this can often be anxiety provoking
and stressful. Every teacher wants to provide the best instruction and education for
his/ her students. Special education teachersor teachers with special training to
deal with Children with Special Needs CWSN can provide supports to general
education teachers, especially when we share responsibility of students with special
needs. I work with them to ensure that all students have the necessary resources
in order to be successful, and that they themselves can grow and learn as a teacher.
Here are five planning strategies that may be successful for working with students
in the inclusive classroom is discussed below:
i. Get to know your students’ Individualized Education Programme (IEP) Upon
receiving notice that a student with special need is entering your class,it is important
to connect with that student and his/her parents. You, as a teacher, should receive

127
a brief synopsis about the IEP, often referred to by medical practitioner, special
teacher, therapist or related information be collected to take decision about his/ her
IEP. This will detail the specific services and supports for each of the student, as
well as any physical accommodations and modifications that are suitable for them.
There may be the school counsellor, for a student with an IEP it would be either
the Special Education Teacher or Resource Specialist.
Take Action: Check and make sure you have current documents for students in
your class. Make a chart with what services each student receives and how frequently.
Make note of their next IEP meeting date. If you haven’t started one yet, start a
folder for student work samples-this will make the Special Educator’s job that
much easier!
ii. Implement Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
Universal Design is so much more than one of the hottest buzzwords circulating
around education circles. It’s an approach to curriculum planning and mapping that
makes learning engaging and accessible to a wider range of learners with different
strengths and needs. UDL builds on Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences,
in that it calls for teaching to utilize multiple modalities, and for students to
respond to learning with a variety of assessment tools. Educators that recognize the
importance of UDL realize that we all learn and express ourselves in different ways
and that in order to assess skills we need to be allowed to use our strengths, while
practicing our areas of need at the same time.(Ref. CAST’s Website )
Take Action: View the video and reflect on your teaching practices. How are you
engaging students? How do students show what they know? How are students
presented with material?
iii. Support Important Life Skills As a seasoned educator, when I hear the term ‘life
skills’, I often think of tasks that are performed by our more severely disabled
students, many of whom are not in a general education environment. When I do
this, I am shortchanging my students, many who lack very necessary skillsthey
need in order to be a productive and contributing member of the society. Many
general education mainstream students cannot perform the following simple tasks:
telling time from an analogue clock writing a simple letter signing their name in
cursive note taking and study skills Take Action: Find or create a survey for your

128
students to gauge what essential skills they have, and what they need. How can
you incorporate instruction in these skills into your everyday schedule?
iv. Engage in Collaborative Planning and Teaching
No classroom is an island, especially an inclusive classroom. Opening up your
room to service providers, paraprofessionals, special education teachers, and parents
gives you valuable opportunities to participate in collaborative teaching. Collaborative
teaching looks differently depending on what school, level, and setting you are
working
Take Action: Try to find a common time to sit and meet with your gradelevel
Special Education teacher. How can you work together to improve student learning?
Draft a plan to hand to your administrator; perhaps you can receive a stipend for
your planning time! v. Develop a strong Behaviour Management Plan Having a
successful inclusive classroom depends upon having control of your classroom. It
is essential to have clearly communicated expectations and goals, which are accessible
to all students. Your classroom environment should be tailored to better suit diverse
students’ needs. With students’ and specialists’ input, create a checklist or action
plan for students. Some specific behaviour management strategies that support
effective instruction are: Posting daily schedules Displaying classroom rules and
expectations Encouraging peer to peer instruction and leadership Using signals to
quiet down, start working, and putting away materials. Checking in with students
while they work
Utilizing proactive rather than reactive interventions as needed Speaking to students
privately about any concerns Employing specific, targeted positive reinforcement
when a student meets a behavioural or academic goal. Take Action: Look through
student IEPs to see if any student has a formal Behaviour Intervention Plan (BIP).
Consult with your Special Education teacher for resources on how to establish and
strengthen behaviour management in your classroom. If possible, have the Special
Education teacher observe and give feedback.1. Check the current documespecification
in 2. Make a chart with what services each student receives and how frequently.
3. Make note of their next IEP meeting date.

129
 School Based Approach to Collaboration
The most challenging and critical aspects of Inclusive Education (IE) development
in terms of inputsinclude are (i) Rates of Student Access, Retention and Drop-out;
(ii) Study FindingsIdentifying and Encouraging Childrento go to Schools; (iii)
Background of Socio-economic Conditions of Students; (iv) Attitudes towards
CWSN andtheir SEN; (v) General and Special teachers’ Work Conditions; (vi)
Adaptation of Flexible, Adaptive and Functional Lifeskills based curriculum relevant
to students’ lives. Researchers suggest that Inclusive Education programmesshould
look for improvements in terms of contextual factors, viz., individual, family,
community, organization,and government. Specific indicators include presence,
participation, choice, respect, knowledge skills etc. School based approaches may
be of following types:
Professional Partnership for Interdisciplinary Services
Educating all students with disabilities ingeneral education requires a supportive
frameworkfor collaboration between general andspecial educators. Such a framework
is found inthe education reform and restructuring literature,which advocates practices
such as team teaching,interdisciplinary curriculum, and blockscheduling. Many
strategies to provide special educationand related service support within the context
ofgeneral education have been evolved during the pasttwo decades. These strategies
parallel the bestpractices in general education reform and
restructuring.Three key strategies are describedbelow, with specific applications to
related services. Collaborative Teaching Programmes
McHatton and Daniel (2008) suggest that implementing co-teaching at the pre-
servicelevel forces a paradigm shift and changes the way courses are delivered
with collaborativeteaching across disciplines. Nevin et al. (2009) reviewed collaborative
teaching for teachereducators and concluded that collaborative teaching for inclusive
education is more effective than the individual teaching.
IEP Based School-Parent Partnership
An IEP defines the individualized objectives of a child who has been determined
to have a special need as defined by RCI of India. The IEP is intended to help
children reach educational goals more easily than they otherwise would.In all cases
the IEP must be tailored to the individual student’s needs as identified by the IEP

130
evaluation process, and must especially help teachers and related service providers
(such as paraprofessional educators) understand the student’s disability and how
the disability affects the learning process. The IEP describes how the student
learns, how the student best demonstrates that learning and what teachers and
service providers will do to help the student learn more effectively. Developing an
IEP requires assessing students in all areas related to the known disabilities,
simultaneously considering ability to access the general curriculum, considering
how the disability affects the student’s learning, forming goals and objectives that
correspond to the needs of the student, and choosing a placement in the least
restrictive environment possible for the student. Parents can also play a number of
important roles in their relationship with their child’s school-organization members,
care providers, political advocates, and facilitators of professional decisions. This
digest examines the special roles of parents of children with disabilities in planning
for the education of their children and discusses how educators can work effectively
with parents to create meaningful individualized education programs (IEPs). The
involvement of parents in the IEP process has many benefits: (i) Increase the
teacher understands of the child’s environment,(ii) Add to parents’ knowledge of
the child’s educational setting; (iii) Improve communication between parents and
the school; (iv) Increase the understanding about the child; (v) Increase the likelihood
that, with improved understanding between home and school, mutually agreed
upon educational goals will be attained.
Teachers Network on IE- Online Resource Sharing Inclusive education works.
When children and young people learn together it benefits everyone and friendships,
respect and understanding can be built. There are various links to other inclusive
education groups for learning, lobbying and inspiration. Pause and Reflect: 1.
What do mean by IDEA? 2. State the concept of IEP .
Resource Centre Network Support/Partnership with Agencies
The right to live with dignity and self-respect as a human being leads to a continuous
analysisof policies and services aimed at marginalized sections. UNICEF’s Medium-
Term StrategicPlan for 2002-05, in line with the Convention on the Rights of the
Child, demands that ‘allchildren have access to and complete an education of good
quality’. Several initiatives bygovernments, NGOs, INGOs, UN agencies and others

131
have addressed the special educationneeds of children with disabilities, and some
have successfully demonstrated examples ofspecial and inclusive education.
After independence, the Indian Constitution directed the state to ensure provision
of basiceducation to all children up to the age of 14 years. The education of
people with disabilities was,however, not explicit in the early constitutional
provisions except for guaranteeing similar rights forpeople with disabilities as
other members of society.
The Education Commission of 1966 (Kothari Commission) drew attention to the
education ofchildren with disabilities. In 1974, for the first time, the necessity of
integrated education wasexplicitly emphasized under the scheme for Integrated
Education for Disabled Children (IEDC). Inpursuit of the goal of providing basic
education for all, the National Policy on Education (1986) andits follow-up
actions have been major landmarks. The World Declarationon Education for
Alladopted in 1990 gave further boost to the various processes already set in
motion in the country.
The Rehabilitation Council of India Act, 1992 initiated a training programme for
the development ofprofessionals to respond to the needs of students with disabilities.
The enactment of the Peoplewith Disability Act in 1996 provided legislative
support. This act makes it mandatory to provide freeeducation to children with
disabilities in an appropriate environment until the age of 18 years. In1999, the
government passed the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism,
CerebralPalsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act for the economic
rehabilitation of peoplewith disabilities. These acts have been instrumental in
bringing about a perceptive change/improvement in the attitude of government,
NGOs and people with disabilities. In recent years, twomajor initiatives have
been launched by the government for achieving the goals of universalizationof
elementary education (UEE): the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP)
in 1994 andthe SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) in 2002.
Programmes launched in the recent past have been able to make only a limited
impact in terms ofincreasing the participation of children with disabilities in
formal education. This situation needs tochange; a focused effort is required.
Keeping in view recent initiatives on inclusive education, acomprehensive review

132
is necessary to help in better understanding the present status of educationof
children with disabilities, and how inclusive education can be promoted:
Working in Early Intervention
In the context of the Developmental Systems Model of early intervention, the
principle ofinclusion represents all efforts to maximize the participation of
children and families in typicalhome and community activities (Guralnick, 2001a).
Although inclusion is often thought of in thecontext of encouraging interactions
between children with and without disabilities, it isconceptualized in the broadest
possible manner as a core principle in the Developmental SystemsModel. The
ideological and philosophical rationales for a principle that encourages
fullparticipation of all children in community life are important in their own
right, but failure totranslate this principle into practice within the early intervention
system will likely havenumerous adverse consequences on children’s development,
including limiting the full range ofstimulation that children can experience,
restricting social and educational learning opportunities,and perhaps creating
low expectations for achievement (Guralnick, 2001b).
For preschool-age children, the law required that every effort be made to ensure
thatchildren with developmental delays fully participate with their typically
developing peers inearly childhood programs. But again, inclusion as a core
principle in a developmental systemsframework has broader implications (see
Guralnick, 2001a). Unfortunately, powerful forces continue to exert pressure
toward isolation and separationwhen a child has a disability. Despite considerable
progress over the years, negative attitudes atall levels of the community still
surround children with disabilities (Stoneman, 2001), and stateadministeredearly
intervention programmes have failed to meet most reasonable contemporarygoals
for inclusion (Guralnick, 2001). But, it is also the case that family patterns of
interactioninvolving a child with a disability can increase the risk of isolation
from peers and from community activities and limit a child’s participation in
the life of his or her own family. Forexample, families of children with disabilities
(see Chapter 1; Guralnick, 1998) often needinformation with respect to reading
their child’s cues or adjusting to their child’s limitedexpressive language to
achieve the proper developmentenhancing balance in their relationship. These
circumstances may even lead families to selectunnecessarily restrictive early
intervention alternatives such as a segregated preschooleducational programme.
133
Accordingly, as these examples illustrate, stressors created by a child’s characteristics
canaffect family patterns of interaction (e.g., parent-child transactions, community
experiencesorganized by parents) that influence a child’s inclusion in home and
community life and mayadversely influence a child’s development as well. A similar
process operates for stressors onfamily patterns of interaction whose origins are
linked to the characteristics of the families themselves. For example, families
experiencing mental health problems or who have limitedfinancial resources or
social supports are far more likely to lack the ability to negotiatecommunity life
in a manner that orchestrates appropriately stimulating experiences for their childor
the ability to engage in parent-child transactions during family routines that are
enjoyable and developmentally enhancing (see Burchinal, Roberts, Hooper, & Zeisel,
2000; Sameroff,Seifer, Barocas, Zax, & Greenspan, 1987). 4.6.2. Special Educational
Services Inclusion of Students with Special Educational Needs: Post-Primary
Guidelines is designed to assistschools in providing appropriate education for students
with special educational needs. The policy in relation to the education of children
withspecial educational
Needs recognizes the need for a continuum of provision for these students,ranging
from full-time enrolment in ordinary classes in mainstream schools to full-time
enrolmentin special schools. Arising from the wishes of parents to have their
children educated in aninclusive educational environment, there has been a notable
increase in recent years in theenrolment of students with special educational needs
in mainstream post-primary schools. Inparallel, the allocation of additional teaching
and care staff to schools to assist in the education ofthese students has also increased
significantly. The Guidelines are designed to provide bestpracticeguidance in relation
to the education of students with special educational needs withinthe present legislative
framework. The publication of the Guidelines is also a response to requestsfrom
school management authorities and teachers for guidance and support in relation
to theeducation and inclusion of these students. Significant challenges in relation
to the inclusion of students with special educational need arisefor schools, for
example from the requirement to provide a subject-centred curriculum, thepreparation
of students for state examinations, and the “points race”. Students meet manydifferent
teachers during the school day and school week, while teachers similarly may
teach awide range of class groups. It is recognized that in general, post-primary
schools are respondingpurposefully to the challenges presented by the increased

134
enrolment of students with specialeducational needs. The Guidelines build on existing
good practice and put forward suggestionsfor how practice can be further developed
in the future. The Guidelines advocate a whole-school approach to policy development
and implementation.Such an approach makes it possible for the management and
teachers to work within a coordinatedpolicy framework and to contribute effectively
to the provision of appropriate educationto students with special educational needs.
Advice is provided in the Guidelines on the role of eachstaff member in the school
and the means by which they can collaborate effectively with oneanother, with
parents and with outside agencies in the provision of education for students withspecial
educational needs.
Therapeutics/Rehabilitation Services
Therapy services contribute to the lives of people with disability, supporting them
to reachtheir potential, enjoy meaningful relationships and participate in their chosen
communities.
The benefits of therapy can include - (a) promoting individual and family health
and wellbeing; (b) supporting the development of skills andindependence in areas
such ascommunication, mobility, daily living and behaviour; (c) preventing, minimizing
or remediating existing or emerging disability; (d) developing or enhancing meaningful
relationships; (e) encouraging community inclusion and participation. In some cases,
therapy may be delivered in school settings, which will require positiverelationships
between therapy and education providers. 4.6.4. Sports and Recreation For many
years, there has been a growing awareness of the social, physical and healthbenefits
of citizen participation in community sport and recreation. People with disabilities,their
families and carers, are also seeking these benefits and are increasingly seekingaccess
to their local sport and recreation providers, with varying degrees of success. The
countrywide strategic framework for inclusive sport and recreation is the first
steptowards achieving this aim. The framework has been developed through
widespreadconsultation with a range of groups, including people with disabilities,
state and localgovernment agencies, state sporting associations, disability recreation
providers andmainstream sport and recreation providers, and represents a shared
vision for inclusivesport and recreation. The framework has been built from the
goodwill and cooperativerelationships between these groups, with developmental
direction from a broad IndustryReference Group. Successful implementation of the
framework largely depends upon the level of commitmentto its Vision and Values
135
by all groups, including the broader community, private andindustry partners, and
State and local government agencies.If you are involved in the delivery of sport
and recreation, in either a formal or informalcapacity, this document is relevant to
you and your organization. As disability intersects with gender,ethnicity, Aboriginality,
culturaland linguistic diversity and socio-economicstatus, it is importantthat all
members of the sport andrecreation community develop practices, attitudes and
skills thatcan effectively incorporate this richdiversity at the local community level.
In turn, the development of inclusiveservices should have broader benefitsto other
community members who have beenunable to enjoy the benefits of community
sport andrecreation.
Assistive Devices
The school should providefor a wide range ofincentives and interventions for the
education ofchildren with disabilities. These include preschool training, counselling
for parents, allowances for booksand stationery, uniforms, transport, readers and
escorts,hostel facilities, and other assistive devices.The schemeprovides one special
teacher for every eight childrenwith disabilities, community involvement, and aresource
room in a cluster of eight to 10 schools. Anumber of voluntary organizations are
implementingthe scheme in the various States. 4.6.6. Parent Associations/Disabled
Persons Organization In 1960s various parents’ organizations for children with
officially unrecognized disabilities sprang up.This was due to insufficient laws and
government policies to respond to the needs of specific laws and government
policies to respond to the needs of special disability and also the parents’ recognition
of the importance of organizing themselves to share their own problems.The following
organizations were formed and began taking actions: Parents’ Association for Children
with Speech Impairment, Organization to Protect Children with Hear Disease,
Parents’ Association for Congenitary Abnormal Children, National Association of
Sisters and Brothers who have Mentally and Physically Handicapped Siblings,
National Association to Protect Children with Severe Mental and Physical Disabilities,
Federation of Families’ Organizations with Mental Illness, Parents’ Association for
Autistic Children. Pause and Reflect:
1. What is meant by early intervention of differently abled learners?
…
…… ……
………
………
……………
…………
………………
…………………
………………………
…………………
…………………………
……………………
……………………
………………
2. What do you mean by rehabilitation of differently abled students?
……
………
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
………
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
……
………
……
………
……………
…………
………
……
……
………
……
…………
………
……
…………
……
………
……
………
……
……
…………
……
……
………

136
Building Community Partnership
Communities in reality are bogged with tough problems.Youth violence, poor school
performance,children without caring parents, the lack ofreal opportunity and many
more -each of these challenges is to be addressed for taking any measure for the
promotion of the society. Challenges are complex at the same time those are
important, andthey will not go away quickly.But communities around the countryhave
made progress on these issues.The core lesson, the fundamental truth, and the
bottom line is that apartnership was at the heart of each successful effort. Every
player-community-based organizations, local government agencies, the
businesscommunity, neighbourhood organizations, and individuals-were important.
Maximizing Community Resources
Schools have responsibility for maximising the learning outcomes and wellbeing
of all students and for providing access to a high-quality education that is freefrom
discrimination. All children are entitled to quality education experiences. Students
should feel that they are included in an environment of high expectationwhere they
are both able and enabled to learn. At the core of inclusive education is the human
right to education for all, which is pronounced in theUniversal Declaration of
Human Rights in 1948 (UNESCO). This resource supports inclusive education.
Inclusive education means that all students are welcomed by their school in age-
appropriate settings and are supported to learn, contribute and participate in all
aspects of school. Inclusive education is about how schools are developed and
designed, including classrooms, programmes and activities so that all students
learn and participate together. In order to create an inclusive environment, changes
and modifications may need to be made to help a student or group of students
participate on the same basis as other students. The changes or modifications made
will reflect the assessed individual needs of the student and can be made in both
the classroom and whole school setting. Modifications are often referred to as
adjustments to meet individual needs. Adjustments can be made to a range of areas
to support an individual student, including but not limited to the way that teaching
and learning is provided, changes to the classroom or school environment, the way
that students’ progress and achievements are assessed and reported to parents, the
provision of personal care and planning to meet individual needs, as well as
professional learning for teachers and support staff.

137
PPP Model
Education is a fundamental sector that every country needs to developbut governments
in developing countries have limited resources for it.They face difficulties in providing
quality education services that takeinto account individual and community diversity.
This has resulted ingreater involvement of the private sector including non-
governmentorganisations, business corporations and communities in the financeand
management of services.

2.7 Support System to meet Diverse Learning Needs- Family,

Community, School, Peer, Administrative and Resource Support
2.7.1 Support Service System for Inclusive Education
Support for inclusive education can involve many things, including:
• The help your child receives for personal needs they have;
• Various “accommodations” children with disabilities may need to participate
in regular school and classroom activities;
• The overall support from the school including the leadership and commitment
necessary to include all children;
• Different ways of thinking about what and how children are taught so that all
children can participate in regular classrooms and school activities.
Personal Support and Accommodations
Different children will require different kinds of support to participate fully in
school. Some children need physical supports such as help with personal care,
changes in seating arrangements, alternate forms of communication (for children
who do not speak), and extra help to participate in activities which would not
otherwise be possible.
There are a wide range of possible accommodations that are available to children
with disabilities.
It is important to know the specific support or accommodation needs for your
child. Make sure you write down the things that your child will need help with.
These needs should be addressed fully during the PLP process and other meetings
with your child throughout the year. Be careful not to assume that there is only one
way of doing things. Also, make sure that the support that is provided allows your
138
child to participate in activities in the classroom and school as well as to develop
friendships with other children.
Modifying Curriculum
Many educators now realize that children who are learning the same subjects can
have different educational goals. Going to school does not require that every child
learn the same thing. In fact, children can be working on different things and skills
during the same lesson. The secret is to find out how the subject being taught in
the regular classroom can be used to benefit a particular child.
It is important not to assume too quickly that your child cannot learn the same
things that other children are learning. The question that you need to ask first is:
Can your child participate just as other children are? Also, your child may only
require small changes like different expectations (for example, fewer math problems)
or different class materials. Try to find out if your child can learn or handle the
regular curriculum with some accommodations. You may not want to assume or
want others to assume that your child is not capable.
In school terms, modifying curriculum means significantly simplifying the content
and concepts of a program or course. This usually happens when a child is having
a lot of difficulty that cannot be dealt in other ways (for example, by providing
accommodations or changing teaching techniques). Remember that making
accommodations for your child does not mean that their curriculum is being modified.
Decisions to modify subjects should only happen after discussions with parents
(and sometimes students) have occurred and after you have agreed to it. When a
decision is made to modify curriculum, people involved in planning for your
child’s inclusion in regular classrooms should look at each subject to see what
information, concepts or skills may be relevant for your child. For example, during
an English class, your child may be learning words from a story while other
children are learning how to analyze the story.
Key Roles of Principals and Regular Classroom Teachers
Leadership from principals and teachers is often crucial to creating an inclusive
school. If principals and teachers have a commitment to meeting the needs of all
children, the inclusion of children with disabilities in the school and in regular
classrooms will likely happen.

139
Your child’s school principal has the overall responsibility for running the
school. They must make sure that teachers and other school staff are doing
their jobs and that the programs and services are working smoothly. More
importantly, the principal is responsible for guiding the school’s approach in
a way that supports the inclusion of all children. Principals can support inclusion
by taking a real interest in making sure that children with disabilities are part
of the school. Principals can also support teachers and other staff by helping
to find ways to make inclusion happen (for example, by providing teachers
with opportunities to learn new strategies or to take time away from their
classrooms to meet with parents).
Get to know the principal of your child’s school. Try to find out what they
think about inclusive education. How does the principal provide leadership to
make inclusion happen?
Regular classroom and subject teachers are also important for setting the tone
for inclusion in the regular classroom. Inclusion will be successful when regular
class teachers know how to:
• Create a feeling that everyone belongs regardless of ability.
• Change and adapt the teaching styles, activities and curriculum to ensure
the success of all children.
• Help the children in the class accept each other.
• Help children find ways of supporting other children who may need help.
• Take full responsibility for the education of all children in their classroom.
Taking responsibility for teaching all children does not always happen. Sometimes,
teachers believe that others (for example, Education Support Teachers-Resource
(EST-Resource) or educational assistants) should have the main responsibility
for teaching children with disabilities. However, taking responsibility for teaching
all children does not mean that teachers must do it alone.
Ways to Support Teachers and Your Child in Regular Classrooms
Within the school, there may be various sources of support for teachers and
children. Three of the main ways to provide support are through Education
Support Teachers-Resource (EST-Resource), educational assistants, and other
children.

140
Education Support Teachers-Resource (EST-Resource)
Most schools have specialist teachers who are not responsible for a classroom but
who provide valuable support for classroom teachers. These are called Education
Support Teachers-Resource (EST-Resource). They may have some special training
or experience for them to provide help to regular classroom teachers and children.
EST-Resource provide support for inclusive education in a number of ways:
• They provide direct assistance to classroom teachers on ways to use the lessons
to achieve education goals that have been set for children with disabilities.
• They can assist teachers by substituting for teachers so that they can meet with
parents or others about your child’s inclusion.
• They can identify ways to give children with disabilities opportunities to make
friends or to be supported by other children.
• They have a responsibility to coordinate PLPs and the services and supports
some children will receive.
The EST-Resource is someone that you should get to know quite well. Your knowledge
and expertise’s about your child will be helpful to the EST-Resource in working
out ways your child can be fully included in the school. Be aware that the EST-
Resource should not be seen to be your child’s teacher. Unfortunately, in some
schools, children with disabilities are grouped together and taught by EST-Resource
in what are sometimes called “resource rooms”. This is something that should not
be happening within an inclusive education system.
Educational Assistants
Educational assistants also play an important role in supporting inclusive education.
These are people who provide assistance to teachers in the classroom, library, shop
or laboratory and who fulfill a number of duties, including:
• Assist with the physical needs of a child with a disability
• Ensuring the safety and supervision of children
• Classroom observation
• Assist with the preparation of teaching aids and the assembly of materials as
directed by the teacher

141
• Assist individual students or small groups in performing activities in the school
• Follow and implement therapy programs set out by therapists (for example, a
speech therapist)
• Assist with maintaining records and notes that can be used by regular classroom
teachers to inform you of your child’s activities and progress
Many people, including parents, assume that every child with a disability in a
regular classroom needs an educational assistant. There is often the belief that if
a child has some additional needs, these needs can only be met by another adult
person in the classroom. These beliefs have led parents, teachers and other people
in the school system to depend too much on educational assistants to include
children with disabilities. This can cause a few problems of which you should be
aware.
One problem is when the regular classroom teacher feels that they have little or
no responsibility to educate a child with a disability because the educational assistants
is there to do that. This leads to the educational assistant being seen as the primary
teacher of the child, often finding herself working at the child’s side and often at
the back of the class so as not to disturb other children. Other problems are created
outside the regular classroom. For example, an educational assistant may be the
only person who helps a child with a disability to eat, play, or do other things in
the school. Other children may not approach a fellow student when an adult is
present. Children may end up being segregated by a person who is supposed to
help with inclusion.
Some children may require regular help from an educational assistant. Most often,
it will be children with significant physical needs that require ongoing attention.
For most children with disabilities, however, having a “full time EA” can cause
problems. As parents, you will need to be aware of the “danger signals” that will
tell you if your child is depending too much on an educational assistant. If this is
happening, it will be time to start to think about other ways your child can be
supported.
Danger Signals!
You know your child’s school may be depending too much on a teacher assistant
when:

142
• At a meeting, it is the educational assistant who knows the most about what
and how your child is doing rather then the regular classroom teacher.
• The educational assistant is the only person who sends a message to you in
your child’s communication book.
• The educational assistant is always seen by your child’s side, both inside and
outside the classroom.
• Your child will mainly seek out the educational assistant when in need of
help.
• Other children in the class call upon the educational assistant when they
notice that your child needs help rather then notifying the teacher or offering
to help your child themselves.
• Other students and school staff will talk to your child through the educational
assistant rather than directly to your child.
• The educational assistant is often working alone with your child at the back
or the side of the class, frequently doing something different from the rest of
the class.
• Whenever a problem arises or a question is asked concerning your child, the
educational assistant is called upon as the “expert” in the school.
• Your child spends their recesses, breaks, and lunch times with the educational
assistant rather than other children.
• When the educational assistant is ill, it is suggested your child stay home from
school.
Support from Other Children
When a child is part of a regular classroom, it becomes natural for other children
to get to know them as a classmate. This is more likely to happen if the educational
assistant learns to keep their distance and help other students learn how to support
your child. When children support children, it brings them closer together.
When you are planning for and discussing your child’s education, think about ways
your child can receive support from their classmates. Make it one of your goals
that your child will receive help from other children. This does not mean that

143
adults with special training are not necessary. There are some things (for example,
assistance with toileting) that are not appropriate for classmates to provide
Supportive Services Required For Meeting Special Needs In The Classroom
support services An activity required for successful execution of a product or
program or process is known as Support service. The support services are managed
by a separate department. It is extremely important for any organization to have
good support services to succeed in their business. Support services are important
for the immediate relief of the customers and the clients. Support services are not
just limited to phone calls nowadays email, chat, web forms, and social
communications, as well as self-service support sites
Objectives of Supportive Services for Inclusion
The help your child receives for personal needs they have; °% Various
“accommodations” children with disabilities may need to participate in regular
school and classroom activities; °% The overall support from the school including
the leadership and commitment necessary to include all children; °% Different
ways of thinking about what and how children are taught so that all children can
participate in regular classrooms and school activities.
Supportive Services In The Inclusive Classroom :
SPECIAL TEACHER, COUNSELOR, PHYSIOTHERAPIST, OCCUPATIONAL
THERAPIST, SPEECH THERAPIST
Role of Special Teacher in Inclusive Classroom
°% Lesson Planning °% Specialized Instruction °% Classroom Management °%
Behavior Interventions °% Other Responsibilities °% Special education teacher
and regular education teacher engage in co-planning °% They work together to
design lesson plans to fit the needs of all students, with the special education
teacher focusing on the needs of the special needs students. °% Develop review
materials or plan one-on-one instruction with special needs students before or after
the class. °% Give progress reports and updates to parents. °% Academically
feedback °% To assess individualized education programs °% Consultant or counseling
°%Arrange meetings to discuss these plans with parents, administrators, counselors
and other individuals involved in the education of a child with special needs.

144
Classroom Management
°% Recognizes individual differences and implements learning strategies for all.
°% Collaborative work management °% Develop Cooperative culture °% Circulate
responsibility to all °% Organizing various activity for all °%
SPEECH THERAPIST
°% Identification of problem °% Assessment and support of speech °% Develop
language skill & ability °% Communication needs of children °% Develop social
communication, cognitive-communication °% Support and care for children and
adults who have difficulties with communication
PHYSIOTHERAPIST
The role of the Physiotherapist
°% Check daily progressive muscular conditions °% Prepare curriculum according
to students need °% Organize exercise routines and games °% Health related
guidance and counseling °% Organizing camp °% Evaluate a patient’s condition
and needs °% Develop a treatment plan for patients
Occupational Therapist
The role of the occupational therapist
°% Observe patients doing tasks °% Ask them questions, and review their medical
history °% Evaluate a patient’s condition and needs °% Develop a treatment plan
for patients °% Laying out the types of activities and specific goals to be accomplished.
°% learn new ways of doing things °% regain skills and develop new ones °% use
materials or equipment that makes life easier, or °% adapt their environment to
work better for them.
COUNSELOR
The role of Counselor
°% Counseling sessions with special education students. °% Encouraging family
involvement °% Consulting with and working with other school staff °% Collaborating
with other school and community professionals

145
2.7.2Support Service System for Inclusive Education by Family, Community,
School, Peer Administration
Activities to promote relationship and friendship
Friends are important for several reasons. They support each other emotionally, are
willing to see things from the other’s point of view and provide assistance and
feedback when needed. Friends choose each other and remain close through good
times and times of crisis. They provide companionship for community and school
activities and help each other enjoy new experiences and appreciate life more fully.
Friendships between people with and without disabilities usually enrich the lives
of both. If people with disabilities are to form friendships and be a part of society
as adults, these relationships must develop during childhood. Classmates and
neighbours will grow into adult co-workers and friends later in life. Therefore,
integrated classrooms and recreational activities are important. In these settings
children with and without disabilities get to meet each other and form relationships.
Activity
Students of a class can be divided into different groups comprising both of able
and disable students. Various activities like debate competition may be held so that
more and more interaction may take place between the students which will help
to develop intimacy, sensitivity as well as positive feelings towards the disadvantaged
students.
Difficulties in relationship development Many individuals with disabilities interact
primarily with their family, the people who take care of or provide services to
them, and others in the programs inwhich they participate. These relationships can
clearly be significant and should be encouraged. However, outside family members,
people may have no freely given and chosen relationships. Generally, many people
with disabilities face certain disadvantages in meeting and getting to know others.
Opportunity Many people with disabilities have limited opportunities to take part
in activities where they can meet peers. This may be due to physical segregation
or being placed in a role as “client” or “special education student.” Services may
restrict people’s chances to get together, through program or funder rules, curfews,
transportation restrictions, and other limitations. Whatever the reason, people with
disabilities frequently become cut off and isolated from others. Support Relationships
between people with and without disabilities are not formed by simply grouping
people together. Some individuals need assistance with fitting into certain settings
and activities. Others may need someone to facilitate their involvement or to

146
interpret for them. Without supports, some people with and without disabilities
may never have the opportunity to know each other. Continuity While most people
enjoy meeting new people, they are sustained by those they have known over time.
The continuity of relationships over the years is an important source of security,
comfort and self-worth. Many people with disabilities do not have continuous
relationships. Instead, they may leave their families, be moved from one program
to another and have to adjust to staff people who come and go. Strategies to
facilitate positive relationships between people with and without disabilities It
takes effort to help people establish connections. Described below are some of the
ways this has been tried: Bridge-building Facilitators who initiate, support and
maintain new relationships are called bridge-builders, as they build bridges and
guide people into new relationships, new places, and new opportunities in life.
Bridge-builders involve people with disabilities in existing groups or with specific
individuals. Circles of friends or circles of support Groups of people who meet on
a regular basis to help a person with a
disability accomplish certain personal visions or goals. Circle members try to open
doors to new opportunities, including establishing new relationships. Citizen advocacy
There are different ways that personal relationships between people with and without
disabilities may be encouraged. Perhaps it is more important than the specific
method, is the supporting, connecting role of one or more people (family members,
staff members, friends, neighbours, etc.) who can spend time and energy for this
purpose. Dimensions of friendship Genuine friendships between people with and
without disabilities do exist. While each friendship is unique, there are some
shared ideas and expectations about what friendship means. According to a recent
study of pairs of friends (Lutfiyya, 1990), these meanings include: Mutuality The
people usually define their relationship as a friendship and themselves as friends
only when they discover that their feelings and interest are reciprocated by the
other. Although they acknowledge differences between themselves, they clearly
discover a common ground and a feeling of mutuality in the relationship. . Mutuality
is expressed in the giving and receiving of practical assistance and emotional
support, and enjoyment of each other’s company. Rights, Responsibilities, and
Obligations Once a friendship is established, it is assumed that friends can make
certain demands of each other and be assured of a response. Nondisabled friends
may talk about the obligations that they would assume for their friend with a

147
disability, such as teacher, mentor, caretaker, or protector. The friends with disabilities
may assume certain responsibilities in maintaining the relationship such as keeping
in touch or suggesting possible activities. Feelings, from Companionship to Intimacy
All of the friends have feelings of affection for each other, expressed through their
interactions with each other. Freely Chosen and Given Friends choose each other.
It is the voluntary aspect of friendship. Private and Exclusive Nature Within the
boundaries of each friendship is a private relationship that is inaccessible to others.
The friends have a history and an understanding of their connection to each other
that separates this from all of their other relationships.
The Role of family and service providers
The Role of family and service providers to enhance opportunities for friendship
People can establish friendships with each other, but it is not possible to force
friendships upon others. It is possible to create opportunities for people with and
without disabilities to meet and share time with each other in ways that encourage
friendships to take root and flourish. Families and service providers can do different
things to make such opportunities available. Families can: Work for the total inclusion
of their son or daughter into the regular school system. In addition to being physically
present, students with disabilities need adequate supports to enable them to fully
participate in classroom and school activities. Parents can also ensure that their
child with a disability takes part in a variety of integrated recreation and leisure
activities after school hours. A consistent physical presence in each others’ lives
helps lead to friendships between children with and without disabilities. Ensure
social participation How people with disabilities are supported within integrated
settings is important. Students need to be enabled to participate as much as possible,
and to do so in ways acceptable to other people. People without disabilities need
the opportunity to meet their counterparts with disabilities as peers, not as objects
of tutoring or volunteer service. Involve and trust others All parents feel protective
toward their children. While there may be differences in how independent people
can become, parents can come to believe that there are people in the community
who would, if given the opportunity, enjoy and welcome a friendship with their
son or daughter. Service providers can: Reduce barriers to friendship The way in
which support services are provided to people with disabilities and their families
can enhance or reduce the opportunities for friendship to develop. Segregated
programs dramatically lessen the chances of contact between people with and

148
without disabilities. Even in integrated settings, students with disabilities may not
be able to take part in extracurricular activities (e.g., choir, clubs, and sports)
because of lack of transportation from school. Therefore, any kind of barriers
should be removed so that, they can participate easily.
Struggle against Marginalization and Desire for Belonging
Everyone needs community and community needs everyone because a community
that excludes its member is no community at all. It is an universal fact that people
with disabilities feel more isolated from their communities, participate in less
community activities, and are less satisfied with their community participation
than citizens without disabilities. Similarly, many marginalized groups of people
are found to be frightened , separated, isolated, mistreated, ridiculed, put on display
and exploited, denied medical treatment and even killed just for being different.
Many times it is observed that though seats are reserved for the disabled in buses,
trains as well as any kind of public transport able bodied individuals occupy them
with ease. They do not have the slightest awareness of the fact that such seats are
reserved for the challenged individuals. Even sometimes it is observed that the
ramps specially made for the disabled is used for other purposes without any
hesitation. I It is the way the people think that needs to be changed for the betterment
and inclusion of the marginalized people of our community . Because of this
pervasive societal mind-set, people living in the marginalized context are seen as
“less than”; “less deserving” of place, of equity, of having a voice. Nothing could
be further from the truth.
Attitudes of community members towards students having diverse background
and abilities
The main aim of education is to modify the behaviour of a child according to the
needs and expectancy of the society. Behaviour is composed of many attributes.
One of these important attributes is attitude. One’s behaviour, to a great extent,
depends upon one’s attitude towards the things - idea, person, or object in his / her
environment Effective Initiatives to Change Community Attitude towards students
having diverse background and abilities Ï% Initiatives directed towards improving
community attitudes at the personal level, through awareness campaigns, training
and information for individuals, monitoring media portrayals of people with disability
and their portrayal and participation in the arts, and programs involving social

149
contact between people with and without disability Ï% Organisational-level initiatives
directed at sectors relating to people’s life domains, in particular education, employment
and health
• structural-level policies that enact, implement and monitor legislation, in particular
disability rights legislation and inclusive education
• policies to change attitudes to particular groups of people with disability,
specifically autism, mental illness and intellectual disability
Mainstreaming Process
UN declaration of Education for All & accordingly in this aspect, the Indian perspective
of Right to Education is obviously a very effective initiative for reach to unreached
through the process of mainstreaming.
According to Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org/) Mainstreaming, in the context of
education, is the practice of educating students with special needs in regular classes
during specific time periods based on their skills.
• This means regular education classes are combined with special education
classes. Schools that practice mainstream believe that students with special
needs who cannot function in a regular classroom to a certain extent belong
in the special education environment.
• Access to a special education classroom, often called a “self-contained classroom
or resource room”, is valuable to the student with a disability. Students have
the ability to work one-to-one with special education teachers, addressing any
need for remediation during the school day. Many researchers, educators and
parents have advocated the importance of these classrooms amongst political
environments that favour their elimination.
• Proponents of both philosophy of educational inclusion assert that educating
children with disabilities alongside their non-disabled peers fosters understanding
and tolerance, better preparing students of all abilities to function in the world
beyond school.
• Children with special needs may face social stigma as a result of being
mainstreamed, but also may help them socially develop Equality and diversity
in teaching and learning should be delivered by mainstreaming these issues
into the curriculum. Equality and diversity has to be embedded into all aspects

150
 of the curriculum: from lesson planning and teaching methods to assessment
procedures; from inclusive resources and materials to teaching which focuses
on discrimination, harassment and victimisation. Effective mainstreaming may
happen when equality and diversity permeates every aspect of curriculum
design, plan and delivery.
Concept of Inclusive Community / Society
A socially inclusive society is defined as one where all people feel valued, their
differences are respected, and their basic needs are met so they can live with
dignity. In a socially inclusive community, residents have opportunities to participate
fully in the social, economic and cultural life of their community. Social inclusion
policies facilitate access to employment, education, health, housing and democratic
processes. These socially inclusive policies create health and wellbeing for individuals
by creating a supportive community. It is the process that leads towards the goal
of an inclusive global community. Diversity is a fact of life. Difference is normal.
Some people are excluded from society because of difference. Inclusive community
means society is changing to accommodate differences and to combat discrimination.
To achieve inclusion, a twin track approach is needed such as focusing on the
society to remove the barriers that excluded individuals with differences
(mainstreaming) and focusing on the group of persons who are excluded, to build
their capacity and support them to fight for their inclusion. Because inclusion
involves everyone in society at all levels, collaboration and networking are core
strategies to achieve inclusion.
Building Inclusive Community
A strike was called on by the sweeper community with agenda as to hike their
wages in capital city of India, Delhi. In the beginning, the movement was neglected
by Delhi Govt. as a result; the entire city became the dumping ground of wastages.
Realizing the importance of their work, Govt. negotiated with their demand. The
World Summit for Social Development (Copenhagen 1995) defines an inclusive
society as a “society for all in which every individual, each with rights and
responsibilities, has an active role to play”. A person by their profession may be
a sweeper, cobbler, black smith, and carpenter, may be a Hindu, Muslim, or may
be a disable, women or any weaker section of the society but they are respected
member of the society. An inclusive society is a society that over-rides differences
of race, gender, class, generation, and geography, and ensures inclusion, equality

151
of opportunity as well as capability of all members of the society to determine an
agreed set of social institutions that govern social interaction. Such an inclusive
society must be based on respect for all human rights and fundamental freedoms,
cultural and religious diversity, social justice and the special needs of vulnerable
and disadvantaged groups, democratic participation and the rule of law. It is promoted
by social policies that seek to reduce inequality and create flexible and tolerant
societies that embrace all people. Necessary Element for Creating Inclusive Community
For creating social inclusion following elements are necessary
Elements of Exclusion
• Exclusive policies and legislation
• Lack of respect for human rights
• Discrimination, intolerance, stigma,
• Stereo-typing, sexism, racism and homophobia
• Fear and psychological insecurity
• Lack of access to basic services, including education, health care, clean water
and sanitation
• Lack of access to decent work and employment
• Lack of resources to sustain livelihood
• Lack of access to land
• Lack of access to credit
• Lack of transparency in decision-making
• Lack of access to political processes
• Lack of access to information and Communications
• Lack of transportation
• Lack of access to public spaces
• Physical Insecurity
• Segregation

152
• Violence and abuse
• lements of Inclusion
• Inclusive policies and legislation
• Access to clean and safe places for living, work and recreation
• Access to information and communication
• Access to public spaces
• Access to resources
• Access to basic services, including education, health care, clean water and
sanitation
• Access to transportation
• Transparent and accountable decision-making processes
• Adequate income and employment opportunities
• Affirmation of human rights
• Opportunity for personal development
• Respect for diversity
• Freedom (of choice, religion, etc.)
• Participation in decision-making
• Social protection
• Solidarity
Important Pre-requisite for Creating Inclusive Community
• Respect for human rights, freedom, and the rule of law,
• Maintaining the security
• Participate in civic, social, economic and political activities,
• The existence of a strong civil society
• Universal access to public infrastructure and facilities
• Equal access to public information

153
• Equity in the distribution of wealth and resources
• Appreciation of cultural diversity.
• Effective leadership is crucial to the development of an inclusive society
• Need to create positive narratives of an inclusive society of the future
• Full participation in all aspect of life
Dimensions of Social Inclusion and Exclusion
Following are the major dimensions of Social inclusion and exclusion:
• Cultural
• Economic
• Social
• Environmental
• Legal
• Physical
• Political
• Relational
• Spatial
Key- Groups to be Included: Who Is Marginalized?
It is the role and responsibility of policy-makers, social institutions, civil society,
and the private sector to address these issues and to seek out, identify and make
visible the marginalized. The below mentioned groups have been identified for
inclusion.
• Persons with Disabilities
• Old Persons
• Youth
• Women
• Marginalized
• People living with HIVAIDS
154
• Vulnerable
• Ethnics and Religious Minorities
• Migrants
• Indigenous People
Breaking down of oppressive system
The concept of discrimination
To understand the oppressive system, it is important to know about discrimination.
The word “discrimination” means simply distinguishing between one thing and
another. When we talk about discrimination as a social issue, we refer to distinguishing
between population groups defined by specific characteristics - race, gender, religion,
national origin, political opinions, sexual orientation, class and treating groups
differently. In Indian social perspective, discrimination is the regular phenomena
in the name of religion, Casteism, ethnicity, untouchability, disability, superstition,
gender, economic as well as socio-political background. After independence many
initiatives have been taken to remove discrimination. Constitutionally equal rights
and justice have been given the greatest priority irrespective of the caste, creed and
culture but equality is just a dream for the people of India. In the 21st century we
need to do away with social stigma, illiteracy, superstition, terrorism and any kind
of exploitation for sake of a society without oppression.
The concept of oppression
So far we can remember, the Oppression of the Jews in Germany begins after
Hitler’s power grab in 1933. The Nazis were violent and denied Jews of their civil
rights and livelihood. Many Jews hoped the situation would improve, but the
Nazis became progressively more extreme. Life in Germany was impossible for
Jews. They desperately tried to leave the country.
The above history is a well known fact worldwide. The name of Hitler is symbolically
used as an oppressor. People’s hatred is still same as it was during the time of Nazi
regime. In the Indian perspective untouchability is a prevailing form of oppression.
Oppression against women, dalits, physically challenged often becomes news paper
headlines. Even a physically disabled person cannot escape from physical and
sexual assault. Therefore, on the basis of above discussion it is assumed that
oppression deprives people from their rights and justice due to discriminating

155
attitude of some individuals in the society who tend to treat the marginalized
people as inferior.
Helping to change attitude / awareness programme
By improving awareness of inclusive practices and focusing on people’s abilities,
attitudes will change and barriers will be broken so all youth are empowered. In
this aspect, grants and volunteer activities are important to generate awareness on
promoting inclusion, providing access for all, and raising awareness about the
abilities of young people with disabilities. Everyone should have an opportunity to
fully participate in society, be it in schools, community organizations, recreational
opportunities or jobs. By providing accommodation and support, creating universally
designed infrastructure and programs, and adopting inclusive practices and attitudes,
myths can be dispelled and barriers can be reduced to allow the full participation
of all.
There are so many programmes may be taken for creating awareness of the people
with diversity to promote inclusive community such as organize cultural programme,
organize workshop about constitutional rights and duties, organize healthy competition
among the people from different culture like games & sports etc., encourage to
participate in the festival of different culture.
Connecting leaders
For the inclusive and better balanced society leadership role is vital because leader
is a policy maker, policy executer and representatives of the people with diversity
such as including groups typically marginalized from political and economic power,
such as women, youth, people with disabilities, indigenous people, LGBT persons,
and racial, religious and ethnic minorities. Specific Activities for Social Inclusion
Activities to promote relationship and friendship
Friends are important for several reasons. They support each other emotionally, are
willing to see things from the other’s point of view and provide assistance and
feedback when needed. Friends choose each other and remain close through good
times and times of crisis. They provide companionship for community and school
activities and help each other enjoy new experiences and appreciate life more fully.
Friendships between people with and without disabilities usually enrich the lives
of both. If people with disabilities are to form friendships and be a part of society
as adults, these relationships must develop during childhood. Classmates and

156
neighbours will grow into adult co-workers and friends later in life. Therefore,
integrated classrooms and recreational activities are important. In these settings
children with and without disabilities get to meet each other and form relationships.
Students of a class can be divided into different groups comprising both of able
and disable students. Various activities like debate competition may be held so that
more and more interaction may take place between the students which will help
to develop intimacy, sensitivity as well as positive feelings towards the disadvantaged
students.
Difficulties in relationship development
Many individuals with disabilities interact primarily with their family, the people
who take care of or provide services to them, and others in the programs in which
they participate. These relationships can clearly be significant and should be
encouraged. However, outside family members, people may have no freely given
and chosen relationships. Generally, many people with disabilities face certain
disadvantages in meeting and getting to know others.
Opportunity
Many people with disabilities have limited opportunities to take part in activitieswhere
they can meet peers. This may be due to physical segregation or being placed in
a role as “client” or “special education student.” Services may restrict people’s
chances to get together, through program or funder rules, curfews, transportation
restrictions, and other limitations. Whatever the reason, people with disabilities
frequently become cut off and isolated from others.
Support
Relationships between people with and without disabilities are not formed by
simply grouping people together. Some individuals need assistance with fitting
into certain settings and activities. Others may need someone to facilitate their
involvement or to interpret for them. Without supports, some people with and
without disabilities may never have the opportunity to know each other.
Continuity
While most people enjoy meeting new people, they are sustained by those they
have known over time. The continuity of relationships over the years is an important
source of security, comfort and self-worth. Many people with disabilities do not

157
have continuous relationships. Instead, they may leave their families, be moved
from one program to another and have to adjust to staff people who come and go.
Strategies to facilitate positive relationships between people with and without
disabilities
It takes effort to help people establish connections. Described below are some of
the ways this has been tried:
Bridge-building
Facilitators who initiate, support and maintain new relationships are called bridge-
builders, as they build bridges and guide people into new relationships, new places,
and new opportunities in life. Bridge-builders involve people with disabilities in
existing groups or with specific individuals.
Circles of friends or circles of support
Groups of people who meet on a regular basis to help a person with a disability
accomplish certain personal visions or goals. Circle members try to open doors to
new opportunities, including establishing new relationships.
Citizen advocacy
There are different ways that personal relationships between people with and without
disabilities may be encouraged. Perhaps it is more important than the specific
method, is the supporting, connecting role of one or more people (family members,
staff members, friends, neighbours, etc.) who can spend time and energy for this
purpose.
Dimensions of friendship
Genuine friendships between people with and without disabilities do exist. While
each friendship is unique, there are some shared ideas and expectations about what
friendship means. According to a recent study of pairs of friends (Lutfiyya, 1990),
these meanings include:
Mutuality
The people usually define their relationship as a friendship and themselves as
friends only when they discover that their feelings and interest are reciprocated by
the other. Although they acknowledge differences between themselves, they clearly

158
discover a common ground and a feeling of mutuality in the relationship. . Mutuality
is expressed in the giving and receiving of practical assistance and emotional
support, and enjoyment of each other’s company.
Rights, Responsibilities, and Obligations
Once a friendship is established, it is assumed that friends can make certain demands
of each other and be assured of a response. Nondisabled friends may talk about
the obligations that they would assume for their friend with a disability, such as
teacher, mentor, caretaker, or protector. The friends with disabilities may assume
certain responsibilities in maintaining the relationship such as keeping in touch or
suggesting possible activities.
Feelings, from Companionship to Intimacy
All of the friends have feelings of affection for each other, expressed through their
interactions with each other. Freely Chosen and Given Friends choose each other.
It is the voluntary aspect of friendship.
Private and Exclusive Nature
Within the boundaries of each friendship is a private relationship that is inaccessible
to others. The friends have a history and an understanding of their connection to
each other that separates this from all of their other relationships.
The Role of family and service providers to enhance opportunities for friendship
People can establish friendships with each other, but it is not possible to force
friendships upon others. It is possible to create opportunities for people with and
without disabilities to meet and share time with each other in ways that encourage
friendships to take root and flourish. Families and service providers can do different
things to make such opportunities available.
Families can:
Work for the total inclusion of their son or daughter into the regular school system.
In addition to being physically present, students with disabilities need adequate
supports to enable them to fully participate in classroom and school activities.Parents
can also ensure that their child with a disability takes part in a variety of integrated
recreation and leisure activities after school hours. A consistent physical presence

159
in each others’ lives helps lead to friendships between children with and without
disabilities.
Ensure social participation
How people with disabilities are supported within integrated settings is important.
Students need to be enabled to participate as much as possible, and to do so in
ways acceptable to other people. People without disabilities need the opportunity
to meet their counterparts with disabilities as peers, not as objects of tutoring or
volunteer service.
Involve and trust others
All parents feel protective toward their children. While there may be differences
in how independent people can become, parents can come to believe that there are
people in the community who would, if given the opportunity, enjoy and welcome
a friendship with their son or daughter. Service providers can:
Reduce barriers to friendship
The way in which support services are provided to people with disabilities and
their families can enhance or reduce the opportunities for friendship to develop.
Segregated programs dramatically lessen the chances of contact between people
with and without disabilities. Even in integrated settings, students with disabilities
may not be able to take part in extracurricular activities (e.g., choir, clubs, and
sports) because of lack of transportation from school. Therefore, any kind of barriers
should be removed so that, they can participate easily.
A teacher should have knowledge about the following things:
Identifying Interests: Getting to Know the Person
Before best assisting any person it is essential to know and understand the person
while involving him / her in recreation or leisure activities. This involves spending
time with the person, and possibly with others who know him or her well, in order
to learn about the person’s family; his or her background; experiences; racial,
cultural, and/or ethnic identifications; customs; traditions; strengths; likes or dislikes;
and so forth.

160
Community Resources: Knowing Your Community
In order to assist people to become involved in recreation/leisure activities, one
must be aware of what opportunities or possible opportunities exist within the
neighbourhood and community. This type of information can be gathered through
means such as: observation of people and settings, through spending time in the
neighbourhood; reading community newspapers, bulletin boards, and directories;
and talking to a variety of people who know something about the neighbourhood
and/or community.
Supporting People in Integrated Recreation and Leisure Activities
In order to best assist people to participate in integrated settings, it may be necessary
to provide some supports or accommodations. Supports must be both individualized
and flexible. Support can involve such things as physically assisting the person to
be part of the activity, and/or assisting him or her to be a part of social. It can
involve helping the person acquire particular skills and competencies, adaptation
of part or all of an activity, and/or use of adaptive devices and equipment.
Facilitating Friendships
For developing friendship many activities may be offered for developing friendship.It
is often these relationships that make leisure activities most meaningful. This may
entail some level of bridge building or facilitating; that is, intentionally creating
and supporting social interactions between the person with disabilities and others.
Working Together
Collaboration between Human Service Agencies and Community
Agencies/Organizations
In order to enhance the possibilities for inclusion for children and adults, it is
important that human service agencies, and community agencies and organizations
collaborate with each other and with families in their efforts. For example, for
human service agencies, it involves shifting away from operation of their own
recreation program, to one of facilitating participation in community recreation
and leisure activities and programs.

161
2.7.3 Support System to meet Diverse Learning Needs- Resource Support
Areas of Partnership and Collaborations to Promote
Inclusive Education
There are five areas that professionals have identified as the areas for change:
i. Core valuesare the fundamental principles for an education system that welcomes
all learners whatevertheir difference or learning style. These values are the starting
point of an education system that willbe inclusive and accessible to all.

Categories Example Strength

Diversity enriches and Positive welcome for all School system adjust to
strengthens all communities cultures, children and the potential of children
families

All learner's different Individual Educational Differentiation of

learning styles and Plans for all children curriculum and learning:
achievements are curriculum encourages
equally valued, respected more effective learning
and celebrated by Commitment to student
society empowerment and peer to
peer support

All learners to be enabled to Environmental and school Schools which have an

fulfil their potential by accessibility: ecological Ecological commitment -
taking into account approach, inclusive focus on the natural world
individual requirements and community spirit and community life
needs Support to be
guaranteed and fully
resourced across the whole
learning experience
All learners need friendship
and support from people of
their own age. All children
and young people to be
educated together as equals
in their local communities.
Inclusive Education is
incompatible with
segregated provision both
within and outside
mainstream education

ii. InternationalLaw, Policy and Obligation highlight the legal and policy frameworks
that support a progression towards an educationsystem that is inclusive of differently
abled learners. The law or policy could be national or local and beapplicable to

162
national agencies (viz., Government, local authorities, municipalities etc.) or education
providers (viz., schools or colleges) or education professionals (such as teachers,
support staffpsycho-social professionals).For example, international policy is given
below.
Categories Example Strength

UN Convention on the Monitoring process of legislation International accountable

Rights of Persons with Disabilities according to new needs and and measurable progress
challenges and evolution framework Professionals can be
involved in submitting an Article
24 Progress report to the
UNCRPD Monitoring

UN Convention on the The UN Convention on the Rights Committee

Rights of the Child of the Child is on wall of each Children and staff become
school 'Something for everyone' familiar with a culture of
posters is displayed everywhere in humanrights which leads
the school to greateraspiration and
inclusion for all

iii. Leadership and Persuasionsfocus on the role that play in progressing

inclusiveeducation. Leadership can come from individuals such as disabled people
(of all ages), familymembers or professionals working in education. Leadership
can also come from organisations thatprovide education or agencies that set policy
and practice. Persuasion is the activity undertaken byindividuals and organisations
in leadership positions and is the work they do to encourage others tohave aspiration
about what is possible for marginalized learners.

Categories Example Strength

Leadership of Disabled Persons Disabled People's Disabled People's organisations

organisations and allied organisations leading
and allied organisations campaigning work for inclusion in
leading campaigning work each country
for inclusion in each
country

NGO Leadership Project partners have new Collaboration with allies adds
commitment to promoting strength to the movement for
inclusion change - working together
Dimension and power of increases confidence and
national association aspiration for what is possible

163
Leadership in Schools Heading for Inclusion Increased confidence amongst
network of head teachers teaching staff to work in inclusive
Commitment to voice of education methods
the children in schools Head teachers are made aware of
their responsibilities
The teachers think beyond the
school system; creativity of
teachers, autonomy actors

Parents as Leaders Parent led associations to High levels of parental

promote the voice of involvement and radical
families leadership of parents

Professionals as Special Educational Needs Child focused education system

Leaders Coordinator in each - young voices are valued/
school is a requirement of leadership of young people -
Education Codes of commitment to
Practice democratic learning mirrors the
University research centre country's commitment
influences inclusion Professionals will benefit from
policy accessing evidence of 'what works'
to develop their inclusive
education practice.

iv.Empathy and Understandingfocus on the change that is required both in individuals

and in the culture withinorganisations and agencies. It is the change in people's and
organisational attitudes, thinking andbehaviours that will create the paradigm shift
necessary to facilitate inclusive education
Categories Example Strength

School Ethos School based Ethos of Welcoming The inclusion of children from
all kind of diversities different cultures/ backgrounds
Open attitude of teachers will bring about a changes in
'Can Do' approach of teachers wider societal attitudes
and support staff The presence of inclusive
Revolution not evolution has led education leads to a culture of
to system change sharing and openness to others
Non-discrimination and equality The supportive school
approach supported by legislation community helps in the
School based ethos of individual's development: viz.,
Working,playing, living collaboration after school
togetherencourages empathy community life
andunderstanding Adapting the learning,collaboration with local
rules so that everybody can services Students are listened to
succeed Recognising 'gifts' of by teachers in terms of their
every child - all children are individual learning plan
equally valued Continuity of Culture of respect between

164
Categories Example Strength

education good transition into students and teaching staff

adulthood Open and non-judgemental
Student led Discussion groups set attitude to 'behaviour
up by schools on various topics - This encourages student to
taking a holistic approach to student support (peer to peer)
education and stronger friendships
Varying Length of School day
creates the best learning
environment for children
This approach encourages a
sense of partnership and mutual
respect between teacher and
learner

v. Problem Solving is thepractical strategies related toexamples of problems that

work in terms of the inclusion of disabled learners in schools and colleges. This
section identifies practical examples that professionals saw when visiting different
schools

Categories Example Strength

Relationship Building Friendship bench in UK that Children develop an

encourages the intentional building understanding of the role they
of relationships between young play in supporting others
people Friendship increases confidence
which in turn supports a greater
willingness to learn

Effective Learning Learning improves if Individual Children will learn more

interests are encouraged effectively if their interests are
Good curriculum differentiation recognised and valued.
Learning measured against Recognising and supporting
individual progression rather than different learning styles will
standardized measure enable disabled children to
participate more effectively.
Flexible methods of measuring
learning progression support the
inclusion of disabled learners
because it does not measure
against a non-disabled norm

Flexible Teaching Teacher/learner meet weekly to Teamwork within schools and in

assess learning needs Good Gender partnership strengthens
mix for teachers in schools at all confidence and learning.
levels Equal value given to Regular meetings between
academic and non-academic learners and teaching staff builds

165
 subjects for learners of all ages a relationship based on respect and
trust. Teacher training:
compulsory

Support for Learning Good understanding of the purpose module for all teachers that fosters
of lessons for all Introducing a culture so that everyone feels
alternative pedagogy (e.g. Step by involved. Many teachers are now
step method -individual learning seeking opportunities to develop
plans) Support teachers assigned to skills in inclusive teaching
the class and not to the pupil methods. This creates a more
holistic approach and does not
stigmatise individual learners who
may need additional support in the
classroom

2.8 Let Us Sum Up:

Education of children not only with disabilities but also with diversified background
has come a long way; from special education to integrated education and from
integrated education to inclusive education. They need to be mainstreaming. It
requires education of children with special needs in regular schools, in their own
community and by regular teachers with required support services system
in the classroom. Inclusion is not confined under the special education field only.
Inclusion values diversity. Every learner's fundamental right is to learn. Having
proper accessibility to school, curriculum and resources every child will learn
better. Implementing the principles of Education for All (EFA) , SSA and RMSA
are doing their job successfully indiscriminating class, caste , gender , socially
disadvantaged and marginalized groups. Proper support service system is needed
to bridge the learning gaps and meet their specific educational needs.

2.9 Unit End Exercises

1. Discuss the social attitude towards diversified learners. Can it be called Attitudinal
Barriers?
2. What do you mean by Accessibility? Discuss Accessibility with reference to
School, Curriculum and Learning Resources to achieve the goal of EFA
( Education for All)?
3. Discuss the status of secondary education with special reference to RMSA in
the target of Inclusiveness.
4. How the learning gaps can be bridged in case of First Generation Learner?
5. Write at least 10(ten) challenges of Inclusive Education.
166
6. Write down the constitutional provisions and literacy opportunities for socially
backward classes.
7. What is called Support service system? Discuss different types of Support
Service System to meet the need of the diversified learner in an inclusive
classroom.
8. Are gender discrimination and marginalization still prevail to achieve secondary
education in India? Discuss with proper references

2.10 References:
1. http://mhrd.gov.in/iedss
2. http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/degsn/pdf_files/fp3.pdf
3. http://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/EDU.pdf
4. http://dise.in/Downloads/education-foe-all-in-india-2014-review.pdf
5. DuPraw, M., & Axner, M. (1997). Working on common cross-cultural
communication challenges.
6. In Martha McCoy, et. al., Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity.
Pomfret, CT: Topsfield Foundation,
7. Lee, http://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu
8. Kristin Vogel, KQED Learning, January, 02, 2016
9. An Inclusive Education for Professionals, Life Long Learning Program,
10. World of Inclusion - http://www.worldofinclusion.com/resources.htm
11. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789240685215_eng.pdf
12. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs282/en/
13. http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs300/en/index.html
14. http://www.who.int/disabilities/publications/ dar_action_plan_2006to2011.pdf
15. http://www.who.int/disabilities/policies/actionplan/ disability_action_plan_en.pdf

167
Unit - 3 p Policies and Legislations for Education
and Special Education, Development of Spcial
Education in India
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 National Legislations (RCI Act 1992, PWD Act 1995, National Trust Act,
Biwako Millennium Framework)
3.3.1 RCI Act 1992
3.3.2 PWD Act 1995
3.3.2.1 RPWD Act 2016
3.3.3 National Trust Act 1999
3.3.4 Biwako Millennium
3.4 International Legislations for Special Education and International
Organizations (UNESCAP, UNCRPD, WHO, UNICEF, UNDP, Action Aid,
CBM)
3.4.1 UNESCAP
3.4.2 UNCRPD
3.4.3 WHO
3.4.4 UNICEF
3.4.5 UNDP
3.4.6 Action Aid
3.4.7 CBM
3.5 National Policies (POA 1992, SSA, RMSA and RUSA) & Government
Schemes and Provisions for Persons with Disabilities
3.5.1 POA 1992
3.5.2 SSA
3.5.3 RMSA
168
 3.5.4 RUSA
3.6 Role of Governmental and non-governmental agencies in general and special
education
3.6.1 Role of Govt. agencies in General Education
3.6.2 Role of Govt. agencies in General Education
3.6.3 Role of Govt. agencies in Special Education
3.6.4 Role of non- Govt. agencies in Special Education
3.7 Current issues– Identifications, Labelling, cultural and linguistic diversity
& advocacy
3.7.1 Identifications
3.7.2 Labelling
3.7.3 Cultural and Linguistic Diversity
3.7.4 Advocacy
3 .8 Let us sum up
3 .9 Check your progress
3 .10 References

3.1 Introduction
The importance of education is multifaceted and extends to the entire range of activities
of the individual and society. Education is related to both the development of the
individual and his/her inclusion in social and economic life. Undoubtedly, it should
be mentioned that education is a fundamental right of every human being. The human
right to education is recognized and safeguarded by international organizations and
national institutions (Armstrong et al. 2011). Philosophies regarding the education
of children with learning difficulties and/or disabilities have changed dramatically
over the last two decades and several countries have implemented policies that foster
the integration and, more recently, inclusion of these students into mainstream
environments. Indicatively, we can mention the United Nations Convention on Human
Rights of 2007, and several international conventions of UNESCO. In particular, the
Warnock Report (Warnock Committee 1978) and the Salamanca Statement (1994)
are considered as the most important papers written for children’s rights and showed
the way for the legal recognition of inclusive education. Four decades after the publication

169
of the Warnock report, and during this period, various studies have focused on the
concept, implementation, and future challenges of inclusive education.
Disablement or the challenge of people with disabilities has always been ascribed to
the problems of discrimination and deprivation across different nations of the world.
The loss or limitation of opportunities to be a part of the mainstream with equal
access to opportunities due to physical or social barriers pertains to the concept of
disability. Disabled people are usually excluded from education, including vocational
form of training, affecting their chances of being absorbed in any form of decent
employment. In fact, global trends of employability has shown the women with
disabilities on a lower average than their male counterparts. Although policies and
programmes exist for their betterment and support, yet, they are mostly not always
implemented or come with gaps. In such a situation, the disabled people, especially
the rural ones, have minimal or no access to basic welfare schemes and amenities.

3.2 Objectives
To understand the National Legislation of Special education
To understand the International Legislations for Special Education and International
Organizations
To acquire the knowledge Govt. and non Govt. organization of General and Special
Education
To understand the knowledge of Identification , Labeling and Advocacy

3.3 National Legislations (RCI Act 1992, PWD Act 1995, National
Trust Act, Biwako Millennium Framework)
3.3.1 RCI Act 1992
The Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI) was set up as a registered society in 1986.
On September, 1992 the RCI Act was enacted by Parliament and it became a Statutory
Body on 22 June 1993. The Act was amended by Parliament in 2000 to make it more
broad-based. The mandate given to RCI is to regulate and monitor services given to
persons with disability, to standardize syllabi and to maintain a Central Rehabilitation
Register of all qualified professionals and personnel working in the field of Rehabilitation
and Special Education. The Act also prescribes punitive action against unqualified
persons delivering services to persons with disability.

170
The Act with Amendments 2000
An Act to provide for the constitution of the Rehabilitation council of India for regulating
the training of rehabilitation professionals and monitoring the training of rehabilitation
professionals and personnel, promoting research in rehabilitation and special education
and the maintenance of a Central Rehabilitation Register and for matters connected
therewith or incidental thereto.
Chapter I – Preliminary
2. (1) In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires: (a) “Chairperson” means
the Chairperson of the Council appointed under sub-section (3) of section 3 (b) “Council”
means Rehabilitation Council of India constituted under section 3; (c) “handicapped”
means a person suffering from any disability referred to in clause (i) of section 2 of
the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full
Participation) Act 1995. (d) Omitted (e) Omitted (f) “member” means a member
appointed under sub-section (3) of section 3 and includes the Chairperson (g) “Member
Secretary” means the Member Secretary appointed under sub-section (1) of section
8. (h) “Mental Retardation” means a condition of arrested or incomplete development
of mind of a person which is specially characterized by sub-normality of intelligence.
(i) “Notification” means a notification published in the Official gazette. (j) “prescribed”
means prescribed by regulations (k) “recognized rehabilitation qualifications” means
any of the qualifications included in the Schedule; (l) “Register” means the Central
Rehabilitation Register maintained under sub-section (1) of section 23. (m) “regulations”
means regulations made under this Act. (ma) “Rehabilitation” refers to a process
aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to reach and maintain their optimum physical,
sensory, intellectual, psychiatric or socialThe Act with Amendments 2000 (j) “prescribed”
means prescribed by regulations (k) “recognized rehabilitation qualifications” means
any of the qualifications included in the Schedule; (l) “Register” means the Central
Rehabilitation Register maintained under sub-section (1) of section 23. (m) “regulations”
means regulations made under this Act. (ma) “Rehabilitation” refers to a process
aimed at enabling persons with disabilities to reach and maintain their optimum physical,
sensory, intellectual, psychiatric or social functional levels. (n) “rehabilitation
professionals” meansi. Clinical Psychologists ii.Hearing aid and ear mould technicians
iii.Audiologists and speech therapists iv. Rehabilitation engineers and technicians
v.Special teachers for educating and training the handicapped vi. Vocational counselors,
employment officers and placement officers dealing with handicapped vii. Multi-
purpose rehabilitation therapists, technicians or Speech pathologists. ix. Rehabilitation
psychologists x. Rehabilitation social workers. xi. Rehabilitation practitioners in Mental

171
Retardation. xii. Orientation and mobility specialists. xiii. Community based
rehabilitation professionals xiv. Rehabilitation counselors /Administrators xv. Prosthetics
and orthotics. xvi. Rehabilitation workshop managers.(o) Omitted (p) Include 1(A)
Words and expressions used and not defined in this Act but defined in the Persons
with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and full participation)
Act, 1995 shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them in that Act. 2. (2)
Any reference in this Act to any enactment or any provision thereof shall, in relation
to an area in which such enactment or such provision is not in force, be construed as
a reference to the corresponding law or the relevant provision of the corresponding
law, if any, in force in that area.
Chapter II – Preliminary
3. (1) With effect from such date as the Central Govt. may, by notification, appoint in
this behalf, there shall be constituted for the purposes of this Act a Council to be
called the Rehabilitation Council of India (2) The Council shall be a body corporate
by the name aforesaid having perpetual succession and a common seal, with power
subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire hold and dispose of property, both
movable and immovable, and to contract and shall by the said name sue and be sued.
3. The Council shall consist of the following members, namely – (a) A Chairperson
from amongst persons having experience in administration with professional
qualification in the field of rehabilitation, disabilities and special education, to be
appointed by the Central Government. 3. (b) such number of members not exceeding
seven, as may be nominated by the Central Government, to represent the Ministries
of the Central Government dealing with matters relating to persons with disabilities.
3. (c) one member to be appointed by the Central Govt. to represent the University
Grants Commission (d) one member to be appointed by the Central Government to
represent the Directorate General of Indian Council of Medical Research. (e) two
members to be appointed by the Central Govt. to represent the Ministry or department
of the states or the Union territories dealing with Social Welfare by rotation in alphabetical
order. 3. (f) such number of members not exceeding six as may be appointed by the
central govt. from amongst the rehabilitation professionals working in voluntary
organizations. (g) such number of members not exceeding four as may be appointed
by the Central Govt. from amongst the medical practitioners enrolled under the India
Medical Council Act, 1956 and engaged in rehabilitation of the handicapped (h)
three Members of Parliament of whom two shall be elected by the House of the
People and one by the Council of States.

172
Chapter II – Preliminary
3. (i) such number of members not exceeding three as may be nominated by the
Central Govt. from amongst the social workers who are actively engaged in assisting
the disabled (j) the Member-Secretary, ex officio4. (1) The Chairperson or a member
shall hold office for a term of two years from the date of his appointment or until his
successor shall have been duly appointed, whichever is longer. (2) A casual vacancy
in the Council shall be filled in accordance with the provisions of section 3 and the
person so appointed shall hold office only for the remainder of the term for which the
member in whose place he was appointed would have held that office. 4. (3) The
Council shall meet at least once in each year at such time and place as may be appointed
by the Council and shall observe such rules of procedure in the transaction of business
at a meeting as may be prescribed. (4) The Chairperson or, if for any reason, he is
unable to attend the meeting of the Council, any member elected by the members
present from amongst themselves at the meeting shall preside at the meeting. (5) All
questions which come up before any meeting of the Council shall be decided by a
majority of votes of the members present and voting and in the event of an equality
of votes, the Chairperson, or in his absence, the person presiding shall have a second
or casting vote. 5. No person shall be a member if he- (a) is, or becomes, of unsound
mind or is so declared by a competent court; or (b) is, or has been convicted of any
offence which in the opinion of the Central Government involves moral turpitude; or
(c) is, or at any time has been adjudicated as insolvent If a member6. (a) becomes
subject to any of the disqualifications mentioned in section 5; or (b) is absent without
excuse, sufficient in the opinion of the Council from three consecutive meetings of
the Council; or (c) ceases to be enrolled on the Indian Medical Register in the case of
a member referred to in clause (g) of sub-section (3) of section 3, His seat shall
thereupon become vacant. 7. (1) The Council shall constitute from amongst its members
an Executive Committee and such other committees for general or special purposes
as the Council deems necessary to carry out the purposes of this Act. (2) The Executive
Committee shall consist of the Chairperson who shall be member ex officio and not
less than seven and not more than ten members who shall be nominated by the Council
from amongst its members. (3) The Chairperson shall be the Chairperson of the Executive
Committee (4) In addition to the powers and duties conferred and imposed upon it by
this Act, the Executive Committee or any other committee shall exercise and discharge
such powers and duties as the Council may confer or impose upon it by any regulations
which may be made in this behalf. 8. (1) the Central Government shall appoint the
Member secretary of the Council to exercise such powers and perform such duties

173
and the direction of the council as may be prescribed or as may be delegated to him
by the Chairperson (2) The Council shall, with the previous sanction of the Central
Government employ such officers and other employees as it deems necessary to carry
out the purpose of this Act. 8. (3) The Council shall with the previous sanction of the
central government fix the allowance to be paid to the Chairperson and other members
and determine the conditions of service of the Member Secretary, officers and other
employees of the Council. 9. No act or proceedings of the Council or any committee
thereof shall be called in question on the ground merely of the existence of any vacancy
in, or any defect in the constitution of the Council or a committee thereof as the case
may be. 10.(1) On and from the date of the constitution of the Council, the Rehabilitation
Council shall stand dissolved and on such dissolution- (a) all properties and assets,
movable and immovable of or belonging to the Rehabilitation Council shall vest in
the council (b) all the rights and liabilities of the Rehabilitation Council shall be
transferred to, and be the rights and liabilities of the Council. (c) without prejudice to
the provisions of clause (b) all liabilities incurred, all contracts entered into on all
matters and things engaged to be done by, with or for the Rehabilitation Council
immediately before that date, for or in connection with the purposes of the said
Rehabilitation Council shall be deemed to have been incurred, entered into, or engaged
to be done by with or for the Council. (d) all sums of money due to the Rehabilitation
Council immediately before that date shall be deemed to be due to the Council e) All
suits and other legal proceedings instituted or which could have been instituted by or
against the rehabilitation Council immediately before that date may be continued or
may be instituted by or against the Council; and (f) Every employee holding any
office under the Rehabilitation Council immediately before that date shall hold his
office in the Council by same tenure and upon the same terms and conditions of
services as respects remuneration , leave, provident fund, retirement and other terminal
benefits as he would have shall continue to do so as an employee of the Council or
until the expiry of a period of six months from that date if such employee opts not be
the employee of the Council within such period. 10.(2) Notwithstanding anything
contained in the Industrial Disputes Act, 1947 or any other law for the time being in
force, absorption of any employee by the Council in its regular service under this
section shall not entitle such employee to any compensation under that Act or other
law and no such claim shall be entertained by any court, tribunal or other authority.
Explanation – In this section, “Rehabilitation Council” means the Rehabilitation Council,
a society formed and registered under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 and
functioning as such immediately before the constitution of the Council.

174
11.(1) The qualifications granted by any University or other institutions in India which
are included in the Schedule shall be recognized qualifications for rehabilitation
professionals.
Chapter III – Functions of the Council
11.(1) The qualifications granted by any University or other institutions in India which
are included in the Schedule shall be recognized qualifications for rehabilitation
professionals. 11.(2) Any University or other institutions which grants qualifications
for rehabilitation professionals not included in the schedule may apply to the Council
to have any such qualification recognized and the Council may by notification for
amend the schedule so as to include such qualification therein and any such notification
may also direct that an entry shall be made in the last columns of the schedule against
such qualification only when granted after a specified date. 12.The Council may
enter into negotiations with the authority in any country outside India for setting up
of a scheme of reciprocity for the recognition of qualifications and in pursuance of
any such scheme, the Central Govt. may, by notification, amend the Schedule so as
to include therein any qualification which the Council has decided should be recognized,
and by such notification may also direct that an entry shall be made in the last column
of the Schedule declaring that it shall be the recognized qualification only when
granted after a specific date. 13.(1) Subject to the other provision contained in this
Act, any qualification included in the Schedule shall be sufficient qualification for
enrolment on the Register. (2). No person, other than the rehabilitation professional
who possesses a recognized rehabilitation qualification and is enrolled on the Register,
— 13.2 (a). shall hold office as rehabilitation professional or any such office (by
whatever designation called) in Government or in any institution maintained by a
local or other authority; (b). shall practice as rehabilitation professional anywhere in
India; 13.c). shall be entitled to sign or authenticate any certificate required by any
law to be signed or authenticated by a rehabilitation professional; 13.d). shall be
entitled to give any evidence in any court as an expert under section 45 of the Indian
Evident Act, 1872 on any matter relating to the handicapped: Provided that if a person
possesses the recognized rehabilitation professional/ personnel qualifications on the
date of commencement of this Act, he shall be deemed to be an enrolled rehabilitation
professional/ personnel for a period of six months from such commencement, and if
he has made an application for enrolment on the Register within said period of six
months, till such application is disposed of. 13.2(A) Notwithstanding anything contained
in sub-section (2), any person being a doctor or a paramedic in the field of physical
medicine and rehabilitation, orthopaedics, ear, nose or throat (ENT), Opthamology

175
or Psychiatry, employed or working in any hospital or establishment owned or controlled
by the Central Government or a State Government or any other body funded by the
Central or a State Government and notified by the Central Government, may discharge
the functions referred to in clauses (a) to (d) of that subsection(3) 13.(3) Any person
who acts in contravention of any provision of subsection (2) shall be punished with
imprisonment for a term which may extend to one year, or with fine which may
extend to one thousand rupees, or with both. 14.Every University or institution in
India which grants a recognized qualification shall furnish such information as the
Council may, from time to time, require as to the courses of study and examinations
to be undergone in order to obtain such qualification, as to the ages at which such
courses of study and examinations are required to be undergone and such qualification
is conferred and generally as to the requisites for obtaining such qualification. 15.(1).
The Council shall appoint such number of Inspectors as it may deem requisite to
inspect any University or institution where education for practicing as rehabilitation
professionals is given or to attend any examination held by any university or institute
for the purposes of recommending to the Central Govt. recognition of qualifications
granted by that university or institution as recognized rehabilitation qualifications.
(2) The inspectors appointed under sub-section (1) shall not interfere with the conduct
of any training or examination but shall report to the Council on the adequacy of the
standards of education including staff, equipment accommodation, training and other
facilities prescribed for giving such education or of the sufficiency of every examination
which they attend. (3) The Council shall forward a copy of the report of the Inspector
under sub-section 2) to the University or institution concerned and shall also forward
a copy with the remarks of the university or the institution thereon, to the Central
Government. 16.(1) The Council may appoint such member of visitors as it may
deem requisite to inspect any University or institution wherein education for rehabilitation
professionals is given or attend any examination for the purpose of granting recognized
rehabilitation qualification. (2) Any person, whether he is a member of the Council
or not, may be appointed as a Visitor under sub-section (1) but a person who is
appointed as an Inspector under sub-section(1) of section 15 for any inspection or
examination shall not be appointed as a Visitor for the same inspection or
examination16.(3) The Visitor shall not interfere with the conduct of any training or
examination but shall report to the Chairperson on the adequacy of the standards of
education including staff, equipment, accommodation, training and other facilities
prescribed for giving education to the rehabilitation professional or on sufficiency of
every examination which they attend. (4) The report of a Visitor shall be treated as
confidential unless in any particular case the Chairperson otherwise, directs: Provided

176
that if the Central Govt. requires a copy o the report of a Visitor, the Council shall
furnish the same 17.(1) When upon report by the Inspector or the Visitor it appears to
the Council— (a) that the courses of study and examination to be undergone or the
proficiency required from candidates at any examination held by any University or
institution or (b) that the staff, equipment, accommodation training and other facilities
for instruction and training provided in such University or institution, Do not conform
to the standard prescribed by the Council; the Council shall make a representation to
that effect to the Central Govt. 17.(2) After considering such representation, the Central
Govt. may send it to the university or institution with an intimation of the period
within which the university or institution may submit is explanation to that Govt. 17.
(3) On the receipt of the explanation or where no explanation is submitted within the
period fixed then, on the expiry of that period , the Central Govt. after making such
further inquiry, if any, as it may think fit, may, by notification, direct that an entry
shall be made in the Schedule against the said recognized rehabilitation qualification
declaring that is shall be the recognized rehabilitation qualification only when granted
before a specified date or that the said recognized rehabilitation qualification if granted
to students of a specified University or institution shall be recognized rehabilitation
qualification only when granted before a specified date, or as the case may be, that
the said recognized rehabilitation qualification shall be a recognized rehabilitation
qualification in relation to a specified University or institution only when granted
after a specified date. 18.The Council may prescribe the minimum standards of education
required for granting recognized rehabilitation qualification by University or institution
in India. 19. The Member-Secretary of the Council may, on receipt of an application
made by any person in the prescribed manner enter his name in the Register provided
that the Member-Secretary is satisfied that such person possesses the recognized
rehabilitation qualification. “Provided that the Council shall register vocational
instructors and other personnel working in the vocational rehabilitation centres under
the Minister of Labour on recommendation of that Ministry and recognise the vocational
rehabilitation centres as manpower development centres: Provided further that the
Council shall register personnel working in national institutes and aspex institutions
on disability under the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment on recommendation
of that Ministry and recognise the national institutes and apex institutions on disability
as manpower development centres” 20.Subject to the conditions and restrictions laid
down in this Act regarding engagement in the area of rehabilitation of the disabled
by persons possessing the recognized rehabilitation qualifications, every person whose
name is for the time being borne on the Central Register shall be entitled to practice
as a rehabilitation professional in any part of India and to recover in due course of

177
law in respect of such practice any expenses, charges in respect of medicaments or
other appliances or any fees to which he may be entitled 21.(1) the Council may
prescribe standards of professional conduct and etiquette and a code of ethics for
rehabilitation professionals. (2) Regulation made by the Council under subsection
(1) may specify which violation thereof shall constitute infamous conduct in any
professional respect, that is to say, professional misconduct and such provision shall
have effect notwithstanding anything contained in any another law 21. (3) the Council
may order that the name of any person shall be removed from the Register where it is
satisfied, after giving that person a reasonable opportunity of being heard and after
such further inquiry if any, as it may deem fit to make,— 21. (3) (i) that his name has
been entered in the Register by error or on account of misrepresentation or suppression
of a material fact; (3) (ii) that he has been convicted of any offence or had been guilty
of any infamous conduct in any professional respect, or had violated the standards of
professional conduct and etiquette or the code of ethics prescribed under subsection
(1) which, in the opinion of the Council, renders him unfit to be kept in the Register
21.(4) An order under subsection (3) may direct that any person whose name is ordered
to be removed from the Register shall be ineligible for registration under this Act
either permanently for such period of years as may be specified. 22.(1) where the
name of any person has been removed from the Register on any ground other that
that he is not possessed of the requisite rehabilitation qualifications, he may appeal,
in the prescribed manner and subject to such conditions, including conditions as to
the payment of a fee; as may be prescribed to the Central Government whose decision
thereon shall be final. (2) No appeal under subsection (1) shall be admitted if it is
preferred after the expiry of a period of the sixty days from the date of the order
under sub-section (3) of section 21: 23.(1) It shall be the duty of the Member-Secretary
to keep and maintain the Register in accordance with the provision of this Act and
any order made by the Council and from time to time to revise the Register and
publish it in the Official Gazette. (2) The Register shall be deemed to be a public
document within the meaning of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 and may be proved
by a copy thereof. 24.(1) The Council shall furnish such reports, copies of its minutes,
abstracts of its accounts, and other information to the Central Govt. as that Govt.
may require. (2) The Central Govt. may publish in such manner as it may think fit,
any report, and copy, abstract or other information furnished to if by the Council
under this section or under section 16. 26.No suit, prosecution or other legal proceeding
shall lie against the Central Govt. Council, Chairperson, members, Member-Secretary
or ay officer or the other employees of the Council for anything which is in good
faith done or intended to be done under this Act. 27. The Chairperson, members,

178
MemberSecretary, officers and other employees of the Council shall, while acting or
purposing to act in pursuance of the provisions of this Act or of any rule and regulation
made there under, be deemed to be public servants within the meaning of section 21
of the Indian Penal Code. 28.The Central Govt. may, by notification, make rules to
carry out the purposes of this Act. 29.The Council may, with the previous sanction of
the Central Govt., make, by notification, regulations generally to carry out the purposes
and functions of this Act, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
power, such regulations may provide for— (a) the management of the property of the
Council; (b) the maintenance and audit of the accounts of the Council; (c) the resignation
of members of the Council; (d) the powers and duties of the Chairperson; (e) the
rules of procedure in the transaction of business under subsection (3) of section4;
29.(f) the function of the Executive Committee and other committees, constituted
under section 7; (g) the powers and duties of the Member-Secretary under sub-section
(1) of section 8; (h) the qualification appointment, powers and duties of, and procedure
to be followed by, Inspectors and Visitors; (i) the courses and period of study or of
training to be undertaken, the subjects of examinations and standards of proficiency
therein to be obtained in any University or any institution for grant of recognized
rehabilitation qualification; 29.(j) the standard of staff, equipment, accommodation,
training and other facilities for study or training of the rehabilitation professional;
(k) the conduct of examinations, qualifications of examiners, and the condition of
the admission to such examinations; (l) the standard of professional conduct and
etiquette and code of ethics to be observed by rehabilitation professionals under
subsection (1) of section 21; 29.(m) the particulars to be stated, and proof of qualifications
to be given, in application for registration under this Act; (n) the manner in which
and the conditions subject to which an appeal may be preferred under sub-section (1)
of section 22; (o) the fees to be paid on applications and appeals under this Act; (p)
any other matter which is to be , or may be, prescribed. 30. Every rule and every
regulation made under this Act shall be laid as soon as may be after it is made, before
each house of parliament. While it is in session, for a total period of thirty days
which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if,
before the expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive
sessions aforesaid, both houses agree in making any modification in the rule or regulation,
or both House agree that the rule or regulation should not be made, the rule or regulation
shall thereafter have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case
may be; so, however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice
to the validity of anything previously done under that rule or regulation.(http://
www.rehabcouncil.nic.in)

179
3.3.2 PWD Act 1995
P W D A C T , 1 9 9 5 T H E P E R S O N S W I T H D I S A B I L I T I E S (EQUAL
OPPORTUNITIES, PROTECTION OF RIGHTS AND FULL PARTICIPATION) ACT,
1995 PUBLISHED IN PART II, SECTION 1 OF THE EXTRAORDINARY GAZETTE
OF INDIA MINISTRY OF LAW, JUSTICE AND COMPANY AFFAIRS (Legislative
Department) New Delhi, the 1st January, 1996/Pausa 11, 1917 (Saka) The following
Act of Parliament received the assent of the President on the 1st January, 1996, and
is hereby published for general information:- No.1 OF 1996
[1st January 1996] An Act to give effect to the Proclamation on the Full Participation
and Equality of the People with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region. WHEREAS
the Meeting to Launch the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons 1993-2002
convened by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific held at Beijing
on 1st to 5th December,1992, adopted the Proclamation on the Full Participation and
Equality of People with Disabilities in the Asian and Pacific Region; AND WHEREAS
India is a signatory to the said Proclamation; AND WHEREAS it is considered necessary
to implement the Proclamation aforesaid. Be it enacted by Parliament in the Forty-
sixth Year of the Republic of India as follows:- Chapter I Preliminary Chapter II The
Central Coordination Committee Chapter III The State Coordination Committee Chapter
IV Prevention And Early Detection Of Disabilities. Chapter V Education Chapter VI
Employment Chapter VII Affirmative Action Chapter VIII Non - Discrimination Chapter
IX Research And Manpower Development Chapter X Recognition Of Institutions
For Persons With Disabilities Chapter XI Institution For Persons With Severe Disabilities
Chapter XII The Chief Commissioner And Commissioners For Persons With Disabilities
Chapter XIII Social Security Chapter XIV Miscellaneous.
3.3.2.1The Rights of Persons with Disabilities (RPWD) Act, 2016
The RPWD Act was enacted in December 2016. It promotes and protects the rights
and dignity of people with disabilities in various aspects of life – educational, social,
legal, economic,cultural and political. It applies to government, non-government and
private organisations. It has mandates and timelines for establishments to ensure
accessibility of infrastructure and services. It has implementing mechanisms like
Disability Commissioner’s Offices at the Centre and State level, District Committees,
Boards and Committees for planning and monitoring the implementation of the Act,
Special Courts at District level and so on. It has penalties in case of violation of any
provisions of the Act.

180
The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Bill - 2016The Lok Sabha today passed
“The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Bill - 2016”. The Bill will replace the existing
PwD Act, 1995, which was enacted 21 years back. The Rajya Sabha has already
passed the Bill on 14.12.2016.
The salient features of the Bill are:
2. Disability has been defined based on an evolving and dynamic concept.
3. The types of disabilities have been increased from existing 7 to 21 and the Central
Government will have the power to add more types of disabilities. The 21 disabilities
are given below: -
4. Blindness
5. Low-vision
6. Leprosy Cured persons
7. Hearing Impairment (deaf and hard of hearing)
8. Locomotor Disability
9. Dwarfism
10. Intellectual Disability
11. Mental Illness
12. Autism Spectrum Disorder
13. Cerebral Palsy
14. Muscular Dystrophy
15. Chronic Neurological conditions
16. Specific Learning Disabilities
17. Multiple Sclerosis
18. Speech and Language disability
19. Thalassemia
20. Hemophilia
21. Sickle Cell disease
22. Multiple Disabilities including deaf blindness

181
23. Acid Attack victim
24. Parkinson’s disease
The New Act will bring our law in line with the United National Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD), to which India is a signatory. This
will fulfill the obligations on the part of India in terms of UNCRD. Further, the new
law will not only enhance the Rights and Entitlements of Divyangjan but also provide
effective mechanism for ensuring their empowerment and true inclusion into the
Society in a satisfactory manner.
3.3.3 National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental
Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999
The National Trust for Welfare of persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental
Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999 No 44 of 1999 (30th December
1999) is an act to provide for the constitution of a body at the national level for the
Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple
Disabilities and for matters connected therewith or incidental there to.
An Act to provide for the constitution of a body at the national level for the Welfare
of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities
and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Be it enacted by Parliament in the Fiftieth Year of the Republic of India as follows:
Chapter 1 - Preliminary
1. This Act may be called the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999
2. It extends to the whole of India expect the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
Definitions.—In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,— (a) “autism”
means a condition of uneven skill development primarily affecting the
communication and social abilities of a person, marked by repetitive and ritualistic
behaviour; (b) “Board” means Board of trustees constituted under section 3; (c)
“cerebral palsy” means a group of non-progressive conditions of a person
characterised by abnormal motor control posture resulting from brain insult or
injuries occurring in the pre-natal, perinatal or infant period of development; (d)
“Chairperson” means the Chairperson of the Board appointed under clause (a)
of sub-section (4) of section 3; (e) “Chief Executive Officer” means the Chief
Executive Officer appointed under sub-section (1) of section 8; (f) “Member”

182
 means a Member of the Board and includes the Chairperson; (g) “mental retardation”
means a condition of arrested or incomplete development of mind of a person
which is specially characterised by sub-normality of intelligence; (h) “multiple
disabilities” means a combination of two or more disabilities as defined in clause
(i) of section 2 of the Persons with Disabilities (Equal Opportunities, Protection
of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 (1 of 1996); (i) “notification” means
a notification published in the Official Gazette; (j) “person with disability” means
a person suffering from any of the conditions relating to autism, cerebral palsy,
mental retardation or a combination of any two or more of such conditions and
includes a person suffering from severe multiple disability; (k) “prescribed” means
prescribed by rules made under this Act; (l) “professional” means a person who
is having special expertise in a field which would promote the welfare of persons
with disability; (m) “registered organisation” means an association of persons
with disability or an association of parents of persons with disability or a voluntary
organisation, as the case may be, registered under section 12; (n) “regulations”
means the regulations made by the Board under this Act; (o) “severe disability”
means disability with eighty per cent. or more of one or more multiple disabilities;
4 (p) “Trust” means the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism,
Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability constituted under
sub-section (1) of section
3. CHAPTER II THE NATIONAL TRUST FOR WELFARE OF PERSONS WITH
AUTISM, CEREBRAL PALSY, MENTAL RETARDATION AND MULTIPLE
DISABILITY 3. Constitution of the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with
Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disability, etc.—(1)
With effect from such date as the Central Government may, by notification,
appoint, there shall be constituted, for the purposes of this Act, a body by the
name of the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with Autism, Cerebral Palsy,
Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities, which shall be a body corporate
by the name aforesaid, having perpetual succession and a common seal, with
power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire, hold and dispose of
property, both movable and immovable, and to contract, and shall, by the said
name, sue or be sued. (2) The general superintendence, direction and management
of the affairs and business of the Trust shall vest in a Board which may exercise
all powers and do all acts and things which may be exercised or done by the
Trust. (3) The head office of the Trust shall be at New Delhi and the Board may,
with the previous approval of the Central Government, establish offices at other
places in India. (4) The Board shall consist of— (a) a Chairperson to be appointed
183
by the Central Government from amongst the persons having expertise and
experience in the field of autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation and multiple
disability; (b) nine persons to be appointed in accordance with such procedure
as may be prescribed from amongst the registered organisations out of which
three members each shall be from voluntary organisations, association of parents
of persons with autism, cerebral palsy, mental retardation and multiple disability
and from association of persons with disability, Members: Provided that initial
appointment under this clause shall be made by the Central Government by
nomination; (c) eight persons not below the rank of Joint Secretary to the
Government of India nominated by that Government to represent the Ministries
or Departments of Social Justice and Empowerment, Women and Child
Development, Health and Family Welfare, Finance, Labour, Education, Urban
Affairs and Employment and Rural Employment and Poverty Alleviation, Members,
ex officio; (d) three persons to be nominated by the Board representing the
associations of trade, commerce and industry engaged in philanthropic activities,
Members; (e) the Chief Executive Officer, who, shall be of the rank of Joint
Secretary to the Government of India, Member-Secretary, ex officio. (5) The
Board may associate with itself, in such manner and for such purposes as may
be determined by regulations, any person whose assistance or advice it may
desire for carrying out the objects of the Trust: Provided that such person shall
have a right to take part in the discussions relevant to that purpose but shall not
have a right to vote at a meeting of the Board and shall not be a member for any
other purpose: Provided further that the maximum number of persons so associated
shall not exceed eight and so far as possible the person so associated shall belong
to the registered organisation or from the professionals. 4. Term of office of
Chairperson and Members, meeting of Board, etc.—(1) The Chairperson or a
Member shall hold office for a term of three years from the date of his appointment
1 ***: Provided that no person shall hold office as the Chairperson or other
Member after he has attained the age of sixty-five years. 1 [(1A) The Central
Government shall initiate the process for appointment of the Chairperson or
Member, as the case may be, at least six months prior to the expiry of the term of
office of such Chairperson or Member.] (2) The conditions of service of the
Chairperson and other Members shall be such as may be prescribed. (3) A casual
vacancy in the Board shall be filled in accordance with the provisions of section
3 and a person appointed shall hold office only for the remainder of the term for
which the member, in whose place he was appointed, would have held that office:
2 [Provided that the Central Government may, in case of a casual vacancy in the

184
 office of the Chairperson, by order in writing, direct an officer of appropriate
level, to perform the functions of the Chairperson until such vacancy is filled
in.] (4) Before appointing any person as the Chairperson or a Member, the Central
Government shall satisfy itself that the person does not and will not, have any
such financial or other interest as is likely to affect prejudicially his functions as
such Member. (5) No Member of the Board shall be a beneficiary of the Trust
during the period such Member holds office. (6) The Board shall meet at least
once in three months at such time and place as may be determined by the Board
by regulations and shall observe such rules of procedure in the transaction of
business at a meeting as may be prescribed. (7) The Chairperson, if for any
reason is unable to attend the meeting of the Board, any Member elected by the
Members present from amongst themselves at the meeting, shall preside at the
meeting. (8) All questions which come up before any meeting of the Board shall
be decided by a majority of votes of the Members present and voting, and in the
event of an equality of votes, the Chairperson, or in his absence, the person
presiding shall have a second or casting vote. 5. Resignation of Chairperson and
Members. — (1) The Chairperson may resign his office by writing under his
hand addressed to the Central Government: Provided that the Chairperson shall
continue in office 3 [until his resignation is accepted by the Central Government].
(2) A Member may resign from office by writing under his hand addressed to the
Chairperson. 6. Disqualifications. —No person shall be a Member if he— (a) is,
or becomes, of unsound mind or is so declared by a competent court; or (b) is, or
has been, convicted of an offence, which in the opinion of the Central Government,
involves moral turpitude; or (c) is, or at any time has been, adjudicated as an
insolvent. 7. Vacation of office by Members.—If a member— (a) becomes subject
to any of the disqualifications mentioned in section 6; or (b) is, without obtaining
leave of absence, absent from three consecutive meetings of the Board; or (c)
tenders his resignation under section 5, his seat shall thereupon become vacant.
8. Chief Executive Officer and staff of Trust. —(1) The Central Government shall
appoint the Chief Executive Officer to exercise such powers and perform such
duties under the direction of the Board as may be prescribed or as may be delegated
to him by the Chairperson. (2) The Board shall, with the previous approval of
the Central Government, appoint such other officers and employees as it considers
necessary to carry out the objectives of the Trust. (3) The salary and allowances
payable to, and the other terms and conditions of service of, the Chief Executive
Officer, other officers and employees of the Trust shall be such as may be determined

185
by regulations. 9. Vacancies in Board not to invalidate acts, etc.—No act or
proceeding of the Board shall be called in question on the grounds merely of the
existence of any vacancy in, or any defect in the constitution of, the Board.
CHAPTER III OBJECTS OF THE TRUST 10. Objects of Trust.—The objects
of the Trust shall be— (a) to enable and empower persons with disability to live
as independently and as fully as possible within and as close to the community
to which they belong; (b) to strengthen facilities to provide support to persons
with disability to live within their own families; (c) to extend support to registered
organisations to provide need based services during the period of crisis in the
family of persons with disability; (d) to deal with problems of persons with
disability who do not have family support; (e) to promote measures for the care
and protection of persons with disability in the event of death of their parent or
guardian; (f) to evolve procedure for the appointment of guardians and trustees
for persons with disability requiring such protection; (g) to facilitate the realisation
of equal opportunities, protection of rights and full participation of persons with
disability; and (h) to do any other act which is incidental to the aforesaid objects.
CHAPTER IV POWERS AND DUTIES OF THE BOARD 11. Powers and duties
of Board.—(1) The Board shall— (a) receive from the Central Government a
one-time contribution of rupees one hundred crores for a corpus, the income
whereof shall be utilised to provide for adequate standard of living for persons
with disability; (b) receive bequest of movable property from any person for the
benefit of the persons with disability in general and for furtherance of the objectives
of the Trust in particular: Provided that it shall be obligatory on the part of the
Board to make arrangement for adequate standard of living for the beneficiary
named in the bequest, if any, and to utilise the property bequeathed for any other
purpose for which the bequest has been made: Provided further that the Board
shall not be under any obligation to utilise the entire amount mentioned in the
bequest for the exclusive benefit of the persons with disability named as beneficiary
in the bequest; (c) receive from the Central Government such sums as may be
considered necessary in each financial year for providing financial assistance to
registered organisations for carrying out any approved programme.
3(2) For the purposes of sub-section (1), the expression “approved programme”
means— (a) any programme which promotes independent living in the community
for persons with disability by— (i) creating a conducive environment in the
community; (ii) counselling and training of family members of persons with
disability; (iii) setting up of adult training units, individual and group homes;

186
 (b) any programme which promotes respite care, foster family care or day care
service for persons with disability; (c) setting up of residential hostels and residential
homes for persons with disability; (d) development of self-help groups of persons
with disability to pursue the realisation of their rights; (e) setting up of local
level committee to grant approval for guardianship; and (f) such other programmes
which promote the objectives of the Trust. (3) While earmarking funds for the
purposes of clause (c) of sub-section (2), preference shall be given to women
with disability or to persons with severe disability and to senior citizens with
disability. Explanation. —For the purposes of this sub-section, the expression,
— (a) “persons with severe disability” shall have the same meaning as is assigned
to it under sub-section (4) of section 56 of the Persons with Disabilities (Equal
Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 (1 of 1996);
(b) “senior citizen” means a person who is above the age of sixty-five years or
more.
3 CHAPTER V PROCEDURE FOR REGISTRATION 12. Procedure for registration.
— (1) Any association of persons with disability, or any association of parents
of persons with disability or a voluntary organisation whose main object is promotion
of welfare of persons with disability may make an application for registration to
the Board. (2) An application for registration shall be made in such form and
manner and at such place as the Board may by regulation provide and shall
contain such particulars and accompanied with such documents and such fees
as may be provided in the regulations. (3) On receipt of application for registration,
the Board may make such enquiries as it thinks fit in respect of genuineness of
the application and correctness of any particulars thereon. (4) Upon receipt of
such application the Board shall either grant registration to the applicant or reject
such application for reasons to be recorded in writing: Provided that where
registration has been refused to the applicant, the said applicant may again make
an application for registration after removing defects, if any, in its previous
application.
4 CHAPTER VI LOCAL LEVEL COMMITTEES 13. Constitution of local level
committees.—(1) The Board shall constitute a local level committee for such
area as may be specified by it from time to time. (2) A local level committee
shall consist of— (a) an officer of the civil service of the Union or of the State,
not below the rank of a District Magistrate or a District Commissioner of a
district; (b) a representative of a registered organisation; and (c) a person with
disability as defined in clause (t) of section 2 of the Persons with Disabilities

187
 (Equal Opportunities, Protection of Rights and Full Participation) Act, 1995 (1
of 1996). (3) A local level committee shall continue to work for a period of three
years from the date of its constitution or till such time it is reconstituted by the
Board. (4) A local level committee shall meet at least once in every three months
or at such interval as may be necessary. 14. Appointment for guardianship.—(1)
A parent of a person with disability or his relative may make an application to
the local level committee for appointment of any person of his choice to act as a
guardian of the persons with disability. (2) Any registered organisation may make
an application in the prescribed form to the local level committee for appointment
of a guardian for a person with disability: Provided that no such application
shall be entertained by the local level committee, unless the consent of the guardian
of the disabled person is also obtained. (3) While considering the application for
appointment of a guardian, the local level committee shall consider— (a) whether
the person with disability needs a guardian; (b) the purposes for which the
guardianship is required for person with disability. (4) The local level committee
shall receive, process and decide applications received under sub-sections (1)
and (2), in such manner as may be determined by regulations: Provided that
while making recommendation for the appointment of a guardian, the local level
committee shall provide for the obligations which are to be fulfilled by the guardian.
(5) The local level committee shall send to the Board the particulars of the
applications received by it and orders passed thereon at such interval as may be
determined by regulations. 15. Duties of guardian.—Every person appointed as
a guardian of a person with disability under this Chapter shall, wherever required,
either have the care of such person of disability and his property or be responsible
for the maintenance of the person with disability.
5 16. Guardian to furnish inventory and annual accounts.—(1) Every person appointed
as a guardian under section 14 shall, within a period of six months from the date
of his appointment, deliver to the authority which appointed him, an inventory
of immovable property belonging to the person with disability and all assets and
other movable property received on behalf of the person with disability, together
with a statement of all claims due to and all debts and liabilities due by such
person with disability. (2) Every guardian shall also furnish to the said appointing
authority within a period of three months at the close of every financial year, an
account of the property and assets in his charge, the sums received and disbursed
on account of the person with disability and the balance remaining with him. 17.
Removal of guardian.—(1) Whenever a parent or a relative of a person with

188
 disability or a registered organisation finds that the guardian is— (a) abusing or
neglecting a person with disability; or (b) misappropriating or neglecting the
property, it may in accordance with the prescribed procedure apply to the committee
for the removal of such guardian. (2) Upon receiving such application the committee
may, if it is satisfied that there is a ground for removal and for reasons to be
recorded in writing, remove such guardian and appoint a new guardian in his
place or if such a guardian is not available make such other arrangements as
may be necessary for the care and protection of person with disability. (3) Any
person removed under sub-section (2) shall be bound to deliver the charge of all
property of the person with disability to the new guardian, and to account for all
moneys received or disbursed by him. Explanation.—For the purposes of this
Chapter, the expression “relative” includes any person related to the person with
disability by blood, marriage or adoption. CHAPTER VII ACCOUNTABILITY
AND MONITORING 18. Accountability.—(1) The books and documents in the
possession of the Board shall be open to inspection by any registered organisation.
(2) Any registered organisation can submit a written requisition to the Board for
getting a copy of any book or document maintained by the Board. (3) The Board
shall frame such regulations as it thinks necessary for allowing the access of any
book or document to a registered organisation. 19. Monitoring.—The Board
shall determine by regulations the procedure for evaluating the prefunding status
of registered organisations seeking financial assistance from it and such regulations
may also provide for the guidelines for monitoring and evaluating the activities
of the registered organisations who are receiving financial assistance from the
Trust. 20. Annual general meeting.—(1) The Board shall in each year hold an
annual general meeting of registered organisations, and not more than six months
shall elapse between the date of one annual general meeting and that of the next.
(2) A notice of the annual general meeting along with a statement of accounts
and records of its activities during the preceding year shall be sent by the Board
to every registered organisation at such time as may be determined by regulations.
(3) The quorum of such meeting shall be such number of persons of the registered
organisations as may be determined by regulations.
6 CHAPTER VIII FINANCE, ACCOUNTS AND AUDIT 21. Grants by the Central
Government.—The Central Government may, after due appropriation made by
Parliament by law in this behalf, make to the Trust a one-time contribution of
rupees one hundred crores for a corpus, the income whereof may be utilised to
achieve the objects of the Trust under this Act. 22. Fund.—(1) There shall be

189
 constituted a Fund to be called the National Trust for Welfare of Persons with
Autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation and Multiple Disabilities Fund and
there shall be credited thereto— (a) all moneys received from the Central
Government; (b) all moneys received by the Trust by way of grants, gifts, donations,
benefactions, bequests ortransfers; (c) all moneys received by the Trust in any
other manner or from any other source. (2) All moneys belonging to the fund
shall be deposited in such banks or invested in such manner as the Board may,
subject to the approval of the Central Government, decide. (3) The funds shall
be applied towards meeting the administrative and other expenses of the Trust
including expenses incurred in the exercise of its powers and performance of
duties by the Board in relation to any of its activities under section 10 or for
anything relatable thereto. 23. Budget.—The Board shall prepare, in such form
and at such time in each financial year as may be prescribed, the budget for the
next financial year showing the estimated receipt and expenditure of the Trust
and shall forward the same to the Central Government.
24. Accounts and audit.—(1) The Board shall maintain proper accounts and other
relevant records and prepare an annual statement of accounts of the Trust including
the income and expenditure accounts in such form as the Central Government
may prescribe and in accordance with such general direction as may be issued
by that Government in consultation with the Comptroller and Auditor-General
of India. (2) The accounts of the Trust shall be audited by the Comptroller and
Auditor-General of India at such intervals as may be specified by him and any
expenditure incurred by him in connection with such audit shall be payable by
the Board to the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India. (3) The Comptroller
and Auditor-General of India and any other person appointed by him in connection
with the audit of the accounts of the Trust shall have the same rights, privileges
and authority in connection with such audit as the Comptroller and Auditor-
General of India generally has in connection with the audit of the Government
accounts and in particular, shall have the right to demand the production of
books of account, connected vouchers and other documents and papers and to
inspect any of the offices of the Trust. (4) The accounts of the Trust as certified
by the Comptroller and Auditor-General of India or any other person appointed
by him in this behalf, together with the audit report thereon, shall be forwarded
annually to the Central Government, and that Government shall cause the same
to be laid before each House of Parliament. 25. Annual report.—The Board shall
prepare every year, in such form and within such time as may be prescribed an

190
 annual report giving a true and full account of its activities during the previous
year and copies thereof shall be forwarded to the Central Government and that
Government shall cause the same to be laid before each House of Parliament.
26. Authentication of orders, etc.—All orders and decisions of the Board and
instruments issued in the name of the Trust shall be authenticated by the signature
of the Chairperson, the Chief Executive Officer or any other officer authorised
by the Chairperson in this behalf. 27. Returns and information.—The Board
shall furnish to the Central Government such reports, returns and other information
as that Government may require from time to time.
7 CHAPTER IX MISCELLANEOUS 28. Power of Central Government to issue
directions.—(1) Without prejudice to the foregoing provisions of this Act, the
Board shall, in exercise of its powers or the performance of its duties under this
Act, be bound by such directions on questions of policy as the Central Government
may give in writing to it from time to time: Provided that the Board shall, as far
as practicable, be given an opportunity to express its views before any direction
is given under this sub-section. (2) The decision of the Central Government
whether a question is one of policy or not shall be final. 29. Power of Central
Government to supersede Board.—(1) If the Central Government on the complaint
of a registered organisation or otherwise has reason to believe that the Board is
unable to perform or has persistently made default in the performance of the
duties imposed on it, the Central Government may issue notice to the Board
asking why it should not be superseded: Provided that no order superseding the
Board shall be made by the Central Government, unless a notice affording reasonable
opportunity to the Board has been given in writing that why it should not be
superseded. (2) The Central Government after recording reasons in writing and
by issuing a notification in the Official Gazette supersede the Board for a period
of not more than six months: Provided that on the expiration of the period of
supersession, the Central Government may reconstitute the Board, in accordance
with section 3. (3) Upon the publication of the notification under sub-section
(2),— the date of supersession, vacate their office as such members; (b) all the
powers and duties which may, by or under the provisions of this Act, be exercised
or performed by or on behalf of the Trust shall, during the period of supersession,
be exercised and performed by such person or persons as the Central Government
may direct. (4) On the expiration of the period of supersession specified in the
notification issued under sub-section (2), the Central Government may— (a)
extend the period of supersession for such further period as it may consider

191
necessary so that the total period of supersession does not exceed more than six
months; or (b) reconstitute the Board in the manner provided in section 3. 30.
Exemption from tax on income.—Notwithstanding anything contained in the
Income-tax Act, 1961 (43 of 1961), or any other law for the time being in force
relating to tax on income, profits or gains, the Trust shall not be liable to pay
income-tax or any other tax in respect of its income, profits or gains derived. 31.
Protection of action taken in good faith.—No suit, prosecution or other legal
proceeding shall lie against the Central Government or the Trust or any member
of the Board or Chief Executive Officer or any officer or other employee of the
Trust or any other person authorised by the Board to perform duties under this
Act for any loss or damage caused or likely to be caused by anything which is
done in good faith. Explanation.—For the purposes of this section, the expression
“good faith” shall have the same meaning as is assigned to it in the Indian Penal
Code (45 of 1860). 32. Chairperson, Members and officers of Trust to be public
servants.—All Members, Chief Executive Officer, other officers and employees
of the Trust shall be deemed, when acting or purporting to act in pursuance of
any of the provisions of this Act, to be public servant within the meaning of
section 21 of the Indian Penal Code (45 of 1860). 33. Delegation.—The Board
may, by general or special order in writing, delegate to the Chairperson or any
member or any officer of the Trust or any other person subject to such conditions
and limitations, if any, as may be specified in the order such of its powers under
this Act (except the power to make regulations under section 35) as it may deem
necessary. 34. Power to make rules.—(1) The Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the provisions of
this Act. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
powers, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:—
(a) the procedure in accordance with which the persons representing registered
organisation shall be elected under clause (b) of sub-section (4) of section 3; (b)
the conditions of service of the Chairperson and Members under sub-section (2)
of section 4; (c) the rules of procedure in the transaction of business at meetings
of the Board under sub- section (6) of section 4; (d) the powers and duties of the
Chief Executive Officer under sub-section (1) of section 8; (e) the form in which
an application for guardianship may be made by a registered organisation under
sub-section (2) of section 14; (f) the procedure in accordance with which a guardian
may be removed under section 17; (g) the form in which, and the time within
which, the budget of the Trust shall be forwarded to the Central Government
under section 23; (h) the form in which the annual statement of accounts shall
be maintained under sub-section (1) of section 24;

192
8 (i) the form in which, and the time within which, the annual reports shall be
prepared and forwarded under section 25; (j) any other matter which is required
to be, or may be, prescribed. 35. Power to make regulations. — (1) The Board
may, with the previous approval of the Central Government, by notification in
the Official Gazette, make regulations consistent with this Act and rules generally
to carry out the purposes of this Act. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to
the generality of the foregoing power, such regulations may provide for all or
any of the following matters, namely:— (a) the manner and purpose for which a
person may be associated under sub-section (5) of section 3; (b) the time and
place at which the Board shall meet under sub-section (6) of section 4; (c) the
terms and conditions of service of, Chief Executive Officer, other officers and
employees of the Trust under sub-section (3) of section 8; (d) the form and manner
in which the application shall be made for registration under sub-section (2) of
section 12 and the particulars which such application shall contain under that
sub-section; (e) the manner in which application for guardianship shall be received,
processed and decided by the local level committee under sub-section (4) of
section 14; (f) the particulars of applications and orders passed thereon by the
local level committee under sub-section (5) of section 14; (g) the procedure for
evaluating the pre-funding status of the registered organisations and framing of
guidelines for monitoring and evaluating the activities of such registered
organisations under section 19; (h) the time within which notice for annual general
meeting shall be sent and quorum for such meeting under sub-sections (2) and
(3) of section 20; and (i) any other matter which is required to be, or may be,
provided by regulations. 36. Rules and regulations to be laid before Parliament.—
Every rule and every regulation made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as
may be after it is made, before each House of Parliament, while it is in session,
for a total period of thirty days which may be comprised in one session or in two
or more successive sessions, and if, before the expiry of the session immediately
following the session or the successive sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in
making any modification in the rule or regulation or both Houses agree that the
rule or regulation should not be made, the rule or regulation shall thereafter
have effect only in such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so,
however, that any such modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to
the validity of anything previously done under that rule or regulation.
3.3.4 Biwako Millennium Framework
Consideration of a regional framework for action towards an inclusive, barrier-free
and rights-based society for persons with disabilities in Asia and the pacific

193
SUMMARY
The Commission, at its fifty-eighth session, adopted resolution 58/4 of 22 May 2002
on promoting an inclusive, barrier-free and rights-based society for people with
disabilities in the Asian and Pacific region in the twenty-first century, by which it
proclaimed the extension of the Asian and Pacific Decade of Disabled Persons, 1993-
2002, for another decade, 2003-2012.
The present document sets out a draft regional framework for action that provides
regional policy recommendations for action by Governments in the region and concerned
stakeholders to achieve an inclusive, barrier-free and rights-based society for persons
with disabilities in the new decade, 2003-2012. The regional framework for action
identifies seven areas for priority action in the new decade. Each priority area contains
critical issues, targets and the action required.
The regional framework for action explicitly incorporates the millennium development
goals and their relevant targets to ensure that concerns relating to persons with disabilities
become an integral part of efforts to achieve the goals.
CONTENTS
I. PREAMBLE
II. PRINCIPLES AND POLICY DIRECTIONS OF THE BIWAKO MILLENNIUM
FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION
III. PRIORITY AREAS FOR ACTION
IV. TARGETS AND ACTION IN THE PRIORITY AREAS
A. Self-help organizations of persons with disabilities and related family and parent
associations
B. Women with disabilities
C. Early detection, early intervention and education
D. Training and employment, including self-employment
E. Access to built environments and public transport
F. Access to information and communications, includinginformation, communication
and assistive technologies
G. Poverty alleviation through capacity-building, social security and sustainable
livelihood programmes

194
V. STRATEGIES TO ACHIEVE THE TARGETS OF THE BIWAKO MILLENNIUM
FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION
A. National plan of action (five years) on disability
B. Promotion of a rights-based approach to disability issues
C. Disability statistics/common definition of disabilities for planning
D. Strengthened community-based approaches to the prevention of causes of disability,
rehabilitation and empowerment of persons with disabilities
VI. COOPERATION AND SUPPORT IN PURSUANCE OF THE BIWAKO
MILLENNIUM FRAMEWORK FOR ACTION
A. Subregional cooperation and collaboration
B. Regional collaboration
C. Interregional cooperation
VII. MONITORING AND REVIEW
A. Organization of regional and subregional meetings
B. Regional working group to coordinate and monitor the Biwako Millennium
Framework for Action
C. Mid-point review of the Biwako Millennium Framework for Action
3.4 International Legislations for Special Education and
International Organizations (UNESCAP, UNCRPD, WHO,
UNICEF, UNDP, Action Aid, CBM)
3.4.1 Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP)
ESCAP was established in 1947 and now comprises of 53 countries and 9 Associate
Members. It is an international forum as a platform for negotiation and economic
cooperation among the countries of Asia and the Pacific region.
ESCAP was established in 1947 and now comprises 53 countries and 9 Associate
Members. This international forum is a platform for negotiation and cooperation
among the countries of Asia and the Pacific region. The Ministry of Transport is
actively involved in the cooperation with UNESCAP, namely the UNESCAP
Transport Ministers’ Meeting, which will hold every 2 - 4 years and UNESCAP
Committee on Transport Meeting which held once every two years.

195
 Based on UNESCAP Resolution 64/5, UNESCAP Transport Ministers’ Meeting will
be the platform to discuss on issues raised and to promote regional integration of
transport. This meeting was held for the first time in 2009 and the second meeting
was held in 2013.
3.4.2 UNCRPD
United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities, (UNCRPD) –
2007
The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and its Optional Protocol
was adopted on 13 December 2006 (after 4 years of debate and discussion among
190 member Countries, including India) at the United Nations Headquarters in New
York, and was opened for signature on 30 March 2007. There were 82 signatories to
the Convention,44 signatories to the Optional Protocol, and 1 ratification of the
Convention on the first day itself. This is the highest number of signatories in the
history of the United Nations, on its opening day. India has signed this Convention
on the first day of its opening and ratified it on 1" Oct 2007.
Article 1- Purpose: to promote, protect and ensure the full and equal enjoyment of
all human rights and fundamental freedoms by all persons with disabilities, and to
promote respect for their inherent dignity.
Persons with disabilities include those who have long-term physical, mental, intellectual
or sensory impairments which in interaction with various barriers may hinder their
full and effective participation in society on an equal basis with others. The U NCRPD
does not define disability, but uses this description in the 1st article. Here, society is
seen as the entity which causes disability by putting up barriers hindering participation
of persons with impairments.
Article 3 - General Principles
Guiding Principles
Full and Effective Participation and inclusion
Non-discrimination
Respect for dignity autonomy
Accessibility
Equality of opportunity
Respect for difference human diversity

196
Equality between men and women
The UNCRPD identifies 6 civil and political rights, and 12 economic, social and
cultural rights to be enjoyed by all persons with disabilities without discrimination
of gender, socio-economic or rural-urban status.
Article 4 - General obligations of Governments
include ensuring non-discrimination, allocation of resources for rights-realization,
close consultation and participation of persons with disabilities, (including children
with disabilities), and awareness-raising among personnel who work with persons
with disabilities, so as to ensure their commitment to the human rights
Article 5 Equality and non-discrimination
Article 6 - Women with disabilities
Article 7 - Children with disabilities
Article 8- Awareness-raising: -To raise awareness throughout society including at
the family level, regarding persons with disabilities, and to foster respect for the
rights and dignity of persons with disabilities: to combat stereotypes, prejudices and
harmful practices relating to persons with disabilities, including those based on sex
and age, in all areas of life .and also to promote awareness of the capabilities and
contributions of persons with disabilities.
Article 9 - Accessibility: - To enable persons with disabilities to live independently
and participate fully in all aspects of life. States Parties to take appropriate measures
to ensure access to persons with disabilities, on an equal basis with others, to the
physical environment, to transportation, to information and communications, including
information and communications technologies and systems, and to other facilities
and services open or provided to the public, both in urban and in rural areas.
Article 10- Right to life: - Reaffirm that every human being has the inherent right to
life and shall take all necessary measures to ensure its effective enjoyment by persons
with disabilities on an equal basis with others.
Article 11- Situations of Risk and Humanitarian Emergencies
Article 12- Equal Recognition before the Law
Article 13- Access to Justice
Article 14 - Liberty and security of the person
Article 15- Freedom from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment

197
Article 16- Freedom from exploitation, violence and abuse
Article 17- Protecting the integrity of the person
Article 18- Liberty of movement and nationality
Article 19- Living independently and being included in the community
Article 20- Personal mobility
Article 21- Freedom of expression and opinion, and access to information
Article 22- Respect for privacy
Article 23- Respect for home and the family (relating to marriage, family, parenthood
and relationships).
Article 24- Education: This right is given without discrimination and on the basis of
equal opportunity, States Parties shall ensure an inclusive education system at all
levels and lifelong learning directed to full development of human potential and
sense of dignity and self-worth.
Article 25-Health: - Recognizes that persons with disabilities have the right to the
enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health without discrimination on the
basis of disability, health services that are gender-sensitive, including health-related
rehabilitation.
Article 26- Habilitation and Rehabilitation:- To enable persons with disabilities to
attain and maintain maximum independence, full physical, mental, social and vocational
ability, and shall organize, strengthen and extend comprehensive habilitation and
rehabilitation services and programs, particularly in the areas of health, employment,
education and social services, which begin at the earliest possible stage, and are
based on the multi-disciplinary assessment of individual needs and strengths. (habilitation
is for those who are born with disabilities, and rehabilitation is for those who acquire
disability later in life).
Article 27- Work and Employment: - recognizes the right of persons with disabilities
to work, on an equal basis with others; this includes the right to the opportunity to
gain a living by work freely chosen or accepted in a labour market and work environments
that are open, inclusive and accessible to persons with disabilities, including for
those who acquire a disability during the course of employment.
Article 28- Adequate standard of living and social protection
Article 29 - Participation in political and public life

198
Article 30- Participation in cultural life, recreation, leisure and sports in accessible
formats, including television programs, films, theatre and other cultural activities.
Article 31- Statistics and data collection
Article 32 -International Cooperation
The rest of the 50 Articles are concerned with implementation, reports and monitoring.
The UNCRPD is the only international legal instrument for persons with disabilities.
3.4.3 World Health Organization (WHO)
The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United
Nations that is concerned with international public health. It was established on 7
April 1948, and is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. The WHO is a member of
the United Nations Development Group. Its predecessor, the Health Organization,
was an agency of the League of Nations.
Disabilities is an umbrella term, covering impairments, activity limitations, and
participation restrictions. An impairment is a problem in body function or structure;
an activity limitation is a difficulty encountered by an individual in executing a task
or action; while a participation restriction is a problem experienced by an individual
in involvement in life situations.
Disability is thus not just a health problem. It is a complex phenomenon, reflecting
the interaction between features of a person’s body and features of the society in
which he or she lives. Overcoming the difficulties faced by people with disabilities
requires interventions to remove environmental and social barriers.
People with disabilities have the same health needs as non-disabled people – for
immunization, cancer screening etc. They also may experience a narrower margin of
health, both because of poverty and social exclusion, and also because they may be
vulnerable to secondary conditions, such as pressure sores or urinary tract infections.
Evidence suggests that people with disabilities face barriers in accessing the health
and rehabilitation services they need in many settings.
The constitution of the WHO has been signed by 61 countries (all 51 member countries
and 10 others) on 22 July 1946, with the first meeting of the World Health
Assembly finishing on 24 July 1948. It incorporated the Office International d’Hygiène
Publique and the League of Nations Health Organization. Since its establishment, it
has played a leading role in the eradication of smallpox. Its current priorities
include communicable diseases, in particular HIV/
AIDS, Ebola, malaria and tuberculosis; the mitigation of the effects of non-
199
communicable diseases such as sexual and reproductive health, development,
and aging; nutrition, food security and healthy eating; occupational health; substance
abuse; and driving the development of reporting, publications, and networking.
The WHO is responsible for the World Health Report, the worldwide World Health
Survey, and World Health Day. The current Director-General of the
WHO, TedrosAdhanom, also served as Ethiopian Health Minister from 2005 to 2012
and as Ethiopian Foreign Minister from 2012 to 2016. Adhanom started his five-year
term on 1 July 2017.
3.4.4 UNICEF
UNICEF Report: Children with Disabilities Left Behind
Takoma Park, Maryland — Handicap International welcomes the publication today
of UNICEF’s The State of the World’s Children report, which highlights children
with disabilities and the extreme difficulties they face. Handicap International witnesses
the exclusion of children with disabilities every day in the 61 countries in which it
operates. The organization supports UNICEF’s recommendations.
Nearly half of Handicap International’s direct beneficiaries are under the age of 18.
The organization supports children with disabilities by providing rehabilitation care,
promoting inclusive education and psychological assistance, and preventing the many
causes of disability, including those caused by explosive remnants of war.
According to UNICEF, 93 million children under the age of 14 have a disability. Due
to gaps in the data, this estimate is likely to be lower than the actual number. The
reports describes many of the injustices suffered by children with disabilities: In
addition to being stigmatized and excluded from health and education services, children
with disabilities are three to four times more likely to be victims of violence and are
also often neglected or abandoned by their families.
“Out of all the vulnerable people we encounter, they are often the most fragile,” says
LudovicBourbé, Handicap International’s director of technical services. “In Afghanistan,
for example, 68% of victims of mines and explosive remnants of war are children.
One quarter of injured people case-managed by Handicap International in northern
Syria are under the age of 12.”
The UNICEF report offers a number of recommendations for improving conditions
for children with disabilities, starting with the ratification and implementation of the
United Nations Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD). One
hundred and fifty-five countries—not including the U.S.— have signed the CRPD

200
but the full implementation of its protocol requires rigorous enforcement and monitoring.
Other key recommendations include adding accessibility features to public facilities
like schools and hospitals, and providing support services to families with children
with disabilities.
Yet, the current funding allocated to support the recommendations listed in the report
is insufficient. According to a February 2012 study conducted by Handicap International
and HelpAge, less than 0.5% of international humanitarian aid is allocated to people
with disabilities.
“This report clearly lays out the precarious situation of children with disabilities in
the developing world,” says Elizabeth MacNairn, executive director of Handicap
International U.S. “However, only 10% of the children with disabilities living in the
countries where we work are getting the support they need. This cannot stand.
Humanitarian operators and funders must do more to improve the situation of these
children, who are the most vulnerable members of society.”
3.4.5 UNDP
Persons with Disabilities and UNDP Persons with disabilities are often left out of
development processes and development progress. UNDP is committed to an inclusive
approach to sustainable human development which benefits all and ensures that no
one is left behind. UNDP has a strong and institutional commitment to mainstream
human rights including the rights of persons with disabilities in our work, through
the human rights-based approach to our development programming. The inclusion
of persons with disabilities in our work is also instrumental to the achievement of
human development and the SDGs. UNDP recognizes the centrality of human rights
to sustainable development, poverty alleviation and ensuring a fair distribution of
development opportunities and benefits. UNDP is committed to supporting universal
respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all. UNDP’s
Strategic Plan, 2018 – 2021, aims to support countries in addressing development
challenges and recognizes that a set of core development needs underpin those challenges
including the need to strengthen gender equality and the empowerment of women
and girls, and to ensure the protection of human rights3.
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) is the United Nations’ global
development network. It advocates for change and connects countries to knowledge,
experience and resources to help people build a better life for themselves. It provides
expert advice, training and grants support to developing countries, with increasing
emphasis on assistance to the least developed countries. It promotes technical and
investment cooperation among nations.

201
Headquartered in New York City, the status of UNDP is that of an executive board
within the United Nations General Assembly. The UNDP Administrator is the third
highest-ranking official of the United Nations after the United Nations Secretary-
General and Deputy Secretary-General.
The UNDP is funded entirely by voluntary contributions from UN member states.
The organization operates in 177 countries, where it works with local governments
to meet development challenges and develop local capacity. It works internationally
to help countries achieve the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). UNDP was
one of the main UN agencies involved in the development of the Post-2015 Development
Agenda. To accomplish the SDGs and encourage global development, UNDP focuses
on poverty reduction, HIV/AIDS, democratic governance, energy and environment,
social development, and crisis prevention and recovery. The UNDP Human Development
Report Office also publishes an annual Human Development Report (since 1990) to
measure and analyses developmental progress. In addition to a global Report, UNDP
publishes regional, national, and local Human Development Reports.
UNDP works with nations on their own solutions to global and national development
challenges. As they develop local capacity, they draw on the people of UNDP and its
wide range of partners. However UNDP offers to help only if the different nations
request it to do so.
3.4.6 Action Aid
ActionAid is a federation of 45 country offices that works with communities, often
via local partner organizations, on a range of development issues. It was founded in
1972 by Cecil Jackson-Cole as a child sponsorship charity (originally called Action
in Distress) when 88 UK supporters sponsored 88 children in India and Kenya, the
primary focus being is providing children with an education, further the human rights
for all, assisting people that are in poverty, assisting those who face discrimination, and
also assist people who face injustice. ActionAid works with over 15 million people
in 45 different countries to assist those people.
Today its head office is located in South Africa with hubs in Asia, the Americas and
Europe. ActionAid was the first big INGO to move its headquarters from the global
north to the global south. ActionAid’s current strategy aims to “build international
momentum for social, economic and environmental justice, driven by people living
in poverty and exclusion”.

202
Livelihoodand poverty
Most women and girls with disabilities are homebound, help with household chores
and are denied the chance to participate in community development and “in most
cases, [they] participate only in village pagoda festivals”. According to our focus
group interviews, men with disabilities make higher wages than women with disabilities;
women with disabilities are often considered “hopeless”. According to a national
disability survey a household with disabilities is seven times more likely to be classified
as “extremely vulnerable” to violence, naturals disaster and economic shocks compared
to a female-headed household. Whilst 5% of households have women with disabilities,
these households comprise 10% of all poor households.
3.4.7 CBM
CBM (formerly Christian Blind Mission) is an international Christian development
organization, committed to improving the quality of life of people with disabilities in
the poorest communities of the world. It is considered one of the world’s oldest and
largest organizations working in this field. CBM was founded in 1908 by
the German pastor Ernst JakobChristoffel, who built homes for blind children, orphans,
physically disabled, and deaf persons in Turkey and Iran. Initially CBM’s efforts were
focused on preventing and curing blindness but now cover other causes of disability.
CBM targets the people affected by disability by supporting local partner organizations
to run programs in the fields of healthcare, rehabilitation (community-based
rehabilitation – CBR), education and livelihood opportunities. In 2017 the international
mental health charity BasicNeeds merged into the Christian disability charity.
CBM also advocates for disability inclusion following UN guidelines in international
policy-making bodies, and campaigns and raises funds through its member associations.
CBM has an emergency response team to respond to conflicts and natural disasters.
CBM reached a total of 11,954,473 people in 2018.It was active in 55 countries,
supported 525 projects and worked with 371 partner organizations, including disabled
people’s organizations, mission agencies, local churches, self-help groups and relief
agencies. It has (as of 2018) 10 member associations in Europe, North America and
Oceania, comprising Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Australia, New Zealand, the United
Kingdom, Ireland, Kenya, South Africa, the United States and Canada. They have
had support of the Canadian government.[10] They have been given a four-out-of-four
star rating by Charity Navigator.
In 2017 CBM was the joint winner (along with Sightsavers) of the
2017 AntónioChampalimaud Vision Award (the world’s largest scientific prize in

203
the field of vision) recognizing its work in supporting blindness prevention, alleviation
and rehabilitation programs in developing countries.
3.5 National Policies (POA 1992, SSA, RMSA and RUSA) & Government Schemes
and Provisions for Persons with Disabilities.
3.5.1 POA 1992
The 1986 National Policy on Education was modified in 1992 by the P.V. Narasimha
Rao government. In 2005, Former Prime Minister Manmohan Singh adopted a new
policy based on the “Common Minimum Programme” of his United Progressive
Alliance (UPA) government. Programme of Action (PoA), 1992 under the National
Policy on Education (NPE), 1986 envisaged conduct of a common entrance examination
on all India basis for admission to professional and technical programmes in the
country. For admission to Engineering and Architecture/Planning programmes,
Government of India vide Resolution dated 18 October 2001 has laid down a Three
– Exam Scheme (JEE and AIEEE at the National Level and the State Level Engineering
Entrance Examinations (SLEEE) for State Level Institutions – with an option to join
AIEEE). This takes care of varying admission standards in these programmes and
helps in maintenance of professional standards. This also solves problems of overlaps
and reduces physical, mental and financial burden on students and their parents due
to multiplicity of entrance examinations.
The Programme of Action (POA) measures the implementation of the National
Development Plan (NDP) through the Medium Term Strategic Framework (MTSF).
The MTSF is the five-year implementation phase of the NDP. The MTSF is structured
into 14 priority outcomes which cover the focus areas identified in the NDP chapters
and Government’s electoral mandate: education, health, safety and security, economic
growth and employment, skills development, infrastructure, rural development, human
settlements, local government, environment, international relations, public sector,
social protection, nation-building and social cohesion.
The purpose of the POA website is to communicate the performance by government
on the implementation of the NDP 2030 vision measured through the 14 outcomes as
encompassed in the MTSF 2014–2019. The POA website is the only platform that
provides a collective view of government performance at a glance.The POA website
was implemented by the Department of Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation (DPME)
in 2014 to provide greater transparency to the public at large with regard to progress
made in the implementation of the NDP 2030 vision measured against targets set out
in the 14 outcome areas. Moreover, the POA is updated on a quarterly basis with

204
progress reports as provided to cabinet by the implementing departments for the 14
outcomes.
3.5.2 SSA
SarvaSikhshaAbhiyan( SSA )
The role of Universal Elementary Education (UEE) for strengthening the social fabric
of democracy through provision of equal opportunities to all has been accepted since
the inception of our Republic with the formulation of NPE, India initiated a wide
range of programmes for achieving the goal of UEE through several schematic and
programme interventions.
The Sarva ShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) is being implemented as India’s main programme
for universalizing elementary education. Its overall goals include universal access
and retention, bridging of gender and social category gaps in education and enhancement
of learning levels of children. SarvaShikshaAbhiyan provides for a variety of
interventions, including inter alia, opening and construction of new schools, additional
teachers, regular teacher in-service training, academic resource support to ensure
free textbooks, uniforms and free support for improving learning outcomes.
The Right to Free & Compulsory Education Act 2009 provides a justiciable legal
framework that entitles all children between the ages of 6-14 years free and compulsory
admission,attendance and completion of elementary education.It provides for children’s
right to an education of equitable quality, based on principles of equity and non-
discrimination.Most importantly,it provides for children’s right to an education that
is free from fear,stress and anxiety.
The programme set out with an objective to provide useful and elementary education
for all children in the 6-14 age group and to bridge social, regional and gender gaps
with the active participation of community in the management of schools, among
others. As per the goals set in 2015 the programme sought to open new schools in
those habitations which do not have schooling facilities and strengthen existing school
infrastructure through provision of additional class rooms, toilets, drinking water,
maintenance grant and school improvement grants.
Key Features
• Programme with a clear time frame for universal elementary education.
• A response to the demand for quality basic education all over the country.
• An opportunity for promoting social justice through basic education.

205
• An expression of political will for universal elementary education across the
country.
• A partnership between the central, state and the local government.
• An opportunity for states to develop their own vision of elementary education.
An effort at effective involving the Panchyati Raj Institutions, school management
Committees, village and urban slum level Education Committees, parent’s
Teachers’ Associations, Mother-Teacher Associations, Tribal Autonomous councils
and other grassroots level structures in the management of elementary schools.
Objectives
• To provide useful and elementary education for all children in the 6-14 age group.
• To bridge social, regional and gender gaps with the active participation of
community in the management of schools.
• To allow children to learn about and master their natural environment in order
to develop their potential both spiritually and materially.
• To inculcate value-based learning that allows children an opportunity to work
for each other’s well being rather than to permit mere selfish pursuits.
• To realize the importance of Early Childhood Care and education and looks at
the 0-14 age as a continuumt
Now we have surveyed three schools to find out the effectiveness of SarvaSikshaAbhiyan
upon each school. These are discussed separately.
Name of the Grants received by the school:
1) TLM
2) Uniform Grant
3) Book Grant
4) Exercise Copy Grant
5) Mid- Day Meal
6) Minority Grant
1) TLM Grant :With thehelp of this grant teachers make Teaching / Learning Aids
with the help of students. As a result, the students can learn their subjects more
clearly and a positive relationship is created between teachers and students.

206
2) Uniform Grant :This grant is basically for Upper Primary Class. As a result ,
the poor students can come to school wearing clean dress as all of them are
given two sets of dresses.
3) Book Grant :The Upper Primary class and Class IX and X are benefitted as
they receive all the text books of WBBSE totally free of cost.
4) Exercise Grant :Very recent SSA is giving two exercise books in each subject
for Class V-X. But these are not yet sufficient.
5) Mid DayMeal :Mid Day Meal is given to every learnerupto upper primary level
in lunch time. Sometimes the food is cooked at the supervision of the teachers
or sometimes it is supplied from Community Kitchen. For that, one teacher has
to calculate it regularly and submit the utilization certificate in a specific form
at the end of the month.
The girls are given iron tablets once a week. One teacher has to calculate it
regularly and submit the utilization certificate in a specific form at the end of
the month.
6) Minority Grant :The SC/ST/Muslim and other minor community students receive
this grant regularly. This money is transferred to their account directly.
The allotted money for all these grants directly come to School bank account through
NEFT. Each different Utilization Certificate has to be submitted at the end of each
month for each different grant. The Audit is made at the end of the year.
3.5.3RMSA
RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan (RMSA) (translation: National Mission for
Secondary Education) is a centrally sponsored scheme of the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India, for the development of secondary
education in public schools throughout India. It was launched in March 2009. The
implementation of the scheme has started from 2009-2010 to provide conditions for
an efficient growth, development and equity for all. The scheme includes a
multidimensional research, technical consulting, various implementations and funding
support. The principal objectives are to enhance quality of secondary education and
increase the total enrollment rate from 52% (as of 2005–2006) to 75% in five years,
i.e. from 2009–2014. It aims to provide universal education for all children between
15–16 years of age. The funding from the central ministry is provided through state
governments, which establish separate implementing agencies. The total budget allocated
during the XI Five Year Plan (2002-2007) was ¹ 2,012 billion (US$29 billion).

207
Objectives
The objectives of RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan can be summarised as follows:[3]
1. To improve quality of education imparted at secondary level through making all
secondary schools conform to prescribed norms.
2. To remove gender, socio-economic and disability barriers.
3. Universal access to secondary level education by 2017, i.e., by the end of the
XII Five Year Plan.
4. Universal retention of students by 2020.
Planning for secondary education
• Since the initiation of the National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, there have
been no major changes in the structure and organization of the secondary and
higher secondary school systems under the Ninth Plan period.
• The focus in this plan was on minimizing the various disparities, to renew the
curricula giving importance to vocationalisation and employment-oriented courses.
It also gives importance to expanding and diversifying the open learning system,
teacher training and ICT. Free education and hostel facilities for girls and integrated
education for the disabled children was also brought into highlight, etc.
Participation of private sector
• There was an increased participation of the private sector including non-
governmental organisations (NGOs). Currently, these private sectors manage
around 51% of the secondary schools and 58% of the higher secondary schools.
• Opportunities were provided for those children who were not able to enroll
themselves in formal education systems through national and state open schools
by utilising contact-centres and multi-media packages.
• It highly emphasized on the content, process and the quality of education especially
the environment education, science, mathematics and computer literacy with
the financial help from the central government.
• After the revised NPE policy, 1992, new initiatives like revision of curriculum,
resource centres for value education and National Centre for Computer-aided
Education etc. have been taken up.
• The appeal lacks in the vocationalisation of education due to the lack of manpower
demand and academic restraints etc. Hence, by 2000, only 10% of the students
opt for the vocational streams against 25%.

208
Planning for children with special needs (CWSN)
• With the enactment of the Persons with Disabilities Act, 1995, the education for
the CWSN received an impetus. This act entrusts certain governments and
authorities for the provision of free access for these children towards education,
allotted lands for certain purposes, non-discrimination in transports, financial
incentive for them to undertake research etc.
• This scheme has also taken up programmes for the attitudinal changes and capacity
building among teachers for the sake of these children.
Four major heads
• Quality improvement:
In school, there was promotion of the science laboratories, environmental education,
promotion of yoga, as well as centrally sponsored schemes of population education
project, international mathematics and science olympiads. The state governments provide
in-service training for the teachers and provide infrastructure and research inputs.
• Information communication technologies (ICT):
ICT comprises the centrally sponsored schemes like computer education and literacy
in schools (CLASS) and educational technology (ET) which familiarizes the student
with Information technology (IT). Due to the rise in IT demand in today’s world, a
major importance is given on it. Components of a merged scheme ICT in school
include a) funding support towards computer education plans; b) strengthening and
reorientation of the staffs of SIETS - state institutes of education and training; c)
there is digitalisation of SIETs audio and video cassettes with the partnership of
NGOs; and d) management of internet-based education by SIETs.
1. Identification of the disadvantaged groups: For this purpose, educational indicators
like gross enrollment ratio (GER), net enrollment ratio (NER), drop-out rate,
retention rate, gender parity index (GPI), gender gap, etc. were analysed.
2. Need assessment: This is the critical step to prepare for the equity plan where
the factors affecting the education of this group of children were evaluated with
the involvement of the community members, teachers, civil society, etc.
3. Strategizing for the addressing gaps: Since there are multiple interwoven factors
that cause the un-equitable condition in this scenario, the strategy was called to
have a set of multi-dimensional activities.
4. Project-based proposal: Development of a project-based strategy enables the
RMSA to call for an evidence-based and outcome-oriented strategy.[7]

209
• Integrated education for disabled children (IEDC):
Inclusive education have been highlighted to bring about expansion in terms of meeting/
catering to the needs of the mentally and physically disadvantaged children. This
schemes continues to be a separate centrally sponsored scheme. It includes several
components for convergence with integrated child development services for early
interventions, SarvaShikshaAbhiyan (SSA) for the particular group at the elementary
level, and special schools.
Progress
There is a rise in demand for secondary education, but, despite an increase in the
number of schools, their geographic distribution is uneven. The gender gap has narrowed.
In the Tenth Plan the focus is on quality education at all levels.
Disintegration
In 2018, RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan along with SarvaShikshaAbhiyan was
disintegrated to form SamagraShikshaAbhiyan.
3.5.4 RUSA
RashtriyaUchchattarShikshaAbhiyan (RUSA) (Hindi for “National Higher Education
Mission”) is a holistic scheme of development for higher education in India initiated
in 2013 by the Ministry of Human Resource Development, Government of India.
The centrally sponsored scheme aims at providing strategic funding to higher educational
institutions throughout the country. Funding is provided by the central ministry through
the state governments and union territories (UT), which in coordination with the central
Project Appraisal Board will monitor the academic, administrative and financial
advancements taken under the scheme. A total of 316 state public universities and
13,024 colleges will be covered under it.
Objectives
RUSA aims to provide equal development to all higher institutions and rectify
weaknesses in the higher education system. Its target achievement is to raise the
gross enrolment ratio to 32% by the end of XII Plan in 2017. The major objectives
are to:
1. improve the overall quality of existing state institutions by ensuring that all
institutions conform to prescribed norms and standards and adopt accreditation
as a mandatory quality assurance framework.

210
2. usher transformative reforms in the state higher education system by creating a
facilitating institutional structure for planning and monitoring at the state level,
promoting autonomy in state universities and improving governance in institutions.
3. ensure academic and examination reforms in the higher educational institutions.
4. enable conversion of some of the universities into research universities at par
with the best in the world.
5. create opportunities for states to undertake reforms in the affiliation system in
order to ensure that the reforms and resource requirements of affiliated colleges
are adequately met.
6. ensure adequate availability of quality faculty in all higher educational institutions
and ensure capacity building at all levels of employment.
7. create an enabling atmosphere in the higher educational institutions to devote
themselves to research and innovations.
8. expand the institutional base by creating additional capacity in existing institutions
and establishing new institutions, in order to achieve enrolment targets.
9. correct regional imbalances in access to higher education by facilitating access
to high quality institutions in urban and semi-urban areas, creating opportunities
for students from rural areas to get access to better quality institutions and setting
up institutions in un-served and underserved areas.
10. improve equity in higher education by providing adequate opportunities of higher
education to SC/STs and socially and educationally backward classes; promote
inclusion of women, minorities, and differently abled persons.

3.6 Role of Governmental and non-governmental agencies in

general and special education
3.6.1 Role of Govt. agencies in General Education
The significance of education for economic growth and a progressive society needs
no argument. India’s performance in this area is indeed shameful. There are so many
agencies in higher education
Top 6 Agencies for Improvement of Higher Education in India
The agencies are: 1. University Grants Commission (UGC) 2. Association of Indian
Universities (AIU) 3. All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE) 4. Council

211
of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) 5. Indian Council of Social Science
Research (ICSSR) 6. Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR).
University Grants Commission (UGC):
The University Grants Commission (UGC) was set up by the Government of India
under an Act (3 of 1956) of parliament in 1956 at New Delhi.
Nine members including the chairman and appointed by the Government of India out
of these not more than there are form among the vice chancellors of universities, two
are from officers of government of India and the remaining four are from among the
educationists of repute with high academic distinction.
Association of Indian Universities (AIU) is an organisation and association of major
universities in India. It is based in Delhi. It evaluates the courses, syllabi, standards,
and credits of foreign Universities pursued abroad and equates them in relation to
various courses offered by Indian Universities.
The AIU is mainly concerned with the recognition of Degrees/Diplomas awarded by
the Universities in India, which are recognized by the University Grants Commission,
New Delhi, and abroad for the purpose of admission to higher degree courses in Indian
Universities. The AIU is also an implementing agency for the agreements signed
under the Cultural Exchange Programmes executed between India and other countries
in the field of education, insofar as it relates to the recognition of foreign qualifications
(except for medicine and allied courses).
The All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) is the statutory body and
a national-level council for technical education, under Department of Higher
Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development.[3] Established in November
1945 first as an advisory body and later on in 1987 given statutory status by an Act of
Parliament, AICTE is responsible for proper planning and coordinated development
of the technical education and management education system in India. The
AICTE accredits postgraduate and graduate programs under specific categories at
Indian institutions as per its charter.
It is assisted by 10 Statutory Boards of Studies, namely, UG Studies in Eng. & Tech.,
PG and Research in Eng. and Tech., Management Studies, Vocational Education,
Technical Education, Pharmaceutical Education, Architecture, Hotel Management
and Catering Technology, Information Technology, Town and Country Planning. The
AICTE has its new headquarters building in Delhi on the Nelson Mandela Road,
Vasant Kunj, New Delhi, 110 067, which has the offices of the chairman, vice-chairman

212
and the member secretary, plus it has regional offices at Kanpur, Chandigarh, Gurgaon,
Mumbai, Bhopal, Vadodara, Kolkata, Guwahati, Bangalore, Hyderabad, Chennai and
Thiruvananthapuram.
In its 25 April 2013 judgement the Supreme Court said “as per provisions of the
AICTE Act and University Grants Commission (UGC) Act, the council has no authority
which empowers it to issue or enforce any sanctions on colleges affiliated with the
universities as its role is to provide guidance and recommendations.Subsequently
AICTE was getting approval from the Supreme court to regulate technical colleges
on a year to year basis till January 2016, when AICTE got blanket approval for publishing
the Approval Process Handbook and approve technical colleges including management
for the session 2016-17 and in all future sessions.
The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (IAST : vaigyaniktathâaudyo
gikanusandhânaparicada) abbreviated as CSIR was established by the Government
of India in September of 1942 as an autonomous body that has emerged as the largest
research and development organisation in India.
As of 2013, it runs 38 laboratories/institutes, 39 outreach centers, 3 Innovation Centers
and 5 units throughout the nation, with a collective staff of over 14,000, including a
total of 3987 scientists and 6454 technical and support personnel. Although it is
mainly funded by the Ministry of Science and Technology, it operates as an autonomous
body through the Societies Registration Act, 1860
The research and development activities of CSIR include aerospace
engineering, structural engineering, ocean sciences, life sciences, metallurgy,
chemicals, mining, food, petroleum, leather, and environmental science.
Ashutosh Sharma, Secretary of DST took additional charge as director general of
CSIR, with effect from August 24, 2018.
In terms of Intellectual property, CSIR has 2971 patents in force internationally and
1592 patents in force in India.[2] CSIR is granted more than 14000 patents worldwide
since its inception. CSIR is awarded the National Intellectual Property (IP) Award
2018 in the category “Top R&D Institution / Organization for Patents and
Commercialization” by Indian Patent Office.
In late 2007, the Minister of Science and Technology, KapilSibal stated, in a Question
Hour session of the Parliament, that CSIR has developed 1,376 technologies/
knowledgebase during the last decade of the 20th century.

213
ndian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) was established in the year of
1969 by the Government of India to promote research in social sciences in the country.
The Council aims to:
• Review the progress of social science research and give advice to its users;
• Sponsor social science research programmes and projects and administer grants
to institutions and individuals for research in social sciences;
• Institute and administer scholarships and fellowships for research in social sciences;
• Indicate areas in which social science research is to be promoted and adopt special
measures for development of research in neglected or new areas;
• Give financial support to institutions, associations, and journals engaged in social
science research;
• Arrange for technical training in research methodology and to provide guidance
for research;
• Co-ordinate research activities and encourage progrmmes for interdisciplinary
research;
• Develop and support centers for documentation services and supply of data;
• Organize, sponsor, and finance seminars, workshops and study groups;
• Undertake publication and assist publication of journals and books in social
sciences;
Advise the Government of India on all matters pertaining to social science research
as may be referred to it from time to time; and take such measures generally as may
be necessary from time to time to promote social science research and its utilization.
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous body
responsible for co-ordinating agricultural education and research in India. It reports
to the Department of Agricultural Research and Education, Ministry of Agriculture. The
Union Minister of Agriculture serves as its president. It is the largest network of
agricultural research and education institutes in the world.
The Committee to Advise on Renovation and Rejuvenation of Higher Education
(Yashpal Committee, 2009) has recommended setting up of a constitutional body —
the National Commission for Higher Education and Research — which would be a
unified supreme body to regulate all branches of higher education including agricultural
education.[6] Presently, regulation of agricultural education is the mandate of ICAR,

214
Veterinary Council of India (Veterinary sub-discipline) and Indian Council of Forestry
Research and Education (Forestry sub-discipline). The UPA government has included
Yashpal Committee recommendations in its ‘100 days agenda’ premier institute of
agriculture in India.
3.6.2 Roll of Non- Govt. Organization of General Education
The UNESCO stated “education for sustainable development is a broad task that
calls for the full involvement of multiple educational organizations and groups in
bureaucracies and civil societies. These include Non-Governmental Organizations
or NGOs.
The language of education used by nation-states as well as
international, intergovernmental organizations, non-governmental organizations, also
known as NGOs, (both transnational and national), and agents of civil society (many
of which belong to the aforementioned categories) contributes heavily to the self-
identification of individuals. NGOs, can be defined as “formal organizations, and as
such, they emerge when a group of people organizes themselves into a social unit
“that was established with the explicit objective of achieving certain ends and formulating
rules to govern the relations among the members of the organization and the duties
of each member” (Blau and Scott, 1970)”.
By understanding the language of each, one can reach a greater understanding of the
multiple, conflicting, and overlapping educational ideologies employed across the
globe. The issue of education on an international scale is also embedded in a complex
framework of international relations which alters the effectiveness of those who employ
the ideologies in a practical manner. Education NGOs differ in practice and ideology
based on the previously mentioned factors. However, in the age of globalization,
travel, and communication have contributed to new ideas about individual identities
in relation to the global - rather than national - community.
3.6.3 Roll of Govt. Agencies of Special Education
In the special education field so many national agencies in our India like as
National Institute for Empowerment of Persons with Multiple
Disabilities (NIEPMD) is an Indian government agency providing services to persons
with multiple disabilities. It was established by Government of India under the aegis
of the Department of Disability Affairs within the Ministry of Social Justice and
Empowerment at Chennai. It runs HRD programs to train rehabilitation professionals.
The institute provides services such as physiotherapy, speech therapy, occupational

215
therapy, psychological intervention, vocational training, and special education. The
institute is the first of its kind in Asia dedicated exclusively to persons with multiple
disabilities.
National Institute for Locomotor Disabilities ( Divyangian )
National Institute for Locomotor Disabilities ( Divyangian ) Is an apex organization
in the area of locomotor disability which came into the service since 1978 as an
autonomous body under the ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government
of India. It is located in the city Kolkata and expanding its services whole country
wide.
National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities
(Formerly National Institute for the Mentally Handicapped) established in the
year 1984 at Manovikasnagar, Secunderabad (TS) is an Autonomous Body under the
administrative control of Deparment of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities
(Divyangjan), Ministry of Social Justice & Empowerment, Government of India.
NIEPID (Formely NIMH) is dedicated to provide quality services to Persons with
Intellectual Disabilities (Divyangjan) in the National interest.
NIEPID(Formerly NIMH) has three regional centers located at Noida/ New Delhi,
Kolkata, & Mumbai, NIEPID(Formerly NIMH) Model Special Education Center
located at Noida/New Delhi. The institute endeavors to excel in building capacities
to empower Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (Divyangjan) . Since the quality
of life of every Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (Divyangjan) is equal to other
citizens in the country, in that they live independently to the maximum extent possible
and through constant professional endeavors, National Institute for the Empowerment
of Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (Formerly National Institute for the Mentally
Handicapped) empowers the Persons with Intellectual Disabilities (Divyangjan) to
access the state of the art rehabilitation intervention viz., educational, therapeutic,
vocational, employment, leisure and social activities, sports, cultural programmes
and full participation. The National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons
with Visual DisabilitiesThe National Institute for the Empowerment of Persons with
Visual Disabilities owes its origin to St. Dunstan’s Hostel for the War Blinded established
in 1943, which offered a basic set of rehabilitation services to the soldiers and sailors
blinded in the World War II. In 1950, the Government of India took over the St.
Dunstan’s Hostel and entrusted the Ministry of Education with the responsibility of
developing comprehensive services for the rehabilitation of blind persons. Subsequently,
services for the blind witnessed remarkable expansion. The NIEPVD has its Headquarters

216
at 116, RajpurRoad,Dehradun with one Regional Centre at Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
established in 1988 and two Regional Chapters at Kolkata (W.B.) and Secunderabad
(Andhra Pradesh) established in the year 1997. These Chapters provide peripheral
services and are being served by a small component of Officers and Staff transferred
from the Headquarters, whereas, Regional Centre at Chennai is a full-fledged Institute
with staff strength of 30 headed by a Regional Director. The Institute also coordinates
and supervises Composite Regional Centre for Persons with Disabilities, Sundernagar
(H.P.) established in the year 2001.
Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Speech and Hearing Disabilities (Divyangjan)
(AYJNISHD(D)
Ali Yavar Jung National Institute of Speech and Hearing Disabilities (Divyangjan)
(AYJNISHD(D)) was established on 9th August 1983. It is an autonomous organisation
under the Department of Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities (Divyangjan),
Government of India, New Delhi. The Institute is located at Bandra (West), Mumbai
– 400 050.
Regional Centres of the Institute have been established at Kolkata (1984), New Delhi
(1986), Secundarabad (1986) and Bhubaneshwar (1986- in association with Government
of Orissa). These are centres aimed at meeting the local and regional needs in terms
of manpower development and services. Regional Centre at New Delhi has been
shifted to Noida in 2015.and Regional centre at Bhubaneswar has been shifted to
Janla in 2008.
The District Disability Rehabilitation Centre (DDRCs) under GraminPunarvasanYojana
(GPY) a programme of the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment, Government
of India was started in the year 2000. The objective of the programme is to provide
total rehabilitation to persons with sensory (hearing and vision), physical and mental
disabilities.
3.6.4 Roll of Non Govt. agencies for Special Education
Nations who invest in their education system get fruit in the long-run. The government
alone cannot handle such enormous burden, therefore many organisations and
associations, especially civil society, have come to the fore to boost government
endeavours in promoting primary education and special education also .
Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) use many strategies such as public-private
partnerships; teacher-training; family literacy; community involvement and developing
funds for the educational sector.

217
NGOs are very clear about the fact that their role is not to replace the government,
but to ensure that the special educational requirements successfully be covered, with
respect to quality, affordability and equity in mind. It is fact that without NGO special
education can not reach for children with special needs.

3.7 Current issues– Identifications, Labelling, cultural and

linguistic diversity & advocacy
3.7.1 Identification
The process of determining the friendly or hostile character of an unknown detected contact.
In arms control, the process of determining which nation is responsible for the detected violations
of any arms control measure.
In ground combat operations, discrimination between recognizable objects as being friendly
or enemy, or the name t hat belongs to the object as a member of a class.
3.7.2 Labelling or using a label is describing someone or something in a word or
short phrase. For example, describing someone who has broken a law as a
criminal. Labelling theory is a theory in sociology which ascribes labelling of people
to control and identification of deviant behaviour. It has been argued that labelling is
necessary for communication. However, the use of the term is often intended to highlight
the fact that the label is a description applied from the outside, rather than something
intrinsic to the labelled thing. This can be done for several reasons:
• To provoke a discussion about what the best description is
• To reject a particular label
• To reject the whole idea that the labelled thing can be described in a short phrase.
This last usage can be seen as an accusation that such a short description is overly-
reductive.
Giving something a label can be seen as positive, but the term label is not usually
used in this case. For example, giving a name to a common identity is seen as essential
in identity politics.
Labelling is often equivalent to pigeonholing or the use of stereotypes and can suffer
from the same problems as these activities.
The labelling of people can be related to a reference group. For example, the
labels black and white are related to black people and white people; the

218
labels young and old are related to young people and old people. In the special education
field labelling is one of the major problem for inclusion .
3.7.3 cultural and linguistic diversity
Cultural diversity is stated “as necessary for humankind as biodiversity is for nature”.
According to every country’s life style and culture specifically of folk communities
communication differs place to place, we could see the difference in gestures also.
As an example we can take Indian way of communication.As one of the biggest
populated nation, India has a large diversity in its culture. Though it keeps a unity in
its diversity-art, architecture, art forms and culture communicate the standard of living,
knowledge, development, technology and imagination of a community. Those factors
play a major role in these forms of communication. Culture influences the thinking
process of people also. Culture of a person is inherited from his ancestors through
gene transitions and he will be showing signs of his traditional heritage and ancestral
habits. That is why there is a similarity with the profiles of parents and children in
major cases regarding their education and career. It is similar in case of countries
also. The countries like USA which is well advanced in technology and research gets
more and more advanced in the next generation also because there is an unconscious
cultural, technical, mental and intellectual communication communicated from one
to another.The influence of mother tongue is very obvious in the English accent of
the people in India and it is known as Indian accent in India, in other countries there
are different kinds of accents like Korean, German, Italian, Spanish, Chinese, and
Braziliam accents. People shows their cultural and gestural differences in their style
of communication. People always show a linguistic feeling and form their own
communities and likes communicate with those who belongs to their own linguistic
regions and makes even agitations for certain specific groups. In India reorganization
of states were done based on linguistic differences. In certain cases different languages
has different meanings too as in certain words and ideas. A unity is missing in many
cases. An event or fact which is very common in a region may be totally different in
meaning or understanding in another region. Therefore, it makes some hurdles in the
areas such as education, and inter exchange of ideas. Therefore, applicability of anything
brought from one particular region should be screened well for getting the right idea.
3.7.4 Advocacy
Advocacy is an activity by an individual or group that aims to influence decisions within
political, economic, and social systems and institutions. Advocacy includes activities
and publications to influence public policy, laws and budgets by using facts, their

219
relationships, the media, and messaging to educate government officials and the public.
Advocacy can include many activities that a person or organization undertakes
including media campaigns, public speaking, commissioning and publishing
research. Lobbying (often by lobby groups) is a form of advocacy where a direct
approach is made to legislators on a specific issue or specific piece of
legislation. Research has started to address how advocacy groups in the United States and
Canada are using social media to facilitate civic engagement and collective action.

3.8 Let us sum up

Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free, at least in the elementary
and fundamental stage. In this connection all International and national legislation,
policies roll of Govt. and non-Govt. institution are very much needed.

3.9 Unit End Exercises

1. Discuss about RCI Act 1992
2. Write a short note : POA 1992, SSA , RUSA
3. Discuss about the Rolle of NGO in Special Education field
4. What is Advocacy?
5. What is Labelling?

3.10 References
”District Primary Education Programme, DPEP”. Archived from the original on
29 October 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
”District Primary Education Programmes (DPEP)”. Retrieved 28 October 2016.
“Govt launches RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyan for bouldering Higher Education”.
Retrieved 2 February 2015.
http://rmsaindia.org/administrator/components/com_pdf/pdf/
Planning%20for%20Secondary%20Education.pdf
http://rmsaindia.org/administrator/components/com_pdf/pdf/
Equity_Action_Plan_2014.pdf
Jane Cioffi, R.N (2003). “Communicating with culturally and linguistically diverse
patients in an acute care setting: nurses’ experiences”. International Journal of
220
 Nursing Studies. 40 (3): 299–306. doi:10.1016/S0020-7489(02)00089-
5. PMID 12605952
Jalan, Jyotsna; Glinskaya, Elena. ”Improving Primary School Education in India:
An Impact Assessment of DPEP I” (PDF). World Bank. Retrieved 29
November 2017.
Ministry of Human Resource Development. ”RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyan:
National Higher Education Mission” (PDF). National Informatics Centre.
Retrieved 2 February 2018.
Ministry of Human Resource Development. ”RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan”.
National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 2 February 2017.
“Padhe Bharat Badhe Bharat” (PDF). ssa.nic.in. Retrieved 4 December 2016.
Pandey, Navadha (26 August 2014). ”SmritiIrani launches Padhe Bharat Badhe
Bharat programme”. Business Line. Retrieved 4 December 2017.
ParveenKaswan (4 May 2013). ”RashtriyaMadhyamikSikshaAbhiyan (RMSA)”. Simply
Decoded. Retrieved 2 February 2019.
Press Information Bureau (3 October 2013). ”RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyan
for reforming state higher education system”. National Informatics Centre.
”RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan”. EdCIL (India) Limited. Retrieved 2
February 2017.
”RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan”. Indian Yojana. Retrieved 2 February 2018.
”RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan (RSMA)”. Bihar MadyamikSikshaParishad.
Retrieved 2 February 2019.
“RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyan”. erewise. 23 October 2013. Retrieved 2
February 2018.
“SarvaShikshaAbhiyan”. Department of School Education and Literacy, MHRD,
Government of India. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
“Union cabinet approves RashtriyaMadhyamikShikshaAbhiyan proposal”. Indian
Education Review. 3 May 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2014.
“Will RTE fulfil the SSA dream?”. The Times of India. 5 April 2010. Retrieved 26
October 2013
”What is RashtriyaUchchatarShikshaAbhiyaan (RUSA)?”. One India Education.
Retrieved 2 February 2016.

221
Unit - 4 p Quality Issues in Education

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Indicators of Quality Related to Teaching-learning Strategies, Classroom
Environment, and Student Assessment.
4.4 Linking Pedagogy with Curriculum, Contextual Constructivism
4.5 Ensuring Standards in Open and Distance Learning System – Non-formal
Education, Face To-face Vs. Distance Mode.
4.6 Special and Inclusive Education – Adopting Flexible Strategies For The
Acquisition And Use of Inputs and Monitoring Performance in Inclusive
Set Up.
4.7 Quality Enhancement in Service Delivery and Community Rehabilitation
4.8 Let us sum up
4.9 Unit End Exercise
10 References

4.1 Introduction
UNESCO’s framework on the variables of education quality has five dimensions:
i. Learner characteristics including learner aptitude, perseverance, readiness for
school, prior knowledge, barriers to learning, and demographic variables.
ii. Context including public resources for education, parental support, national
standards, labour market demands, socio-cultural and religious factors, peer effects,
and time available for schooling and homework.
iii. Enabling inputs including teaching and learning materials, physical infrastructure
and facilities, and human resources.
iv. Teaching and Learning including learning time, teaching methods, assessment,
and class size.
v. Outcomes including skills in literacy and numeracy, values, and life skills.
(UNESCO, 2004)

222
Indicators for Monitoring Education Quality
Education systems are typically analysed in terms of context, specific inputs, social
or institutional processes, and outputs or outcomes. Indicators can be developed
to measure issues that fall under each of these categories.
1. Context indicators: They provide information on the contextual factors that
affect learning, e.g. student characteristics, socio- economic conditions, cultural
aspects, status of the teaching profession, and local community issues. Context
indicators are often challenging to develop and measure as they concern qualitative
issues. Common data-collection tools include surveys, classroom observations,
inspection reports, and self-evaluations.
2. Input indicators: They primarily measure the deployment and use of resources
to facilitate learning. They reveal whether the planned financial, material, and
human resources are being delivered in the planned quantities, at all levels of
the system. Information on input indicators is relatively easy to obtain since
inputs are often “countable” by nature, and management processes involve keeping
records of many inputs automatically.
3. Process indicators: They measure how educational programme activities were
conducted – whether they were carried out to the desired standard of quality.
This includes how specific educational processes are conducted in practice, e.g.
the application of standards, teaching quality, time on task, school climate, and
educational leadership..
4. Output indicators: They measure the effects of the programme activities to see
whether the programme objectives were attained. They reveal how the education
system is performing in terms of subject knowledge, competencies, repetition,
progression and completion rates, and employer satisfaction. Output indicators
may be obtained through national examinations, international assessments, surveys,
and systematic field observations. .
(Adapted from: Scheerens, Luyten, and van Ravens, 2011).

4.2 Objectives
• To understand the indicators of quality teaching learning strategies.
• To understand the indicators of positive classroom environment.
• To understand the benchmarks of positive student assessment

223
• To understand the concepts of open and distance education, open university, and
non-formal education.
• To understand the difference between learning through face to face mode and
distance education.
• To understand the relationship between pedagogy and curriculum.
• To understand the various pedagogical approaches
• To understand the concept of contextual teaching and learning and its link with
constructivism.
• To understand the concept of contextual constructivism and its classroom
application.
• To understand the benchmarks for ensuring standards in open and distance learning
systems.
• To understand the inputs, processes and outcomes involved in inclusive education
• To understand the indicators of successful inclusion.
• To understand the strategies for utilizing the inputs and monitoring performance
in an inclusive set up.
• To understand the concept of community rehabilitation and identity the measures
to enhance service delivery and community rehabilitation.

4.3 Indicators of Quality Related to Teaching-learning Strategies,

Classroom Environment, and Student Assessment.
4.3.1 Teaching learning strategies
Teaching strategies refer to the structure, system, methods, techniques, procedures
and processes that a teacher uses during instruction. These are strategies the teacher
employs to assist student learning. Learning activities refer to the teacher guided
instructional tasks or assignments for students.
4.3.1.1Indicators of quality teaching learning strategies
1. Visualization – Relates academic concepts to life with visual and practical learning
experiences helping the students to apply education to real life. The teacher
makes lesson connections to community, society, and current events.

224
2. Cooperative learning - Encourages students of mixed abilities to work together
by promoting small group or whole class activities. Through verbally expressing
their ideas and responding to others, the students develop their self-confidence,
as well as enhance their communication and critical thinking skills which are
vital throughout life.
3. Inquiry-based instruction - Poses thought-provoking questions which inspire
the students to think for themselves and become more independent learners.
Encouraging students to ask questions and investigate their own ideas helps
improve their problem-solving skills as well as gain a deeper understanding of
academic concepts. Both of these are important life skills.
4. Differentiation- Differentiation in teaching by allocating tasks based on students’
abilities, to ensure no one gets left behind. Assigning classroom activities according
to students’ unique learning needs means individuals with higher academic
capabilities are stretched and those who are struggling get the appropriate support.
5. Technology in the classroom- Incorporating technology into teaching is a great
way to actively engage the students. Learning can become more interactive when
technology is used as students can physically engage during lessons as well as
instantly research their ideas, which develops autonomy. Interactive whiteboards
or mobile devices can be used to display images and videos, which help students
to visualize new academic concepts. Mobile devices, such as iPads and/or tablets,
can be used in the classroom for students to record results, take photos/videos or
simply as a behaviour management technique.
6. Behaviour management -Implementing an effective behaviour management
strategy is crucial to gain the students respect and ensure students have an equal
chance of reaching their full potential. Noisy, disruptive classrooms do no encourage
a productive learning environment, therefore developing an atmosphere of mutual
respect through a combination of discipline and reward can be beneficial for
both the teacher and the students.
7. Professional development - Engaging in regular professional development
programmes is a great way to enhance teaching and learning in the classroom.
Sessions can include learning about new educational technologies, online safety
training, advice on how to use the teaching assistant(s) and much more.
8. Promotes critical thinking –-The teacher challenges students to think deeply
about problems and encourages/models a variety of approaches to a solution.

225
9. Nurtures Meta-Cognition - Meta-cognition involves thinking about the options,
choices and results and it has an even larger effect on student results than teaching
strategies. When using meta-cognition the students may think about what strategies
they could use before choosing one, and analyse how effective their choice was
before continuing with or changing their chosen strategy.
10. Links with students’ prior experiences - Teacher links concepts and key ideas
to students’ prior experiences and understandings, uses multiple representations,
examples and explanations..
11. Working with other teachers to make connections among different disciplines
-Teacher works with other teachers to make connections between and among
disciplines.
12. Scaffolding instruction – Teacher scaffolds instruction to help students reason
and develop problem-solving strategies.
13. Promotes understanding of content vocabulary.- Teacher uses and promotes
the understanding of appropriate content vocabulary.
14. Makes use of Advance organisers and Concept mapping – The teacher uses
Advance organisers and Concept mapping which helps students to organise their
concepts mentally.
15. Engage diverse learners in the classroom - The strategies must be planned
and implemented keeping in view the diverse needs of learners in the classroom.
4.3.1.1.1 Strategies for Students with Disabilities
• Sequence – Breaking down the task, step by step prompts.
• Drill-repetition and practice-review – Daily testing of skills, repeated practice,
daily feedback.
• Segment – Breaking down targeted skill into smaller units and then synthesizing
the parts into a whole.
• Direct question and response – Teacher asks process-related and/or content-
related questions.
• Control the difficulty or processing demands of a task – Task is sequenced
from easy to difficult and only necessary hints or probes are provided.
• Technology – Using a computer, structured text, flow charts to facilitate
presentation, emphasizing on pictorial representations.

226
• Group Instruction – Instruction occurs in a small group, students and/or teacher
interact with the group.
• Supplement teacher and peer involvement – Teacher uses homework, parents,
or others to assist in instruction.
• Strategy clues – Teacher gives reminders to use strategies or multi-steps, verbalizes
problem solving or procedures to solve problems, and provides instruction using
think-aloud models.
• Universal learning design –.UDL is an approach to teaching that aims at meeting
the needs of diverse learners in the classroom. It is based on the following principles:
1. To support recognition learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of presentation.
2. To support strategic learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of expression.
3. To support affective learning, provide multiple, flexible methods of engagement.
4.3.2 Classroom environment
The classroom environment is the learning environment that we create in the classroom
that will help to instructional time, help students feel secure and support, and motivate
them to learn and succeed. It includes the choices made about rules and expectations,
reward and discipline system, class procedures, seating arrangement, available tools
and resources, and class culture or atmosphere.
4.3.2.1 Indicators of positive classroom environment
A positive classroom environment should have the following traits:
1. Provide a safe and stimulating learning environment.
2. Facilitate development of positive social relationships.
3. Increase intrinsic motivation and optimize student engagement and learning.
4. Proactively respond to the needs of all students.
5. Create a print-/language-rich environment that develops and extends students’
desire and ability to read, write, speak, and listen.
6. Encourage students to assume increasing responsibility for themselves and to
support one another’s learning.
7. Create learning environments where students are active participants as individuals
and as members of collaborative groups.

227
8. Create a safe, healthy and supportive environment which develops compassion
and mutual respect.
9. Cultivate cross cultural understandings and the value of diversity.
10. Encourage students to accept responsibility for their own learning and
accommodates the diverse learning needs of students of different abilities, races
and cultures.
11. Provide students equitable access to technology, space, tools and time.
12. Provide scope for hands-on experiences, and discussions to make meaningful
connections with content.
14. Create an environment where students’ work is valued, appreciated and used as
a learning tool.
16. Provide scope for fluent teacher-student communication.
17. Promote discipline which facilitates and optimizes student and teacher work
performance.
4.3.3 Student assessment
4.3.3.1 Assessment
Assessment is the process of gathering and discussing information from multiple
and diverse sources in order to develop a deep understanding of what students know,
understand, and can do with their knowledge as a result of their educational experiences.
The process culminates when assessment results are used to improve subsequent
learning.
4.3.3.2 Student assessment
Student assessment refers to processes in which evidence of learning is collected in
a planned and systematic way in order to make a judgement about student learning. It
encompasses summative and formative purposes, and may be designed and implemented
internally within the school or externally through standardised assessments.
Student assessment is essential to measure the progress and performance of individual
students, plan further steps for the improvement of teaching and learning, and share
information with relevant stakeholders.
4.3.3.3 Principles of assessment
1. Validity - Relates to the appropriateness of the inferences, uses and consequences
attached to assessment. A highly valid assessment ensures that all relevant aspects
of student performance are covered by the assessment.

228
2. Reliability - Refers to the extent to which the assessment is consistent in measuring
what it sets out to measure. A highly reliable assessment ensures that the assessment
is accurate and not influenced by the particular assessor or assessment occasion.
5. Fairness or ethics- The concept that assessment should be ‘fair’ covers a number
of aspects like – student’s knowledge and learning, setting targets of assessment,
opportunity to learn, pre-requisite knowledge and skills, avoiding teacher stereotype,
avoiding bias in assessment tasks and procedures. The assessment procedure
should not cause any harm to the participants, it should maintain confidentiality,
and the teacher should refrain from the temptation to assist students.
6. Positive Consequences - Learning assessments provide students with effective
feedback and potentially improve their motivation and/or self-esteem and give
students the tools to assess themselves and understand how to improve.
7. Practicality or usability- This refers to how policy makers, school leaders, teachers,
parents and students make sense of and respond to assessment results. An objective
in designing student assessment is to maximise the value of the assessment by
making it timely, easy to understand and interpret for teachers and/or students,
and instructionally useful, at the right grain size to guide subsequent, intended
decision making and action.
8. Equitable – This implies designing teaching, learning and assessment activities
that are socially and culturally responsive and inclusive. Assessment is equitable
if it provides opportunities for every student to demonstrate what they know and
can do.
• ensuring access and participation for all learners, on the same basis as their
peers
• making adjustments, where required, to enhance engagement and equitable
outcomes for all students
• acknowledging the diverse bodies of knowledge, backgrounds and families of
all students.
10. Transparency-This relates to the degree to which information is available regarding
expected learning outcomes, the criteria that will be used in judging student
learning and the rules being applied when judgements are made about learning.
11. Informative - Quality assessment provides information to teachers, students,
and parents about the depth of students’ conceptual understandings, problem
solving, analysis, synthesis and critical thinking.

229
12. On-going or continuous - Assessment should be part of an ongoing process in
which progress is monitored over time.
13. Aligned - Assessment is aligned with curriculum, pedagogy and reporting.
14. Evidence-based - Assessment involves collecting evidence as the basis for
judgments about the quality of learning that students have achieved.

4.4 Linking Pedagogy with Curriculum, Contextual Constructivism

4.4.1 Pedagogy
Pedagogy refers to the interactions between teachers, students, and the learning
environment and the learning tasks. This broad term includes how teachers and students
relate together as well as the instructional approaches implemented in the classroom.
4.4.1.1. Pedagogical approaches.
From the perspective of teacher-student roles, pedagogy can be categorized into the
following approaches:
Teacher-Centred Pedagogy: Teacher-centred pedagogy positions the teacher at the
centre of the learning process and typically relies on methods such as whole-class
lecture, rote memorization, and chorus answers.
Learner-Centred Pedagogy: This pedagogical approach has many associated terms
(e.g., constructivist, student-centred, participatory, active), but generally draws on
learning theories suggesting that learners should play an active role in the learning
process. Students therefore use prior knowledge and new experiences to create
knowledge. The teacher facilitates this process, and also creates and structures the
conditions for learning.
Learning-Centred Pedagogy: Learning-centred pedagogy is a relatively new term
that acknowledges both learner-centred and teacher-centred pedagogy can be effective,
but teachers must consider the local context, including the number of students in the
class, the physical environment, the availability of teaching and learning materials,
etc. It suggests that teachers should be flexible and carefully adapt their pedagogical
approaches based on the school environment.
From the perspective of teaching-learning strategy, pedagogy can be categorized into
the following approaches:

230
Constructivism or Constructivist Approach - Constructivist teaching is based on
constructivist learning theory. It is based on the belief that learning occurs as learners
are actively involved in a process of meaning and knowledge construction as opposed
to passively receiving information. Learners are the makers of meaning and knowledge.
Collaborative Approach - Collaborative learning is a situation in which two or more
people learn or attempt to learn something together. Unlike individual learning, people
engaged in collaborative learning share and benefit from one another’s resources
and skills.
Inquiry-Based Approach - Inquiry-based learning is a form of active learning that
starts by posing questions, problems or scenarios rather than simply presenting
established facts or portraying a smooth path to knowledge. The process is often
assisted by a facilitator. Inquirers identify and research on issues and questions to
develop their knowledge or solutions. Inquiry-based learning includes problem-based
learning, and is closely related to the development and practice of thinking skills.
Integrative Approach - Integrative learning is a learning theory describing a movement
toward integrated lessons helping students to make connections across curricula.
Integrated studies involve bringing together traditionally separate subjects so that
students can grasp a more authentic understanding. Interdisciplinary curriculum has
been shown by several studies to support students’ engagement and learning.
Reflective Approach - Reflective teaching is a process where teachers think over
their teaching practices, analyzing how something was taught and how the practice
might be improved or changed for better learning outcomes.
4.4.2 Curriculum
Curriculum refers to the total structure of ideas and activities developed by an educational
institution to meet the learning needs of students, and to achieve desired educational
aims. Some people use the term to refer to the content of what is being taught. Others
include also the teaching and learning methods involved, how students’ attainment is
measured and the underlying philosophy of education. Dictionary of Education
(Rowntree, 1981)
Ronald C. Doll (1988) defines curriculum as: “the formal and informal content and
process by which learners gain knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and
alter attitudes, appreciations, and values under the auspices of that school.”
The curriculum includes all the learners’ experience in or outside school that are
included in a programme which has been devised to help him developmentally,
emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally .(Crow and Crow)
231
The curriculum operates in different ways at different levels:
• Supra – transnational ideas about education
• Macro – national level policy intentions
• Meso – policy guidance
• Micro – school-level curricular practices
• Nano – classroom interactions
(Thijs & van den Akker, 2009)
4.4.3 Relation between pedagogy and curriculum
Pedagogy is the overarching concept; it refers broadly to the deliberate process of
cultivating development within a given culture and society. From this point of view,
pedagogy has three basic components: (1) curriculum, or the content of what is being
taught; (2) methodology, or the way in which teaching is done; and (3) techniques for
socializing children in the repertoire of cognitive and affective skills required for
successful functioning in society that education is designed to promote. Curriculum,
or the content of teaching, may be designed to encourage learning processes (memory,
attention, observation) and cognitive skills (reasoning, comparing and contrasting,
classification), as well as the acquisition of specific information, such as the names
of the letters of the alphabet (Wiggins and McTighe, 1998). The teaching strategies
or methods used in implementing the curriculum are the arranged interactions of
people and materials planned and used by teachers. They include the teacher’s role,
teaching styles, and instructional techniques (Siraj-Blatchford, 1998). The third aspect
of pedagogy, which might be thought of as cognitive socialization, refers to the role
that teachers in early childhood settings play, through their expectations, their teaching
strategies, their curricular emphases, in promoting the repertoire of cognitive and
affective characteristics and skills that the young child needs to move down the path
from natal culture to school culture to the culture of the larger society.
Curriculum is determined by government, and implemented through pedagogy which
is influenced by departmental heads and executed by teachers in the classroom.
Curriculum states the knowledge and practices that students are expected to demonstrate
in accordance with their age. On the basis of the same, pedagogical strategies are
planned. Curriculum is implemented by schools and pedagogy on the other hand is
based on theoretical understanding and influenced by the outcomes of formative
assessment. The underlying expectations of curriculum are also to instil values, morals,
pro-social behaviours and social skills. Pedagogy also encompasses classroom
232
management strategies. The curriculum frameworks generally provide classroom
teachers with opportunities to vary the content and delivery to suit the particular
needs of their students but these opportunities have not always been used to select
content and activities that suit particular groups of students. The opportunities and
flexibilities available to classroom teachers may include: the choice of texts studied;
the application of technologies to learning; modes of instruction; the selection of the
topic used to illustrate a concept or theme; and assignment and project topics and
modes of presentation. This flexibility can be used by teachers to negotiate content
and methods of instruction that appeal to the students and maximise the engagement
and motivation of all students. The outcome-based curriculum frameworks pay particular
attention to pedagogy by emphasising that teachers need to adapt what they do in
classrooms to meet the needs of their particular students and their school community.
Just as curriculum and pedagogy merge in practice, good pedagogy is absolutely
dependent on the establishment of effective teacher-student relationships.
4.4.5 Contextual learning
Contextual learning is a learning that takes place in a context similar to the context
in which it will be applied in the real world. It implies a learner-based instructional
strategy in which learners are taught within the context they are familiar with to
facilitate their understanding. It represents the use of events from students’ and teachers’
life, social, and cultural background as a platform to learn a concept. (Tong, S., 2014)
Learning takes place when teachers are able to present information in such a way
that students are able to construct meaning based on their own experiences. It is a
conception of teaching and learning that helps teachers relate subject matter content
to real world situation and its application to their lives as family, citizen, and workers
and engage in the hard work that learning requires (Hudson& Whistler, 2007). It
emphasizes students’ interest and experience (Satriani, Emilia, & Gunawan, 2012).
The purpose of this approach is to motivate the learners to take charge of their own
learning and to relate between knowledge and its application to the various contexts
of their lives (Satriani, Emilia, & Gunawan, 2012).
4.4.5.1. Philosophy/Rationale/Basic Assumptions of Contextual Learning.
Contextual learning is based on the philosophy that knowledge is acquired within a
context and that learning will occur if the teacher can take advantage of education in
a variety of contexts both inside and outside the classroom, that are familiar to the
learner. The rationale behind this instructional strategy is that students learn best by
actively constructing their own understanding and the child’s mind naturally seeks

233
meaning and context in the subjects they are being taught. Contextual teaching and
learning was designed to help all children learn demanding academic material.
4.4.5.2. Principles of contextual teaching and learning
Contextual teaching and learning as one of approaches for teaching and learning has
scientific principles. According to Johnson (2002) there are 3 principles of it as follows:
Principle of Interdependence - This approach consists of authentic learning activity
that is conducted group through sharing and discussion, so the principle stresses that
all the learners should have interdependence.
Principle of Differentiation - When the students are different in their creativity,
they can be given the freedom to explore their individual talents, cultivate their own
learning styles, and progress at their own pace (Johnson, 2002).It means that contextual
teaching and learning approach can be carried out with the students having diverse
characters, talents, and ability. The importance of the principle is how the contextual
teaching learning helps the students to explore their own talent and motivate them to
study based on their life context.
Principle of Self-Regulation - Self-regulation means everything is set up, maintained,
and recognized by oneself. This principle motivates the students to show all their
potentials. It also explores them to develop new talents. The teacher should have
faith in them and let them take responsibility for their decisions, behaviour, choices,
plans, etc.
4.4.5.3. Characteristics of Contextual Teaching and Learning
Contextual teaching and learning also consists of the following characteristics:
Constructivism - This theory emphasizes the way how the students construct their
own knowledge. It has five steps of learning, namely - activating knowledge, acquiring
knowledge, understanding knowledge, applying knowledge, and reflecting knowledge.
Inquiry - This principle shows how learning is conducted by including the process
of discovery that needs critical thinking. In this case, knowledge being a part of
learning also stimulates learning by allowing students to find their own material in
the real context.
Questioning - Questioning is one of the parts in the teaching learning process. The
students ask questions because they are curious to know something new and seek
answers to their problems.

234
Collaborating - Contextual teaching and learning is conducted in group because its
purpose is to help students to share their knowledge through group discussions to
help each other.
Modelling - The teacher gives examples and demonstration before the students and
the students follow the same. For example the teacher demonstrates certain
pronunciations.
Reflection - Reflection implies that the students think about what they have learnt
or done in the past. The teacher can help them to draw the implications from their
thoughts.
Making Meaningful Connection - The students can learn the materials and make
sense to them based on their real life context. The students can relate the materials
they have learnt in school with the various contexts that exist in real world.
Self-Regulated Learning - The students explore and construct their own knowledge
in the process of contextual learning.
Critical and Creative Thinking - It stresses on how the students can think critically
while seeking their own solutions to problems and exercise their creativity whenever
required.
Using Authentic Assessment - It is important for the teacher to assess the students
in order to check whether the students have learnt the material or not. According to
Ketter & Arnold (2003) authentic assessment is a means of documenting content
mastery. It helps to contextualize the meaningfulness of learning and promote students’
motivation (Paris & Winograd, 2006).
Problem and project based learning – This approach promotes learning through
problem-solving wherein students integrate skills and concepts from different contents
areas. It can include either a real or stimulated problem. It stresses on discipline in
conducting the investigation to get a solution from a problem, and gives opportunity
to students to work autonomously.
(Berns & Erickson ,2001; Putnam & Leach, 2004; Deen & Smith, 2006; Wijarwadi,
2008).
4.4.6 Constructivism
Constructivism posits that learners must consciously think about deriving meaning
when listening or watching the instructor who is facilitating their learning environments,
and with this observation, learners construct their own knowledge. According to Piaget,
the knowledge people interact with is added to schemas of prior knowledge wherein

235
learners construct knowledge. This knowledge is formed by learners’ own experiences,
and hence this construction varies among learners (Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Jonassen,
1991; Mayer, 2004). In other words, learners conceptualize and perceive concepts
differently based on their prior experiences (Jonassen, 1991).
4.4.6.1 Principles Supporting Constructivism
• Learning is a human and social activity. (Bandura, 1986; Dewey, 1916;
Vygotsky,1980)
• Knowledge is built upon, not passively received. (Ackermann, 2001)
• Learners construct their own knowledge based on prior knowledge. (Ackermann,
2001; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; - Palincsar, 1998; Mayer, 2004)
• Learning is an active and contextual process. (Brown et al., 1989; Dewey, 1916)
• Learning is a cognitive process. (Ormrod, 2012 )
• Language in a specific context is an essential component in the learning process.
(Thomas & Brown, 2011; Vygotsky, 1978)
• Social events generate activities that support learning. (Dunlap & Lowenthal,
2009; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007; Lowenthal, 2012)
• Learning is a mental activity. (Jonassen, 1991)
• Language is important in the culture of learning.( Brown et al., 1989; Thomas &
Brown, 2011)
• Learners need to have previous knowledge to build.
4.4.7. Merging contextual learning with constructivism
Contextual teaching learning is an approach that is derived from a combination of
behaviourism and constructivism theories. It includes behaviourism because it also
learns the observable behaviour produced by the learner to respond to the stimuli.
While, it includes constructivism since it engages the students to construct meaning
from their prior knowledge and relate it with the new knowledge to get the new
understanding. The contextual teaching and learning emphasizes on the role of students
rather than the teacher. The teacher allows the students to explore their own materials
in their real contexts. So, they are easy to memorize and understand.
Berns and Ericson (2001) mentioned that in the beginning, contextual teaching and
learning approach was derived from the theory of behaviourism and then continued
with the theory of constructivism. According to them, in constructivism, students

236
can construct their own knowledge by testing ideas based on their prior knowledge
and experience, applying these ideas to a new situation and integrating the new knowledge
gained with the pre-existing intellectual construct. Thus, constructivism as a learning
theory emphasized on the role of students rather than the teacher and proposed that
they ought to seek solutions to their problem thorugh critical thinking. In simple
words, learning becomes more meaningful when constructed through contextualisation
by relating the same with already existing knowledge and familiar psycho-social
context.
Both the theories of behaviourism and constructivism include direct instruction in
teaching and learning process. The propositions of behaviourism and constructivism
theories related and used in the development of contextual teaching and learning.
This is because behaviourism provided a means for measuring the students’ observable
behaviours while taking part in the teaching and learning process and constructivism
was a way to help them connect the content. Contextual teaching and learning emphasizes
on the students’ interest and experiences and provides the means for reaching learning
goals that requires higher order thinking skills (Satriani, Emilia, & Gunawan, 2012).
One of the main goals of contextual learning is to develop an authentic task to assess
performance. Creating an assessment in a context can help to guide the teacher to
replicate a real world experiences and make necessary inclusive design decisions.
Contextual learning can be used as a form of formative assessment and can help give
educators a stronger profile on how the intended learning goals, standards and
benchmarks fit the curriculum. It is essential to establish and align the intended learning
goals of the contextual task at the beginning to create a shared understanding of what
success looks like. Contextual learning can help bring relevance and meaning to the
learning, helping students relate to the world they live in.
The high literacy goals of schools are best achieved in everyday, culturally meaningful
contexts. This contextualization utilizes students’ repertoire of knowledge and skills
as a foundation for constructing new knowledge. Schools teach rules, abstractions,
and verbal descriptions by providing experiences that show that abstract concepts
are drawn from and applied to the everyday world. Assisting students to make connections
strengthens the construction of newly acquired knowledge and increases student
engagement with learning activities. Schema theorists, cognitive scientists, behaviourists,
and psychological anthropologists agree that school learning is made meaningful by
connecting it to students’ personal, family, and community experiences. Effective
education teaches how school abstractions are drawn from and applied to the everyday
world. Collaboration with parents and communities can reveal appropriate patterns

237
of participation, conversation, knowledge, and interests that make literacy, numeracy,
and science meaningful to the students.
4.4.8. Strategies for implementing contextual constructivism in learning
Crawford (2002) proposed five strategies for implementing contextual learning, namely
- relating, experiencing, applying, cooperating, and transferring. It has the famous
abbreviation, that is REACT (Satriani, Emilia, & Gunawan, 2012). Relating means
the strategy intends the students to have the ability to relate the prior and new knowledge
to get new understanding. Experiencing means the previous strategy involves the
role of students to relate the prior and new knowledge, while the role of teacher is to
help them to find the solution from the problem by constructing new knowledge with
hand on experience. Applying means the strategy intends the students to use the
approach they are engaged in hands on problem solving activities. Cooperating means
working together. The students discuss or share with other friends in groups. The
task which is done in group has significant progress than individually. When the
students work individually, they can become frustrated. But, when students cooperate
in small group, they can often handle complex problems with little help (Crawford,
2002). Transferring is derived from constructivism that intends the students to construct
the meaning of something by their own understanding. Related to the word
“understanding”, the students who learn with understanding can also learn to transfer
knowledge. Contextualization can also be as follows:
1. Contextual examples should be interesting and familiar to students, such as those
easily observed in real life, or are widely reported, like social issues, or examples
related to students’ lives.
2. Good contextual examples should allow students to observe clearly and concretely
the physical phenomena to be learnt in an unambiguous manner. Situations that
are too complicated or unrealistic explanations that may easily mislead students
should be avoided whenever possible.
3. Students should have the opportunity to make use of their knowledge in concept
learnt to solve certain problems inside a context. If possible, the context should
provide some real data for students to do quantitative analysis, through which
they can understand, the underlying principles, and then move on to solve realistic
problems that are related to life or society. Students can participate in a learning
activity to obtain the data from a real environment, or perform the analysis and
exploration with computer digital videos or data provided by the teacher.

238
4.4.8.1. Benefits of Contextual Constructivist Learning
1. Contextual learning makes learning realistic especially in the sciences and is
very effective in transferring basic scientific concepts.
2. It allows students to take part in certain explorative activities thereby facilitating
their grasp of a concept.
3. Learning is interesting as the examples used are familiar to students’ background,
lifestyle, geographical environment etc.
4. Contextual learning stimulates the brain to weave patterns that express meaning.
5. Students become self-regulated, active learners who develop individual interests,
working alone or in groups.
6. Learning by doing makes the process of learning more meaningful because the
students can enjoy their own learning by doing the practical activity
7. Contextual teaching and learning motivates the learner to take charge of their
own learning and to relate between knowledge and its application to the various
contexts of their lives.
8. Students can easily remember, recall, and comprehend the concepts taught because
they are taken from their own experience.
9. Contextual teaching and learning as a concept that helps the teachers and students
relate the meaning through prior and new knowledge to get new understanding
10. It can strengthen students’ memory and understanding of the concept because
the students learn with the material that has been taken from their experience
and new knowledge.
4.4.8.2 Disadvantages of contextual learning
1. Contextual learning examples may confuse the students with the real situation
especially when they want to do a quantitative analysis of the real situation.
2. Inappropriate use of contextual examples just for the sake of applying the contextual
approach would only further confuse the explanation and frustrate both the teacher
and students.
3. Excessive contextual descriptions may cause one to get lost in the complicated
world of phenomena, hinder the acquisition of basic principles.
4. The teacher may find choosing appropriate and useful contextual examples for
some concepts quite complicating.
239
5. The teacher may have problem with managing time, thereby not completing a
course content.
6. The teacher might find it difficult to find an experience common to learners of
different emotional states, learning styles, language speaking skills, cultural and
racial contexts, and financial circumstances.

4.5 Ensuring Standards in Open and Distance Learning System

– Non-formal Education, Face To-face Vs. Distance Mode.
Open and Distance Learning (ODL) system is a system wherein teachers and learners
need not necessarily be present either at same place or same time and is flexible in
regard to modalities and timing of teaching and learning as also the admission criteria
without compromising necessary quality considerations.
4.5.1 Open University – concept
An Open University is a university which offers the policy of open admissions, distance
and online learning programs. The students are provided with the study materials for
various courses through the study centres and online. Also, the students can avail the
online services of a tutor who gives feedback on the assignments and projects completed
online. It is a cheap way of pursuing the higher education and is very beneficial for
the working class people as well as for those living in the rural areas. The Open
University designs the studies in such a way that students can complete them even
while working. There are no basic educational demands or age of consent for Open
University studies.
Purpose of Open University
• Maintaining professional skills
• Spending a gap year productively
• Launching a new career
• Learning about different disciplines
• Experiencing the joy of learning and gaining new insights
Facilities provided by Open University
• The flexibility of choosing a program independent of your age
• The flexibility of not attending class

240
• The flexibility of on-demand exam
• The flexibility of time frame
4.5.2 Distance Education - concept
Distance Education is a mode of learning where the students are not present in person
at the site. The students do not have a direct face to face contact with the teacher but
can use various modes to access education, like e-learning, video conferencing, e-
mail, etc. In this mode of education, the students are not required to attend the classes
regularly, and the evaluation of their work is done through the tests conducted at
regular intervals. Distance learning has traditionally concentrated on non-traditional
students, such as full-time workers, military personnel, and non-residents or individuals
in remote regions who are unable to attend classroom lectures. An increasing number
of universities provide distance education opportunities. Distance education, like
any education, sets out a learning group, sometimes called a learning community,
which is composed of students, a teacher, and instructional resources.
Characteristics of Distance Education
• It is not a self-study or non-academic learning environment. The institutions
may or may not provide traditional classroom-based instruction as well, but they
are eligible for accreditation by the same agencies as those employing traditional
methods.
• Geographic separation is inherent in distance education, and time may also separate
students and teachers. Accessibility and ease are important advantages of this
mode of education.
• Interactive telecommunication connects individuals under a learning group and
with the teacher. Most often, electronic communications, such as e-mail, are
used, but traditional forms of communication, such as the postal system, may
also play a role.
• Distance education establishes a learning group, sometimes called a learning
community, which is composed of students, a teacher, and instructional resources
i.e., the books, audio, video, and graphics.
4.5.3 Similarities between Open University and Distance Education
1. Both of them lack face to face interaction of students with the teachers.
2. Both impart education in the same mode.

241
3. No compulsory attendance is required.
4. Online study material and syllabus are provided to the students.
4.5.4 Differences between Open University and Distance Education
1. Open University is a university which offers open entry for admissions through
distance and online learning programs. On the other hand, Distance Education
is a type of learning program provided by various universities to those students
who are not present at the site.
2. The significant difference between the Open University and the Distance Education
is that an Open University is a type of University while the distance education is
a kind of education mode.
3. There are no colleges affiliated to an open university, whereas the distance education
is provided by either an open university or a traditional university; therefore,
various colleges are affiliated to the traditional university.
4. The main purpose of an open university is to provide education to those who
cannot take admissions in the traditional university, such as working class people
or those living in the remote areas. On the other hand, the primary purpose of
the distance education is to allow access to education to those who are unable to
attend the regular colleges, such as students who can study at their own place
and at any time.
5. In an open university, the education is provided only in a distance learning mode,
whereas the distance education can be provided by an open university or a private
university or a regular university.
4.5.5 Ensuring standards in Open and Distance Learning System
The changing scenario in open and distance education has radically altered the existence,
structures, courses and pedagogies of open and distance education institutions. Open
campus learning is an approach to education in which the interaction between teacher
and learner takes place at a distance. The place, time modes and pace of study are
determined as flexible responses to the particular and distinctive situations of the
teacher and learner, the subject matter and the learning environment. This opposes
the classic definition of distance education as a form in which the teacher and learner
are separated in time and/or space, and can only interact through a variety of media.

242
Generally, quality assurance in open and distance learning covers a number of aspects,
which include the physical products, pedagogical processes, production and delivery
systems, and philosophy (COL, 1997).
Quality of products includes course materials, number of graduates, examination
pass rates, admission in further studies, and so forth. In terms of products, the quality
of open and distance learning varies from one institution to another, depending on
priorities, resources, size, and the student body of which it aims to serve (COL,
1997).
Quality of processes covers areas such as learning and teaching processes, advising
students, coordinating external course and test item writers, networking with regional
offices, managing student information. Quality of processes is more difficult to address
than products. Various kinds of learning supports may be provided by institutions
like tutorial services, organized study groups, library access, and access to learning
resources (COL, 1997).
Quality of production and delivery systems includes course production, print and
multimedia production, test item production, scheduling, warehousing and stock control,
getting materials to students, and broadcast transmissions.
Quality of philosophy covers such things as ODL vision, mission and policy statements,
institutional culture, governance, corporate culture, and public image (COL, 1997).
4.5.5.1 In Open and Distance System of Education standard quality assurance
is guided by the educational philosophy of:
1. Giving learners choices about media, print, on-line, television or video.
2. Place of study, whether at home, in work places or on campus
3. Pace of study, whether closely paced or unstructured
4. Support mechanisms, whether tutors on demand, audio conferences or computer
assisted learning
5. Entry and exit point (Commonwealth of Learning, 2000).
4.5.5.2 Mechanisms for Quality Assurance
Quality assurance has to develop a range of control mechanisms and assurance processes
which cater equally to all its media and modes of teaching and learning. These
mechanisms are:
1. Course design, approval, monitoring and review

243
2. Faculty board
3. Curriculum committees
4. Academic board (Course advisory committees on teaching excellence and quality
‘ . – assurance)
5. Peer review of distance education materials
6. Evaluation of staff, students and employees
7. Expert opinion on the materials
4.5.5.3 A framework for quality assurance
The following checklist attempts to map the areas that a quality assurance system
would need to cover. It reflects practice and experience from higher education and
training contexts from fields other than education, and from European Guide to Quality
in ODL (SATURN, 1991, described in Robinson, 1992):
Quality policy and plan – The ODL organization should develop a quality on policy
which should be translated into a practical plan. All levels of staff must be given the
opportunity to shape its development and provide feedback on the same.
Identifying critical functions – The critical functions targeting goals must be identified
and the procedures to implement the critical functions should be analysed and mapped
to see if they match reality and if the procedures embody best possible practice.
Specification of standards – There should be specified and clearly defined standards
for all critical functions, constructed by those concerned in working to them. They
must be reasonable, achievable, measurable and clearly communicated and available
in written form for easy reference. There should be regular opportunities for reviewing
their appropriateness and for amending them.
Involvement of users – The students, tutors, course developers, operational service
units and all other stakeholders should be involved in setting appropriate standards
and developing procedures. The framework being constructed by the institution should
accommodate all ‘voices’ provide opportunities to receive feedback on their effectiveness
in use.
Staff involvement -All staff should be involved in the development of the procedures,
particularly the aspects that affect their work directly. Their suggestions should be
considered and enough time should be given to this process to ensure genuine
participation.

244
Documentation -The procedures for achieving standards should be clearly documented
and explicit. They should represent fact (practice as it happens) or fiction (an idealised
version). The practices should be described consistently in different documents.
Essential procedures should be given due importance. The documents should be up-
to-date and in readable and user-friendly form and accessible to all those who need
them. There should be provision for revising them when necessary. Their use should
not be burdensome and time-consuming. Scope for receiving feedback on the same
should be available.
Training and staff development -There should be adequate provision of training
and staff development closely linked to the achievement of standards. There should
be effective mechanisms for assessing training needs which should be reviewed regularly.
There should be resources allocated to meet them.
Monitoring - There should be systematic and routine monitoring mechanisms for
critical functions which should ensure that standards are being met and procedures
are being followed. The monitoring information should be harnessed to appropriate
action and not simply filed for unspecified future use. The monitoring information
provide feedback into the system and ensure corrective action.
Costs –There should be a strategy for monitoring the costs of implementing and
maintaining quality assurance activities, taking into account human and financial
costs. There should be a review process to find out if the costs are greater than the
benefits.
(Based on Robinson, 1994)
Koul (2006) remarked that considerable emphasis should be given to the learning
design aspect of distance education. He identified ten factors grouped into three
dimensions to contribute to quality assurance in open and distance learning. The
core dimension includes two factors, namely – one, course materials, instructional
design, teaching-learning including evaluation practices and learner support services
and two, learner centricity of support services, research and capacity building while
there are several factors under the ‘systems’ and ‘resources’.
The Institute for Higher Education Policy of USA has come out with 24 benchmarks
that cover seven aspects considered essential to ensuring excellence in internet-based
distance learning. These are, Institutional Support, Course Development, Teaching/
Learning, Course Structure, Student Support, Faculty Support and Evaluation and
Assessment (IHEP 2000).

245
In the UK, new guidelines for distance learning in higher education have been published
by the Quality Assurance Agency (QAA). The guidelines were arranged under six
headings: (1) System design, (2) Program design, approval and review, (3) The
management of program delivery, (4) Student development and support, (5) Student
communication and representation, (6) Student assessment. Each one deals with an
aspect where quality assurance is likely to require attention in a particular way when
study is by distance learning.
It is essential to ensure that the self-learning print materials serve the purpose well.
While designing new learning materials or adapting packages that are already available,
it is important to keep in mind a few aspects related to the print materials, namely -
structure and layout, access devices, objectives or statements of intended learning
outcomes, introduction, the content material, diagrams, charts, tables, graphs, illustrations
etc., self-assessment questions, in-text questions and activities, responses to self-
assessment questions, and summaries or reviews.
4.5.6 National Education Policy (Draft), 2019
The National Education Policy (Draft), 2019 proposes that high quality ODL courses
and programmes will be expanded to: i) enhance access to higher education, including
professional and vocational education; ii) promote life-long learning and certification
through reaching out to people engaged in various livelihoods as well as those who
wish to re-enter the formal education system; and iii) support the continuous professional
development of teachers in school and higher education.
To ensure quality of open and distance learning, Higher Education Institutions will
use their highest-rated faculty, courses, and programmes, and invest in adequate facilities
and support staff, amongst other such initiatives to produce the highest-quality content
with innovative curricula and pedagogical practices. The quality of ODL programmes
will be measured by their effectiveness in delivering learning outcomes relative to
the best in-class programmes of a similar nature across HEIs. All institutions offering
courses and programmes in ODL mode will develop and standardise programmes
based on national as well as local needs. Norms, standards and guidelines for systemic
development, regulation, and accreditation of ODL will be prepared by NHERA,
and a framework for quality of ODL that will be recommendatory for all HEIs will be
developed by the GEC. ODL must play a significant role in increasing GER to 50%.
To ensure efficient utilisation of resources and to avoid unnecessary duplication of
effort, all content developed for ODL will be included in an online digital repository.
An appropriate mechanism will be put in place for creating and continually reviewing
content to ensure their quality. The content will be available freely to all students and

246
faculty across the country. Adequate funding will be provided for research to continually
improve the quality of ODL-specific pedagogy and assessments, student support services,
models of ODL, and integration of technology. Learner support services shall be
institutionalised at all institutions offering ODL. Services will include providing learning
material (e.g. hosting courseware, repositories, Open Educational Resources or OERs,
Massive Open Online Courses or MOOCs), support from help desk services, tutoring
and counselling, conduct of classes (through webinars, discussion forums, webcasting),
library facilities, virtual labs, e-learning modules, timely feedback on performance,
online examinations, declaration of results, granting of certifications, redressal of
grievances, etc. Type 1 HEIs will be funded specifically to devise and offer capacity
development programmes for faculty for developing and transacting ODL courses
and programmes. This will include training educators and writers for development
of ODL materials and offering such learning resources widely.
4.5.7 Non-formal Education
Non-formal education refers to education that occurs outside the formal school system.
Non-formal education is often used interchangeably with terms such as community
education, adult education, lifelong education and second-chance education. It refers
to a wide range of educational initiatives in the community, ranging from home-
based learning to government schemes and community initiatives. It includes accredited
courses run by well-established institutions as well as locally based operations with
little funding.
Rogers (2005) classified different definitions into the following categories:
• A system: a collection of organizations and programs different from the formal
education system
• A process: with different teaching-learning relationships than those in formal
education, a less hierarchical format
• A concept, a subject worthy of study and writing about
• A practice, a professional activity undertaken by people separate from formal
education professionals
• A set of educational activities distinguished from formal education by having
different goals or purposes or even separated from formal schooling by being
socially purposeful, usually seen as a part of the radical social transformation
movement

247
4.5.7.1 Criteria of Non-formal Education
In spite of the different definitions, NFE programs have a number of criteria that are
shared across most definitions:
• Learner centred as learners play an active role in their learning and program is
customized to their circumstances
• Flexible curriculum that can be changed. Degree of flexibility would differ from
one program to the other
• Human relationships are more informal depending more on reciprocal learning
• Focus on practical skills and knowledge
• Target disadvantaged groups as youth, women, poor, and marginalized groups
• Creative use of educational resources
• Community participation
• Decentralized and more flexible organization and management
4.5.7.2 Objectives of Non-formal Education
1. To enable maximum out of school children from 9 to 14 years and attend the
non-formal stream.
2. Learning of basic skill i.e. reading, writing and general mathematic
3. To enable them about the handle different tools and techniques
4. To make them socially and morally active towards and national values and ideas
4.5.7.3 Characteristics of Non-formal Education
1. It is well planned and there no need of any school system.
2. It is a participatory learning system
3. It is an open ended educational system
4. There is no need for structured course and curriculum
5. Age, Time and curriculum are flexibility
6. There is involvement of both public and private sector in the process
7. It is not necessary to conduct exam on regular basis
8. Credentials like certificate and awards are not necessary to be awarded

248
9. Self-learning is appreciated
10. It is relevant to the learner’s life and the needs of society, and will be so in the
future.
11. It is appropriate to the level of the learner’s development, with new content and
experiences being introduced when the learner is ready.
12. Teaching is learner-centred and student-directed.
13. It is flexible in what is taught and how it is taught, and to the needs of the
different learners.
14. It is participatory in that learners are active participants in their learning, and
that they and their families and communities are involved in running the non-
formal education programme.
15. It is protective of children from harm, and protective of their rights to survival
and development. Places of non-formal education should be healthy and safe,
and provide proper nutrition, sanitation and protection from harm.
16. It is inclusive of all children regardless of background or ability, respecting and
utilizing the differences between them as a resource for teaching and learning.
Non-formal education often targets marginalized groups, e.g. nomadic communities,
girls, people with disabilities, school dropouts and working children. For students
with disabilities and other marginalized groups, non-formal education is very
helpful, responding to and fitting their needs.
17. The programmes have the potential to be of exceptionally high quality, because
they can respond more easily to the needs of individuals and specific groups in
the community.
4.5.8 Face-to face-Learning vs. Distance Learning
Face-to-face learning can be defined as the traditional style of learning in which the
learner shows up at a venue at the same time for a number of sessions. The student is
taught or tutored by an instructor or teacher, following a prescribed schedule of taught
sessions called a curriculum.
Distance learning is also known as online learning, e-learning, open learning or learning
from home. A student may pay for the course upfront and receive all the materials in
one shipment or you may pay monthly with some providers, with course materials
released as he/she completes (and pays) for modules or units.

249
4.5.8.1. Difference between face to face and distance education
Advantages of Face-To-Face Learning
A face-to-face session is one in which participants or students, instructors, and facilitators
meet together in the same place and at the same time. A face-to-face session or event
is a live meeting among participants, instructors, and facilitators. Face-to-face interaction
can help to break down barriers and provide real cross-cultural experiences and
networking opportunities, thereby assisting in sustaining relationships and encouraging
the sharing of knowledge. Classes, seminars, workshops, and conferences, in which
all participants meet together in same facility, are examples of face-to-face learning
benefits of face to face classroom learning.
Through face to face communication, additional information is available such as
that deduced through body language and gestures and tone, volume and modulation
of voice. Altogether, face to face communication offers a greater richness of information.
Through distance education, non-verbal body language and the wealth of information
that they provide are completely lost. In such a situation it is usually unlikely that an
instructor will pick up on confused expressions or spontaneous questions. For the
student, the way that course content is imparted can seem impersonal and sterile.
Technology often does not facilitate the right type or quantity of information being
shared or exchanged. This means that learning potential can be limited as compared
to face to face learning. Personalization of learning can also be lost through distance
learning. Face to face delivery allows students to share their personal experiences,
thoughts and challenges in relation to the content. This can be a rich source of learning
and one that many students miss when undertaking distance education. In an instructional
relationship, the role of the instructor is complex. He/she is required to assess the
student’s learning and potential, provide considered feedback and adapt the way that
they instruct to be best meeting the needs of their students. However, the student is
not entirely passive in this relationship, as they give the instructor valuable information
about how they are progressing, areas in which they are doing well and those that
would benefit from further input. It is quite widely agreed that distance learning
inhibits the success and impact of this relationship. Additionally, some instructors
have found that when delivering financial courses by distance learning, it is far more
difficult to reach and fulfil the learning objectives. This is because there are situations
where distance learning negatively impacts on the quality of the relationship between
instructor and student to the point that learning objectives may be impossible to
achieve. Training goals can most effectively be achieved when course instruction
and the relationship between instructors and students is dynamic. Such dynamism is

250
often lost through distance education form. Classroom learning typically offers multi-
sensory appeal. A student can listen to the instructor, receive visual cues through
PowerPoint images, handouts or whiteboard lists and participate actively in activities
and case studies. A student also has direct access to the instructor in class. Interaction
is immediate and a student normally has opportunities to ask questions and participate
in live discussions. This also allows one to benefit from the firsthand accounts of
other students’ experiences. If a student want to build and maintain personal and
professional relationships during his/her education, classrooms also offer greater personal
contact with other students. One gets instant answers and interaction. One is also
able to create a support network with fellow students, the teacher and the training
provider as a whole. One can stay motivated because one needs to attend a certain
number of sessions. For many students the obligatory attendance drives the forward
to complete the course.
Disadvantages of Face-to-Face learning
In contrast to distance and learning, classroom learning is normally fairly structured.
Students meet at regularly scheduled times on the same days each week. This limits
flexibility with work and other activities. The students generally must be in class to
get the learning experience and to keep up with requirements. Unless the instructors
record lectures, in-class instruction is not available after the class session is over.
Students who struggle to focus may also find classrooms and cohorts distracting to
their learning experience. For some students the course may not be delivered in the
way they want to. With distance or online learning, one can be part of an online
support community, as well as have expert tutors on hand to answer questions and
queries online.
Distance Learning
Distance Learning is learning that takes place when the instructor and the learner are
not in the same physical location. It can also take place if the instructor and the
learner are in the same location but not at the same time. Today distance learning is
carried out via a number of media ranging from postal mail to teleconferencing or
the Internet. In distance learning, the teacher and students are separated by distance,
where this distance could mean different classrooms in the same school or different
locations thousands of miles apart. The instruction is delivered via print, voice, video,
or computer technologies. Also the communication is interactive in that the student
receives support and feedback from the teacher. The feedback may be immediate or
delayed. Distance learning is often desirable to those who have set lives with schedules

251
and responsibilities toward work and family. But there might be other reasons to
engage in non-traditional forms of instruction such as gaining access to instructors
or learners outside our geographical reach. Typically, instructors teach via non-traditional
modalities because they want to reach learners that would not otherwise be able to
take their course or training. Instructors like to extend their reach beyond the local
boundaries because it is rewarding but in doing so they find that it also benefits
them. Not only do they come in contact with those with different background and
culture, but also in learning how to teach at a distance they become better instructors
themselves.
Advantages of Distance Learning
Benefits for distance education learning include the following:
Convenience - Distance learning technologies can provide convenient locations for
both students and instructors. Many of the technologies, such as the Internet and
telephone, are nowadays easily accessed at home. Others, such as videoconferencing,
can be distributed from a single point (such as a university) to multiple remote sites
(such as schools). Satellite transmissions can be viewed at specified sites, or the
transmissions can be recorded for later viewing at home or school.
Flexibility - Many forms of distance learning provide students the option to participate
whenever they wish, on an individualized basis. Learners learn at a suitable pace and
time. It can accommodate with our work, family and social commitments. Many
people find that the course is so well structured that they are able to pick it up after a
few weeks break if they have to re-schedule their learning.
Comfort level - One can study in a space in which one feels most comfortable.
Effectiveness - Not only is distance learning convenient, it is also effective. Distance
Learning can be as effective as traditional face to face instruction. However, the
degree of effectiveness depends largely on the methods and technology used and
their appropriateness in relation to the instructional tasks or objectives. Effectiveness
is also affected by student-to-student and student-to-instructor interactions. Not only
is this true because of the needed exposure to new ideas and feedback but because of
the affective dimension of learning.
Affordability - Many forms of distance learning involve little or no cost. One need
not think about paying more money to rent a hostel on campus or around. One can
access education. in the comfort of one’s room.

252
Multi-sensory - One of the benefits of distance learning is that there is a wide variety
of materials that can meet everyone’s learning preference, at least part of the time. If
distance learning courses are well designed, they are likely to offer learners a wide
range of choices, thereby providing the optimal combinations of interaction and media.
Interactivity - Contrary to popular opinion, distance learning courses can offer increased
interactions with students. In particular, introverted students who are too shy to ask
questions in class often become more communative when provided the opportunity
to interact via e-mail or other individualized means.
Equity - Rural schools often have less contact with educational trends, fewer qualified
teachers, and more need for technology. Distance learning offers great potential and
opportunity to students in villages and other distant places to have education. Teachers
and other workers in small towns and villages also get an equal opportunity to upgrade
themselves professionally.
Can be pursued along with a job- A major number of students who actually opt for
distance education are those who do not want to give up their jobs but want a higher
education, too. Distance education comes as a blessing for such students. They can
study on the weekends, when after returning from work or even in the middle of the
night.
Saves time - In a distance learning programme, one need not spend time to go to the
institution. Students who do dot have enough time on their hands can turn to distance
education as an option and pursue it from the comfort of their homes.
Disadvantages of Distance Learning
1. High chances of distraction- With no faculty around for face-to-face interaction
and no classmates who can help with constant reminders about pending assignments,
the chances of getting distracted are high. One needs to keep oneself motivated
and focused if one wants to successfully complete a distance learning course.
2. Difficulty Staying Motivated: For many people, not having a classroom and
set classroom times can make it difficult to remember to check in, or even to
want to check in.
3. Hidden costs - Although the cost of a distance education programme is usually
cheaper than a regular programme, there can be hidden costs involved. For example,
if the distance learning course is offered online, one might have to incur some
initial expenses like installing a computer and getting a reliable Internet connection.
One may also need to buy additional resources such as a printer, a web camera,
etc. Some expenses might be recurring, like maintenance and electricity cost.

253
4. Complicated technology - Overdependence on technology can be a major drawback
in distance learning mode of education, especially when the learning takes place
in an online environment. Any malfunctioning software or hardware can bring
an ongoing class to a standstill and interrupt the learning process. Similarly, if a
student is not computer and technology savvy, his learning experience can be
dissatisfactory.
5. Quality of faculty compromised- Distance education is often plagued by lack
of enough good quality faculty members. Sometimes the technology might not
do full justice to the delivery and design of the course.
6. Questionable credibility of degrees- Even though distance and online education
is starting to get recognition, still a lot of fraudulent and non-accredited degrees
are being offered. With the increase in the number of distance/online programmes,
the number of scam operators are also rising. This affects the credibility of
recognised distance learning degrees among prospective employers.
7. Difficulty Staying in contact with Instructors or getting immediate feedbacks-
If one ever has trouble with assignments, or questions about a lecture while in a
traditional class it is generally quite simple to talk to one’s instructor before or
after class or schedule meetings online at a different time. But in distance learning,
however, one is likely to have more difficulty getting in touch with one’s instructor.
Though one can send an assignment by email, yet it may not receive the immediate
feedback as one might get if one meets the instructor.
8. Difficulty Interacting with Peers - Because there is no classroom and therefore
no ability to work on group projects or even converse with fellow students in a
face-to-face environment, it’s difficult to build relationships of any kind. One
may start feeling isolated from one’s peers and others because one is working on
assignments and all related activities entirely alone.
9. Difficulty Staying Connected at All Times- For those who do not have a reliable
source of electricity or internet, it can be difficult to access the learning materials.
And this kind of access is crucial for distance learning.
4.6 Special and Inclusive Education – Adopting Flexible Strategies
For The Acquisition And Use of Inputs and Monitoring
Performance in Inclusive Set Up.
4.6.1 Definition and concept of Special Education
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) defines special education
as: ”Specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of

254
a child with a disability.” Students qualifying for special education services have
needs that often require support that goes beyond what is usually offered or received
in the regular school/classroom setting. Typically, the types of exceptionalities/disabilities
that fall under special education are clearly identified in the jurisdiction’s law. Special
education is for students with disabilities, which are defined under IDEA as follows:
Autism, Deaf-Blindness, Deafness, Emotional Disturbance, Hearing Impairment,
Intellectual Disability, Multiple Disabilities, Orthopaedic Impairment, Other Health
Impairment, Specific Learning Disability, Speech or Language Impairment, Traumatic
Brain Injury, Visual Impairment. The goal of special education is to ensure that students
who have any of these disabilities can take part in education along with students
without disabilities and can access the curriculum whenever and as much as possible.
Ideally, all students would have equitable access to education in order to reach their
potential.
4.6.2 Definition and concept of Inclusive Education
According to UNESCO, inclusive education is seen as “a process of addressing and
responding to the diversity of needs of all learners through increasing participation
in learning, cultures and communities, and reducing exclusion from education and
from within education.”Inclusive education aims to encourage whole-school and
individual reflective engagement and discussion on the development of inclusion;
support school professionals to plan, implement and review inclusive policies and
practices; outline and demonstrate processes of individual and organisational planning
and implementation; document schools’ current and developing inclusive practices
and record constraints and resources associated with inclusion; and foster an ongoing
individual and organisational commitment to inclusive practices and policies.
The fundamental principle of the inclusive school is that all children should learn
together, wherever possible, regardless of the difficulties or differences they may
have. Inclusive schools must recognize and respond to the diverse needs of their
students, accommodating both different styles and rates of learning and ensuring
quality education to all through appropriate curricula, organizational arrangements,
teaching strategies, resource use and partnerships with their communities. There
should be a continuum of support and services to match the continuum of special
needs encountered in every school. (Salamanca Framework for Action, 1994).
4.6.3 Input-process-output in inclusive education
4.6.3.1 Inputs to inclusive education
Accessible facilities - Access issues are critical inputs to ensure equal opportunity to
learn and to succeed in inclusive schools. Sassaki (2004) suggests six dimensions as

255
fundamental to access issues: attitudinal, architectural, methodological, instrumental,
communicational and programmatic. Essentially, physical access and integration
matters little, if instruction is not accessible, both in terms of learning style and
format (e.g., Braille or signed language) as well as content. Failure to access education
and training prevents the achievement of economic and social independence and
increases vulnerability to poverty in what can become a self-perpetuating, inter-
generational cycle. Access issues are affected by factors at all levels of inputs: student,
school, family/community and national. These factors often combine with distance
to school, mobility, school-building accessibility, discrimination, shortage of trained
teachers and resource supports to address teachers’ working conditions, and shortage
of school places. Typical responses to access issues have been modifying buildings,
knowledge dissemination and awareness campaigns, teacher and parent training.
Finding, identifying and encouraging children to go to school have been a critical
challenge.
School - Schools contribute to excluding children when they: (i) apply narrow paradigms
and are unable to cope with diversity; (ii) fail to concern themselves with children
who do not turn up and do not track the non-attendee; and (iii) do not reach out
proactively to the families of children who are the most vulnerable.
Curriculum content - Retention and drop-out rates have been linked to curriculum
and instruction. Typically the focus has been on adapted curriculum and upgrading
teachers’ skills by providing training in child-centred, active pedagogy/instruction.
Innovative approaches to making the curriculum relevant, tying it to functional life-
skills, and matching it with cultural beliefs and priorities are directly related to improved
retention rates. Adapting a curriculum that is not relevant or is not teaching functional
life skills does little to motivate students to stay in school. Flexible curriculum
approaches are also being adopted that allow children to be at home at times they are
needed for household chores (and/or to work in order to generate family income).
Governments should ensure the provision of appropriate education which responds
to the needs of children with all types of disabilities in the next decade. Textbook &
learning materials should be prepared keeping in view the needs of inclusion. Braille/
Sign Language support should be adequately available wherever necessary.
Teacher qualifications and training- Once a level of commitment and support has
been accomplished through sensitization, teacher training targeted at specific skills
is typically the next priority. Due to widespread teacher shortages, and under-qualified
teachers in schools, training (and recruitment) may take many forms. Several essential
characteristics of this training include study groups, support networks, technical

256
assistance from special educators—all situated within the context of schools with
continuous and sustained on-the-job training. Upgrading teachers’ skills is a
developmental process that goes beyond workshops and other in-service training
activities. Teachers need time to develop confidence and coping strategies and to do
this in the context of continuous support in the classroom.
Conditions of teachers’ work - This is yet another critical input in IE programs.
Most implementation efforts focus on teaching teachers effective instructional strategies
and ignore the conditions within which teachers must carry these out. Many projects
reported in the literature also did not meet goals due to teacher/staff turnover and
transfers. Other conditions of teachers’ work reported to have a significant impact
on their ability to deliver effective instruction: class ratios, classroom physical layout,
administrative support and supervision, incentives for participation, and release time
for preparation and evaluation. A serious impediment has been the attitude of
administrators who have insufficient time and patience to learn about and understand
the objectives of these programmes.
Morale and commitment – Attitudes constitute a critical challenge in terms of inputs
to inclusive education. Traditional approaches focus on teacher attitudes in classrooms.
However, successful inclusive education programmes are finding that one of the “root
problems” in terms of access is lack of political will based on attitudes of government
officials. Training programmes are beginning to target these groups prior to implementing
programmes.
Student characteristics - Most countries have concentrated their inclusive education
efforts on moderately and severely disabled children in four categories: physical/
mobility impairments, blindness, deafness and cognitive impairments. This focus is
understandable for several reasons: (a) these children have easily identifiable
characteristics; (b) providing services is politically high-profile; (c) they are the most
disadvantaged and marginalized. However, the vast majority of children with disabilities
have mild impairments. These children most likely constitute a significant percentage
of drop-outs and grade-level repeaters. Successful strategies for addressing student
characteristics have considered economic needs of students as well, including
government stipends for subsidized school fees and costs of school uniforms. Diverse
characteristics of students in terms of disability, gender, at-risk, refugee children,
minorities, low-income need to be valued and supported.
Family/Community Characteristics - Many factors related to the family contribute
as inputs to inclusive education such as parental attitude, economic conditions, household

257
income, cultural/religious factors, etc. Often community support is also inadequate.
These factors often lead to drop outs in inclusive education. Probably most influential
are socio-economic and cultural factors within the family such as family economic
survival needs due to which having children work to generate income is more prioritized
than sending them to school. Traditional societal attitudes towards disability may
involve shame, guilt, under-expectations, and sheltering/patronization. Building on
the strengths and motivations of parents to mobilize resources for Inclusive Education
is another key cost-saving strategy commonly capitalized on.
Multi-sector coordination & collaboration - The first priority for inclusive education
initiatives should be to conduct sensitization and awareness training for students,
parents, teachers, community members, government officials and the general public
in order to accomplish commitment and support.
Resources and funding - Linking community-based-resources, government funding,
and schools to create needed resources becomes critical for inclusive education.
Experiences suggest that the allocation of funding makes more of a difference than
the level of funding itself. That is, allocations reflect values and philosophical
commitments more than they do the capacity to provide inclusive education. Another
cost-saving strategy involves centralized resource centres, outreach programmes and
cooperatives. Special schools are converted to resource centres and the staff in these
schools provide outreach and technical support to general education teachers in primary/
secondary schools.
4.6.3.2 Processes involved in inclusive education
Perhaps the most important aspect of process is an integrated whole-school system
that includes a vision of inclusive education as a philosophy and as a practice. Successful
inclusive schools operate with an understanding of a few basic principles as follows:
(Sassaki, 2004)
1. The school system should adapt itself to the student, and not the opposite.
2. Equalization of opportunity must be provided.
3. Each person is different from the other, and all of them are entitled to be what
they are and to be respected for their differences.
4. The school system should offer to each student opportunities that help him/her
accomplish his/her interests, expectations, dreams and life objectives.

258
5. The school system should receive all persons, regardless of their ethnic, racial,
cultural, linguistic, sexual, physical, mental, sensorial, or other attributes.
6. The student builds his/her own knowledge, gradually making use of the power
to choose, decide and assume control of his/her life.
School Climate - High expectations and respect for inclusion, guiding philosophy
or mission to implement inclusion, provision of adequate choices for participation,
inculcating positive attitude among teachers, creating a safe and supportive environment,
providing a flexible curriculum, providing incentives for participation, encouraging
collaborative support teams and creating an integrated whole-school system – all
combine to develop a school climate conducive for practising inclusive education.
Teaching and learning – Using adapted curriculum to meet individual needs, ensuring
appropriate class size, encouraging active student participation, providing sufficient
learning time, applying active teaching methods, implementing universal learning
design, providing appropriate support system, setting clear roles & responsibilities,
employing integrated systems for assessment & feedback – all constitute the teaching
learning process appropriate for inclusive set up.
Evaluation and assessment strategies - Another key aspect of the process dimension
is monitoring and evaluation. The exclusion of children with disabilities from education
results in their exclusion from opportunities for further development, particularly
diminishing their access to vocational training, employment, income generation and
business development. In addition to being under-developed, evaluations have
traditionally focused on summative data, to interpret effects of the programme. Currently
inclusive education programmes are placing more emphasis on continuous evaluations
in inputs, processes and outcomes. Undertaking assessments requires skill and training.
Assessment issues covered include school-level, classroom-level, and community-
level strategies.
4.6.3.3 Outcomes in inclusive education
Achievement - Inclusive education develops literacy, numeracy, personal development,
positive attitude towards learning, self-determination/advocacy, self-esteem, social
and independent living skills and good citizenship qualities.
Attainment or successful school completion - Formal completion diplomas/
qualification and preparation for adult life are crucial outcomes of inclusive education.
Outcomes of inclusive education are often illusive and difficult to measure. Student
achievement tests of content knowledge provide only one indicator of impact, and

259
are not strongly linked to success in adult life, nor do they provide a measure of
creative and analytical problem-solving skills needed for survival. The challenge is
to measure success in terms of broad indicators of outcomes and impact.
4.6.4 Indicators of successful inclusion
The indicators of successful inclusion are as follows:
1. The important national education policy documents strongly emphasize inclusion
and equity.
2. The national curriculum and its associated assessment systems are designed to
respond effectively to all learners.
3. The existing legal framework supports inclusive education and foresees removing
barriers to enrolment, attendance, achievement and progression of all children.
4. The national policy/documents and the institutions require teachers/principals/
staff in institutions involved in education to have the knowledge, skills and
motivation for inclusive education and ensure this is the case (e.g. teacher
competency standards encompass inclusive education competencies).
5. All partners who work with learners and their families understand and support
the national policy goals for promoting inclusion and equity in education.
6. Senior staff at the national, district, and school levels provide leadership on
inclusion and equity in education.
7. Leaders at all levels articulate consistent policy goals to develop inclusion and
equitable educational practices and challenge non-inclusive, discriminatory and
inequitable educational practices.
8. Flexible and accommodative curriculum is followed to practise inclusion.
9. All services and institutions involved with learners and their families work together
in coordinating inclusive and equitable educational policies and practices .
10. Resources, both human and financial, are distributed in ways that benefit potentially
vulnerable learners.
11. Scholarships, loans, places in halls of residence are awarded to vulnerable pupils/
students.
12. Funding earmarked for inclusive education is used appropriately.
13. There is co-operation among the municipality, school, primary health care centre,
centre for social work and education inspectorate relevant to an individual child

260
 and his/her welfare and inspectorate in areas pertaining to the inclusiveness of
education.
14. There is a clear role for special provision, such as special schools and units, in
promoting inclusion and equity in education.
15. Schools and other learning centres have strategies for encouraging the presence,
participation, and achievement of all learners from their local community and
also those learners who are at risk of underachievement, marginalization, and
exclusion.
16. Teachers and support staff are prepared to respond to learner diversity during
their initial training and have opportunities to take part in continuing professional
development regarding inclusive and equitable practices.
17. Equitable distribution of resources is ensured.
18. Teachers are trained in inclusive pedagogy and view it as their role to teach all
learners in a diverse classroom.
19. Teachers follow universal learning design to cater to an inclusive classroom.
20. All pupils feel welcome in the school, support each other in their learning, are
well supported by school staff, are treated equally as valued members of the
school, can access learning in all lessons, can access all parts of the school
building, attend school every day, learn together, feel that their opinions and
views are valued, enjoy lessons, are engaged in all lesson activities, achieve
their learning in all subjects according to their individual ability, and have access
to appropriate health services as necessary.
21. All vulnerable children are successful in their learning
22. School creates a school environment which supports all students’ learning.
23. Teachers and parents cooperate well.
24. The school organises additional and remedial teaching for students who need it.
4.6.5 Strategies for acquisition and use of inputs and monitoring performance
in inclusive education
4.6.5.1 Policy and national level implementation strategies
1. The first step is for national policy to clearly state that inclusive education is a
right for all children.
2. The Government should enact legislation, with enforcement mechanisms, to
mandate education for all children, including children with disabilities. Children
261
 with disabilities need to be explicitly included in all national plans for education,
including national plans on education.
3. The Education Department should formulate educational policy and planning in
consultation with Families and organizations of persons with disabilities and
develop programmes of education which enable children with disabilities to
attend their local primary schools.
4. Policy implementation needs to prepare the school system for inclusive education,
where appropriate, with the clear understanding that all children have the right
to attend school and that it is the responsibility of the school to accommodate
differences in learners.
5. A range of educational options should be available to allow the selection of a
school that will best cater for individual learning needs.
6. Adequate public budgetary allocation specifically for the education of children
with disabilities should be provided within the education budget.
7. The Government, in collaboration with others, should collect comprehensive
data on children with disabilities, which should be used for planning appropriate
early intervention and educational provision, resources and support services,
from birth through school age.
8. Targets should be set for the enrolment of children with disabilities in early
intervention, pre-school, primary, secondary and tertiary (post-school) education.
9. Department of Health and other concerned departments should establish adequate
early detection and identification services in hospitals, primary health care, centre
and community-based health care services, with referral systems to early intervention
services for all disabled infants and children.
10. Department of Health and Education should establish early intervention services,
in collaboration with other concerned ministries, self-help organizations, NGO
and community-based agencies, to provide early intervention, support and training
to all disabled infants and children with disabilities and their families.
11. The Government, including Department of Education, should work in partnership
with NGOs at the national and local level to conduct public awareness campaigns
to inform families of children with disabilities, schools and local communities,
of the right of children and youth with disabilities to participate in education at

262
 all levels, in urban and rural areas, and with particular emphasis on the inclusion
of girls with disabilities where there is a gender imbalance in school attendance.
12. The following measures should be taken, where appropriate, by the Government
to improve the quality of education in all schools, for all children, including
children with disabilities, in special and inclusive educational contexts: (a) conduct
education and training for raising the awareness of public officials, including
educational and school administrators and teachers, to promote positive attitudes
to the education of children with disabilities, increase sensitivity to the rights of
children with disabilities to be educated in local schools and on practical strategies
for including children and youth with disabilities in regular schools; (b) provide
comprehensive pre- and in-service teacher training for all teachers, with
methodology and techniques for teaching children with diverse abilities, the
development of flexible curriculum, teaching and assessment strategies; (c)
encourage suitable candidates with disabilities to enter the teaching profession;
(d) establish procedures for child screening, identification and placement, child-
centred and individualized teaching strategies and full systems of learning and
teaching support, including resource centres and specialist teachers, in rural and
urban areas; (e) ensure the availability of appropriate and accessible teaching
materials, equipment and devices, unencumbered by copyright restriction; (f)
ensure flexible and adaptable curriculum, appropriate to the abilities of individual
children and relevant in the local context; (g) ensure assessment and monitoring
procedures are appropriate for the diverse needs of learners.
13. The Government should implement a progressive programme towards achieving
barrier-free and accessible schools and accessible school transport.
14. The Government should encourage programmes of research at tertiary institutions
to develop further effective methodologies for teaching children and youth with
diverse abilities.
15. Local cooperation needs to be strengthened to facilitate the sharing of experiences
and good practices and to support the development of inclusive education initiatives.
16. A team should be established for monitoring of the implementation of the strategy
and development of inclusive education, with clearly defined sector roles and
responsibilities.
17. Assessment and improvement of the accessibility of educational institutions should
be carried out and the needs for specific equipment and teaching tools enlisted.

263
18. The needed instruction and teaching materials should be prepared, based on the
needs of the teaching process.
19. The government should promote the employment of persons with special
educational needs.
20. The government should design and implement modules of continuous professional
development activities at the school level for teachers, expert associates and
school management related to inclusive practice.
21. The Educational policy makers should analyse, adjust and implement of the
teacher training programmes based on the human-rights model.
22. The Educational policy makers should recommend curricular flexibility and
strengthen learning outcomes keeping in view the needs of inclusive education.
For instance, National Education Policy (NEP Draft) 2019 proposes to contextualise
curriculum and incorporate tribal knowledge traditions with immediate action.
Curriculum and pedagogy are to be contextualised to make education a relevant
experience for students from tribal communities. Learning materials should be
provided in local tribal languages, and also teach in these languages (as a medium
of communication, transaction, or instruction), especially in children’s early years,
whenever possible. Bilingual textbooks are to be prepared and bilingual education
will be pursued to facilitate smooth transition from the home language of children
to the language which is used as the medium of instruction in schools. NEP
2019 (Draft) also proposes that the curricula would take into account the needs
of the urban poor. Some parts of the curriculum would be redesigned to help
students from urban poor families navigate life in urban poor areas, and will
include matters of health and safety, clean drinking water, the harmful effects of
substance abuse, ethics, nonviolence, matters of gender equality, respect for women,
tolerance and empathy for people of all backgrounds, multilingualism, the harmful
side of improper use of technology such as smart phones, beneficial uses of
technology, financial literacy, aspirations for employment and higher education,
and skills and vocational training. The curriculum is also proposed to be designed
to maximise health and safety, opportunities for learning, and the future security
and productivity of children from urban poor families.
23. The upliftment of under-represented groups in education is essential and is proposed
in NEP, 2019 (Draft).

264
4.6.5.2 School and classroom level implementation strategies
1. The schools should understand their own challenges, assets, resources, value
frameworks, stakeholders, and where to locate data and evidence. Pupil-Teacher
Ratio in schools with a high proportion of learners from under-represented groups
should not be more than 25:1.
Schools should establish mechanisms to address discrimination, harassment and
intimidation of under-represented groups. Admissions processes that go against
the spirit of inclusivity should be abolished, and institutional processes (including
time-tables and academic calendars) should reflect the diverse needs of learners
and their communities. Clear criteria on equity and inclusiveness should be laid
down that schools would be expected to follow. Criteria for assessing equity
and inclusiveness of all schools should be developed and given adequate weightage
during accreditation or self-evaluation processes. All schools should develop
credible mechanisms to ensure schools remain free from discrimination, harassment,
and intimidation, especially for women and girls.
2. Capacity building of teachers with adequate knowledge and skills should be
ensured to create inclusive classrooms. Traditionally, training in inclusive education
techniques was offered as continuing professional development and workshops.
But now it is compulsorily included in the teacher education curriculum. More
sustainable inclusive education implementation is likely to put more emphasis
on inclusive pedagogy in pre-service teacher training for all teacher trainees, as
well as sustained and continuous in-service development. This is likely to positively
affect teachers’ attitudes towards inclusion. According to National Education
Policy (Draft), 2019 Draft, inclusion and equity should become a key aspect of
teacher education (and training for all leadership, administrative, and other positions
in schools); efforts should be made to recruit more high quality teachers and
leaders from under-represented groups in order to bring in excellent role models
for all students. Inclusive education should be an integral part of both pre-service
teacher education as well as in in-service professional development, including
those for Anganwadi workers, pre-school and school teachers, school leaders,
and other education functionaries. Special educators and therapists with cross-
disability training should assist teachers in catering to the needs of all learners
more completely. Each school complex should appoint an adequate number of
special educators with cross-disability training to work with all schools within
that complex.

265
3. School administrators should trust the staffs and lead them with vision, inclusive
values, motivation and autonomy. School leadership should provide an inclusive
and innovative environment for teachers to flourish.
4. NEP, 2019 (Draft) proposes a change in school culture. All participants in the
school education system, including teachers, principals, administrators, social
workers, counsellors, and students need to be sensitized to the requirements of
all students, the notions of inclusion and equity, and the respect and dignity of
all persons.
5. Students should be sensitized through this new school culture brought in by
teachers and other school workers (such as social workers and counsellors), and
also by corresponding changes in the school curriculum. All students should be
taught to develop sensitivity and appreciation of the diverse cultures and traditions
to which we belong. Basic human values of tolerance, inclusiveness, equity,
empathy, helpfulness, service, etc. should be incorporated throughout the
curriculum.
6. The school curriculum should include material on human values such as respect
for all persons, empathy, tolerance, inclusion, and equity early on; any biases in
school curriculum will be removed, and more material will be included that is
relevant and relatable to all communities, and which develops these human values.
School curricula, syllabi and teaching learning materials (especially textbooks)
will be reviewed to identify and remove overt or hidden bias and stereotyping.
The curriculum should be redesigned to take into account the needs of different
under-represented groups such as those belonging to tribal communities, urban
poor families, transgender communities etc. The curriculum should be
contextualized and made relevant to the experiences of the children. Bilingual
textbooks and translated learning material should be prepared and provided to
encourage optimum participation in education. Connection should be made between
formal schooling and the lives of diverse learners by contextualizing the curriculum
and pedagogy.
4.6.5.3 Family and Community level implementation strategies
Sensitization and awareness training of family and community members are essential
to ensure maximum participation of children in inclusive education. NGOs can
play a vital role in this regard. Illiteracy, drop out and child labour problems can
be reduced to a great extent if families are made aware of the need for education
for all children. NEP, 2019 (Draft) proposes targeted scholarships, conditional

266
 cash transfers to incentivise parents to send their children to school. Providing
bicycles and organising cycling and walking groups to provide access to school
are powerful methods for increasing participation of female students even at
lesser distances, because of the safety benefits and comfort to parents that they
also provide. One-on-one tutors and open schooling can be particularly effective
for some children with special needs. Hiring of social workers and counsellors
that work with and connect students, parents, schools, and teachers in order to
improve attendance and learning outcomes are effective for children in urban
poor areas.

4.6.5.4 Social level implementation strategies

Upliftment of under-represented groups should be ensured. Targeted scholarships
and financial assistance should be provided to encourage participation of under-
represented groups. Education of girls, children belonging to scheduled castes,
backward classes, and tribal communities, minority communities, urban poor
families, transgender children and children with special needs should be enabled
by creating school, family, society and community awareness. Social workers
and counsellors can immensely help in sensitizing under-represented groups.
Provisions for home-based education should be provided for children with severe
and profound disabilities who are unable to go to schools, with the objective of
enabling them to complete school education, including through the National
Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). Orientation of parents/caregivers along with
wide-scale dissemination of learning materials to enable parents/ caregivers to
actively support their children’s learning needs will be accorded priority. Availability
of open schooling for certain types of disabilities such as hearing-impaired students
should be ensured. Resource centres at the block level in conjunction with special
educators at the school complex level will support the rehabilitation and educational
needs of learners with severe or multiple disabilities, and will assist parents/
guardians in achieving high quality home-schooling and skilling for such
students.
4.7 Quality Enhancement in Service Delivery and Community
Rehabilitation
4.7.1 Community based rehabilitation
Community based rehabilitation (CBR) may be defined, according to three United
Nation Agencies, ILO, UNESCO, and the WHO, as a “strategy within community

267
development for the rehabilitation, equalization of opportunities, and social integration
of all people with disabilities. CBR is implemented through the combined efforts of
disabled people themselves, their families and communities, and the appropriate health,
education, vocational and social services” (ILO, UNESCO and WHO, 1994).
According to the United Nations, “Community-based rehabilitation (CBR) is a strategy
for enhancing the quality of life of disabled people by improving service delivery, by
providing more equitable opportunities and by promoting and protecting their human
rights. It calls for the full and co-ordinated involvement of all levels of society:
community, intermediate and national. It seeks the integration of the interventions of
all relevant sectors - educational, health, legislative, social and vocational - and aims
at the full representation and empowerment of disabled people. It also aims at promoting
such interventions in the general systems of society, as well as adaptations of the
physical and psychological environment that will facilitate the social integration and
the self-actualisation of disabled people. Its goal is to bring about a change; to develop
a system capable of reaching all disabled people in need and to educate and involve
governments and the public.
4.7.1.1 Types of Rehabilitation Services
Active Rehabilitation Services imply functional training, schooling and vocational
training, which lead to an independent and better social integration.
Passive Rehabilitation Services signify those which do not aim at independent and
better social integration. These are offered in rehabilitation homes and care institutions,
where people with disabilities are given shelter and food, but do not undergo any
training programme.
Institution-Based Rehabilitation includes general or specialized services are offered
in an institution or home for the disabled. General institutions include centres that
provide services for people with all types of disability. Specialized ones include homes
for children with specific disabilities.
4.7.1.2 Principles of Community based rehabilitation
The five basic CBR principles include:
(a) Utilisation of available resources in the community
(b) Transfer of knowledge about disabilities and skills in rehabilitation to people
with disabilities, families, and communities

268
(c) Community involvement in planning, decision making, and evaluation
(d) Utilisation and strengthening of referral services at the district, provincial, and
national levels that are able to perform skilled assessments with increasing
sophistication, make rehabilitation plans, and participate in training and supervision
(e) Utilisation of a coordinated approach among education, health, and social systems.
4.7.1.3 Programme Criteria of Community based rehabilitation (CBR)
The development and implementation of CBR programmes should be based on the
following criteria:
1. People with disabilities must be included in CBR programmes at all stages and
levels, including initial programme design and implementation. In order to give
significance to their involvement, they must have distinct decision-making roles.
2. The primary objective of CBR programme activities is the improvement of the
quality of life of people with disabilities.
3. One focus of CBR programme activities is working with the community to create
positive attitudes towards people with disabilities and to motivate community
members to support and participate in CBR activities.
4. The other focus of CBR programmes is providing assistance for people with all
types of disabilities (physical, sensory, psychological and mental); for people of
all ages, including older people; for people affected by leprosy; for people affected
by epilepsy; and for other people who may be identified by the community as
needing special assistance.
5. All activities in CBR programmes must be sensitive to the situation of girls and
women. When they are disabled, the problems that they face in life are doubled.
Furthermore, women are usually the primary family care-givers for all people
with disabilities.
4.7.1.4 Components of Community based rehabilitation
1. Mobilisation of local resources by community members: The community
members should mobilise local resources and provide appropriate services to
people with disabilities.
2. Creating a positive attitude towards people with disabilities: This component
of CBR programmes is essential to ensure equalization of opportunities for people
with disabilities within their own community. Positive attitudes among community
members can be created by involving them in the process of programme design

269
 and implementation, and by transferring knowledge about disability issues to
community members.
3. Provision of functional rehabilitation services: Often people with disabilities
require assistance to overcome or minimize the effects of their functional limitations
(disabilities). In communities where professional services are not accessible or
available, CBR workers should be trained to provide primary rehabilitation therapy
in the areas of rehabilitation, namely – medical, eye care services, hearing services,
physiotherapy, occupational therapy, orientation and mobility training, speech
therapy, psychological counselling, orthotics and prosthetics, counselling and
other services.
4. Provision of education and training opportunities: People with disabilities
must have equal access to educational opportunities and to training that will
enable them to make the best use of the opportunities that occur in their lives. In
communities where professional services are not accessible or available, CBR
workers should be trained to provide basic levels of service in the following
areas:
a. Early childhood intervention and referral, especially to medical rehabilitation
services
b. Education in regular schools
c. Non-formal education where regular schooling is not available
d. Special education in mainstream or special schools
e. Sign language training
f. Braille training
g. Training in daily living skills
5. Creation of micro and macro income-generation opportunities: People with
disabilities need access to micro and macro income-generation activities, including
obtaining financial credit through existing systems, wherever possible. In slums
and rural areas, income-generation activities should focus on locally appropriate
vocational skills. Training in these skills is best conducted by community members
who, with minimal assistance, can easily transfer their skills and knowledge to
people with disabilities.
6. Provision of care facilities: Often, people with extensive disabilities are in need
of assistance. When they have no families or their families are incapable of

270
 caring for them, in order for them to survive, long-term care facilities must be
provided in the community where they can get the assistance that they need.
Moreover, day-care facilities may be needed to provide respite for families who
either work or need time off for other activities.
7. Prevention of the causes of disabilities: Many types of disability can be prevented
by relatively simple measures. Proper nutrition is one of the more significant
ways of preventing disabilities. Another important area of disability prevention
is the detection of disability in young children and intervention early in their
development, to minimize the effect of impairment.
8. Management, monitoring and evaluation: The effectiveness and efficiency of
all CBR programme components, both in the community and in the area of service
delivery outside the community, depend on effective management practices. The
impact of programme activities must be measured on a regular basis. People
must be trained in effective management practices. Data must be collected, reviewed
and evaluated to ensure that programme objectives are met. In this way, the
success or failure of a CBR programme can be honestly measured.
4.7.1.5 Sectors involved in Community based rehabilitation
The initiative to start CBR programmes and to facilitate their development may come
from any one of the following groups. However, the effectiveness of CBR and
the long-term development and sustainability of any CBR initiative will require
the coordination, involvement and collaboration of all seven groups. The seven
groups and their suggested roles are as follows:
1. People with disabilities: People with disabilities can and should contribute to
all levels of CBR programmes in every position within a programme. They know
what the effects of local conditions are on themselves. They are likely to have a
good understanding of those effects on their peers with disabilities. They also
know what impairment really means in the context of their family, community
and nation. This knowledge enables them to be very effective members of a
CBR team. They can be more effective than non-disabled people as role models
for and counsellors of other people with disabilities. People with disabilities
have an important role in community education. As community educators, they
serve as living examples of people with disabilities who make a significant
contribution, provided that they are given the opportunity and the right type of
assistance. CBR programmes should also facilitate the development of self-help
organizations of people with disabilities at the community level.

271
2. Families of people with disabilities: Families have the primary responsibility
for caring for all of their members. They are the first line of support and assistance
for people with disabilities at the local level. As such, families must be included
in CBR programme activities. Where the individual with a disability is not able,
for whatever reason, to speak for himself or herself, a family member should
represent him or her and should be considered a legitimate member of disabled
people’s organizations. Members of families with experience in caring for people
with disabilities are the people who most often initiate CBR programmes and
are, or prove to be, the most effective contributors at all levels.
3. Communities: Community members should be involved in CBR programmes
at all levels because they already know the local environmental conditions, the
local economy, the local political situation and how to work with them. They
also know about the accessibility, availability and effectiveness of locally available
rehabilitation services; who in the community cares enough about other people
to become a programme leader or worker; and, which community members have
the knowledge and skills for training others in micro-economic activities. They
are the people most likely to want to live, work and stay in the community.
Community involvement usually requires the agreement and approval, both formal
and informal, of the community leaders.
4. Governments (local, regional, national): Governments have the most important
role in the development and sustainability of CBR programmes. Their cooperation,
support and involvement are essential if CBR is to cover the total population
and be sustainable. They should implement and coordinate the development of
the entire programme structure, including the development of the referral system,
as well as the activities within the community. They also should provide resources
for non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and community activities. Finally,
they should ensure that discriminatory legislation is changed and that the rights
of people with disabilities are guaranteed and protected.
5. Non-governmental organizations, local, regional, national and international
organizations: NGOs, including organizations of people with disabilities, are
often able to provide resources and skills to facilitate the development of new
programmes, especially in areas where none exist. They can develop new approaches
to CBR and provide training programmes for government employees, CBR workers,
people with disabilities, families, and community members. NGOs are effective

272
 in facilitating the development of community members as CBR programme leaders.
They are often best able to provide long-term care facilities for those people
with extensive disabilities whose families cannot or will not look after them.
6. Medical professionals, allied health science professionals, educators, social
scientists and other professionals: Professionals are often in a position where
they can, as trainers and educators, facilitate the development of new programmes
by making their knowledge and skills accessible to community members and
CBR programme workers. They can also ensure that they support community
efforts by making themselves available and accessible on a referral basis. When
they are in government service, they can advocate and promote the development
of CBR programmes as an effective way to provide local-level services quickly.
7. The private sector (business and industry): The private sector has a social
obligation to return some of the benefits of its operations to the communities
that support it. In the past, this support has largely taken the form of charity.
Charity occurs when donors “give” whatever they feel is needed or appropriate
for people with disabilities. This approach to assisting people with disabilities
is no longer appropriate and needs to be changed. Supporting CBR programme
activities eliminates the need for charity. CBR support is a much more appropriate
way of directing resources to communities and people with disabilities. By
supporting CBR programmes, the private sector receives credit for its social
involvement while being guaranteed that its support is put to effective and efficient
use.
4.7.1.6 Evaluation of Community based rehabilitation
CBR evaluation refers to a standard to make objective judgements of activities and
outcomes of a CBR programme. Four features of CBR on which evaluation might
focus are the following:
Service delivery system - Service delivery system relates to how services and training
are provided to people with disabilities and their family members at the community
level. It’s evaluation focusses on three broad areas: (a) utilisation of primary health-
care worker/community based rehabilitation worker (b) benefits of community-based
rehabilitation workers versus outside personnel coming in to provide training; and
(c) training family members to teach people with disabilities with a broader goal of
integration and peace-building.
Technology transfer - Technology transfer relates to technical skills that the primary
health-care worker/ local supervisor of the CBR programme should possess. Specific

273
issues include, among others, teaching technical skills to CBR workers at low cost
and in the shortest possible time; the nature and extent of skill the CBR worker
should have; early identification of disabilities; and use of appropriate technology.
Community involvement - Community involvement relates to training people with
disabilities to ensure that training is not the sole concern of the family members and
the CBR worker, but also of the community where the person lives. Most community
involvement evaluations assess attitudes of the community towards people with
disabilities and particularly attitudes of CBR workers towards people with disabilities.
Other areas of focus include identifying and utilising community resources in the
CBR programme and community participation through mobilising support for the
social rights of people with disabilities.
Organisation and management - Organisation and management is a feature of CBR
that ensures effectiveness of a programme. Its evaluations review focus on organisational
models in implementing CBR programmes and personnel in CBR programmes. Specific
issues related to this CBR feature include linkages within the referral network to the
primary health-care worker, person with disability, family member, and the community;
identification of appropriately trained personnel; and importance of people with
disabilities as key personnel in the management of CBR programmes.
4.7.1.7 Levels of CBR referral services
In a CBR programme, the referral services at higher levels after interventions should
have professional inputs. The different levels of referrals are as follows:
At the district/local government level, diagnostic services should be available. If
circumstances allow, each client in the CBR programme should be seen by a physician.
The purpose is to confirm diagnoses and make sure that no medical treatment is
neglected. In other words, co-morbidity should not be neglected. There should be
educational services for children and provision of resource teachers, vocational services
for adults, vocational assessment and guidance, skill acquisition and short-term
vocational training and job placement. There should be provision of simple orthopaedic
appliances and other adapted equipments. There is a need for an intermediate–level
supervisor or a CBR manager, who can train the local supervisors, guide and supervise
their work, manage referrals, maintain communications will all levels of service and
manage the CBR programme. Integrating CBR into Primary Health Care (PHC) may
be considered, but CBR must be given due attention to make it effective. The PHC
is the lowest level of medical service delivery in many developing countries, but it
has not given the desired attention to CBR.

274
At the state level, CBR involves referral for diagnostic services for more complex
medical conditions, medical services for corrective surgery, eye surgery, complicated
fractures, drug treatment of therapy- resistant diseases, complex rehabilitation therapy
for those not improved through community services, educational services, such as
special education, long-term vocational training and provision of standard orthopaedic
appliances.
At the national/federal level, there should be referral for more complex medical
diagnosis and very specialized medical services, complex rehabilitation services like
spinal fusion and physiotherapy, educational services at institutions of higher learning
for people with disabilities and vocational services. Professionals should be involved
in the delivery of complex rehabilitation services as well as in the training and supervision
of personnel for district, provincial and national levels.
Community involvement is essential in the planning, implementation and evaluation
of CBR programme. A community committee should be involved as a management
group. The local government should provide the personnel and financing for it. In
CBR programmes, it is important to have community organizations and informally
involve some people with disabilities in an advisory capacity. Opinion leaders such
as the religious leaders and traditional rulers should champion the demystification of
our traditional norms and practices pertaining to disabilities.
4.7.2 Suggestions for quality enhancement in community rehabilitation
1. Advocacy for mainstreaming the systems and services - This requires
commitment across all sectors and built into new and existing legislation, standards,
policies, strategies, and plans.
2. Investment in specific programmes and services for people with disabilities
- In addition to mainstream services, some people with disabilities may require
access to specific measures, support services, or training. In this process,
involvement of persons with disability is of paramount importance as they give
insight into their problems and suggest possible solution.
3. Capacity building of health care providers and programme managers - Human
resource capacity can be improved through effective education, training, and
recruitment. A review of the knowledge and competencies of staff in relevant
areas can provide a starting point for developing appropriate measures to improve
them. Manpower generation by promoting new courses and initiating degree
and diploma courses like Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation can address the
problem of shortage of manpower in the long run.

275
4. Focus on educating disabled children – Care must be taken to educate disabled
children as close to the main stream as possible. This would enable them to
become self-reliant and attain financial stability through employment.
5. Increase public awareness and understanding of disability - Governments,
voluntary organizations, and professional associations should consider running
social marketing campaigns that change attitudes on stigmatized issues such as
HIV, mental illness, and leprosy. Involving the media is vital to the success of
these campaigns and to ensuring the dissemination of positive stories about persons
with disabilities and their families.
6. Generating representative community-based data – This will help to plan
and execute appropriate measures to address the problems of persons living with
disability.
7. Strengthen and support research on disability- Research can help to get authentic
data and explore new possibilities in this area.
The priority is to ensure access to appropriate, timely, affordable, and high-quality
rehabilitation interventions, consistent with the CRPD, for all those who need them.
4.7.2.1 Roles to play in quality enhancement of community based rehabilitation
A broad range of stakeholders have roles to play:
1. Policy making - Governments should develop, implement, and monitor policies,
regulatory mechanisms, and standards for rehabilitation services, as well as promoting
equal access to those services. Policies and regulatory mechanisms assess existing
policies, systems, services, and regulatory mechanisms, identifying gaps and priorities
to improve provision. Develop or revise national rehabilitation plans, in accord with
situation analysis, to maximize functioning within the population in a financially
sustainable manner. International cooperation can help share good and promising
practices and provide technical assistance to countries that are introducing and expanding
rehabilitation services. Prioritize setting of minimum standards and monitoring.
2. Service providers – They should provide the highest quality of rehabilitation
services.
3. Other stakeholders (users, professional organizations etc.) should increase
awareness, participate in policy development, and monitor implementation.
4. Financing - Funding mechanisms should be discovered to increase coverage
and access to affordable rehabilitation services, for instance - promoting equitable

276
 access to rehabilitation through health insurance, expanding social insurance
coverage, enabling public-private partnership for service provision are some.
Reallocation and redistribution of existing resources should be done. Support
through international cooperation can also be sought..
5. Human resources – There should be an increase in the numbers and capacity
of human resources for rehabilitation. Relevant strategies include developing
standards in training for different types and levels of rehabilitation personnel
that can enable career development and continuing education across levels. Establish
strategies to build training capacity in accord with national rehabilitation plans.
Identify incentives and mechanisms for retaining personnel especially in rural
and remote areas. Train non-specialist health professionals (doctors, nurses, primary
care workers) on disability and rehabilitation relevant to their roles and
responsibilities.
6. Service delivery- Where there are none, or only limited services minimum services
should be introduced within existing health and social service provision. Relevant
strategies include: Developing basic rehabilitation services within the existing
health infrastructure; strengthening rehabilitation service provision through
community-based rehabilitation, prioritizing early identification and intervention
strategies using community workers and health personnel. Where services exist,
service coverage should be expanded and service quality improved. Relevant
strategies include: Developing models of service provision that encourage
multidisciplinary and client-centred approaches; ensuring availability of high
quality services in the community; and improving efficiency by improved
coordination between levels and across sectors. In all settings, three principles
are relevant: Include service-users in decision-making; base interventions on
sound research evidence, and monitor and evaluate outcomes.
7. Technology- Access to assistive technology that is appropriate, sustainable,
affordable, and accessible should be improved. Relevant strategies include -
establishing service provision for assistive devices, training users and following
up, promoting local production, reducing duty and import tax, improving economies
of scale based on established need. To further enhance capacity, accessibility
and coordination of rehabilitation measures the use of information and
communication technologies such as tele-rehabilitation can be explored.
8. Research and evidence-based practice - Research and data on needs, type and
quality of services provided, and unmet needs should be promoted. Access to
evidence-based guidelines on cost-effective rehabilitation measures should be
277
 improved. Expenditure data on rehabilitation services from other health care
services should be reduced. The service outcomes and economic benefits of
rehabilitation should be assessed.
9. Community-delivered services - Community-delivered rehabilitation interventions
are an important part of the continuum of rehabilitation services, and can help
improve efficiency and effectiveness of inpatient rehabilitation services.
Community-delivered services also respond to workforce shortages, geographical
population dispersion, changing demographics, and technological innovations.
Efforts to provide rehabilitation more flexibly are increasing, including through
home-based services and schools. Rehabilitation services should be provided as
close as possible to people’s homes and communities.
4.7.3 Strategies to deliver existing services more effectively to people with disabilities
1. Proactively market services –It is necessary to reach out and market to people
with disabilities to increase access to employment services. This strategy is about
infusing a disability perspective into agency marketing efforts and materials.
2. Create customer-friendly environments – It is essential to create universally
accessible and customer-friendly environments for direct employment service
delivery, that is creating environments for providing employment and related
services that are physically, programmatically, and technologically accessible.
3. Provide specialist support to clients as needed – It is important to provide
specialist or advocate support to people with disabilities as needed. This strategy
addresses some of the challenges related to implementing the universal approach
in service delivery practice.
4. Provide staff training – It is necessary to train staff on disability and related
issues to build organizational capacity to more effectively serve people with
disabilities. Strategies ranged from providing formal and informal disability training
and skill-building to staff, training specialist disability staff to assist individuals
with more complex needs who may require more intense supports, to cross-
training staff on disability and related issues.
5. Provide information on benefits and finances – It is essential to calculate
whether people with disabilities would be better off working, and give advice
on work incentives to help them overcome financial worries about return to
work.

278
6. Provide in-work support – It is necessary to provide supports to help people
with disabilities and health conditions do their jobs and stay in work. These
supports can help people retain employment if they acquire a disability or health
condition, or if their condition gets worse.
7. Measure effectiveness of programmes – It is essential to measure the effectiveness
of job finding for people with disabilities to continuously improve employment
service delivery. It is crucial to know how employment services are actually
performing in relation to job finding for people with disabilities.
Strategies to create partnerships to serve people with disabilities better
8. Use disability organizations in providing services - Disability and advocacy
organizations should be engaged in providing direct employment service delivery.
This strategy is about capitalizing on the expertise and experiences of disability
organizations like other government agencies (e.g. State Mental Health
Departments) or community-based disability organizations (e.g. centres for
independent living)—by actively engaging them in direct service delivery
9. Partner and share resources – It is necessary to partner with other service
providers and share resources to provide more comprehensive employment service
delivery but also to prevent duplication.
10. Work closely with employers – It is necessary to understand employers’ needs
as an essential part of the process of finding jobs for people with disabilities.
Whatever strategies or means public employment service agencies use to assist
people with disabilities to find jobs, they need to understand employers’
requirements and that the job seeker must fit the selection criteria for the job
vacancy.
Strategies to provide new services to people with disabilities
11. Develop new services for returning to work – It is necessary to intervene
early to help prevent people from going absence for sickness onto long-term
disability benefits.
12. Develop new services which focus on holistic approaches – It is essential to
help people to understand and manage their disability or health condition so that
they are in a better position to obtain and keep employment.

4.8 Let us sum up

Teaching strategies refer to the structure, system, methods, techniques, procedures
and processes that a teacher uses during instruction to assist student learning. Learning

279
activities refer to the teacher guided instructional tasks or assignments for students.
Indicators of quality teaching learning strategies include –co-operative learning, inquiry-
based instruction, use of technology, engaging diverse learners, etc. Strategies for
students with disabilities differ according to their type and degree. Universal learning
design is proposed all over the world for inclusive classrooms. Classroom environment
is the supportive learning environment that the teacher creates along with the students
which helps the students to feel secured and motivated. There are several indicators
of ideal classroom environment including equitable accessibility, cross cultural
understanding, hands on experience, etc. Student assessment is essential to measure
the progress and performance of individual students. Positive student assessment
should be transparent, ethical, evidence-based, continuous, etc.

Pedagogy refers to the “interactions between teachers, students, and the learning
environment and the learning tasks.” Curriculum can refer to the total structure of
ideas and activities developed by an educational institution to meet the learning needs
of students, and to achieve desired educational aims. . Curriculum states the knowledge
and practices that students are expected to demonstrate in accordance with their age.
On the basis of the same, pedagogical strategies are planned. Contextual teaching
learning is an approach that is done derived from combination of behaviourism and
constructivism theories. It includes behaviourism because it also learns the observable
behaviour produced by the learner to response to the stimuli. While, it includes
constructivism since it engages the students to construct the meaning from their prior
knowledge then relates it with the new knowledge to get the new understanding.
Contextual learning can help bring relevance and meaning to the learning, helping
students relate to the world they live in. Contextual constructivism is the concept of
constructing one’s own knowledge from the existing schema by relating it to some
related contexts or earlier experiences. It has both advantages and challenges while
being implemented in classroom situation.

An Open University is a university which offers the policy of open admissions, distance
and online learning programs. Distance Education is a mode of learning where the
students are not present in person at the site. In this, the student does not have a
direct face to face contact with the teacher but can use various modes to access education,
like e-learning, video conferencing, e-mail, etc. Non-formal education refers to education
that occurs outside the formal school system. Non-formal education is often used
interchangeably with terms such as community education, adult education, lifelong
education and second-chance education. A face-to-face session is one in which

280
participants or students, instructors, and facilitators meet together in the same place
and at the same time. In Open and Distance System of Education standard quality
assurance is guided by the educational philosophy of giving learners choices about
media, print, on-line, television or video, place of study, whether at home, in work
places or on campus, pace of study, whether closely paced or unstructured, support
mechanisms, whether tutors on demand, audio conferences or computer assisted learning,
and entry and exit points. Distance education is comfortable, flexible, self-paced,
multi-sensory, and affordable, while face to face mode is interactive, multi-sensory
and focussed.
Inclusive education is seen as “a process of addressing and responding to the diversity
of needs of all learners through increasing participation in learning, cultures and
communities, and reducing exclusion from education and from within education.”
Inputs, processes and outcomes of inclusive education govern the planning and
implementation of inclusive practices. Strategies for acquisition and use of inputs
and monitoring performance in inclusive set up can be broadly categorised into national
level, school level, social level and family and community level. Indicators of successful
inclusion depict how effectively these strategies have been implemented and practised.
Community based rehabilitation (CBR) is strategy within community development
for the rehabilitation, equalization of opportunities, and social integration of all people
with disabilities. It involves utilisation of available resources, referral services and
community involvement to enhance the quality of life of disabled people by improving
service delivery, creating equitable opportunities and promoting and protecting their
human rights. Service delivery system relates to how services and training are provided
to people with disabilities and their family members at the community level.

4.9 Unit End Exercises

1. Discuss the indicators of quality teaching learning strategies.
2. Discuss the features of an ideal classroom environment.
3. Discuss the indicators of positive student assessment.
. How are curriculum and pedagogy related?
2. Describe the various pedagogical approaches.
3. What is contextual teaching and learning? How is it related to constructivism?
4. What is contextual constructivism and what are its classroom applications?

281
1. Write the features of an open university.
2. Write the characteristics of distance education.
3. Discuss the benchmarks for ensuring standards in open and distance learning
systems.
4. What is non-formal education? Describe its features.
5. Differentiate between distance education and face to face mode of learning.
1. Differentiate between inclusive education and special education.
2. Discuss the indicators of successful inclusion.
3. Discuss the inputs, processes and outcomes involved in inclusive education.
4. Discuss the strategies for utilization of inputs and monitoring performance in an
inclusive set up.
1. What do you mean by Community Based Rehabilitation?
2. What are the Principles of CBR?
3. What are the components of CBR?
4. What are the sectors involved in CBR?
5. Suggest measures for enhancement of service delivery in CBR.

4.10 References
Acheampong, J. Face to face learning and distance learning, Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology, Academia. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://www.academia.edu/6873453/Face_to_face_learning_and_Distance_
learning?auto=download
Ackermann (2001). Piaget’s Constructivism, Papert’s Constructionism: What’s the
Difference. Retrieved on 09.11.2019 from:
https://learning.media.mit.edu
Advantages and disadvantages of distance education, Target Study. Retrieved on
09.11.2019.from:
https://targetstudy.com/distance-education/advantages-disadvantages.php

282
Advantages and Disadvantages of Distance Learning by Nishatha Abraham Bijeesh,
India Education. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
http://www.indiaeducation.net/online-education/articles/advantages-and-disadvantages-
of-distance-learning.html
Alabama quality teaching standards. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
http://alabamagms.blob.core.windows.net/documentlibrary/116ACC67-F6DB-41AF-
B527-D8FB4D220F46.pdf
Alanazi, A. (2016). A Critical Review of Constructivist Theory and the Emergence
of Constructionism. American Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences
(ARJHSS), Vol. 2, pp.1-8. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://www.arjonline.org/papers/arjhss/v2-i1/18.pdf
A Strategy for Rehabilitation, Equalization of Opportunities, Poverty Reduction and
Social Inclusion of People with Disabilities, Joint Position Paper 2004, ILO,
WHO, UNESCO.
A systematic review of the impact of summative assessment and tests on students’
motivation for learning Review conducted by the Assessment and Learning Research
Synthesis Group Evidence for Policy and Practice Information and Co-ordinating
Centre, Institute of Education, University of London. Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://dspace.stir.ac.uk/bitstream/1893/19607/1/
SysRevImpSummativeAssessment2002.pdf
An Input-Process-Outcome Framework for Inclusive Education in the South Susan
J. Peters, Ph.D., Associate Professor, Michigan State University, East Lansing,
Michigan USA, Paper prepared for Presentation at the CASP-DISES South
American Special Education ForumJuly 8-12, 2007, Lima, Peru. Retrieved on
07.11.2019. from:
https://msu.edu › ~speters › CECPeruRev
An introduction to open and distance education, Commonwealth of Learning (2000).
Retrieved on 07.11.2019. from: http://oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/138/
ODLIntro.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y

283
Astha et.al (2012). Inclusive education for disabled at secondary stage in Haryana:
Inputs and action required. International Journal Of Social Sciences &
Interdisciplinary Research ,Vol.1 No. 1. Retrieved on 07.11.2019. from:
https://indianresearchjournals.com
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive
theory
Bernadette, R. (1995). “The Management of Quality in Open and Distance Learning.”
In Indira Gandhi National Open University, Structure and Management of Open
Learning Systems. Proceedings of the Eighth Annual Conference of the Asian
Association of Open Universities, New Delhi, February 20-22, 1995. Vol. 1, pp.
95-109.
Berns, R.G., & Erickson, P. M. (2001). Contextual Teaching and Learning: Preparing
Students for the New Economy. The Highlighted Zone Research @Work. 2(5).
1-8.
Blanchard, A. (2012). Contextual Teaching and Learning.
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognition and the culture of
learning.
Characteristics of Highly Effective Teaching and Learning (CHETL) (2019), Kentucky
Department of Education, Our Children, Our Commonwealth. Retrieved on
05.11.2019.from:
https://education.ky.gov/curriculum/standards/teachtools/Pages/Characteristics-of-
Highly-Effective-Teaching-and-Learning-(CHETL).aspx
Chalmers, D. (2008). Teaching and Learning Quality Indicators in Australian Universities
A selection of papers for the IMHE 2008 General Conference will be published
in the OECD’s Higher Education Management and Policy Journal. Retrieved on
05.11.2019.from:
https://www.oecd.org/site/eduimhe08/41216416.pdf
Chandra, S.S. and Sharma, R.K (2004) Principles of Education. Atlantic Publishers,
New Delhi.
Community-Based Rehabilitation: CBR Guidelines, World Health Organization 2010.
Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK310920/

284
Contextual learning. Wikipedia. Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contextual_learning
Contextual teaching and learning (2013). Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://mydreamarea.wordpress.com/2013/01/06/contextual-teaching-and-learning/
Crawford, M. (2002). Contextual Teaching and Learning: Strategies for Creating
Constructivist Classroom(Conclusion). Connections. 11(9). 1-6 .

Curriculum and Pedagogy: The What and the How of Early Childhood Education.
Eager to Learn: Educating our pre-schoolers (2001). Retrieved on 06.11.2019.
from:
https://www.nap.edu/read/9745/chapter/7#183
Curriculum: concepts and approaches. Professor Mark Priestley. January 4, 2019.
Academic Publications related to CFE. Retrieved on 06.11.2019. from:
https://mrpriestley.wordpress.com/2019/01/04/curriculum-concepts-and-approaches/
Curriculum definition Collection. Dr. Robert Sweetland’s notes. Retrieved on 06.11.2019.
from:
http://www.homeofbob.com/pedagogy/plan/curDev/defList.htm
Curriculum: Its meaning, nature and scope.(2015). Retrieved on 06.11.2019. from:
https://www.slideshare.net/valarpink/curriculum-its-meaning-nature-and-scope
Daniel, P. Et al. (2000). Monitoring School Quality: An Indicators Report. Retrieved
on 06.11.2019. from:
https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2001/2001030.pdf
Deen, I. S., & Smith, B.P .(2006). Contextual teaching and learning practices In the
family and consumer sciences curriculum. Journal of Family and Consumer
Sciences Education. 24 (1).14-27
Definition of strategies and activities. Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
Definition of strategies and activities Teaching strategies refer ...
https://www.nwmissouri.edu › pdf › studentteach › mopta › Task3Definition
Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of
education. Macmillan, New York.

285
Difference Between Open University and Distance Education by Samantha Walker
(2019) Difference.Wiki. Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://www.difference.wiki/open-university-vs-distance-education/
Difference Between Open University and Distance Education by Surbhi, S .(2018).
Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://keydifferences.com/difference-between-open-university-and-distance-
education.html
Distance Learning, 3 May, 2017. Department of Higher Education, Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://mhrd.gov.in/distance-learning
Distance Learning vs Face-to-Face – Benefits and Drawbacks by Nick Cooper (2018),
ncc. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://www.ncchomelearning.co.uk/blog/distance-learning-vs-face-to-face-benefits-
and-drawbacks/
Doll, R.C. (1988) Curriculum improvement: Decision making and process. Published
by. Allyn and Bacon, Boston
Dunlap, J. C., &Lowenthal, P. R. (2009). Tweeting the night away: Using twitter to
enhance
social presence. Journal of Information Systems Education, 20(2), 129.
Effective Teaching Strategies; Teacher Vision; (2000). Excerpted from Swanson, H.L.
(1999). Learning Disabilities Research and Practice, 14(3). Retrieved on
06.11.2019.from:
https://www.teachervision.com/teaching-strategies/effective-teaching-strategies
Effective and appropriate pedagogy, Learning Portal. March, 2018. Retrieved on
06.11.2019.from:
https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/issue-briefs/improve-learning/teachers-and-
pedagogy/effective-and-appropriate-pedagogy
Five Pedagogical Approaches in Teaching by Arthur Guil-an. Academia. Retrieved
on 06.11.2019.from:
https://www.academia.edu/35955322/5_Pedagogical_Approaches_in_Teaching

286
Ganesh Kumar, S., et al.(2012). Disability and Rehabilitation Services in India:
Issues and Challenges. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, Jan-Jun;
1(1): 69–73. Retrieved on 06.11.2019.from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3893941/
Hmelo-Silver, C.E. et al.(2007). Scaffolding and achievement in problem based and
inquiry-learning. A response to Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006). Educational
Psychologist, 42(2), 99-107.Retrieved on 07.11.2019. from
http://www.usc.edu/dept-00/dept/education/cogtech/publications/hmelo_ep07.pdf
Five standards of effective pedagogy. Teaching Tolerance. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://www.tolerance.org/professional-development/five-standards-of-effective-
pedagogy
Hudson,C.C., & Whisler, V. R. (2007). Contextual Teaching and Learning for
Practitioners. Valdosta. Adult and Career Education of Vadolsta State University/
Imel, S. (2000). Contextual learning in Adult education. Brief no.12. Eric.
h t t p s : / / w w w. a s e c . p u r d u e . e d u / l c t / H B C U / d o c u m e n t s /
ContextualLearninginAdultEducation.pdf
Inclusive Education Framework: A guide for schools for the inclusion of pupils with
special educational needs. National Council for Special Education, November,
2011. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://ncse.ie/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/
InclusiveEducationFramework_InteractiveVersion.pdf
Inclusive Education strategy, Montenegro 2019 – 2025, Publisher UNICEF Country
Ofûce in Montenegro Ministry of Education of Montenegro (2019). Retrieved
on 09.11.2019.from:
h t t p s : / / w w w. u n i c e f . o r g / m o n t e n e g r o / m e d i a / 7 8 7 6 / f i l e / M N E - m e d i a -
MNEpublication312.pdf
Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook, University of Minnesota, United States
of America Armenian, State Pedagogical University, Republic of Armenia, UNICEF
Armenia, 2018.Ed: Renáta Tichá, et al. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://www.unicef.org/armenia/media/3501/file/
Inclusive%20education%20strategies_Textbook_2018.pdf

287
Individual with Disabilities and Education Act (1990, 1997, 2004). United States
Department of Education: Office of Special Education Research Service
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, 2 May 2017. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.39
Jaap Scheerens (2004) Perspectives on Education Quality, Education Indicators and
Benchmarking, European Educational Research Journal, 3.1.3 (University of
Twente, the Netherlands) pp 116-138. Retrieved on 08.11.2019.from:
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.2304/eerj.2004.3.1.3
Johnson, E.B. (2002). Contextual teaching and learning :what it is and why it is here
to stay. London :Routledge Falmer.
Jonassen, D. H. (1991). Objectivism versus constructivism: Do we need a new
philosophical
Ketter, C.T. & Arnold, J. (2003).” Implementing Contextual Teaching and Learning:
Case Study of Nancy, a High School Science Novice Teacher. Final Report.
Georgia: Department of Education at University of Georgia.
Koul, B.N. (2006) Towards a culture of Quality in Open Distance Learning: Present
Possibilities, in Koul, B.N. and Kanwar, A. (eds), Towards a Culture of Quality,
Commonwealth of Learning, Vancouver.
Latchem, C. (2016). Open and Distance Learning Quality Assurance in Commonwealth
Universities. Commonwealth of Learning. Retrieved on 09.11.2019. from:
oasis.col.org/bitstream/handle/11599/2046/2016_Latchem_ODL-Quality-Assurance.pdf
Lowenthal, P. R. (2012). Social presence: What is it? How do we measure it? (Doctoral
Dissertation), University of Colorado, Denver, CO
Mannan, H. and Turnbul, A.P. (2007). A Review Of Community Based Rehabilitation
Evaluations: Quality Of Life As An Outcome Measure For Future Evaluations,
Asia Pacific Disability Rehabilitation Journal, Vol 18, No.1, pp.29-45.
Mayer, R. (2004). Should there be a three-strikes rule against pure discovery learning?
The case for guided methods of instruction. American Psychologist, 59, 14–19
Module 1- Concept of non-formal education. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
http://content.inflibnet.ac.in/data-server/eacharya-documents/
53e0c6cbe413016f23443703_INFIEP_32/9/ET/32-9-ET-V1-S1__module.pdf

288
Monitoring Framework for Inclusive Education In Serbia, UNICEF, September, 2014.
Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
http://socijalnoukljucivanje.gov.rs/wp-content/uploads/2014/11/Okvir-za-pracenje-
inkluzivnog-obrazovanja-u-Srbiji-eng.pdf
Moore, M. G. & Thompson, M.M. (1990). The effects of distance learning: A summary
of the literature. Research Monograph No. 2. University Park, The Pennsylvania
State University, American Center for the Study of Distance Education (ED 330
321)
National Education Policy (Draft) 2019. Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Government of India. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://mhrd.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/Draft_NEP_2019_EN_Revised.pdf
Non Formal Education (NFE), Study Lecture Notes. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
http://studylecturenotes.com/non-formal-education-nfe/
Non-formal Education (2015), Ed: Bernadette Blakey. Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
http://etec.ctlt.ubc.ca/510wiki/Nonformal_Education
Ogunleye, A. (2013) Quality Assurance and Quality Indicators in Open and Distance
Education: Context, Concerns and Challenges. International Journal of Educational
Research and Technology (2013), Volume 4[2], pp 49–62. Retrieved on
7.11.2019.from:
http://www.soeagra.com/ijert/ijertjune2013/8.pdf
Olaogun, M.O.B., Nyante, G.G.G., Ajediran, A.I.(2009). Overcoming the Barriers for
Participation by the Disabled: An appraisal and global view of community-based
rehabilitation in community development.AJPARS Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 24- 29.
Retrieved on 7.11.2019.from:
https://www.ajol.info/index.php/ajprs/article/viewFile/51312/39973
Open File on Inclusive Education, UNESDOC Digital Library
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000125237
Ormrod, J. E. (2012). Human learning. Boston, MA: Pearson
Outcomes of higher education: Quality relevance and impact. 8-10 September 2008
Paris, France.

289
Palincsar, A.S.(1998). Keeping the metaphor of scaffolding fresh- A response to Addison
Stone’s “The metaphor of scaffolding: Its utility for the field of learning disability,
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 31(4). 370-373.
Paris, S. G., & Winograd, P. (2006). Preparing Teachers to Use Contextual Teaching
and Learning Strategies To Improve Student Success In and Beyond School.
Paper. London : Department of Education Project.
Peters, S.J. (2004). Inclusive Education: An EFA Strategy For All Children, World
Bank.
Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from: http://Siteresources.Worldbank.Org/Education/
Resources/278200-1099079877269/547664-1099079993288/
Inclusiveedu_Efa_Strategy_For_Children.Pdf
Planning and Management of Open and Distance Learning, The Commonwealth of
Learning, and Asian Development Bank (1997).
Principles of quality assessment, Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority,
25th July, 2018, K12 Policies and Resources. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://www.qcaa.qld.edu.au/about/k-12-policies/student-assessment/understanding-
assessment/principles-quality-assessment
Proceedings of Two days National Conference on Distance Education in India: Emerging
Challenges and Prospects. September 8-9, 2016.Organised by Directorate of
Distance Education Pondicherry University. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
http://www.pondiuni.edu.in/sites/default/files/
DDE%20Conference%20Proceedings%20Sept%208-9%202016.pdf
Putnam, A.R., & Leach, L. (2004). Contextual Teaching with Computer-Assisted
Instruction. Paper. Carbondale: Department of Workforce Education and
Development.
Quality and learning Indicators, Learning Portal. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://learningportal.iiep.unesco.org/en/issue-briefs/monitor-learning/quality-and-
learning-indicators
Quality Indicators, NCERT, Chapter 9, pp 85-93. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
http://www.ncert.nic.in/departments/nie/dse/deptt/activities/pdfs/Chapter_9.pdf

290
Qualities of Good Assessment Practices, Algonquin College. Retrieved on
07.11.2019.from:
https://www.algonquincollege.com/profres/assessing-students/qualities-of-good-
assessment-practices
Rehabilitation. World Report on Disability (2011). Chapter 4. WHO Pp 95-133. Retrieved
on 07.11.2019.from:
https://www.who.int/disabilities/world_report/2011/chapter4.pdf
Robinson, B.(1992). ‘Applying, quality standards in open and distance learning’,
Paper presented at Quality, Standards and Research in European Distance
Education Conference, University of Umeå, Sweden, March 5–6. Organised by
EADTU (European Association of Distance Teaching Universities) and SADE
(Swedish Association of Distance Education).The Management of Quality in
Open and Distance Learning. Retrieved on 08.11.2019.from:
http://web.worldbank.org/archive/website00236B/WEB/Q_01.HTM
Robinson, B., 1994, ‘Assuring quality in open and distance learning’, in F. Lockwood
(ed), Materials Production in Open and Distance Learning. London: Paul Chapman
Publishing, Ltd., pp. 187–188)
Rogers, P. et al (2005). Encyclopaedia if Distance Learning. Second edition, volume
1. ISBN 978-1-60566-198-8 (hardcover). Published in the United States of America
by Information Science Reference, London,UK . Retrieved on 09.11.2019.from:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/506a/48f76b77a27dbfce9e0e9b9ef202bb4a49f4.pdf
Rowntree, D. (1981). A Dictionary of education, pp 354. Harper & Row, London.
Sassaki, R. (2004). Goiás, Brazil: The Statewide Education Program for
Diversity from an Inclusive Perspective. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
SATURN, 1991, Quality Guide for Open and Distance Learning, Pilot Version,
Amsterdam, SATURN.
Satriani,I., Emilia, E., & Gunawan, M. H. (2012). Contextual Teaching and Learning
Approach to Teaching Writing. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics. 2(1)
.10-22.
Scheerens, J. (Ed.), Luyten, J. W. (Ed.),and van Ravens, J. (Ed.), (2011). Perspectives
on educational quality: illustrative outcomes on primary and secondary schooling
in the Netherlands. Springer Briefs in Education; No. 1). Dordrecht: Springer.
Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
291
https://research.utwente.nl/en/publications/perspectives-on-educational-quality-
illustrative-outcomes-on-prim
Sharehu, A.L. Quality Assurance Mechanisms in Open and Distance Education: The
Case of Some Key ODE Institutions in Nigeria, International Achievements
Research Centre.
Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://achievementscenter.com/about-us/international-tribune/international-tribune-
articles/245-dr-aminu-ladan-sharehu
Schuelka, M.J. (2018) Implementing Inclusive Education. K4D, Knowledge, Evidence
and Learning for Development. Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5c6eb77340f0b647b214c599/
374_Implementing_Inclusive_Education.pdf
Siraj-Blatchford, I. (2008). Understanding the relationship between curriculum, pedagogy
and progression in learning in early childhood. Honkong Journal of Early Childhood,
(Vol.7). No.2, pp.6-13. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
http://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2236&context=sspapers
Statistical Analysis Report. Department of Education Office of Educational Research
and Improvement, NCES 2001
Strategies to Improve Integrated Service Delivery to People with Disabilities. US
And UK Routes To Employment: Strategies To Improve Integrated Service Delivery
To People With Disabilities. IBM Centre for the Business of Government.pp.16-
30. Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://www.communityinclusion.org/pdf/BoeltzigUSUKStrategies.pdf
Teaching strategies
http://www.gmu.edu/resources/facstaff/part-time/strategy.html
Ten Indicators of Efficient Teaching by Teacher taught staff, July, 2018. Retrieved on
05.11.2019.from:
https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/10-habits-effective-teachers/
The Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on Special Needs Education,
UNESCO, (1994).

292
Thijs, A. and van den Akker, J. (2009). Curriculum in Development. Enschede, The
Netherlands: SLO.
Thirty two Research-Based Instructional Strategies by TeachThought Staff (2019).
Retrieved on 07.11.2019.from:
https://www.teachthought.com/pedagogy/32-research-based-instructional-
strategies/
Thomas, D., & Brown, J. S. (2011). A new culture of learning: Cultivating the imagination
for a world of constant change (Vol.219). Lexington KY:CreateSpace
Tichá, R. Et al. (2018). Inclusive Education Strategies: A Textbook. University of
Minnesota, USA, UNICEF Armenia, Republic of Armenia Paula. Retrieved on
05.11.2019.from:
https://www.unicef.org/armenia/media/3501/file/Inclusive%20education%20
strategies_Textbook_2018.pdf
Tong, S. (2014). Some reflections on the design of contextual learning and teaching
materials. Department of Physics, The Chinese University of Hong Kong.
Top ten Evidence Based Teaching Strategies (2017 ) by Teachers Retrieved on
05.11.2019.from:
https://thetuitionteacher.com/blog/top-10-evidence-based-teaching-strategies/
Top ten disadvantages of distance learning by Mike Hutt, ezTalks, (2017). Retrieved
on 05.11.2019.from:
https://www.eztalks.com/elearning/top-10-disadvantages-of-distance-learning.html
Understanding Community-Based Rehabilitation, Economic And Social Commission
For Asia And The Pacific, United Nations, New York 1998. Disability Information
Resources. Retrieved on 05.11.2019.from:
https://www.dinf.ne.jp/doc/english/intl/z15/z15011un/z1501101.html
UNESCO, 2004. Global Education Digest 2004.Comparing Education Statistics Across
the World. UNESCO Institute for Statistics, Montréal, 2004. Published by UNESCO
Institute for Statistics, Quebec,Canada. Retrieved on 05.11.2019. Retrieved on
05.11.2019.from:
http://www.unesco.org/education/docs/EN_GD2004_v2.pdf

293
UNESDOC Digital Library. UNESCO (2017, pp. 17–36) Retrieved on 05.11.2019
from
https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000261971
Verduin, J. R. & Clark, T. A. (1991). Distance education: The foundations of effective
practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher mental process.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
What is Inclusive Education. Interview with UNESCO-IBE Director, Clementina.
Retrieved on 05.11.2019 from: http://unesco.org.pk/education/icfe/resources/
res41.pdf
What is Special Education by Sue Watson, November 13, 2019, Thought Co. Retrieved
on 05.11.2019 from: https://www.thoughtco.com/what-is-special-education-
3110961
Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by Design. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Wijarwadi, W. (2008). The Effectiveness of Contextual Teaching and Learning in
Teaching Speaking. Paper. Jakarta: Undergraduate Program of Syarif
HIDAYATULLAH State Islamic University.

294
Unit - 5 p Current Trends and Future Perspective

Structure
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Objectives
5.3 Education as a development indicator, and enhancer of development
indicators
5.4 Education for sustainable development & Right based approach
5.5 International curriculum framework in the light of changing priorities and
international perspectives
5.6 Education for conservation of environment and social change
5.7 Education for Individual and National Development
5.8 Let us sumup
5.9 Unit end exercises
5.10 References

5.1 Introduction :
Education isone of the basic indicators of the development of national economies. Most
of the developed countries invest in knowledge and human capital for implementing
their development strategies. The concept of sustainable development emerged as a
response to an increasing concern about human society's impact on the natural
environment. The sustainable development movement has grown and campaigned on
the basis that sustainability protects both the interests of future generations and the
earth's capacity to regenerate. Education helps in unfolding the latent powers or talents
for the purpose of harnessing the process of national development and personal
development. alone. To protect children living in polluted regions, environmental
education represents a relevant means of prevention because this type of education
encourages learners' awareness of their environment's ambient conditions, as well as
their active participation in solving local problems.

295
5.2 Objective :
1. Students will come to know and understand how education acts as development
indicator.
2. What is sustainable development and role of Education for sustainable
development.

5.3 Education as a development indicator, and enhancer of

development indicators
Usually a numerical measure of quality of life in a country. Indicatorsare used to
understand the improvements of a country in meeting economic, social, and
environmental objectives. Education isone of the basic indicators of the development
of national economies. Therefore, education, at all level, is considered to be a priority
of the nation which contributes to economic and social development. Highly-educated
workforce is of special importance for the creation of a knowledge-based economy.
Most of the developed countries invest in knowledge and human capital for
implementing their development strategies. The different subunits of education that
can be considered as development indicators are:
i. Adult literacy rate: It is defined as percentage of population aged 15years and
above who can both read and write with understanding a simple statement and
ability of simple arithmetical calculation in everyday life. Literacy ensures
individual’s potential for further intellectual growth and socio-economic and cultural
development. High rate of literacy confirms the existance of effective primary
education and adult literacy programme that have enabled the population to acquire
ability for reading, writing and arithmetic.
ii. Literacy Gender Parity Index: the ration of the male to female adult literacy measures
progress towards gender equity in literacy and learning opportunity available to
male and female. It also indicate women empowerment in socity. When the index
is one it can be said the male and female literacy rates are equal, if it is less than
one it can be said fewer women than men have basic literacy skill. Again if the
index is more than one it is said that fewer men have basic literacy skill.
iii. Expenditure on Adult and Continuing Education: this indicator shows the portion
of total expenditure of government on adult and continuing education. The high
percentage of government expenditure in this account indicates government priority
given to this section in resource allocation.

296
iv. Enrolment in Pre Primary Education Institutions(ECCE): In order to measure the
growth of enrolment over time the enrolment in ECCE should be observed for a
longer duration of time like years. As the ratio grows high it indicates the state is
able to accommodate all children in the official age group of ECCE.
v. Primary Grade Pupils having attended some form of organized Early Childhood
Care Education Programmes: number of new students in primary Grade 1 helps to
know the proportion of students who have received some preparation for primary
schooling. This indicates a large number of students have participated in organised
learning activities before entering primary school.
vi. Locality having Primary school facility within 1km.: this indicator is used to know
whether the schooling facility is equally available to all children or not. This
accessibility of school is influenced by factors like distance from house, time to
reach school and transport.
vii. Number of Primary Schools: Primary schools impart education upto grade IV/V.
over a period of time the increase or decrease in the number of Primary Schools
indicates the growth in primary education in particular locality.
viii. Primary schools having Toilet Facility: availability of schools does not ensure proper
and sufficient infrastructural facility which is essential for attracting students.
Separate toilet for girls, drinking water, playground, electricity etc are also needed.
ix. Intake capacity of schools: high intake rate high access to primary education, both
private and public schools.care should be taken while calculating the repeaters in
grade I.

5.4 Education for sustaiznable development & Right based

approach
What is sustainable development?
The concept of sustainable development emerged as a response to an increasing concern
about human society's impact on the natural environment. The concept of sustainable
development was defined in 1987 by the Brundtland Commission (formally the World
Commission on Environment and Development) as 'development that meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs' (Brundtland, 1987). This means development may be necessary to meet human
needs and improve the quality of life, it must happen without effecting the capacity of
the natural environment to meet present and future needs. The sustainable development

297
movement has grown and campaigned on the basis that sustainability protects both the
interests of future generations and the earth's capacity to regenerate.
What role does education play in sustainable development?
Education of good quality is an essential tool for achieving a more sustainable world.
Education for sustainable development (ESD) promotes the development of the
knowledge, skills, understanding, values and actions required to create a sustainable
world, which ensures environmental protection and conservation, promotes social equity
and encourages economic sustainability. The concept of ESD developed largely from
environmental education, which has sought to develop the knowledge, skills, values,
attitudes and behaviours in people to care for their environment. The aim of ESD is to
enable people to make decisions and carry out actions to improve our quality of life
without compromising the planet. It also aims to integrate the values inherent in
sustainable development into all aspects and levels of learning.
It is generally accepted that certain characteristics are important for the successful
implementation of ESD, reflecting the equal importance of both the learning process
and the outcomes of the education process (adapted from 'UN Decade of Sustainable
Development' UNESCO Nairobi Cluster, 2006). ESD should:
l Be embedded in the curriculum in an interdisciplinary and holistic manner,
allowing for a whole-institution approach to policy making.
l Share the values and principles that influence sustainable development.
l Promote critical thinking, problem solving and action, which develop confidence
in addressing the challenges to sustainable development.
l Employ a variety of educational methods, such as literature, art, drama and debate
to illustrate the processes.
l Allow learners to participate in decision-making on the design and content of
educational programmes.
l Address local as well as global issues, and avoid jargon-ridden language and terms.
l Look to the future, ensuring that the content has a long-term perspective and uses
medium and long-term planning.
Key concepts of sustainable development:
I. Needs and rights of future generations.
II. Quality of life, equity and justice.

298
III. Inter dependence- of society, economy and the natural environment, from local to
global.
IV. Citizenship and stewardship-rights and responsibilities, participation and
cooperation.
V. Diversity - cultural, social, economic and biological.
VI. Sustainable change - development and carrying capacity. So, Education for
sustainable development is very often a matter of extending, rather than replacing
current thinking and practice.
To promote ESD, the United Nations Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development, 2005-2014, (DESD) was adopted by the UN General Assembly with the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation with the aim to integrate
the principles, values and practices of sustainable development into all aspects of
education and learning. This aims to encourage changes in behaviour that will create a
more sustainable future. One of the most important aspects of the DESD is the recognition
that ESD must engage a wide range of stakeholders from government, private sector,
civil society, non-governmental organisations and the general public.
In its International Implementation Scheme (IIS) for DESD, UNESCO states that
ESD is fundamentally about values, particularly respect for others, including those of
present and future generations, for difference and diversity, for the environment and for
the planet's resources (UNESCO, 2006). Education enables us to understand ourselves
and others and our links with the wider natural and social environment; this understanding
serves as a durable basis for building respect. Along with a sense of justice, responsibility,
exploration and dialogue, ESD aims to move us toward adopting behaviours and practices
which will enable us all to live a full life without being deprived of basic human needs.
Main themes of education for sustainable development:
There are many common themes between Education for sustainable development and
education for all and the United Nations literacy decade. Such as
1. Promotion and Improvement of basic education.
2. Reorienting existing education at all level to address sustainable development.
3. Development public awareness and understanding of sustainability.
4. Training and skills development for the world of work
5. Overcoming poverty

299
6. Gender Equality
7. Health promotion
8. Environmental conservation and protection
9. Rural Transformation : Education for Rural people
10. Human Rights
11. Intercultural Understanding and peace
12. Cultural Diversity
13. Information and Communication Technologies (IcTs)
Poverty alleviation through appropriate economic development is one of the key pillars
on which sustainable development will be achieved.
What is the relationship between ESD, EE and DE?
The relationship between environmental education, education for sustainable
development and development education is complicated, they have similarities and
dissimilarities as well. These three are concerned with behavioural change through
education and the promotion of values, attitudes and understanding.
Environmental education developed from the concern that human development was
having profoundly damaging effects on the natural environment and its primary aim is
the protection and conservation of the environment including natural habitats and
ecosystems. Development education's primary concern is the reduction of poverty, the
promotion of social justice and the improvement of quality of life for people. It addresses
basic human needs and links local and global actions.
Development education focuses on interdependence and interconnectedness between
people on both a global and local perspective but does not traditionally extend this to
ecosystem interdependence or specific environmental concerns. The social issues of
human rights, social injustice, human poverty and world citizenship are the concerned
of DE. It is concerned with the building of knowledge, understanding, skills, attitudes,
values and behaviours necessary to enable people to critically examine the world, its
development and to act to make it a more just and equitable place. It has much in
common with other forms of social and political education (DCI, 2003). Human rights
education, peace education, multicultural education, education on race and race issues,
environmental education and ultimately citizenship education all have overlapping
features and concerns with development education, although each has its own distinct
character and focus.
300
Education for sustainable development's primary concern is the improvement of the
quality of life for people without damaging the environment. Therefore although all
three 'educations' have much in common they differ in their primary goal.
Education for sustainable development expands upon the social and human rights
dimension in DE and other educational sectors to include a strong environmental focus.
ESD shares many similarities with DE which deals with issues such as climate change,
oil shortages, water pollution, the need to maintain biodiversity. ESD and DE also employ
similar methodologies including: critical thinking and problem solving, experiential
learning, role play, guided interpretation, debate, futures thinking and participatory
decision making.
The underlying principles of ESD as outlined by UNESCO highlight the importance of
respect and care for life in all its diverse forms: this involves the protection and restoration
of the earth's ecosystems, respect for the dignity and human rights of people, respect for
the rights of future generations and respect for cultural diversity.
On the basis of the inter-sectoral relationships described above can we suggest that
ESD is the umbrella for many of the other 'educations' or is ESD an element of all these
'educations'? This question is likely to sustain further debate but we can suggest that in
the future these forms of education begin to identify areas of commonality with each
other, begin to work more collaboratively in areas of common good and work more
closely to achieve their goals. Each sector may be concerned with an ultimately different
goal but working together in the achievement of areas of common good is likely to
result in a more strategic approach and more beneficial outcomes. Education for
sustainable development can provide the space for this collaborative work to unfold.
A healthy population and safe environments are important pre-conditions for sustainable
development. There can be no long-term economic or social development on a unhealthy
planet.
The present world is environmentally less sustainable than in the previous days In spite
of conducting more number of conferences, seminars and world summits towards the
protection of environment, The reason is very definite. The poor developing countries
suffer from lack of financial and skilled manpower resources whereas the rich developed
countries appeared to be reasonably content with the progress they had made. In order
to achieve the acceptable level of global environmental sustainability, the citizens must
be empowered with essential knowledge and information. Then only they can exert
pressure on their elected representatives to develop and implement policies for securing
environmental sustainability. The awareness among the public and industrial generators

301
have to be created and motivated by the updated techniques and incorporating the
innovative and implementable solutions to reform our economy. These can be achieved
through environmental education .
Thus, environmental education has two essential components:
l Alerting the public to the need to achieve global sustainable development and the
likely consequences of failing to do so.
l Focusing the educational curricula for global sustainable development by
incorporating the know-how and skills and also the moral imperatives.
l To have a clear idea about the environmental education, more awareness about the
following issues are needed.
l Difference between sustainable development and environmental sustainability.
l Unique definition for sustainable development
l Depending on Science and Technology alone will deliver environmental
sustainability?
Sustainable development and environmental sustainability
Unfortunately, experience shows that in the environmental community there are many
who do not understand the true meaning of sustainable development. In addition, the
environmental community must discharge its collective professional responsibility in
ways that are consistent with the core requirements of sustainable development and
global environmental sustainability.
The common definition for sustainable development is as follows:
" Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generation to meet their own needs"
The resource base is not inexhaustible, it follows that there must exist some limit beyond
which the rate of exploitation of natural resources to supply the open ended and increasing
demand for goods and services will compromise the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs. Therefore, it is clear that sustainable development is economic
development that exclusively relies upon and is firmly rooted in the integrity and
sustainability of the natural environment. National resources management has emerged
in line with the evolving concept of sustainable development over the past three decades.
If nature's resource base is irredeemably depleted or irreversibly degraded , the means
of wealth creation for social welfare will be seriously jeopardised. Without environmental
sustainability, it is impossible to achieve sustainable development.
302
Unique definition for sustainable development
At present, there is no unique operational definition for sustainable development. The
reason is that there is no single indicator for comparing the relative progress made by
different countries or regions towards sustainable development at a given time or for
measuring progress made by a given country or region over time. This lack has been
impeding progress towards global sustainable development.
The operational definition of sustainable global development:
"Sustainable global development requires that those who are more affluent adopt
lifestyles within the planet's ecological means - for example, in their use of energy ."
Therefore, if the international community is at all serious about achieving even a modest
degree of global sustainable development, its operational definition must be based on
the reduction in consumption of goods and services by the affluent within and between
nations. Such a definition will pave the way both to developing a simple and unique
indicator to measure sustainable development and to a more equitable distribution of
wealth and resources among nations. The production and consumption must be curbed
to achieve even a modest degree of sustainable development and determined efforts
must be made to reduce consumption through formal education. The eminent French
anthropologist Levi - Strauss's view is that " Man is not a privileged inhabitant of the
universe, but merely a passing species that will leave only a few faint traces of its
passage when it becomes extinct".
Science, technology and environmental sustainability
Role of science and technology in delivering environmental sustainability:
There is a strong belief in the international scientific community that the environmental
problems can be solved and sustainable development and global environmental
sustainability achieved only with the application of science and technology alone. But
the progress towards sustainable development is dependent upon a fundamental change
in societies' attitude to nature and the environment. It is only with such enlightenment
that the affluent would be willing to adopt less consumptive lifestyles commensurate
with the Earth's ecological capacity. Science and technology, however advanced, cannot
help in this matter. Hence, what is needed to bring about this change of attitude is
education in moral and ethical philosophy. In the young minds, it is essential to reinforce
the environment-respecting moral values.
Sustainable development through science and technology :
It is very hard to find any aspect of modern life untouched by science and technology.
Directly or indirectly they have brought immense benefits to human societies, and it

303
has given us the means to understand how the physical world around us works. The
impacts of science and technology are determined by how they are applied, why they
are applied, and whether or not we choose to apply them in the first place. As for the
natural environment is concerned, whether they turnout to be good or bad is determined
by their environmental impacts.
Following the industrial revolution, economic development through industrialisation
based on science and technology became the norm. But in the international organisations
such as World Bank and International Monetary Fund, environmental degradation is
considered as the norm.
Science and technology have brought immense benefits. However we are paying a high
'price' for it in terms of environmental degradation and the 'price' is escalating to thwart
the achievement of even a modest degree of globally sustainable development. And
this has serious implications for future generations.
An analysis would show that the main contribution of science and technology to
environmental protection has been in two distinct areas. First, alerting us to potential or
manifest environmental problems. For example, it is through science that the global
impacts of some of our polluting activities have been discovered mainly in terms of
qualitative cause-effect relationships. Typically, it was through science that CFC
emissions were found to be the cause of stratospheric ozone depletion. Once a
scientifically sound cause-effect relationship is established, appropriate measures (such
as the Montreal Protocol in the case of ozone depletion) may be taken up by the
international community to modify our lifestyle in a way that reduces or stops further
environmental degradation. However, neither science nor technology can be applied to
repair the damage already caused. For example, neither can offer an economically viable
method of restoring the stratospheric ozone layer to its pristine state.
The only hope is that if we reduce or stop further CFC emissions, in due course the
problem would probably (or possibly) be solved by nature's own capacity for
regeneration. And second, while science and technology can offer economically viable
solutions to small-scale environmental problems, such as those for treating municipal
wastewater or restoring relatively small areas of contaminated land, they cannot be
applied to solve large-scale or global man-made problems, or to alleviate their impacts
that must be addressed to achieve global environmental sustainability.
So we are compelled to conclude that although science and technology can help the
process of sustainable development and global environmental sustainability in a limited
way, they cannot deliver them. Science and technology are exclusively concerned with

304
treating the effluent and not the cause. Hence, this conventional approach, which focuses
only on symptoms, cannot bring meaningful progress towards global sustainable
development.
If science and technology can deliver sustainable development, then the rich developed
countries should be the most sustainable. On the contrary, they are the biggest consumers
and polluters. For example, USA with 4.5% of the world's population, it consumes an
estimated 25% of the world's resources and produces an estimated 26% of global
pollution. Such a nation cannot be said to be sustainable.
Environmental awareness through education
Teaching methodology in schools :
Over the course of the last century, the principal types of infantile diseases have evolved
a great deal. For children in industrialised countries, environmentally related diseases
like asthma, lead poisoning, cancer and certain neurological or behavioural problems
have progressively replaced infectious diseases. Even if, in the environmental health
field, it is still difficult to attribute the cause of these new diseases to pollutants or
specific environmental conditions, we recognise that toxic materials are more harmful
to children than adults. Children ingest greater quantities of toxins because they breathe
twice as much air, consume three to four times as much food, and drink two to seven
times as much water relative to their body weight, than adults. Children are thus
particularly vulnerable to pollutants present in the air that they breathe, water that they
drink, food that they eat and environments in which they grow, learn and play .
To protect children living in polluted regions, environmental education represents a
relevant means of prevention because this type of education encourages learners'
awareness of their environment's ambient conditions, as well as their active participation
in solving local problems. However, ways to utilise Environmental Education in the
environmental health field have yet to be developed. The students have to be invited to
participate in an educational process, which includes various activities allowing them
to construct broader (more developed) ideas on pollution and the pollution-health
relationship.
Young children's ideas about pollution
The young minds may be moulded very easily and they will be having their own ideas
and concepts about pollution. The ten year old children have the idea about pollution as
follows:

305
"Pollution is what people don't want and throw on the ground … it harms animals and
humans. We can see, touch, taste and smell pollution … people don't want to live with
pollution."
Nine and ten year old students thus conceive pollution as the presence of harmful garbage
. They are incapable of identifying the precise consequences of pollution on the state of
their health.
In a similar way the 14-year-old children have got different opinions about pollution.
"Pollution comes from garbage we throw out that isn't biodegradable. It kills fish and
harms the environment, plants and other living organisms. It is mostly chemical in
nature … Even if we don't always see it, pollution affects our planet."
Thus concepts about pollution varies under the different age groups and the 14 year old
have got a little bit clear concept about pollution that it harms all living organisms.
The evolution of children's conceptions:
Children's conceptions are personal interpretations of natural phenomena they believe
in and use to solve problems, draw conclusions and make generalisation about the facts
of daily life. Children's conceptions can be considered as different from those of the
scientific community, but they stem from modes of reasoning that are organised and
relevant to them. More and more researchers consider a child's reasoning plausible and
firmly based on his or her prior knowledge.
One of the goals of science education or environmental education (EE) at the elementary
level is the evolution of children's initial conceptions into conceptions that are more
thought-out and/or closer to those of the scientific community. This evolution is called
conceptual change . During this "gradual process, the initial conceptual structures based
on infantile interpretations of daily experiences are continuously enriched and
restructured" . The cyclical process is characterised by multiple phases of inductive and
deductive work . This is how conceptual change supposes an important modification of
students' initial ideas about a phenomenon, toward notions closer to those of accepted
science.
This modification of initial ideas may be:
l complete: the old concept is totally replaced by a new one
l peripheral: the initial idea persists and is included in the new concept.
More specifically, students' initial conceptions may suffer several transformations in
response to a conceptual change: concepts may be added or subtracted , links between

306
concepts can also be added or excised, or the initial ideas' structure may be radically
modified . In science or in environmental education, noting a conceptual change in
students constitutes tangible proof that learning has occurred. The goal of conceptual
change is not easy to attain however. Students begin a lesson or scientific theme with
firm beliefs about a scientific phenomenon and its relationship to other phenomena.
Several situations may present themselves and limit conceptual change:
l Understanding the phenomenon may turn out to be too difficult.
l Students might understand a new theory about a phenomenon, but not believe it
l They may firmly believe their initial idea to be valid and ignore some data to
preserve that first opinion
l They may demonstrate little interest in the studied phenomenon
l Finally, members of the community where the students live can share different
opinions and conceptions than those to be developed by students, holding back the
learning process.
l Teaching strategies favouring conceptual change:
Several pedagogical strategies that favour conceptual change have been identified. Posner
et al.'s conceptual change model was one of the most experimented with and criticised.
According to Posner et al , several conditions must be met for a learner to decide to
modify one of his or her conceptions. An individual must first experience dissatisfaction
with the initial conception. That individual must then understand the new conception
that is proposed and find it plausible. Finally, he or she must find that the new conception
enriches his or her knowledge.
Hewson and Thorley , inspired by Posner et al , however clarify that in the course of the
conceptual change process, the initial conception considered relevant at the beginning
progressively loses its status to be replaced by a conception closer to that of accepted
science. The idea is to first invite students to express their ideas regarding a given
phenomenon and then present them with a demonstration that counters those ideas. The
resulting cognitive conflict then provokes dissatisfaction and the remainder of the
conceptual change process occurs naturally. Goals, values and feelings of efficiency
and control are also influential factors in the conceptual change process. Students' goals
and perceptions are components that influence their commitment on the path toward
the modification of conceptual structures.
Finally, the classroom context influences the interaction between motivational and
cognitive factors in learners. A teacher must, during the educational process, encourage
307
the expression of a variety of ideas from different people in the class and must invite
them to fully explain their ideas. The teacher must also make use of metacognition and
ask students to think about the value of their ideas. It is thus important to supply students
with a learning environment that encourages the expression of their ideas and beliefs,
and then to make them have significant experiences that allow them to understand the
limits of those ideas and beliefs, and consequently to motivate students to revise them.
Researchers also propose other strategies designed to favour conceptual change.
Experiential learning, or real contact with people and objects in the environment is one
of these. Pruneau and Lapointe define experiential learning as a process through which
the participants fashion their ideas and beliefs through affective and cognitive transactions
with their biophysical and social environments. Bell contends that experiential learning
consists of a relationship between people and their environment during which a meaning
is discovered.
In the field of Environmental Education, Sauvé explains the stages of experiential
learning in the following manner.
l concrete experimentation is a mode of learning centred on feeling . During this
stage, the learner is in a learning or problem-solving situation; one gains new
experiences by interacting with one's environment.
l reflective observation is centred on the act of observing . The learner must observe,
reflect and try to understand reality from his or her experiences.
l conceptualisation , the learner thinks about , fashions and constructs his or her
conceptions
l active experimentation is centred on the act of doing . At this stage, the learner
relies on his or her new found knowledge to make decisions and solve problems.
The learner also makes a transfer by experimenting that knowledge in new situations.
During reflective observation, the student can reflect alone or with a teacher on what
was experienced. Furthermore, during synthesis (active experimentation), the learner
can share the value of his or her experience with peers, or apply it to another context.
Experiential learning thus allows students to feel different emotions such as challenge,
pleasure, desire to share their impressions, amazement, compassion, etc.
Another strategy that encourages conceptual development is [6] verbal interaction
between peers allows students to verbally communicate their ideas and opinions, and
thus their conceptions. Social interactions create cognitive dissonance and debate among
the children, making them aware of the existence of ideas different from theirs. This
contradiction can lead them to modify their initial ideas.

308
Finally, scientific writing is another strategy that helps conceptual change. Having to
write down their ideas allows students to elaborate on them, evaluate and revise them.
In that respect, two pedagogical methods have proven themselves:
l concept mapping : students schematically represent their ideas at each stage of the
learning process
l dialogue journal. The dialogue journal's goal is to guide the student to a higher
level of understanding and thought. The teacher, acting as collaborator rather than
evaluator, formulates a problem for the student.
There follows a back-and-forth of questions and answers between teacher and student,
a process that creates a deeper reflection. Deeper reflection is another strategy that
influences conceptual change .
According to Duit , it is possible to create three types of cognitive conflict: the conflict
resulting from interaction with the environment, the conflict created during discussions
between the teacher and the students, and finally, the one born from interactions between
peers. According to Novak , conceptual change is a difficult process. The students, in
order to change their conceptions, must be able to insert the new information in their
previous cognitive structures, i.e. these previous structures must allow the desired
construction. Thus, what we perceive of events or objects depends on what we already
know, but also on our observation strategies and emotional, physical and social situation.

5.5 International curriculum framework in the light of changing

priorities and international perspectives
Curriculum development:
The younger generations, students are the effective media to bring enormous changes
in the society and hence educating about the environment to the young minds is the
right step and also this is the right time for the same. The resource base is not inexhaustible
and there must exist some limit beyond which the rate of exploitation of natural resources
will comprise the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Hence the focus
must be on reducing consumption with a view to achieving sustainability. Wherever
possible, strategies for reducing consumption of energy and materials, and greater use
of renewable resources, should be incorporated in design and construction.
Science and Technology, even though advanced, cannot help in bringing about the change
of attitude. Hence education in moral and ethical philosophy is needed and Environmental
study should be made a mandatory part.

309
• Reasons for including moral education in Curriculum Development:
• As future planners, designers, builders and decision makers, engineers shoulder
special responsibility in protecting the integrity of nature and the natural
environment.
• Human beings are rational creatures who have an innate need to rationalise all
their actions and thoughts .Moral philosophy provides this rationale, and by doing
so gives us our humanity.
• Albert Einstein’s statement “Science without philosophy is just mechanics”.
This moral education reinforces environment – respecting moral values, especially
in the young through formal education.
Criteria for curriculum development:
• The focus must be on reducing consumption with a view to achieving sustainability.
Wherever possible, strategies for reducing consumption of energy and materials,
and greater use of renewable resources should be incorporated in design and
construction.
• The content should be holistic, covering all essential aspects.
• The content should comprise two strategic elements:
1. The ‘end- of- the pipe’ element based on science and technology to deal with
pollution already produced.
2. The ‘ before-the-pipe’ element concerned with pollution prevention and reduction.
• Low cost technologies which are more practicable for implementation is essential.
Local, national or regional environmental issues and problems should be emphasised
as appropriate and likely contributions to the environmental problems explained
in accordance with the Rio slogan of “ Act locally and think globally “.
Enhancing Research activities:
In research, priority may be given for sustainable development, global change and
ecosystems. The scientific and technological capacities needed for our country can be
strengthened. This will be able to implement a sustainable model in the short and long
term, integrating its social, economic and environmental dimensions, contributing to
international efforts mitigating adverse trends in global change.
Affluent would be willing to adopt less consumptive lifestyles comparable with the
Earth’s ecological capacity. The research may be centred on pollution, health and

310
environmental action. More funds can be allotted for environmental related projects
and students may be motivated by giving awards and prizes for best social impact
environmental projects. The interest among the students may also be enhanced by
conducting essay writing competitions.
Understanding environmental behavioural change through communication
Defining responsible environmental behaviour
In many of the conferences it was presumed that in order to solve environmental
problems, it was necessary, besides the technical and scientific solutions that everybody
adopted a different behaviour towards the environment. Developing a ‘responsible
environmental behaviour’ became one of the tasks of environmental education.
Unfortunately changing behaviour through environmental education confirmed itself
as a difficult task. A communication approach can give us a new perspective of
responsible environmental behaviour. It allows us to consider it not only from the
individual perspective but also from a social perspective.
The first approaches linking knowledge to attitudes and attitudes to behaviour proved
wrong in practice and environmental education was forced to change and evolve its
practices. Many environmental education researchers and practitioners consecrate
themselves to understand the responsible environmental behaviour in order to improve
environmental education. The ‘responsible environmental behaviour’ is defined as “
the whole of actions of an individual within the society, that takes into account, in a
conscious way, the perennial and harmonious relationship between these actions and
environment”. Communication is a way of approaching and explaining processes in
society and it can be defined as “ the exchange processes among the individual and
group members of a given society”.
In the field of environmental education, the research on responsible environmental
behaviour has been directed in two main directions:
• The predictors of a responsible environmental behaviour within the individual,
• The link between environmental behavioural change and its outcomes in practice.
The responsible environmental behaviour is the product of personality factors, action
skills and knowledge that influenced the intention to act.
The communication approach explains the difficulties to change behaviour from the
lack of stability of the innovation. In this case, the fact that the individuals susceptible
to learn and change their behaviour towards the environment are influenced by the
interactions they have with other individuals.
311
5.6 Education for conservation of environment and social change:
Education has a very unique role in environmental protection: It helps students to
protect the environment for themselves and generations to come.
Develop a comprehensive program including prevention (in terms of both dirt entering
the building and exposure of students and staff to chemicals), conservation (of energy,
water and chemicals), education (of the community and staff) and evaluation (of both
cost and quality of cleaning and products)
Reusable bags are to be used:
Plastic grocery-type bags that get thrown out end up in landfills or in other parts of
the environment. These can suffocate animals who get stuck in them or may mistake
them for food. Also, it takes a while for the bags to decompose. The children and the
adults should be trained to use reusable bag while doing shopping.
Less use of print and paper:
In school the students should be encouraged to use less paper and print. The required
material should be printed or digital media should be used for study.
Recycling of thrown out garbage if possible:
Children should learn recycling of Garbage by doing craft or decorating surrounding
to minimise the danger to environment.
Using reusable beverage container :
Instead of buying individually-packaged drinks, consider buying a bulk container of
the beverage you want and buying a reusable water bottle.
Preserving and transferring ready notes to next and upcoming batch of students:
The same material you learned from a class if can be preserved will help the junior
students If you took great notes, ask your teacher to connect you with students in a
future class so that you can give them your notes. These notes will help students by
being able to read what they are learning in the words of another student, thus the
paper once used can be recycled.
Water and Electricity must be saved:
Education should make people aware of using energy-efficient light bulbs instead of
regular bulbs. Turn off the faucet as you are brushing your teeth. Don't turn your shower

312
on until you're ready to get in and wash your hair. Limit your water usage as you wash
dishes. Changing old habits will be good for both the environment and your wallet.

5.7 Education for Individual and National Development:

Education must be related to productivity to increase national income i.e. total output
of final goods and services expressed in real terms.
Education helps in unfolding the latent powers or talents for the purpose of harnessing
the process of national development and personal development.
It is the maximization of the realization of the potential of human beings as well as
promotion of its optimum utilization for economic and social progress.
Education aims at all round development of individual, physical, mental, social,
emotional, moral, spiritual and aesthetic.
Development of individual includes certain qualities- development of self-confidence,
generation of scientific temper, fostering a positive attitude towards unity and integrity
of nation, and cultivation of social efficiency.
Our education and other activities should be a geared to strengthen unity and solidarity
of the nation.

5.8 Let us sum up:

Most of the developed countries invest in knowledge and human capital for
implementing their development strategies. The different subunits of education that
can be considered as development indicators are Adult literacy rate, Literacy Gender
Parity Index, Expenditure on Adult and Continuing Education etc. Education of good
quality is an essential tool for achieving a more sustainable world. It is generally accepted
that certain characteristics are important for the successful implementation of ESD,
reflecting the equal importance of both the learning process and the outcomes of the
education process.
There are many common themes between Education for sustainable development and
education for all and the United Nations literacy decade. Such as, Promotion and
Improvement of basic education, Reorienting existing education at all level to address
sustainable development and some others. There is a strong belief in the international

313
scientific community that the environmental problems can be solved and sustainable
development and global environmental sustainability achieved only with the application
of science and technology alone. To protect children living in polluted regions,
environmental education represents a relevant means of prevention because this type of
education encourages learners' awareness of their environment's ambient conditions, as
well as their active participation in solving local problems. Education has a very unique
role in environmental protection: It helps students to protect the environment for
themselves and generations to come.

5.9 Unit End Exercises

1. How does education acts as development indicator?
2. What is the role of education as enhancer of development indicators ?
3. What role does education play in sustainable development?
4. how is Sustainable development possible through science and technology ?
5. What role does education play for individual and national development?

5.10 References
1. Education for sustainable development in further education: Embedding
Sustainibility into teaching, learning and curriculum, 2016, ED. Denise Summers
and Roger Cutting, ISBN: 978-1137519108
2. Teaching education for sustainable development , at University level, 2016, Ed.
Leal Filho, Walter Pace, Paul(Eds), ISBN: 978-3-319-32928-4

314