STANDARDS OF MORAL VALUATION BASED ON THE SELF

1. Subjectivism
It t suggests that the individual thinking person is at the heart of all
moral valuations. The person is the one confronted with the situation
and is burdened with the need to make decision or judgment. From
this point of view, subjectivism leaps to the more radical claim that
the individual is the sole determining agent of what is morally good
or bad, right or wrong. Bulaong Jr. et al. suggest some clichés
expressive of this mentality:

 No one can tell me what is right and wrong."

 "No one knows my situation better than myself."
 "I am entitled to my own opinion.
 It is good, if I say that it is good."

Criticism: There is something appealing about these statements

because they seem to express personal independence. But a closer
look at these statements reveals real problems of subjectivism. It is
probable that out of extreme situation and profound disappointment,
people may possibly console themselves with these clichés.
But objectively; however, we may ask ourselves how many times we
made decisions based solely on personal perception of the problem
and found out that we were wrong. Or, we failed to recognize that
our experience is practically just a spec in comparison to the
profoundness of the experience of others which we have completely
rejected. Or, if only we can be honest and humble enough, then we
would admit that our opinions are not as profound as the opinions of
more mature people and less wiser than the opinion of the most
foolish among us.
And that finally, we realize that the good decision we thought is not
as good as we thought it was.
2. Psychological Egoism
It is a theory that describes the underlying dynamic behind all
human actions. As a descriptive theory, it does not direct one to act
ina particular way. Instead, it points out that by nature, humans are
self-interested and are after their own satisfaction and therefore in
all their undertakings they are ultimately looking for self fulfilment
and satisfaction, aware or unaware. As such, the ego or self has its
desires and interests and all actions are geared toward the
satisfaction of these interests. It would seem that there is no
problem with this position if we consider actions done on a daily
basis: watch a movie, read books, entertain visitors, etc. It is
acknowledged that we do things in pursuit of some interests all the
time. The question; however, is do we try to consider actions that
normally are directed toward others?
Consider for instance the act of generosity. The position of the
psychological egoist is that he or she would maintain that underlying
such apparently other-oriented behavior is a self-interested desire,
even when it is not being acknowledged or that the doer is not
conscious of it. Helping another might seem an act of altruism. But
the psychological egoist has inherent self-interest in expressing an
act of service. In the end, the act no matter how it appears to be
other-oriented, it is by nature an act that is self-serving.
3. Ethical Egoism
Ethical egoism differs from psychological egoism where the latter
does not suppose that all actions undertaken are self-serving. But
ethical egoism is a position that self-interest and personal ends are
the single overriding concern. Ethical egoism is totally driven by
selfish motive with no interest or concern for another.
Actions are taken with the sole concern that the ultimate benefit will
be for the self. One considers oneself as the sole priority and does
not allow any other concern benefiting another. Ethical egoism is
totally motivated by self-satisfaction and nothing more.
 THE LEVELS AND STAGES OF MORAL
DEVELOPMENT BY LAWRENCE KOHLBERG

Level I. Pre-conventional
 The pre-conventional level corresponds to how infants and
children think.
 The type of reasoning at this level is centered on the
consequences of one's action and the level is divided into
two stages.
Stage I. The first stage of reasoning focuses on obedience
and the avoidance of punishment. At this stage, a child
reasons out that actions are "good" if they are able to avoid
punishment and actions are "bad" if they result to
punishment. By that, we understand that children's action as
thought of is not that they have found what the best thing to
do is, rather, they have found what to do in order to evade
getting scolded or punished.
Stage II. At this point, entering the second stage of
reasoning, children act according to what will satisfy their
interests. The good at this stage of development is what
brings pleasure to them. Children's activities at this stage are
focused on those in line with their interests. Characteristically,
at this stage, children still have difficulties making a
distinction between them and others. Others are considered
extensions of who they are and deals with them to the extent
that they can bring them pleasure or some kind of advantage.
The pre-conventional stage symbolizes the stage when
children have not yet understood the importance of rules in
their life. The consequences of their acts are most important
as they may lead to cither punishment or to their satisfaction
or pleasure their interests having been served. What is right or
wrong is not determined by following rules but by what their
actions bring them.

Level II. Conventional

At this stage, older children, adolescents and young adults
learn to conform to societal expectations. Conventions acquire
significance for the individual and learn to follow them. They
now understand the importance of conventions in their life.
Level II is subdivided into two stages.
Stage III. Group approval at this stage is very important for
the child. The desire to belong is a strong motivation for the
child in order to act according to what the group expect from
her or him. The more common tendency for the individual is to
conform specially to the values of the immediate group like
the family, playmates and later on to those of the peer group
because by doing so it will best serve his or her interests.
Adolescents would therefore seek for the approval of others
since they are instrumental to the satisfaction of their new
needs. They are also more open and give more importance to
the expectations of larger groups in their community or in
school.
Stage IV. The fourth stage is an important development. It is
the deepening of the acceptance of the importance of societal
conventions. The individual learns by now that conventions
are not only good for him or for her but the individual realizes
that conventions are necessary for the existence of the
society itself. Hence, at this stage, the individual is better
ready in order to accept and value most of the laws, rules and
regulations of one's community or society. Dutifulness toward
the standards of the society embodied in its rules and laws
shape the moral reasoning of the stage. Adolescents of this
stage very importantly uphold laws and regulations that when
others disobey them like when laws are not properly or
wrongly implemented, they are capable of rebelling against a
system that does not respect the laws.
Kohlberg explains that people who merely follow the rules and
regulations of their society or of their organizations or the
doctrines of their religion is the best they can do are trapped
in this second stage of the conventional level. Many of them
reach only this far in their moral development. Unable to
understand the reasons behind why there are rules and laws
to follow, they tend to develop a kind of legalistic mentality in
which rightness or wrongness of an act is based on whether or
not one follows rules and regulations. It must be noted that
Kohlberg's theory is not about the definition of the goodness
or rightness of an act. He does not propose a kind of ethical
theory but describes the stage of the growth in moral thinking
in the different stages of development.

Level III. Post-Conventional

In the post-conventional level, people realize that what
matters is no longer the simple following of rules in the
society that takes precedence. The moral agent by now knows
that what is at stake is more on doing or acting upon the
personally acquired beliefs or principles. What one does is
what one ought to do is now the new challenge for the
individual moral agent.
Stage V. In the fifth stage, the moral agent realizes the value
of social contract which is about the agreements. Rational
agents realize that to serve the common good which he or she
ought to respect and live by. The idea of the common good is
post conventional because it is theoretically the mature and
conscientious moral agents who are identified to be morally
upright. The moral agent binds himself or herself with the
common good whether or not it produces consequences that
are beneficial or not. For clarity, the notion of the common
good is upheld higher or given more importance than existing
communal agreements, traditions and rules because these
must be examined using rational discourse. Hence, what is
moral is what honors the social contract.
Stage VI. Kohlberg argues that this stage is the highest stage
of moral development. The stage goes beyond social contract.
It is about choosing to do acts based on universal ethical
principles acquired by the moral agent himself or herself. This
stage goes beyond the societal conventions, rules and
agreements and that actions are morally correct only if they
are based on the universal ethical principles. The actions must
be respected only if these reflect the universal ethical
principles.
Summary
The different stages of moral development according to
Lawrence Kohlberg are not to be confused with determining
what is morally right or wrong. But the stages describe only
the characteristics of each of the developmental stages.
Hence, one must be careful not to pass on moral judgment to
an act based on the stages of moral development developed
by Kohlberg.
Kohlberg argues that in the stages of moral development,
most people are locked up in their moral judgment to
communal or societal conventions, rules, laws and regulations
implying therefore a kind of legalistic mentality.

Assessment
Identify the stage of moral development (first, second, third,
fourth, fifth and sixth). Write your answer on the space
provided before the item.
1. It is characterized by following the rules and regulations
knowing that these are significant for the society's existence.
2. It is the stage when acts are performed in order to avoid
pain.
3. Andres wants that his playmates play only games he wants
to play.
4. Concerned that the government is not serious about what it
should implement as laws of the land like recognition of the
rights of its citizens, Marco decided to join the rebels.
5. Miss X defied the tradition of lavish wedding celebration
believing that it does not help anymore the family and the
new couple.
6. It refers to the stage when the child desires to be always
number one.
7. It is characterized by the belief that what rational people
have realized as good is the right thing to do.
8. Consequences of the act are the bases of the rightness or
wrongness of the act.
9. It is the stage during which Boy Y thinks that his playmates
are there to serve his interest or the inability to make
distinction between him and others.
10. It is the stage when individuals are convinced that laws
and community traditions should be honored only when they
serve universal principles but should be rejected when they
don't.