The Breast as an inspiration to Borobudur

nipple is a raised region of tissue on the surface of the breast from which,
in females, milk leaves the breast through the lactiferous ducts to feed an infant.[1]
[2]
The milk can flow through the nipple passively or it can be ejected
by smooth muscle contractions that occur along with the ductal system. Male
mammals also have nipples but without the same level of function, and often
surrounded by body hair.

1
The nipple is surrounded by the areola, which is often a darker colour than the
surrounding skin. A nipple is often called a teat when referring to non-humans.
"Nipple" or "teat" can also be used to describe the flexible mouthpiece of a baby
bottle. In humans, the nipples of both males and females can be stimulated as part
of sexual arousal. In many cultures, particularly Western culture, human female
nipples are sexualized, which can lead to the sexual objectification of women. Some
cultures have little to no sexualization of the nipple, and going topless presents no
barrier.
Was Gunadharma the architect of Borobudur examining a nipple when he conceived
the design of the famous Stupa?

The reliefs of the lowest level illustrate scenes that show the causal workings of good and bad deeds
through successive reincarnations

THE ARCHITECT of the BOROBUDUR

Gunavarma was an Indian monk from Jibin (ancient Gandhara) who is said to have been the
designer behind the site. Not much is known about him and after searching far and wide I
have arrived at this below given excerpt. Gunavarma traveled to Java from Sri Lanka around
the beginning of the 5th century A.D. Not long after his arrival, the Javanese king Po-duo-jia
suffered from a foot injury caused by an arrow in a war. Gunavarma healed the king's injury

2
and won his trust and friendship. Showing respect and gratitude to Gunavarma, King Po-duo-
jia decided to rule his kingdom with Buddhist belief.
As a Buddhist cakravartin, he gave all his possessions to the poor and the people were
ordered to abstain from killing. The people were also instructed to respect Gunavarma and
even to receive the 5 precepts from him. The Chinese sources do not say that Gunavarma
helped King Po-duo-jia to implement the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya.
However, we may surmise that Gunavarma did this from the fact that he was officially
invited to China by Emperor Wen of the Song (424-453) and from his activities in the Song.
We describe these below. About 9 years after Faxian had brought the painting of Nagapuspa
back to the South, Emperor Wen of the Song decided to implement the belief as his political
ideology. In the 9th month of the first year of the Yuanjia reign (424), the monks Huiguan
and Huicong persuaded the emperor to send letters to the Javanese king and Gunavarma,
respectively, inviting Gunavarma to China. Later, the monks Fachang, Daochong and Daojun
etc., were despatched to bring Gunavarma to China.
Gunavarma arrived in China in the year 431. Another Indian monk, Senghavarma also
arrived in 433. Both subsequently translated the Suhrllekha for the emperor. The Suhrlleka
was a letter sent by Nagarjuna to King Satavahana persuading him to practice Buddhism and
to implement the cakravartinship to rule his kingdom. Gunavarma must have been an expert
in promoting the belief in the descent of Buddharaja Maitreya. Otherwise, he would not have
been invited by Emperor Wen of the Song to China. Besides translating the Suhrlleka for
Emperor Wen, Gunavarma was also appointed by him to oversee the ritual of Bodhisattva
pratimoksa.

Bodhisattva pratimoksa. is the most important ritual that initiates an emperor to become a
cakravartin or a Buddharaja. Soon after his arrival at the capital of the Song, Gunavarma was
appointed to perform this ritual. But due to an internal revolt that erupted suddenly, Emperor
Wen immediately dropped the idea of becoming a cakravartin/Buddharaja Maitreya.
The Chinese sources tell us that Gunavarma had stayed and preached the Dharma in Sri
Lanka for quite a while thus making him an expert in the implementation of the belief and it
is likely that he would have helped the Javanese king to promote it. One can surmise that in 2
succession of countries he transmitted the belief i.e. to Java from Sri Lanka.1
The role of Rakai Panangkaran: Panangkaran or formal regnal name Mahārāja dyāḥ
Pañcapaṇa kariyāna Paṇaṃkaraṇa was the king of Shailendra dynasty and also the ruler
of Mataram Kingdom between AD 760—775, the kingdom of which its power centralized
on Java island of Indonesia. Crowned as Rakai Panangkaran, he was the immediate successor
of Sri Sanjaya, the founder of Sanjaya Dynasty as mentioned in the Kalasan inscription. The
name of Panangkaran is mentioned in the Balitung charter (found in the Kedu Plain area) as the
line of kings who were named as the 'builders of kraton'.
In the late 8th and early 9th centuries, Java observed rivalries between two dynasties. The first
four Sanjaya Dynasty lines after King Sanjaya (Panangkaran, Panunggalan, Warak and Garung),
which was known as the Amrati Kings, competed over their power and religious influences with
the Sailendras princes in the south of central Java who had arisen since 779. The Sanjayas
were Hindus while Sailendras were Buddhists. There was only an isolated kingship in the east of
Java, Gajayana, who appeared to have control over the Mount Kawi region in 760.
Although relationship between the Amrati Kings with Sailendra was important at that time, the
rivalries between the two is still unclear. From the Kalasan and Ratu Boko inscriptions, there
were stated that Panangkaran granted permission requested by the collective guru of the
Sailendra king to build Buddhist sculptures, shrines and monasteries in honor to the
goddess Tara. The construction was built under Panangkaran's supervision, but was supported by

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Sailendra's expenses. In order to show his respect to the guru, Panangkaran consented the
building of the shrine by giving the village of Kalasan to the Buddhist community.

______________________________________________________________________________
A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy Cheng Mei K u
Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008 pn
Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur

Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village of
Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778 CE. This
has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict concerning
religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment of a
Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. However, it is likely that there
were two rival royal dynasties in Java at the time—the Buddhist Sailendra and the Saivite
Sanjaya—in which the latter triumphed over their rival in the 856 battle on the Ratubaka
plateau. This confusion also exists regarding the Lara Jonggrang temple at the Prambanan
complex, which was believed that it was erected by the victor Rakai Pikatan as the Sanjaya
dynasty's reply to Borobudur, but others suggest that there was a climate of peaceful
coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.

Borobudur as a Complete Exposition of Doctrine

The construction of stupas were considered acts of great merit. The purpose of stupas were
mainly to enshrine relics of Buddha. The design specifications are consistent within most of the
stupas, entrances to stupas are laid out so that their centre lines point to the relic chambers. It is
therefore no surprise that the Shailendra Dynesty not only gave asent to Temple but also Stupa
construction.
The stupas were covered with a coating of lime plaster, plaster combinations changed with the
requirements of the design, items used included lime, clay, sand, pebbles, crushed seashells, sugar
syrup, white of egg, coconut water, plant resin, drying oil, glues and saliva of white ants. The fine
plaster at Kiri Vehera used small pebbles, crushed seashells mixed with lime and sand were used
in the stupas from the fifth to twelfth centuries.
Borobudur is one of the most impressive monuments ever created by humans. It is both a
temple and a complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was
designed, with only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu
temple mountains at Angkor and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the
Asian world. Built about 800, it probably fell into neglect by c. 1000 and was overgrown. It
was excavated and restored by the Dutch between 1907 and 1911. It now appears as a large
square plinth (the processional path) upon which stand five terraces gradually diminishing in
size. The plans of the squares are stepped out twice to a central projection. Above the fifth
terrace stands a series of three diminishing circular terraces carrying small stupas, crowned at
the centre of the summit by a large circular bell-shaped stupa. Running up the centre of each
face is a long staircase; all four are given equal importance. There are no internal cell shrines,
and the terraces are solid. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the
square terraces is enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole
perimeter, which prevents the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other levels. All
of these terraces are lined with relief sculptures, and the niches contain Buddha figures. The
top three circular terraces are open and unwalled, and the 72 lesser bell-shaped stupas they

4
support are of open stone latticework; inside each was a huge stone Buddha figure. The
convex contour of the whole monument is steepest near the ground, flattening as it reaches
the summit. The bottom plinth, the processional path, was the major afterthought. It consists
of a massive heap of stone pressed up against the original bottom story of the designed
structure so that it obscures an entire series of reliefs—a few of which have been uncovered
in modern times. It was probably added to hold together the bottom story, which began to
spread under the pressure of the immense weight of earth and stone accumulated above.

The whole building symbolizes a Buddhist transition from the lowest manifestations of
reality at the base, through a series of regions representing psychological states, toward the
ultimate condition of spiritual enlightenment at the summit. The unity of the monument
effectively proclaims the unity of the cosmos permeated by the light of truth. The visitor was
meant to be transformed while climbing through the levels of Borobudur, encountering
illustrations of progressively more profound doctrines nearer to the summit. The topmost
terrace, whose main stupa contained an unfinished image of Buddha that was hidden from the
spectator’s view, symbolized the indefinable ultimate spiritual state. The 72 openwork stupas
on the circular terraces, with their barely visible internal Buddhas, symbolize incomplete
states of enlightenment on the borders of manifestation. The usual way for a pilgrim to pay
reverence to a Buddhist stupa is to walk around it, keeping it on his right hand. The vast
series of reliefs about three feet (one metre) high on the exterior walls of the terraces would
thus be read by the visitor in series from right to left. Between the reliefs are decorative scroll
panels, and a hundred monster-head waterspouts carry off the tropical rainwater. The gates on
the stairways between terraces are of the standard Indonesian type, with the face of the Kala
monster at the apex spouting his scrolls.

The reliefs of the lowest level illustrate scenes that show the causal workings of good and bad
deeds through successive reincarnations. They show, for example, how those who hunt, kill,
and cook living creatures, such as tortoises and fish, are themselves cooked in hells or die as
children in their next life. They show how foolish people waste their time at entertainments.
From these scenes of everyday life, one moves to the terraces above, where the subject matter
becomes more profound and metaphysical. It illustrates important Mahayana texts dealing
with the self-discovery and education of the bodhisattva, conceived as being possessed by
compassion for and devoted wholly to the salvation of all creatures. The reliefs on the
uppermost terraces gradually become more static. The sensuous roundness of the forms of the
figures is not abated, but, in the design, great emphasis is laid upon horizontals and verticals
and upon static, formal enclosures of repeated figures and gestures. At the summit all
movement disappears, and the design is entirely subordinated to the circle enclosing the
stupa.

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The iconography of Borobudur suggests that the legend of the royal bodhisattva recounted in
many of the reliefs was meant to “authenticate” some king or dynasty. Yet, it hardly seems
possible that Borobudur was the focus of a specific royal cult, as there is no provision at all
for the performance of royal ritual. It must have been, then, in some sense a monument for
the whole people, the focus for their religion and life, and a perpetual reminder of the
doctrines of their religion.

A considerable number of bronzes, some small, some large, have been found in Indonesia in
a style close to that of the sculptures of Borobudur and Mendut. One fine, large standing
image comes from Kotabangun in Borneo, but some come from Java. Many small cult
images of the Buddha and Buddhist deities exist. Some are close in type to the
early Pala images of Indian Bihar, the homeland of Buddhism, with which the Javanese must
have maintained close touch. A few small but extremely fine gold figurines of undoubted
Javanese workmanship have also turned up. For all their small size they must rate as first-
class works of art. As well as images, there are many beautiful bronze ceremonial objects,
such as lamps, trays, and bells.

Was Borobudur painted?

Originally, it was probably plastered white, and painted in bright colours. There must have
been a substantial monastery for the monks who looked after the structure and the pilgrims,
but nothing adequate has yet been discovered. What Stone is Borobudur made of?-
andesite.Built from nearly two million stone blocks of andesite, a bluish-gray volcanic stone,
Borobudur is shaped like a stepped pyramid, the base of which is 402 feet long from north to
south and 383 feet long from east to west; the height is now 95 feet above ground level.

Each stupa is bell-shaped and pierced by numerous decorative openings. Statues of the
Buddha sit inside the pierced enclosures. The design of Borobudur took the form of a step
pyramid. How many levels are there in Borobudur?

The idea of moving from the darkness into the light is the goal of the experience of
Borobudur- both for the layman and the bikkhu. The uniqueness of the Borobudur
archaeological remain as we find it today suggests that there was an underlying genius of
innovative ideas behind it during its time of planning and construction in the past. The
Borobudur shows the process of Buddhism, the scenery and features show that it was set in

6
Java. Borobudur is thus a Buddhist stupa in the Indian sense. Each of the square terraces is
enclosed in a high wall with pavilions and niches along the whole perimeter, which prevents
the visitor on one level from seeing into any of the other levels. The temple’s pathway takes
one from the earthly realm of desire (kamadhatu), represented and documented on the hidden
narratives of the structure’s earthbound base, through the world of forms (rupadhatu) as
expounded on the narratives carved along the four galleries set at right angles, until one
finally emerges into the realm of formlessness (arupadhatu) as symbolized and manifested in
the open circular terraces crowned with 72 stupas. Candi Borobudur and Candi Mendut were
the two sites in Central Java that promoted caitya worship. Even before their establishment in
the 8th century A.D., it is probable that the belief was already brought into Java by
Gunavarma the architect of Borobudur in the beginning of the 5th century A. D.

Sunrise and sunset at the site

1. THE CONCEPT OF CAUSE & EFFECT; The rendering of the text Karmavibhangga
in a continuous row of reliefs is indeed only found at the Borobudur sanctuary In such
a format is not found anyhere else in the world.
2. A number of 160 panels are found on the walls of the hidden base.
3. The specific structural scheme of this row of scenes in stone is that each panel consists of two
parts: the left and the right side (from the spectator's view), each with a separate scene,
4. however both are interconnected.
5. The first one, which is on the left, contains "the cause" scene,
6. whereas the second scene on the right contains "the effect", following the teachings of the
Karmavibhangga regarding rewards for good deeds and punishments for bad deeds.
7. Each panel is clearly demarcated by the 'frame' of the panel,
8. whereas the separation between the left and the right scene within one panel is not demarcated
by an explicid line. There is only an imaginary line between the two scenes within one panel.
9. This imaginary line might have the form of a tree, or two groups of people sitting or
standing back to back, the line of their backs thus forming the imaginary separating
line.
10. Since the Karmavibhangga is a didactic text that has no single story line with
permanent characters, and seems to be meant as guidance for the population in
general, so the sculptors possibly had a free reign to portray scenes with the model
taken from real life in his social environment.
11. It is in this aspect that this row of relief might have its significance as an "information'
on daily life in the time of Borobudur 's conception and realisation.

7
 12. The forms of performing arts, both among the elites as well as among the commoners,
the midwife's activity, the market scene, are among the spheres of activity that are
'reported' through the panels
13. In this respect the Karmavibhangga row of reliefs is the most prolific among other
rows of reliefs in ancient Javanese temples.1

Age: Built in the 9th century during the reign of the Sailendra Dynasty, the temple's design
in Gupta architecture reflects India's influence on the region. It also depicts the gupta style
from India and shows influence of Buddhism as well as Hinduism. The monument was both a
shrine to the Lord Buddha and a place for Buddhist pilgrimage. The monument guides
pilgrims through an extensive system of stairways and corridors with 1,460 narrative relief
panels on the walls and the balustrades.
There are no known records of construction or the intended purpose of Borobudur. The
duration of construction has been estimated by comparison of carved reliefs on the temple's
hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal charters during the 8th and 9th
centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 AD. This corresponds to the period
between 760 and 830 AD, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty rule over Mataram kingdom in
central Java, when their power encompassed not only the Srivijayan Empire but also southern
Thailand, Indianized kingdoms of Philippines, North Malaya (Kedah, also known in Indian
texts as the ancient Hindu state of Kadaram). The construction has been estimated to have
taken 75 years with completion during the reign of Samaratungga in 825.
There is uncertainty about Hindu and Buddhist rulers in Java around that time. The
Sailendras were known as ardent followers of Buddhism, though stone inscriptions found at
Sojomerto also suggest they may have been Hindus.[ It was during this time that many Hindu
and Buddhist monuments were built on the plains and mountains around the Kedu Plain. The
Buddhist monuments, including Borobudur, were erected around the same period as the
Hindu Shiva Prambanan temple compound. In 732 AD, the Shivaite
King Sanjaya commissioned a Shivalinga sanctuary to be built on the Wukir hill, only 10 km
(6.2 mi) east of Borobudur.
Construction of Buddhist temples, including Borobudur, at that time was possible because
Sanjaya's immediate successor, Rakai Panangkaran, granted his permission to the Buddhist
followers to build such temples. In fact, to show his respect, Panangkaran gave the village
of Kalasan to the Buddhist community, as is written in the Kalasan Charter dated 778
AD. This has led some archaeologists to believe that there was never serious conflict
concerning religion in Java as it was possible for a Hindu king to patronize the establishment
of a Buddhist monument; or for a Buddhist king to act likewise. The 856 battle on
the Ratubaka plateau was much after and was a political battle. There was a climate of
peaceful coexistence where Sailendra involvement exists in Lara Jonggrang.

The journey for pilgrims begins at the base of the monument and follows a path around the
monument and ascends to the top through three levels symbolic of Buddhist cosmology:
Kāmadhātu (the world of desire), Rupadhatu (the world of forms) and Arupadhatu (the world
of formlessness).
Evidence suggests Borobudur was constructed in the 9th century and abandoned following
the 14th century decline of Hindu kingdoms in Java, and the Javanese conversion to Islam..

8
Apart from being called a most impressive monument, Borobudur is both a temple and a
complete exposition of doctrine, designed as a whole, and completed as it was designed, with
only one major afterthought. It seems to have provided a pattern for Hindu temple mountains
at Angkor, and in its own day it must have been one of the wonders of the Asian world.

How age of Borobudur was estimated: The construction time has been estimated by comparison
between carved reliefs on the temple's hidden foot and the inscriptions commonly used in royal
charters during the 8th and 9th centuries. Borobudur was likely founded around 800 CE. This
corresponds to the period between 760 and 830 CE, the peak of the Sailendra dynasty in central Java,
when it was under the influence of the Srivijayan Empire. However, there is no written record of who
built Borobudur or of its intende d purpose. There is also o clear indication of how long it took to

build from .

Hot balloon over Thai Stupa.

1. Manfred Sommer-Indonesia - Java - Borobudur Temple - Stone Relief With Carved Images

9
 S T E P P Y R A M I D

In our detailed paper on Stepped pyramid and similar corbelling method in temples of
Cambodia and Indonesia, my daughter Srishti Dokras Architect and myself (Dr Uday Dokras,
Phd Stockholm) have examined the Structure in considerable details.

10
Comparison between left: Borobudur of Java (825) and right: Bakong of Cambodia (881),
both temples had similar basic design of stepped pyramid and similar corbelling method,
which suggest there was a connection of technical and cultural influence between ancient
Java and Cambodia. Central Javanese temples were not built anywhere and anyhow, quite the
contrary: their position within the landscape and their architectural design was determined by
a series of socio-cultural, religious and economical factors.

TEMPLE MOUNTAIN IS AN IMPRESSIVE TERM

When I first heard the term Temple Mountain, I was impressed. We say –“ Mountain of a
Man”conjuring up images of a massive physival entity. Similarly, the term temple mountain
has been coined by us to characterize a huge entit. In his article THE ANKOREAN TEMPLE
MOUNTAIN , Z. Thiery says:-

“In Cambodia, in the classic Khmer architecture of the Angkorean period, we find a temple type in
which the sanctuary is built atop a stepped pyramid. Nineteenth century archaeologists called these
“temple- mountains.” Each important sovereign was apparently obliged to build one in order to
establish his power. Zephir, .Thierry"The Angkorean Temple-Mountain" Expedition
Magazine 37.3 (1995): n. pag. Expedition Magazine. Penn Museum, 1995 Web. 22 Sep 2021)

Let us explore this architectural expression of royal eminence through three of its aspects: diversity,
evolution, and permanence.

Diversity: the Symbolism of the Temple-Mountain

In the Indian religious context, a sanctuary functions primarily as the terrestrial dwelling place of the
gods, the place from which they will be able to provide aid and prosperity to humankind. Many
countries of Southeast Asia were under Indian influence; each resolved in its own way the problem of
creating a divine residence in the world of human beings. Generally, architects and builders based the
construction of their sanctuaries on strict religious texts (unfortunately, we have none from ancient
Cambodia). To the rules prescribed by these texts were added numerous others relating to astronomy,
geomancy, or numerology, the meanings of which are often lost today. Our lack of knowledge of
almost everything that guided the creation of the sanctuaries makes it difficult to understand them and
to explain their symbolism.

In Cambodia, however, the study of local ancient epigraphy has furnished a variety of insights into the
symbolism of religious architecture. In the light of some of these inscriptions, we can make a con-
nection between Mount Meru, the center and axis of the universe in Indian cosmography, and certain
temple-mountains of Angkor, the ancient Khmer capital. These structures provide an image, a kind of
representation of Mount Meru on a human scale. The best known example is the sanctuary built

11
around A.D. 906 on the top of Phnom Bakheng, the precise center of Yasodharapura, Angkor’s first
capital (Fig. 2). In addition to being constructed on one of the rare hills (phnom in Khmer) of the
region, the monument was conceived as a square pyramid with five levels. Locating the pyra mid on a
natural hill at the geometric center of the royal city underlines the symbolic identification of the
monument, center and axis of the city, with Mount Meru, center and axis of the universe.

In fact, the temple of Phnom Bakheng restates, with much greater complexity, the symbolic principles
expressed earlier at the temple of the Bakong, founded in A.D. 881. At the Bakong, the summit of the
five-level pyramid is occupied by a single sanctuary tower, whereas 5 towers arranged in a quincunx
(a square of 4 towers with a fifth in the center) occupy the summit of Phnom Eakheng. Again, 12
temple annexes occupy the fourth level of the Eakong, but at Phnom Bakheng these 12 annexes
appear on each of the five levels. Finally, only 8 large brick sanctuary towers are distributed at the
foot of the Eakong, whereas 44 comparable towers ring the base of the Phnom Bakheng pyramid.

The temple-mountains of the Eakong and the Eakheng seem to suggest similar symbolic
considerations in their main features, although those of the latter are more lavish. But the
interpretation of the other temple-mountains at the Angkor site is different, at least in part. No temple-
mountain of Angkor is truly comparable to another. Contrast the simplicity of the early temple of
Eaksei Chamkrong (Fig. 3) with the immense complexity of the Bayon (Fig. 4). Eaksei Chamkrong
was founded under the reign of Harsavarman I as the representation of Mount Kai lasa, private
domain of the god Siva; the Eayon was the state temple of Jayavarman VII in which secular symbolic
Hindu principles and new Mahayana conceptions from the reign of the founding king were unified.

If there was any continuity in the function of the temple-mountain, it was above all as the seat of
the protective divinity of the realm. In addition to personal prestige and the exaltation of his chosen
divinity (usually the god Siva), each builder had in mind special concerns such as his ancestral cult or
that of the royal person. His successors did not necessarily care about these concerns, at least not in
the same way.

What we know about temple-mountains at the present time, therefore, seems to confound any attempt
at analysis based on firm, well-established principles of continuity. It is better to regard each of these
creations of Khmer architectural genius as the specific expression of changing religious principles at a
particular period, in response to rules that were probably evolving from one reign to another.

Evolution: Long Rooms into Galleries

While the symbolism of temple-mountains does not follow a clear evolutionary line nor fit into an
unchanging tradition, their architectural conception is a different story. It is not possible here to cover
all aspects of the rigorous evolution of their layout nor the diverse structures they comprise. Instead, I
shall take one particularly explicit example: the transformation of long rooms into galleries, as
evidenced in the concrete record of the construction itself.

The oldest temple-mountain available for study is the Bakong (founded A.D. 881). Within its first
enclosure is a series of five rectangular buildings of which four are symmetrically distributed north
and south of the monument’s principal east-west axis. These buildings are normally called long
rooms. Although not found at Phnom periphery of the first levels of the pyramids of the Eastern
Mebon (A.D. 952) and Pre Rup (A.D. 961; At the unfinished temple of Ta Keo (end of the 10th,
beginning of the 11th century; Fig. 6), the series of long rooms of the two preceding temples is
transformed into a ring gallery along the perimeter of the second level. This gallery at Ta Keo was
covered with a framework and tiles and is, curiously, totally inaccessible.

To be rigorously accurate, it should be pointed out that the transformation of long rooms into galleries
could be simply an innovation, an addition, to temple mountain architecture. However, it might signal
a profound symbolic or cultural change. Technically, nevertheless, the appearance of galleries,

12
whether involving a new creation or the organic transformation of pre-existing long rooms, clearly
represents an evolution, a further step in Khmer construction.

The next phase is at Phirneanakas where a ring gallery was set up on the third and last level of the
pyramid in the first half of the 11th century. This gallery is the first to be entirely vaulted in sandstone
(Fig. 8). At the Eaphuon, in the third quarter of the 11th century, three ring galleries occupied the first,
third and fifth levels of the pyramid; moreover, the highest gallery rests on two series of columns and
has, probably for stability, a windowed center wall.

The following phase is at Angkor Wat (first half of the 12th century), the major accomplishment of
Angkorean Khmer architecture (Fig. 10). Here, the three levels of the pyramid are girded by vaulted
sandstone galleries. These rest, at the first two levels, on a wall and columns, and at the third level, on
columns alone. Side aisles, which themselves rest on columns, buttress these galleries. This system is
adopted at the Bayon several decades later for the monument’s two enclosed galleries.

These diverse observations indicate, therefore, that the architects worked in a consistent way in terms
of technical boldness and the visual lightening of the structures. A comparable evolutionary line can
be drawn, although on the basis of different criteria, for the sanctuary towers themselves and for other
buildings such as the “libraries” (for this type of structure, see Coedès 1911).

Far from being rigid, Khmer architects have always questioned their art; their research was only
interrupted by unfavorable historic circumstances after the reign of Jayavarman II in the 13th century.
Would they have been able to go farther still and glorify new monuments with new architectural
solutions? Nothing could be less certain, for Angkorean Khmer architecture evolved with a major
handicap: the vaulting method routinely used was, in effect, corbelling, which necessarily limits the
interior span. Having conducted a rich dialectic between covered and uncovered spaces, which path
would Khmer architecture have chosen, given the methods of dry wall construction they used? The
question remains unanswered here but it invites reflection and is worth asking.

Permanence: The “Architecture-Image”

If we examine the Khmer Architecture as a comparative unit, then the most constant aspect of Khmer
architecture, whether individual structure, sanctuary complex, or city, is that of “architecture-image,”
that is, the representation in architectural form of images provided by the texts. Khmer
epigraphy often refers to a monument’s precise place in Indian cosmography. As
mentioned above, in the Indo-Khmer religious perspective the sanctuary could be
likened to a mountain. In the case of Phnom Eakheng, the quincuncial
arrangement of the five sanctuary towers at the summit corresponds in a very
concrete way to the peak of Mount Meru buttressed by four other strong
mountains. All forms of religious architecture in Angkorian Cambodia must there-
fore be as close as possible to the image suggested by the texts.

The image of a divine home, in this case that of Siva, is shown in what seems to
have been its most important form in two famous bas-reliefs on the Eanteay Srei
temple (consecrated in A.D. 967-968) near Angkor. The reliefs occupy the
tympana of the pediments on the southern library in the monument’s first
enclosure. They show us Siva surrounded by many divine or semi-divine
personages in his private celestial home of Kailasa; he is seated at the summit of
a stepped pyramid (Fig. 11). It is thus perfectly appropriate to designate the
stepped pyramid monuments at Angkor as temple-mountains, even if it hints of

13
redundancy in that every sanctuary in the Indian tradition is akin to a mountain.
In building their pyramids, the Khmer simply solidify this image.

The bas-reliefs of the library present another picture of the inhabitants of Siva’s
home: hybrid figures with human bodies and animal heads. These figures are
also found on the stairs leading to the monument’s three sanctuary towers and,
again, permit us to regard these temples just as though they were divine
mountains.

According to Professor Jean Filliozat, the conformity of the architecture to the

texts is such that some of the texts may have been inspired by the architecture
(1961). Its builder, the great king Suryavarman II (A.D. 1113 to at least 1145),
was a fervent devotee of Vishnu. Whether the text influenced those who created
the temple matters relatively little, given the text’s uncertain date.

Professor Filliozat concludes that the descrip tion of the Hari (Vishnu) Temple in
the Indian text KurmaPurana may have been purely and simply inspired the
temple-mountain of Angkor Wat.

The moats and the system of concentric walls at Angkor Waft certainly will arrest
one’s attention more. These features characterize all the temple-mountains.
They evoke divine residences perched on top of concentric chains of
insurmountable mountains surrounded by oceans, in the image of Mount Meru.
At Angkor Waft, the small courtyard situated at the same height as the cruciform
gallery on the second level, as well as those that surround the central sanctuary
at the summit of the pyramid, could even be likened to the primordial ocean,
seat of repose of Vishnu during his sleep between two cosmic eras. In fact,
during the rainy season, these courtyards fill with water. It is easy to imagine
that on certain occasions, with the drainage systems blocked, they were turned
into basins.

Our last example of an “architecture-image” is that of Angkor Thom and the

Bayon, an immensely complicated monument with multiple meanings. The
equivalence of the Bayon to Mount Mandara has long been invoked to explain
the birth of the city. Using Mount Mandara as a churning rod, giants supporting
the body of an immense serpent stir and agitate the Sea of Milk just as the gods
and demons have done from time immemorial. In Hindu mythology, the purpose
of stirring up the Sea of Milk was to obtain the elixir of immortality. This elixir
appeared only after the appearance of a certain number of other precious things,
among them the goddess Sri (Beauty, Prosperity), the elephant Airavata (the god
Indra’s mount), or the aPsaras (celestial nymphs). The churning myth also helps
us to understand Angkor Thom, the city of Jayavarmnan VII, as a source of
benefits, treasures, or riches, and by extension, the source of prosperity of the
Khmer Empire itself. (See the Vishnu purâna [Book I, chapter 9] and
the Bhâgavata Purina [Book 8, chapters 6-11] for versions of this myth.)

In the case of Angkor Thom, however, several images are superimposed on one
another. Professor J. Eoisselier sees in the Eayon an image of the Room of Good
Order (Sudhammasabha) of Buddhist mythology.

Viewed this way, the monument’s striking towers covered with faces would be in
communication with the Brahman Sananlcumara (“perpetually young”), those
who transmit the teaching of Buddha to the Buddhist and Hindu divinities

14
periodically reunited in the Room (Fig. 13). Angkor Thom thus becomes a replica
on earth of the city of Indra—the king of the gods—at the center of which this
Room was built. Situated on the summit of Mount Meru, the city of Indra is
guarded by the four great kings of the East; it is their faces that one should
recognize in the monumental gates of Angkor Thom (Fig. 12). Moreover, 54 giant
figures supporting a massive serpent are stationed on each side of the dikes
crossing the moats; they recall the image of the Churning of the Sea of Milk. We
might go further and liken the giants to divine or semi-divine armies assuring the
protection of the city (see Le Bonheur 1989). And finally, the scene recalls the
symbolic equivalence of the serpent (nag) and the rainbow—a celestial bridge
permitting passage from the human world outside the city to the divine world
created at the heart of Angkor Thom by the Bayon itself.

Diverse, evolving, permanent: Khmer architecture, of which the temple-mountain

is at once the best-known and most important expression, remains one of Asia’s
major contributions to the world’scultural patrimony. Despite the considerable
number of studies, both general and specific, devoted to it, it is far from having
been completely explained. It still constitutes a field of exploration and research
as rich as the religious traditions that gave rise to it.”

A step pyramid or stepped pyramid is an architectural structure that uses flat platforms, or
steps, receding from the ground up, to achieve a completed shape similar to a geometric
pyramid. Step pyramids are structures which characterized several cultures throughout
history, in several locations throughout the world. These pyramids typically are large and
made of several layers of stone. The term refers to pyramids of similar design that emerged
separately from one another, as there are no firmly established connections between the
different civilizations that built them.

As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok and in Cipari near Kuningan. are
the abode for the spirit of the ancestors. The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th
century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central Java. However the later temples built in
Java were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture, as displayed by the towering spires
of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java during the late Majapahit period saw the
revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as displayed by Sukuh temple that somewhat
resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also stepped pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.
Egyptian pyramid construction techniques are the controversial subject of many hypotheses.
These techniques seem to have developed over time; later pyramids were not constructed in the same
way as earlier ones. Most of the construction hypotheses are based on the belief that huge stones were
carved from quarries with copper chisels, and these blocks were then dragged and lifted into position.
Disagreements chiefly concern the methods used to move and place the stones.
In addition to the many unresolved arguments about the construction techniques, there have been
disagreements as to the kind of workforce used. The Greeks, many years after the event, believed that
the pyramids must have been built by slave labor. Archaeologists now believe that the Great Pyramid
of Giza (at least) was built by tens of thousands of skilled workers who camped near the pyramids and
worked for a salary or as a form of tax payment (levy) until the construction was completed, pointing
to workers' cemeteries discovered in 1990. For the Middle Kingdom Pyramid of Amenemhat II, there
is evidence from the annal stone of the king that foreigners from Canaan were used

15
The main temple structure at Borobudur is constructed on three levels with a pyramid-shaped
base replete with five square terraces, the trunk of a cone with three circular shaped
platforms, and on the upper level, a grand monumental stupa. How big is the Borobudur
Temple? The area of the temple is 2,500 m²

A step pyramid or stepped pyramid is an architectural structure that uses flat platforms, or
steps, receding from the ground up, to achieve a completed shape similar to a geometric
pyramid. Step pyramids are structures which characterized several cultures throughout
history, in several locations throughout the world. These pyramids typically are large and
made of several layers of stone. The term refers to pyramids of similar design that emerged
separately from one another, as there are no firmly established connections between the
different civilizations that built them.
Some detail facts and figures of CANDI BOROBUDUR is shown below:-

1) MONUMENT SIZE: 123m by 123m and 42 meter height.

2) NARRATIVE RELIEF:1,460 panels and decorative relief: 1,212panels.
3) BUDDHA STATUES IN OPEN NICHES:368 (Original 432) and 72 on top terraces.4)
NUMBER OF GALLERIES:
4 (each has 2 wall panels: main wall andbalustrade)
5) TOTAL LENGTA OF VISUAL PANELS: Circa 2,500 meters
6) TOTAL VOLUME OF STONE USED: Circa 55,000 cubic meters.
7) TIME TO BUILD:perhaps 66 years, and
8) USUAGE PERIOD: Almost 200 years 1
Lundquist, J. M. (1995) 2 says that the top 2 terraces are not circular but eleptical and can be
clearly seen from aerial photos of the structure- the third being definitely circular. What reason this
was done for is unclear. Perhaps some structural calculations of that time.

If seen from the air and from the small reproduction of it in the museum and it was made in
the form of a Hindu Meru which is a vertical representation of the Sri Yantra. Apparently this
was the shape of a Buddhist mandala. The height of the whole edifice before renovation was
42 meters. Now it is only 34.5 meters since the lowest level has been used as a supporting
base.

Two ancient Ganesha statues are at the entrance but there was a pool in front of the hotel in
which you found a statue of Lakshmi which had a striking resemblance to the Chinese
goddess of prosperity called Kuan.

16
Prasat Thom of Koh Ker temple site Cambodia- another step pyramid
The step pyramid is the basic design of 8th century Borobudur Buddhist monument in Central
Java. However the later temples built in Java were influenced by Indian Hindu architecture,
as displayed by the towering spires of Prambanan temple. In the 15th century Java during the
late Majapahit period saw the revival of Austronesian indigenous elements as displayed
by Sukuh temple that somewhat resembles a Mesoamerican pyramid, and also stepped
pyramids of Mount Penanggungan.

The koh ker pyramid: The archaeological site of Koh Ker in northern Cambodia contains a
seven-tiered pyramid called Prang which was probably the state temple of Jayavarman IV.
Construction of the sanctuary was started in 928 AD. At ground level one, side of the square
building measures 62 m (203 ft). The height is 36 m (118 ft). Originally on the top platform
stood a huge lingam probably more than 4 m (13 ft) high and having a weight of several tons.
Inscriptions say that it was the tallest and most beautiful Shiva-ling-am. The lingam probably
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. (PDF) Borobudur - A Splendid Zenith of World
Heritage-https://www.researchgate.net/publication/326413314_Borobudur_-
_A_Splendid_Zenith_of_World_Heritage

2. Borobudur: The Top Plan and the Upper Terraces. East and West, 45(1/4), 283–304.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/29757214
stood in a shrine which some researchers say could have been about 15 m (49 ft) high. On the
north side of the pyramid is a steep staircase leading to the top. Concerning the seventh tier
some scientists say, this was the platform of the shrine because on its sides beautiful reliefs of
Garudas were made.

17
The main pyramid of Sukuh temple// Temples of Ayutthaya

As well as menhirs, stone tables, and stone statues Austronesian megalithic culture
in Indonesia also featured earth and stone step pyramid structure, referred to as punden
berundak as discovered in Pangguyangan site near Cisolok and in Cipari near Kuningan. The
construction of stone pyramids is based on the native beliefs that mountains and high places
are the abode for the spirit of the ancestors.
One can venture to compare the Buddhist Cosmological design of this structure with the
thailand Stupas (called chedi in Thai). This design is said to have originated in India, where
the rounded shape of ancient funerary mounds was adopted for Buddhist reli-quary
monuments. These mounds were often set atop platforms and topped by elaborate
umbrellas. Over time each component part of the stupa was given a symbolic meaning and
evolved distinctive regional variations as Buddhism spread across Asia.

The Historic City of Ayutthaya, founded in 1350, was the second capital of the Siamese
Kingdom. It flourished from the 14th to the 18th centuries, during which time it grew to be
one of the world’s largest and most cosmopolitan urban areas and a center of global
diplomacy and commerce. Ayutthaya was strategically located on an island surrounded by
three rivers connecting the city to the sea. This site was chosen because it was located above
the tidal bore of the Gulf of Siam as it existed at that time, thus preventing attack of the city
by the sea-going warships of other nations. The location also helped to protect the city from
seasonal flooding.

The city was attacked and razed by the Burmese army in 1767 who burned the city to the
ground and forced the inhabitants to abandon the city. The city was never rebuilt in the same
location and remains known today as an extensive archaeological site.

What UNESCO calls the Ayutthaya school of art showcases the ingenuity and the creativity
of the Ayutthaya civilization as well as its ability to assimilate a multitude of foreign
influences. The large palaces and the Buddhist monasteries constructed in the capital, for
example at Wat Mahathat and Wat Phra Si Sanphet, are testimony to both the economic
vitality and technological prowess of their builders, as well as to the appeal of the intellectual
tradition they embodied. All buildings were elegantly decorated with the highest quality of

18
crafts and mural paintings, which consisted of an eclectic mixture of traditional styles
surviving from Sukhothai, inherited from Angkor, and borrowed from the 17th and 18th
century art styles of Japan, China, India, Persia and Europe, creating a rich and unique
expression of a cosmopolitan culture and laying the foundation for the fusion of styles of art
and architecture popular throughout the succeeding Rattanakosin Era and onwards.

Plan of the ruins of Wat Mahathat, Ayutthaya

The Wat Mahathat -Temple of the Great Relic) is a Buddhist temple in Ayutthaya, central
Thailand. located in the center of old Ayutthaya, between Chi Kun Road and Naresuan Road
in the northeast corner of Phra Ram Park.
Wat is the Thai word for temple. Wat Ratchaburana was built in the mid 15th century by
the seventh king of Ayutthaya. It features a tall Khmer-style prang tower over the sanctuary,
which is covered with stucco decoration, and three porticoes facing east, north and south, set
atop a high platform accessed by steep stairs. The silhouette is reminiscent of the
medieval Hindu temples of north-central India.

In the IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering,Digital photogrammetric

survey from aerial images for architectural documentation in sites and monuments: a case
study of Wat Mahathat Lop Bury, Thailand
M. L. Varodom Suksawasdi1,2

19
Published under licence by IOP Publishing Ltd
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Volume 910, 2020 3rd
International Conference on Civil Engineering and Architecture (ICCEA 2020) 28-30 June
2020, Compiègne, France Citation M. L. Varodom Suksawasdi 2020 IOP Conf. Ser.: Mater.
Sci. Eng. 910 012014
Under the Chakri dynasty the Thai kingdom (known in the West as Siam) prospered,
avoiding colonization by the European powers and laying the foundations of a modern nation
state. During this period, in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, older architectural models
were reinterpreted with the addition of elaborate surface decoration in glittering gold leaf
and mosaics of shell, ceramic and colored glass.The characteristic Thai roof profile also
emerged at this time, featuring sloping tiled surfaces with high gables and overhanging eaves
enhanced by long pointed finials marking the ends of the ridge poles. The exaggerated effect
is reminiscent of southern Chinese architecture which may have inspired it.

Overlapping Roof Eaves

Glittering Surfaces

Chinese influence is more explicit in the use of porcelain mosaics to decorate the surface of
chedis at Wat Pho and at Wat Arun, the famous “Temple of the Dawn.” Construction of this
magnificent structure was begun by king Rama II over an existing foundation and completed
by his successor, Rama III, in the 1840’s. The Khmer-style prang tower is the tallest in the
country.

The brick core is covered with plaster and embedded with multi-colored porcelain shards
from the ballast carried by Chinese trading ships. The zig-zagging glistening surfaces impart
a sense of rhythmic movement to the structure which follows a complex mandala plan. The
grouping of five towers represents Mount Meru, the central mountain of Buddhist cosmology,
encircled by the guardians of the four directions.
Set in a prominent riverside location, Wat Arun is a distin-ctive beloved Bangkok land-mark.
Many of Bangkok’s most famous temples and historical monuments lie on the banks of the
Chao Phraya River which winds through the city and the best way to visit them is by a long-
tailed motor boat. These water taxis offer a refreshing alternative to the modern city’s
notoriously congested traffic.

20
The mondop or maṇḍapa in Sanskrit, is a building form in traditional Thai religious
architecture featuring a square or cruciform building with a usually pointed roof. In the narrow
sense, it refers to an enclosed square building with a roughly pyramidal, multi-tiered roof
culminating in a tall pointed spire, with a roof structure very similar to the smaller busabok. In
the wider sense, the term may refer to religious buildings following a wide range of architectural
styles, including historical structures more closely reflecting the Indic mandapa, from which they
are likely derived.

Phra Mondop, the sumptuous library building within the Grand Palace’s Wat Phra Kaew
temple complex, was built by king Rama I in the late 18th century. It epitomizes the Thai
style, with its super-imposed roof structures and overlapping eaves, dramatic upturned finials
and richly decorated surfaces.

BAS RELIEFS
Borobudur contains approximately 2,670 individual bas reliefs (1,460 narrative and 1,212
decorative panels), which cover the façades and balustrades. The total relief surface is 2,500
square metres and they are distributed at the hidden foot and the five square platforms.

However, the symbolization of enlightenment these stupas represent is not intended to be

merely aesthetic. Buddhist stupas and mandalas are understood as “spiritual technologies”
that harness spiritual “energies” in the creation of sacred space. The repetition of form and
the circumabulatory progress of the pilgrim mimic, and thereby access, the cosmological as a
microcosm. The clockwise movement around the cosmic center reproduces the macrocosmic
path of the sun. Thus, when one emerges from the dark galleries representing the realms of
desire and form into the light of the “formless” circular open air upper walkways, the material
effect of light on one’s physical form merges concomitantly with the spiritual enlightenment
generated by the metaphysical journey of the sacred path.

Light, in all its paradoxes, is the ultimate goal. The crowning stupa of this sacred mountain is
dedicated to the “Great Sun Buddha” Vairocana. The temple sits in cosmic proximity to the
nearby volcano Mt. Merapi. During certain times of the year the path of the rising sun in the
East seems to emerge out of the mountain to strike the temple’s peak in radiant synergy.
Light illuminates the stone in a way that is intended to be more than beautiful. The brilliance
of the site can be found in how the Borobudur mandala blends the metaphysical and physical,
the symbolic and the material, the cosmological and the earthly within the structure of its
physical setting and the framework of spiritual paradox.

The journey

Set high upon a hill vertically enhanced by its builders to achieve a greater elevation,
Borobudur consists of a series of open-air passageways that radiate around a central axis
mundi (cosmic axis). Devotees circumambulate clockwise along walkways that gradually
ascend to its uppermost level. At Borobudur, geometry, geomancy, and theology all instruct
adherents toward the ultimate goal of enlightenment. Meticulously carved relief sculptures

21
mediate a physical and spiritual journey that guides pilgrims progressively toward higher
states of consciousness.

The entire site contains 504 statues of the Buddha. 1460 stone reliefs on the walls
and opposite balustrades decorate the first four galleries, with an additional 1212
decorative reliefs augmenting the path. The relief sculptures narrate the Buddha’s
teachings (the Dharma), depict various events related to his past lives (Jataka tales), and
illustrate didactic stories taken from important Buddhist scriptures (sutras). Interestingly,
another 160 relief sculptures adorn the base of the monument, but are concealed behind
stone buttresses that were added shortly after the building’s construction in order to
further support the structure’s weight. The hidden narrative reliefs were photographed
when they were discovered in the late 19th century before the stones were put back to
help ensure the temple’s stability.

The narrative panels, which tell the story of Sudhana and Manohara,[69] are grouped into 11
series encircled the monument with the total length of 3,000 metres (9,800 ft). The hidden
foot contains the first series with 160 narrative panels and the remaining 10 series are
distributed throughout walls and balustrades in four galleries starting from the eastern
entrance stairway to the left. Narrative panels on the wall read from right to left, while on the
balustrade read from left to right. This conforms with pradaksina, the ritual of
circumambulation performed by pilgrims who move in a clockwise direction while keeping
the sanctuary to their right.

The hidden foot depicts the workings of karmic law. The walls of the first gallery have two
superimposed series of reliefs; each consists of 120 panels. The upper part depicts the
biography of the Buddha, while the lower part of the wall and also balustrades in the first and
the second galleries tell the story of the Buddha's former lives. The remaining panels are

22
devoted to Sudhana's further wandering about his search, terminated by his meeting with the
Gautama.

At first glance, all the Buddha statues appear similar, but there is a subtle difference between
them in the mudras or the position of the hands. There are five groups of mudra: North, East,
South, West and Zenith, which represent the five cardinal compass points according to
Mahayana. The first four balustrades have the first four mudras: North, East, South and West,
of which the Buddha statues that face one compass direction have the corresponding mudra.
Buddha statues at the fifth balustrades and inside the 72 stupas on the top platform have the
same mudra: Zenith. Each mudra represents one of the Five Dhyani Buddhas; each has its
own symbolism.

Borobudur's vertical organization reflects Buddhist cosmology, according to which the

universe is divided into three superimposing spheres: kamadhatu (desire), rupadhatu (forms)
and arupadhatu (formlessness). Buddhist cosmology is the description of the shape and
evolution of the Universe according to the Buddhist scriptures and commentaries.
It consists of temporal and spatial cosmology: the temporal cosmology being the division of
the existence of a 'world' into four discrete moments (the creation, duration, dissolution, and
state of being dissolved; this does not seem to be a canonical division, however). The spatial
cosmology consists of a vertical cosmology, the various planes of beings, their bodies,
characteristics attainment of the Perfect Wisdom.

Apart from the story of the Buddhist cosmology carved in stone, Borobudur has many statues
of various Buddhas. The cross-legged statues are seated in a lotus position and distributed on
the five square platforms (the Rupadhatu level) as well as on the top platform (the
Arupadhatu level).

The Buddha statues are in niches at the Rupadhatu level, arranged in rows on the outer sides
of the balustrades, the number of statues decreasing as platforms progressively diminish to
the upper level. The first balustrades have 104 niches, the second 104, the third 88, the fourth
72 and the fifth 64. In total, there are 432 Buddha statues at the Rupadhatu level. At the
Arupadhatu level (or the three circular platforms), Buddha statues are placed inside
perforated stupas. The first circular platform has 32 stupas, the second 24 and the third 16,
that add up to 72 stupas. Of the original 504 Buddha statues, over 300 are damaged (mostly
headless) and 43 are missing (since the monument's discovery, heads have been stolen as
collector's items, mostly by Western museums).

, food, lifespan, beauty and a horizontal cosmology, the distribution of these world-systems
into an "apparently" infinite sheet of “worlds”. The existence of world-periods (moments,
kalpas), is well attested to by the Buddha. The historical Buddha (Gautama Buddha) made
references to the existence of aeons (the duration of which he describes using a metaphor of
the time taken to erode a huge rock measuring 1x1x1 mile by brushing it with a silk cloth,
once every century), and simultaneously intimates his knowledge of past events, such as the
dawn of human beings in their coarse and gender-split forms his ability to convey his voice
vast distances, as well as the ability of his disciples (who if they fare accordingly) to be
reborn in any one of these planes (should they so choose).

If we talk about Spatial Cosmology of Buddhism

23
The plan of the Borobudur temple complex in Java mirrors the three main levels of Buddhist
cosmology. The highest point in the center symbolizes Buddhahood. Aerial view of
Borobudur
Spatial cosmology displays the various, multitude of worlds embedded in the universe.
Spatial cosmology can also be divided into two branches. The vertical (or cakravāḍa;
Devanagari: चक्रवाड) cosmology describes the arrangement of worlds in a vertical
pattern, some being higher and some lower. By contrast, the horizontal (sahasra) cosmology
describes the grouping of these vertical worlds into sets of thousands, millions or billions.
Manuṣyaloka मनुष्यलोक is the world of humans and human-like beings who live on
the surface of the earth. Birth in this plane results from giving and moral discipline of
middling quality. This is the realm of moral choice where destiny can be guided. The Khana
Sutta mentioned that this plane is a unique balance of pleasure and pain. It facilitates the
development of virtue and wisdom to liberate oneself from the entire cycle or rebirths. For
this reason rebirth as a human being is considered precious according to the Chiggala Sutta.
The mountain-rings that engird Sumeru are surrounded by a vast ocean, which fills most of
the world. The ocean is in turn surrounded by a circular mountain wall
called Cakravāḍa चक्रवाड which marks the horizontal limit of the world. In this ocean
there are four continents which are, relatively speaking, small islands in it. Because of the
immenseness of the ocean, they cannot be reached from each other by ordinary sailing
vessels, although in the past, when the cakravartin kings ruled, communication between the
continents was possible by means of the treasure called the cakraratna (Pāli cakkaratana’’’),
which a cakravartin king and his retinue could use to fly through the air between the
continents. The four continents are:

1. Jambudvīpa located in the south and is the dwelling of ordinary human beings. It is said
to be shaped "like a cart", or rather a blunt-nosed triangle with the point facing south.
(This description probably echoes the shape of the coastline of southern India
2. Pūrvavideha पूर्वविदेह or Pubbavideha पुब्बविदेह located in the
east, and is shaped like a semicircle with the flat side pointing westward (i.e., towards
Sumeru).
3. Aparagodānīya अपरगोदानीय or Aparagoyāna अपरगोयान located in the
west, and is shaped like a circle.
4. Uttarakuru उत्तरकुरु is shaped like a square.

24
 1. Tiryagyoni-loka तिर्यग्योनिलोक This world comprises all members
of the animal kingdom that are capable of feeling suffering, regardless of size. The
animal realm includes animals, insects, fish, birds, worms, etc..
2. Pretaloka प्रेतलोक or Petaloka पेतलोक are mostly dwellers on earth,
though due to their mental state they perceive it very differently from humans.
They live for the most part in deserts and wastelands. This is the realm where
ghost and unhappy spirits wander in vain, hopelessly in search of sensual
fulfillment.

Jambudvīpa जम्बुद्वीप; is the dvīpa ("island" or "continent") the geographical area and
ancient name of Greater India in Ancient Indian History. The term Jambudvipa is used
by Ashoka perhaps to represent his realm in 3rd century BC, same terminology is then
repeated in subsequent inscriptions for instance mysorean inscription from the tenth century
AD which also describes the region, presumably Ancient India, as Jambudvipa.
The word Jambudvīpa literally refers to "the land of Jambu trees" where jambu (also known
as jamun) is the Indian Blackberry (Syzygium cumini) and dvīpa has two meanings: "island"
or "continent," and "planets" situated in the ocean of outer space.
"The planets are called dvīpas. Outer space is like an ocean of air. Just as there are islands in
the watery ocean, these planets in the ocean of space are called dvīpas, or islands in outer
space" (Chaitanya Caritamrita Madhya 20.218, Purport)

The Prakrit name Jambudīpasi (Sanskrit "Jambudvīpa") for "India" in the Sahasram Minor Rock Edict of Ashoka,
circa 250 BCE (Brahmi script).

Map of Jambudvipa
According to Puranic cosmography, the world is divided into seven concentric island
continents (sapta-dvipa vasumati) separated by the seven encircling oceans, each double the
size of the preceding one (going out from within). The seven continents of the Puranas are
stated as Jambudvipa, Plaksadvipa, Salmalidvipa, Kusadvipa, Krouncadvipa, Sakadvipa,
and Pushkaradvipa. Seven intermediate oceans consist of salt-water, sugarcane juice,
wine, ghee, yogurt, milk and water respectively.. The mountain range called Lokaloka,
meaning "world-no-world", stretches across this final sea, delineating the known world from
the dark void.
Continent Jambudvipa (Indian Blackberry Island), also known as Sudarshanadvipa, forms
the innermost concentric island in the above scheme. Its name is said to derive from a Jambu
tree (another name for the Indian Blackberry). The fruits of the Jambu tree are said, in

25
the Viṣṇupurāṇa (ch.2) to be as large as elephants and when they become rotten and fall upon
the crest of the mountains, a river of juice is formed from their expressed juice. The river so
formed is called Jambunadi (Jambu river) and flows through Jambudvipa, whose inhabitants
drink its waters. Insular continent Jambudvipa is said to comprise nine varshas (zones) and
eight significant parvatas (mountains).
Markandeya Purana portrays Jambudvipa as being depressed on its south and north and
elevated and broad in the middle. The elevated region forms the varsha named Ila-
vrta or Meruvarsha. At the center of Ila-vrta lies the golden Mount Meru, the king of
mountains. On the summit of Mount Meru, is the vast city of Lord Brahma, known
as Brahmapuri. Surrounding Brahmapuri are 8 cities - the one of Lord Indra and of seven
other Devatas.
Markandeya Purana and Brahmanda Purana divide Jambudvipa into four vast regions shaped
like four petals of a lotus with Mount Meru being located at the center like a pericarp. The
city of Brahmapuri is said to be enclosed by a river, known as Akash Ganga. Akash Ganga is
said to issue forth from the foot of Lord Vishnu and after washing the lunar region falls
"through the skies" and after encircling the Brahmapuri "splits up into four mighty streams",
which are said to flow in four opposite directions from the landscape of Mount Meru and
irrigate the vast lands of Jambudvipa.
The common names of the dvīpas, having their varṣas (9 for Jambu-dvīpa, 7 for the other
dvīpas) with a mountain and a river in each varṣa, is given in several Purāṇas. [8] There is a
distinct set of names provides, however, in other Purāṇas.The most detailed geography is that
described in the Vāyu Purāṇa.
The Buddhist cosmology divides the bhūmaṇḍala (circle of the earth) into three separate
levels: Kāmadhātu (Desire realm), Rūpadhātu (Form realm), and Ārūpyadhātu (Formless
realm). In the Kāmadhātu is located Mount Sumeru which is said to be surrounded by four
island-continents. "The southernmost island is called Jambudvīpa". The other three continents
of Buddhist accounts around Sumeru are not accessible to humans from Jambudvīpa.
Jambudvīpa is shaped like a triangle with a blunted point facing south, somewhat like the
Indian subcontinent. In its center is a gigantic Jambu tree from which the continent takes its
name, meaning "Jambu Island".
Jambudipa, one of the four Mahādīpas, or great continents, which are included in the
Cakkavāla and are ruled by a Cakkavatti. They are grouped round MountSineru. In
Jambudīpa is Himavā with its eighty-four thousand peaks, its lakes, mountain ranges, etc.
This continent derives its name from the Jambu-tree (also called Naga) which grows there, its
trunk fifteen yojanas in girth, its outspreading branches fifty yojanas in length, its shade one
hundred yojanas in extent and its height one hundred yojanas (Vin.i.30; SNA.ii.443;
Vsm.i.205f; Sp.i.119, etc.) On account of this tree, Jambudīpa is also known as Jambusanda
(SN.vs.552; SNA.i.121). The continent is ten thousand yojanas in extent; of these ten
thousand, four thousand are covered by the ocean, three thousand by the Himālaya
mountains, while three thousand are inhabited by men (SNA.ii.437; UdA.300).
Jambudvīpa is the region where the humans live and is the only place where a being may
become enlightened by being born as a human being. It is in Jambudvīpa that one may
receive the gift of Dharma and come to understand the Four Noble Truths, the Noble
Eightfold Path and ultimately realize the liberation from the cycle of life and death. Another
reference is from the Buddhist text Mahavamsa, where the emperor Ashoka's
son Mahinda introduces himself to the Sri Lankan king Devanampiyatissa as from

26
Jambudvipa, referring to what is now the Indian subcontinent. This is Based In
the Kṣitigarbha Sūtra in the Mahayana.
From what we understand, Borobudur lay hidden for centuries under layers of volcanic
ash and jungle growth. The facts behind its abandonment remain a mystery. It is not known
when active use of the monument and Buddhist pilgrimage to it ceased. Sometime between
928 and 1006, King Mpu Sindok moved the capital of the Medang Kingdom to the region of
East Java after a series of volcanic eruptions; it is not certain whether this influenced the
abandonment, but several sources mention this as the most likely period of abandonment. The
monument is mentioned vaguely as late as ca. 1365, in Mpu Prapanca's Nagarakretagama
written during Majapahit era and mentioning "the vihara in Budur". Soekmono (1976) also
mentions the popular belief that the temples were disbanded when the population converted
to Islam in the 15th century.

The monument was not forgotten completely, though folk stories gradually shifted from its
past glory into more superstitious beliefs associated with bad luck and misery. Two old
Javanese chronicles (babad) from the 18th century mention cases of bad luck associated with
the monument. According to the Babad Tanah Jawi (or the History of Java), the monument
was a fatal factor for Mas Dana, a rebel who revolted against Pakubuwono I, the king of
Mataram in 1709. It was mentioned that the "Redi Borobudur" hill was besieged and the
insurgents were defeated and sentenced to death by the king. In the Babad Mataram (or the
History of the Mataram Kingdom), the monument was associated with the misfortune of
Prince Monconagoro, the crown prince of the Yogyakarta Sultanate in 1757. In spite of a
taboo against visiting the monument, "he took what is written as the knight who was captured
in a cage (a statue in one of the perforated stupas)". Upon returning to his palace, he fell ill
and died one day later.

Lieutenant Governor-General Thomas Stamford Raffles took great interest in the history of
Java. He collected Javanese antiques and made notes through contacts with local inhabitants
during his tour throughout the island. On an inspection tour to Semarang in 1814, he was
informed about a big monument deep in a jungle near the village of Bumisegoro. He was not
able to make the discovery himself and sent H.C. Cornelius, a Dutch engineer, to investigate.
In two months, Cornelius and his 200 men cut down trees, burned down vegetation and dug
away the earth to reveal the monument. Due to the danger of collapse, he could not unearth
all galleries. He reported his findings to Raffles including various drawings. Although the
discovery is only mentioned by a few sentences, Raffles has been credited with the
monument's recovery, as one who had brought it to the world's attention.

The Dutch East Indies government then commissioned F.C. Wilsen, a Dutch engineering
official, who studied the monument and drew hundreds of relief sketches. J.F.G. Brumund
was also appointed to make a detailed study of the monument, which was completed in 1859.

Borobudur attracted attention in 1885. The restoration was carried out between 1907 and
1911. Due to the limited budget, the restoration had been primarily focused on cleaning the
sculptures, and Van Erp did not solve the drainage problem. Within fifteen years, the gallery
walls were sagging and the reliefs showed signs of new cracks and deterioration. Van Erp
used concrete from which alkali salts and calcium hydroxide leached and were transported

27
into the rest of the construction. This caused some problems, so that a further thorough
renovation was urgently needed.

In 1973, a master plan to restore Borobudur was created. The Indonesian government and
UNESCO then undertook the complete overhaul of the monument in a big restoration project
between 1975 and 1982. The foundation was stabilized and all 1,460 panels were cleaned.
The restoration involved the dismantling of the five square platforms and improved the
drainage by embedding water channels into the monument. Both impermeable and filter
layers were added. This colossal project involved around 600 people to restore the monument
and cost a total of US$ 6,901,243. After the renovation was finished, UNESCO listed
Borobudur as a World Heritage Site in 1991. It is listed under Cultural criteria "to represent a
masterpiece of human creative genius", "to exhibit an important interchange of human values,
over a span of time or within a cultural area of the world, on developments in architecture or
technology, monumental arts, town-planning or landscape design", and "to be directly or
tangibly associated with events or living traditions, with ideas, or with beliefs, with artistic
and literary works of outstanding universal significance".

In his article-Shape of worship: The architectural philosophy behind the structure of temples,
Santanu Chakraborty |Multiverse ,2019 states that the structure of places of prayer,
especially Hindu temples, represents the believer’s notion of the universe. If you were tasked
with designing a temple, how would you go about it? To understand any monumental
architecture, it is important to understand the thought processes — individual and collective
— behind it as well as the technological methods that helped realise them. How to represent
the sacred is a question that is now the preserve of the religious collective. Most places of
worship follow long-established traditions that started off by blending the needs of a new
religion with the possibilities offered by existing technologies. New ideas and methods were then
added into the canon and, with time, they became the standard — shall we say rigid? - way of
conceptualising sacred structures. Artists find ways to innovate and express within these constraints;
sometimes they get into trouble, but often they evolve new traditions within a larger standard.

However, some constraints are purely man-made. Perhaps the temple is being built for a religion that
is keen to find and unite new followers under one roof with frequent prayer gatherings. Then the
structure must accommodate a multitude of men, women and children and should allow the
congregation to move about freely. The trouble is that holding up a roof and having it span a large
distance without any intermediate support is difficult. A society needs serious motivation to research
and develop methods that could eventually lead to the construction of such architectural marvels.
Religion, more often than not, has provided that motivation throughout history. Some of the grandest
structures in existence today are churches, mosques, temples and pagodas. The process of building
them led to the development of impressive structural styles, such as the monumental arches and
domes.

While the size of the building is surely an element that might impress — as in the case of the
pyramids — the architect must also decide what the structure will look like. The shape of a place of
worship represents believers’ notion of the universe, and that belief manifests itself in the design of
certain religious structures such as Hindu temples. While the intricacies of those structures are still
being studied by researchers around the world, we can certainly look into some elements here. It will
help us understand how grand spires have been imagined, computed and constructed. Early temple
builders lived in a world where speculation about the cosmos led to systems of design that combined
two ideas. The first is that the structure of the temple emerges from underlying generative principles.

28
We can speculate that the ancient inhabitants might have thought of the universe as having certain
underlying laws that governed its formation and evolution. By no means do these need to be verifiable
ideas. For instance, astrology continues to occupy a decision-making role in the lives of many. While
belief does not need to imply verifiable truth, it can get people to act. The ancient generations were
unaware of scientific laws as we know them today, but they might have intuited — or maybe just
imagined — that the order in the natural world could emerge from repetition of simple principles.
This idea is manifest in the construction of Hindu temples.

The second is the idea that natural objects demonstrate a certain similarity independent of scale.
Consider the leaves of a tree. Thousands of leaves of a tree can be imagined to be copies of a single
leaf scaled to different sizes. The veins coursing through the leaves display a similar, structured
pattern. View these patterns under a microscope to discover the similarity between the branching
patterns of the tiniest leaf veins and the larger ones. The same is often true of blood vessels coursing
through animals. So it would be easy to imagine, in one giant leap of faith, that objects in the universe
share a certain similarity — a pattern that reappears — no matter the scale.
Look at the plan of the smaller Sas-Bahu temple complex in Gwalior (image below), and consider a
systematic way in which you start with the innermost square, expand and distort it (stretch or
compress along a given axis) to create the outer perimete.

Complex art: The designs of temple evolved to produce complicated plans such as the
Vishveshvur Temple RIGHT PIC Dots and lines: Temple designs are evolved from geometrical patterns; it is
evident in the plan for the smaller Sas-Bahu Temple (left) and the Baroli Temple (right)

The temple plan of Baroli will help you conceptualise the task as well as think of a method to attain
your objective. The early temple designers used the intersections of circles, squares, rectangles and
radial lines to come up with points that they could join to make the plans. The methods
evolved to produce complicated plans such as the Sun Temple at Konark and the temple at
Vishveshvur. The architect never enjoyed complete freedom as the design had to emerge, at
least partially, from some geometric principles.

Facades and spires of temples strictly abide by this idea. Observe the main spire — the large
central one — of the Kandariya Mahadeva Temple in Khajuraho. Note how numerous scaled
down versions of the same spire are attached to the main design to create a complex structure.
Different styles of Hindu temple building use different ways of replicating inner elements.

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A marvel: The Buddhist temple at Borobudur is a magnificent example of similar forms arranged in a harmonic
whole

Chausath Jogini Temple

Tantra is an ancient Hindu tradition which is mainly related to Goddesses. This ancient practice still exists and is
also followed in various temples. Especially, the 'Shakta' or Shakti Peethas are mainly associated with this
tradition. Tantric Practices can be seen in several literatures and even in carvings at some temples like
Khajuraho. In this article, we are taking you around some famous Tantric temples in India that have been
following this ancient practice.

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Borobudur was built in 750 AD and just 300 years later we see a similar circular form of
Tantric design in the Chausath Yogini Temple, Mitaoli,, also known as Ekattarso Mahadeva
Temple, is an 11th-century temple in Morena district in the Indian state of Madhya Pradesh. It is
one of the few well-preserved Yogini temples in India. The temple is formed by a circular wall
with 65 chambers, apparently for 64 yoginis and the goddess Devi, and an open mandapa in
the centre of a circular courtyard, sacred to Shiva

Chausath Jogini Temple Chausath Jogini Temple or 64 Joginis Temple is a unique shrine
with the idols of Yoginis (demi-goddesses) surrounding the main deity. Goddess Kali resides
as the presiding goddess of this temple who stands on a human head. This temple is one of
the popular Tantric temples in India. It is said that the idol of Maha Bhairava (Shiva) was also
there in the inner sanctum. Now we can only see the Goddess Chandi. The main attraction of
this shrine are the granite idols of Yoginis lined in a circular hall. The Jogini idols represent
different forms of Goddess Durga and the strength of feminine form. This interesting shrine
was built by the Queen Hiradevi in the outskirts of Bhubaneshwar.

31
32
33
34
 Yantra movement or movement in the Yantra as a form of
absorbing energy

Clockwise parikrama inside a temple (red)./Parikrama at the temple.

Parikrama or Pradakshina is clockwise circumambulation of sacred entities, and the path
along which this is performed, as practiced in the Indian-origin
religions - Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism and Jainism. In Buddhism, it refers only to the path

35
along which this is performed. Typically, in Indic-religions the parikrama is done after
completion of traditional worship (puja) and after paying homage to the deity. Parikrama
must be done with dhyāna (spiritual contemplation and meditation).
In Hinduism, parikarma of religious deities in a temple, sacred rivers, sacred hills and a close
cluster of temples as a symbol of prayer is an integral part of Hindu worship. Hindu temple
architecture include various Pradakshina paths. There could a parikarma path surrounding the
chief deity, and several other broader paths concentric to main path through it is not
uncommon to find non-concentric parikrama paths. At times the outermost parikrama path
covers the whole village, town, city, thereby implying that the length of the path can stretch.
Parikrama is also done around the sacred Peepal tree, tulsi (Indian basil plant),
and agni (sacred fire or the fire God), and agni parikrama is a part of the Hindu
wedding ceremony.
Parikrama means "the path surrounding something" in Sanskrit, and is also known
as Pradakshina ("to the right"), representing circumambulation.[3] Both words are mostly
used in the context of religious practice of circumambulation of scared entities.
Prikarma is defined as "Circumbulatory or pathway around the shrine of the temples by
keeping time is a common form of prayer in India. It includes Narmada, Shetrunjaya, Girnar.
This pathway made of stone around the shrine is called Pradakshina path.”
Buddhist practice

Buddhist monks and devotees circumambulating a stupa.

Pradakhshina round a stupa in China.

In Buddhism circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual since early
times. Sacred structures such as stupa or images have a pradakhshina path around them.
The chaitya is a distinct ancient type of building that only survives in Indian rock-cut
architecture, a hall with a stupa at the far end, always built with a rounded apse-like end, to
allow pradakhshina. A mandapa (prayer hall), added in the front transforms the original stupa
into the stupa shrine — as a sacred entity which requires a circumambulatory path around it
for the purpose of worship. The whole structure is planned in such a way that it becomes the
centre of the mandala and symbolically represents Mount Meru.
Buddhist faithful may perform pradakhshina by prostrating themselves at every step, thus
greatly prolonging the process. The most extreme pradakhshina is that of the sacred Mount
Kailash in Tibet, a mountain trek some 52 km (32 mi) long, at altitudes between 15,000 ft

36
(4,600 m) and 18,200 ft (5,500 m). This may also be undertaken by Hindus and Jains, and
some pilgrims progress by prostration, taking some weeks.
Hindu practices
Significance and symbolism of parikarma
The temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association of the spiritual
transition from daily life to spiritual perfection as a journey through stages. Parikrama paths
are present through which worshipers move in a clockwise direction, starting at the sanctuary
doorway and moving inward toward the inner sanctum where the deity is enshrined. This
represents translation of the spiritual concept of transition through levels in life into bodily
movements by the worshipers as they move inwardly through ambulatory halls to the most
sacred centre of spiritual energy of the deity.
Number of Pradakshinas for various deities
For each deity, the minimum number of Pradakshinas to be done are specified.

 Ganesha: 1 or 3
 Hanuman: 3
 Shiva: half or 3
 Vishnu: 3 or 4
 Ayyappa: 5
 Subrahmanya (Kartikeya): 6
 Durga, Devi: 1, 4 or 9
 Peepal Tree: 7
 Surya : 2 or 7
The Swayambhu Agama says that doing Pradakshina 21 times to any deity is sanctified.
Parikrama in Hindu Marriage: Scripture lists eight types of marriage and current rituals fall

within the “Brahma” category. The ancient, elaborate and often lengthy ceremony is usually
performed by brahmana priests. There is much regional and denominational variation, but
certain features are common. These include:

37
 1.
A traditional painting of Shiva and Parvati, whose wedding ceremony was performed
by Brahma.

Welcoming the bridegroom

2. Exchanging flower garlands

3. The daughter being given in marriage
4. Sacred fire ceremony
5. Holding of hands
6. Circumambulation of the sacred fire
7. Marking the bride’s hair-parting with kum-kum
8. Taking seven steps together
9. Tying the knot (the garments of bride and groom)
10. Viewing the Pole Star
11. Receiving the elders’ blessings
12. Exchanging presents

Shayana Pradakshinam is done by prostration in a lying posture. It starts with a

Sashtanga Namaskara in front of the sanctum sanctorum. In Sashtanga Namaskara, the
devotees have six parts of their bodies touching the ground. Thus forehead, chest,
stomach, hands, knees and toes touch the ground. The folded hands will be directed
always towards the deity. In this pose, the devotees circumambulate on the Pradakshina
path. The relatives and friends of the devotees help them to roll around.
Shaivite Pradakshinam
In Shiva temples, the devotees start the Pradakshina as usual from the front and go
clockwise till they reach the gomukhi (the outlet for abhisheka water) from the Sanctum
Sanctorum. As usual the clockwise perambulation is maintained outside of the Bali
stones. The drainage outlet for the ritual ablution offered on the Shiva Linga with water,
milk, curd, coconut water, ghee, ashes (bhasma)etc. is not to be crossed. So the
worshippers have to return in anti-clockwise direction till they reach the other side of the
drainage outlet to complete the circle. During this anti-clockwise perambulation, the
devotee should tread a path inside of the Bali stones. The Bali stones are always to be
38
kept the right side of the devotees. After reaching the drainage oulet, they have to return
to the front in the clockwise direction keeping the path outside the Bali stones. Thus one
Pradakshina is completed.
A legend related to goddess Parvati (Shiva's wife) and her two sons illustrates the
importance of Pradakshina or Parikrama. It is said that the goddess asked her two sons to
circumambulate the universe to gain worldly knowledge. While her first son Kartikeyan
spent decades to go round the world on his peacock, her second son Ganesha walked a
full circle around his mother and justified his action by stating that the World was
contained within the figure of the mother. This legend justifies the importance that
Hindus attach to the practice of Parikrama, and also the importance of motherhood in
Hindu psychology. Another version of the same story replaces the figure of Parvati with
Shiva himself.
Comparison with non-indic religions
Like Parikrama in Hinduism, Muslims perform circumambulation around Kaaba during
their Hajj which they call tawaf. The circumambulation during Hajj is done in a
counterclockwise manner.[18] Hindu and Buddhist as well as Jain traditions, in contrast,
circumambulate a shrine or sacred site clockwise. The only exception is during paying
last respects to a dead body during a cremation or event marking a funeral, where the
traditional circumambulation in Indian religions is counter-clockwise.
Hindu locations-yodhya parikrama
In the temple city of Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh, India, Panchkosi Parikrama is performed
over a two-day period. Devotees first take a holy dip in the Saryu River and then do a
Parikrama of 15 km along the periphery of the city. It is said that over two hundred
thousand devotees including around 50
thousand sadhus from Prayag (Allahabad), Haridwar, Mathura and Kashi (Varanasi)
participate in the parikrama, and full security arrangements are made for the religious
occasion.
Girnar parikrama

Pilgrims on Girnar Parikrama

Lili Parikrama or Girnar Parikrama is a seven-day festival held at
Mount Girnar in Junagadh district of Gujarat, India. The pilgrimage involves a climb of
10,000 steps to reach the top to the sacred Mount Girnar venerated by both Hindus
and Jains. The Jains call it Mount Girnar. Devotees from all over the country participate
in the festival. Of the seven peaks of Girnar, five are important viz., Ambamata,
Gorakhnath, Augadh, lord Neminatha Tonk or Guru Dattatreya as known by Hindus and

39
Kalika. Bhavnath Shiv temple, Bhartruchari cave, Sorath Mahal, Bhim Kund and Shiv
Kund. Devotees visit these sacred places during the parikarama.
Govardahan hill parikrama

Krishna lifting the Govardhana hill/ Govardhan Temple starting point of Govardhan
Parikrama
Govardhan hill which has great religious significance in view of its association
with Lord Krishna, presently at its highest point is just 25-metre (82 ft) high and is a wide
hill near Mathura Vrindavan in Uttar Pradesh, India. It is a narrow sandstone hill known
as Giriraj which is about 8 kilometres (5 mi) in length.[21] After Krishna protected the
inhabitants of Vraj Vridavan from the wrath of Indra, he counseled them to
worship Govardhana hill and they did by way of a Puja (worship) and a Parikrama
(circumambulation) around the hill.Thus, a festival in commemoration of the lifting of
Mount Govardhan, near Mathura, by Krishna came into vogue as 'Govardhan Puja' when
Mount Govardhan is worshipped, the day after Deepawali (festival of lights) is
celebrated. Pious people keep awake the whole night and cook 56 (or 108) different types
of food for the bhog (the offering of food to God) to Krishna. This ceremony is called
'ankut' or 'annakuta' which means a mountain of food. Various types of food – cereals,
pulses, fruit, vegetables, chutneys, pickles, and salads – are offered to the Deity and then
distributed as 'prasada' to devotees. Thousands of devotees bring offerings for Giriraj.
Followed by this pooja, the devotees perform the Govardhana Parikrama.
Govardana Parikrama [circumambulation — going 21 kilometres (13 mi) around the hill]
is a sacred ritual performed by many believers as spiritual purification. There is no time
limit for performing this Parikrama, but for those who perform the dandavata (full
prostration) Parikrama, an arduous form which may take weeks and sometimes even
months to complete. Dandavata Parikrama is performed by standing in one spot, offering
obeisances like a stick (danda) by lying flat on the ground and then continuing,
contiguously, till the entire route is covered. It is also said that some sadhus (Hindu holy
men) perform 108 obeisances in one spot before moving to the next. This can take a
number of months to complete.
This ritual of Parikrama is considered to be even better if it is done with milk. A clay pot
filled with milk, with a hole at the bottom, is carried by the devotees in one hand and a
pot filled with dhoop (incense smoke) in another. An escort continuously fills up the pot
with milk till the parikrama is completed. Parikrama is also done with candy being
handed out to children, en route. The divine tree 'Kalpavriksha' planted by GreenMan
Vijaypal Baghel at each Kunda of this parikrma route, not only Kalpavriksha, he is
planting with dedication much more others traditional & medicinal flora's species around
holy Govardhan hill likely 'Tridev Vriksha', paras peepal, Rudraksha, Kadmba, pakad,

40
vat vriksha etc. who have spiritual and religious values to make Green Parikrma.
Parikrama of Govardhana hill starts at the Manasi-Ganga Kund (lake) and then after
having darsan of Lord Harideva, from Radha-kunda village, where the Vrindavan road
meets the parikrama path. After parikrama of 21 kilometres, covering important tanks,
shilas and shrines such as Radha Kunda, Syama Kunda, Dan Ghati, Mukharavinda,
Rinamochana Kunda, Kusuma Sarovara and Punchari, it ends at Mansi Ganga Kund only
Kurukshetra parikrama
48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra is a 48 kos circumambulation of over 200 Mahabharata-
related and other vedic era tirthas around the holy city of Kurukshetra in the state
of Haryana, India
Narmada parikrama
The importance of the Narmada River as sacred is testified by the fact that the pilgrims
perform a holy pilgrimage of a Parikrama or Circumambulation of the river. The
Narmada Parikrama, as it is called, is considered to be a meritorious act that a pilgrim can
undertake. Many sadhus (saints) and pilgrims walk on foot from the Arabian
Sea at Bharuch in Gujarat, along the river, to the source in Maikal Mountains
(Amarkantak hills) in Madhya Pradesh and back along the opposite bank of the river. It is
a 2,600-kilometre (1,600 mi) walk. The Parikrama is also performed along the southern
bank from its source (Amarkantak hills) to the mouth (Bharuch) and returning along the
northern bank, and it is considered to be of the highest religious efficacy.

During the Narmada Parikrama, devotees have to pass through a place called
Shulpaneshwar ki Jhari, a religious place in Gujarat with links dating back to
the Mahabharata epic story. The legend says that the Pandavas returning victorious
from Kurukshetra war were intercepted at Shulpaneswar by Eklavya and his group of
tribal Bhils and looted them (Pandvaas) of all their belongings. Since then it is a custom
that pilgrims on a Narmada Parikrama, while passing through this place, expect to be
stripped of all their belongings leaving them with the bare essentials to carry on till some
philonthropists give them donations on the way to carry on. With construction of the
Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat on the Narmada River, the Shulpaneshwar Temple has
submerged under the reservoir, necessitating the pilgrims to take a circuitous route to
continue on their journey.
Vraja Mandala parikrama
Since 500 years Vraja Mandala Parikrama has been performed during October–
November months. It is 84 Krosh long, taking 1–2 months depending on the route and
speed visits twelve forests, known as vans, and twenty-four groves, known as upavans.
The twelve forests are Madhuvan, Talavan, Kumudvan, Bahulavan, Kamavan,
Khadiravan, Vrindavan, Bhadravan, Bhandiravan, Belvan, Lohavan, and Mahavan. The
twenty-four groves are Gokul, Govardhan, Barsana, Nandagram, Sanket, Paramadra,
Aring, Sessai, Mat, Uchagram, Kelvan, Sri Kund, Gandharvavan, Parsoli, Bilchhu,
Bacchavan, Adibadri, Karahla, Ajnokh, Pisaya, Kokilavan, Dadhigram, Kotvan, and
Raval.
Vrindavan parikrama

41
 Parikrama by ISKCON devotees known as Vrindavan parikrima

Yātrā- Journey
Yātrā (Sanskrit: यात्रा, 'journey', 'procession'), in Indian-origin religions, Hinduism,
Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, generally means a pilgrimage[1] to holy places such
as confluences of sacred rivers, sacred mountains, places associated with Hindu epics such as
the Mahabharata and Ramayana, and other sacred pilgrimage sites.[2] Visiting a sacred place
is believed by the pilgrim to purify the self and bring one closer to the divine. [3] The journey
itself is as important as the destination, and the hardships of travel serve as an act of devotion
in themselves.
A tīrtha-yātrā is a pilgrimage to a sacred site, generally undertaken in groups. Yatri is the
term for anyone who undertakes the yatra. According to Vedic Hindu Dharma Shastras, a
Yatri ought to perform Yatra on foot, called padayatra, ideally barefoot as a form
of tapasya in which the pilgrim should travel without umbrellas or vehicles; however, many
yatris do not follow these niyamas.

In present times, yatras are highly organized affairs, with specialized tourism companies
catering to yatris. State governments are sometimes involved in the organization of annual
yatras, stipulating numbers, registering yatris, and regulating yatri traffic. [5][6] The Hindu
sacred month of Shravan is also the time of the annual Kanwar Yatra, the annual pilgrimage
devotees of Shiva, known as Kanwaria, make to Hindu pilgrimage places
of Haridwar, Gaumukh and Gangotri in Uttarakhand to obtain water from the Ganges River.
In 2003, 55 lakh (5.5 million) pilgrims visited Haridwar. [7] Other Tirtha pilgrimages are Char
Dham Yatra, which involves Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri, and Yamunotri; Amarnath
yatra in Jammu and Kashmir.
There are numerous pilgrimage sites in India[8] and elsewhere.

42
Buddha circuit:
This prikarma entails the Lumbini, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Sravasti (Jetavana), Rajgir
hills, Kurukshetra (Bodh Stupa on bank of Brahma Sarovar, pilgrimage undertaken by
Buddha), Shrughna (Yamunanagar, vihara visited by Buddha for sermon), Adi
Badri (saraswati udgam sthal and vihara visited by Buddha), Parinirvana Stupa (place of
death and nirvana of Buddha at Kushinagar, and Sankissa. See also Buddhist pilgrimage sites.
A stupa (Sanskrit: स्तूप) is a mound-like or hemispherical structure containing relics (such
as śarīra – typically the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns) that is used as a place of
meditation. A related architectural term is a chaitya, which is a prayer hall or temple
containing a stupa.
In Buddhism, circumambulation or pradakhshina has been an important ritual and devotional
practice since the earliest times, and stupas always have a pradakhshina path around them.

The "Tomb of Midas" in Gordion, dated to circa 740 BCE/ Royal funeral tumulus of
King Alyattes, Lydia, 6th c. BCE/ Amrit, Phoenicia, 5th c. BCE

43
Cetiya and Tumulus
Stupas may have originated as pre-Buddhist tumuli in which śramaṇas were buried in a
seated position[2] called chaitya.
Some authors have suggested that stupas were derived from a wider cultural tradition from
the Mediterranean to the South Asia, and can be related to the conical mounds on circular
bases from the 8th century BCE that can be found in Phrygia (tomb of Midas, 8th c.
BCE), Lydia (such as the tomb of Alyattes, 6th c. BCE), or in Phoenicia (tombs of Amrit, 5th
c. BCE).
The Ahom kingdom in medieval Assam built octagonal tumuli called Maidams for their
kings and high officials. The kings were buried in a hillock at Charaideo in Sibsagar district
of Assam, whereas other Maidams are found scattered more widely.Archaeologists in India
have observed that a number of early Buddhist stupas or burials are found in the vicinity of
much older, pre-historic burials, including megalithic sites. A tumulus (plural tumuli) is
a mound of earth and stones raised over a grave or graves. Tumuli are also known
as barrows, burial mounds or kurgans, and may be found throughout much of the world.
A cairn, which is a mound of stones built for various purposes, may also originally have been
a tumulus.
Tumuli are often categorised according to their external apparent shape. In this respect, a long
barrow is a long tumulus, usually constructed on top of several burials, such as passage
graves. A round barrow is a round tumulus, also commonly constructed on top of burials. The
internal structure and architecture of both long and round barrows has a broad range; the
categorization only refers to the external apparent shape.The method of inhumation may
involve a dolmen, a cist, a mortuary enclosure, a mortuary house, or a chamber tomb.
Examples of barrows include Duggleby Howe and Maeshowe.
The word tumulus is Latin for 'mound' or 'small hill', which is derived from the Proto-Indo-
European root *teuh2- with extended zero grade *tum-, 'to bulge, swell' also found in tomb,
tumor, tumescent, thumb, thigh, and thousand.

This includes site associated with the Indus Valley Civilization where broken Indus-era
pottery was incorporated into later Buddhist burials. [7] Structural features of the stupa-
including its general shape and the practice of surrounding stupas with a stone or wooden
railing- resemble both pre-Mauryan era cairn burials, as well as pre-historic relic burials
found in southern India. Some stupas not believed to have been looted have been found to be
empty when excavated, as have some pre-historic cairn sites, and animal bones are suspected
to have occasionally been deposited at both types of sites.
Mounds for the relics of the Buddha (5th century)

44
The Piprahwa stupa is one of the earliest surviving stupas./ Buddha's ashes Stupa built by
the Licchavis, Vaishali and one of the earliest stupas
Buddhist architecture
Religious buildings in the form of the Buddhist stupa, a dome shaped monument, started to
be used in India as commemorative monuments associated with storing sacred relics of the
Buddha.[9] After the parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes
divided and buried under eight mounds with two further mounds encasing the urn and the
embers. The relics of the Buddha were spread between eight stupas,
in Rajagriha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Allakappa, Ramagrama, Pava, Kushinagar,
and Vethapida. The Piprahwa stupa also seems to have been one of the first to be built. Lars
Fogelin stated that the Vaisali relic stupa and Nigali Sagar stupa are likely the earliest
archaeologically known stupas.
Guard rails —consisting of posts, crossbars, and a coping— became a feature of safety
surrounding a stupa.[13] The Buddha had left instructions about how to pay homage to the
stupas: "And whoever lays wreaths or puts sweet perfumes and colours there with a devout
heart, will reap benefits for a long time".This practice would lead to the decoration of the
stupas with stone sculptures of flower garlands in the Classical period.
Expansion under Ashoka (250 BCE

An early stupa, 6 meters (20 ft) in diameter, with fallen umbrella on side at Chakpat,
near Chakdara; probably Maurya, 3rd century BCE
According to Buddhist tradition, Emperor Ashoka (rule: 273—232 BCE) recovered the relics
of the Buddha from the earlier stupas (except from the Ramagrama stupa), and erected 84,000
stupas to distribute the relics across India. In effect, many stupas are thought to date
originally from the time of Ashoka, such as Sanchi or Kesariya, where he also erected pillars
with his inscriptions, and possibly Bharhut, Amaravati or Dharmarajika in Gandhara. Ashoka
also established the Pillars of Ashoka throughout his realm, generally next to Buddhist
stupas.
The first known appearance of the word "Stupa" is from an inscribed
dedication by Ashoka on the Nigali Sagar pillar (spelled in Pali in the Brahmi
script as "Thube" .

45
Decorated stupas (from 125 BCE)Stupas were soon to be richly decorated with sculptural
reliefs, following the first attempts at Sanchi Stupa No.2 (125 BCE). Full-fledged sculptural
decorations and scenes of the life of the Buddha would soon follow at Bharhut (115
BCE), Bodh Gaya (60 BCE), Mathura (125-60 BCE), again at Sanchi for the elevation of
the toranas (1st century BCE/CE) and then Amaravati (1st-2nd century CE).[17] The
decorative embellishment of stupas also had a considerable development in the northwest in
the area of Gandhara, with decorated stupas such as the Butkara Stupa ("monumentalized"
with Hellenistic decorative elements from the 2nd century BCE) ] or the Loriyan Tangai
stupas (2nd century CE).

Sanchi Stupa No.2, the earliest known stupa with important displays of decorative reliefs,
circa 125 BCE/ East Gateway and Railings of Bharhut Stupa. Sculptured railings: 115
BCE, toranas: 75 BCE./ The Great Stupa at Sanchi. Decorated toranas built from the 1st
c. BCE to the 1st c. CE.[ ////Amaravati stupa, 1st-2nd century CE

46
Development in Gandhara (3rd century BCE-5th century CE)

47
48
49
ButkaraStupa

50
51
52
Buddhas of Bamiyan, from: Iwan Lawrowitsch Jaworski: Reise der russischen Gesandtschaft in Afghanistan und
Buchara in den Jahren 1878-79, Jena : Costenoble, 1885.

The Ahin Posh stupa was dedicated in the 2nd century CE under the Kushans, and contained
coins of Kaniska I.
The stupa as a structure underwent major evolutions in the area of Gandhara. Since
Buddhism spread to Central Asia, China and ultimately Korea and Japan through Gandhara,
the stylistic evolution of the Gandharan stupa was very influential in the later development of
the stupa (and related artistic or architectural forms) in these areas. [21] The Gandhara stupa
followed several steps, generally moving towards more and more elevation and addition of
decorative element, leading eventually to the development of the pagoda tower.[22] The main
stupa type are, in chronological order:

1. The Dharmarajika Stupa with a near-Indian design of a semi-hemispheric stupa

almost directly on the ground surface, probably dated to the 3rd century BCE. Similar
stupas are the Butkara stupa, the Manikyala stupa or the Chakpat stupa.[15]
2. The Saidu Sharif Stupa, pillared and quincunxial, with a flight of stairs to a dome
elevated on a square platform. Many Gandhara minutiures represent this spectacular
type (1st century CE).[23
3. The Loriyan Tangai Stupa, with an elongated shape and many narrative reliefs, in
many way the Classical Gandharan stupa (2nd century CE).
4. The near-pyramidal Jaulian stupa (2nd century CE).
5. The cruciform type, as in the Bhamala Stupa, with flights of stairs in the four cardinal
directions (4th century CE).[26]

53
 The towering design of the second Kanishka stupa (4-5th century CE).[

1. A model resembling the Saidu Sharif Stupa, with square base and four columns (1st
century CE).
2. Loriyan Tangai decorated stupa, in the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara (2nd century
CE).
3. A tower-shaped stupa, thought to be the design of the second (rebuilt) Kanishka
stupa, Jaulian monastery
4. Stupa-shaped reliquary, Kushan period, about 2nd century CE
5. Chilas petroglyphs, Buddhist stupa, circa 300-350 CE based on paleography
Origin of the pyramidal temple
Pyramidal temples

The Mahabodhi Temple in 150-200 CE./The Mahabodhi Temple: a stepped pyramid with
round stupa on top
Model of the sikhara of a Buddhist temple; 900s
It is thought that the temple in the shape of a truncated pyramid may have derived from the
design of the stepped stupas which developed in Gandhara. The Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh
Gaya is one such example, formed of a succession of steps with niches containing Buddha
images, alternating with Greco-Roman pillars. The structure is crowned by the shape of an
hemispherical stupa topped by finials, forming a logical elongation of the stepped Gandharan
stupas such as those seen in Jaulian.
Although the current structure of the Mahabdhodi Temple dates to the Gupta period (5th
century CE), the "Plaque of Mahabhodi Temple", discovered in Kumrahar and dated to 150-
200 CE based on its dated Kharoshthi inscriptions and combined finds of Huvishka coins,
suggests that the pyramidal structure already existed in the 2nd century CE. This is confirmed
by archaeological excavations in Bodh Gaya.
This truncated pyramid design also marked the evolution from the aniconic stupa dedicated to
the cult of relics, to the iconic temple with multiple images of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
This design was very influential in the development of later Hindu temples.
Expansion in Asia-Asian stupas

54
The Chinese Songyue Pagoda Row of stupas on roadside east of Leh, Ladakh
(523 CE) is thought to derive from the Gandharan tower-stupa model.[32]
Stupa architecture was adopted in Southeast and East Asia, where it became prominent as
a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. The Indian gateway arches,
the torana, reached East Asia with the spread of Buddhism. Some scholars hold
that torii derives from the torana gates at the Buddhist historic site of Sanchi (3rd century
BCE – 11th century CE). In Tibet, the stupa became the chörten, and the pagoda in East
Asia. The pagoda has varied forms that also include bell-shaped and pyramidal styles. In the
Western context, there is no clear distinction between a stupa and a pagoda. In general,
however, "stupa" is the term used for a Buddhist structure in India or Southeast Asia while
"pagoda" refers to a building in East Asia which can be entered and which may be used for
secular purposes. However, use of the term varies by region. For example, stupas in Burma
tend to be referred to as "pagodas."
Stupas were built in Sri Lanka soon after Devanampiya Tissa of Anuradhapura converted to
Buddhism. The first stupa to be built was the Thuparamaya. Later, many more were built
over the years, some like the Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, being one of the tallest
ancient structures in the world.

S Y M B O L I S M

55
View of the Wat Phra Kaew complex from the northeast, temple complex of the Emerald
Buddha with stupas
"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on
a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his
body is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his
throne.”
Five purified elements
Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the
five purified elements:

 The square base represents earth

 The hemispherical dome/vase represents water
 The conical spire represents fire
 The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air
 The sun and the dissolving point represent wisdom

C O N S T R U C T I O N

To build a stupa, Dharma transmission and ceremonies known to a Buddhist teacher are
necessary.[49] The type of stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decided together with
the teacher assisting in the construction. Sometimes the type is chosen directly connected
with events that have taken place in the area.[49]

The sharing of the relics of the Buddha. Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 2-3rd century
CE. ZenYouMitsu Temple Museum, Tokyo.

56
 Buddha relics from Kanishka's stupa in Peshawar, Pakistan. These surviving relics are
now housed in Mandalay, Myanmar.

Treasury
All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings
called tsatsas in Tibetan fill most of the treasury. Creation of various types of tsatsas is a
ceremony itself. Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls and put into small clay
stupas. One layer of tsatsas is placed in the treasury, and the empty space between them
is filled with dry sand. On the thus created new surface, another layer of tsatsas is made,
and so on until the entire space of the treasury is full.[49]
The number of tsatsas required to completely fill the treasury depends on its size and the
size of the tsatsa. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain contains
approximately 14,000 tsatsas.
Jewellery and other "precious" objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessary
that they be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market
price.[49] It is believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy
of the stupa.
Tree of Life
An important element in every stupa is the "Tree of Life". This is a wooden pole covered
with gems and thousands of mantras; it is placed in the central channel of the stupa. It is
positioned during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons
connected to the Tree of Life. Together, the participants make their most positive and
powerful wishes, which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged,
and starts to function.
Benefit
Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints
in the mind. Future benefits from this action result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldly
benefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body,
a nice voice, being attractive, bringing joy to others, and having a long and happy life in
which one's wishes are quickly fulfilled. On the absolute level, one will also be able
quickly to reach enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism.
Destroying a stupa, on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similar
to killing. Such an action is said to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to
serious future problems. It is said this action leaves the mind in a state of paranoia after
death has occurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths
Circumambulation (from Latin circum around and ambulātus to walk) is the act of moving
around a sacred object or idol.
Circumambulation of temples or deity images is an integral part
of Hindu and Buddhist devotional practice (known in Sanskrit as pradakśiṇā). It is also
present in other religions, including Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.
Parikrama
In many Hindu temples, the temple structure reflects the symbolism of the Hindu association
of the spiritual transition from daily life to spiritual perfection as a journey through stages.
Passageways for circumambulation are present through which worshipers move in a

57
clockwise direction, starting at the sanctuary doorway and moving inward toward the inner
sanctum where the deity is enshrined. This is a translation of the spiritual concept of
transition through levels in life into bodily movements by the worshipers as they move
inwardly through ambulatory halls to the most sacred centre of spiritual energy of the deity. It
is done in a clockwise direction and in an odd rather than even number of times.
Circumambulatory walking around the shrine, by keeping time, is a common form of Hindu
prayer. The ambulatory pathway made of stone around the shrine is called
the Pradakshina path.
In the Catholic Church, a priest sometimes circumambulates an altar while incensing it with
a thurible. Also, at some Catholic shrines, it is a tradition to circle the cult object of the place,
usually relics of a saint or an image of Jesus or the Virgin Mary. Often this is performed three
times, as a reference to the Trinity.
Parikrama

Relief of a devotee couple in Greek dress (right), with two Buddhist monks (left),
cicumbulating a stupa. Private collection. Personal photograph 2006. Description: the male
devotee holds a lamp in his right hand. He has hair, marked by the volume of his mane and
incised lines, identifying him as a lay devotee, in contrast to the monks who are shaven. Also,
his dress covers both shoulders, whether the monks only leave the right shoulder bare. He is
accompanied by his wife, who wears a scarf over the head and forms a gesture of
devotion. Detail of the couple of devotees, in profile. Frontal detail. Top detail. A similar
scene is also visible at the British Museum (drawing hereafter).

58
Ground plan of Borobudur showing the 9 platforms, each of which can be circumambulated,
and the large central stupa
Also called pradakṣina or caṅkramaṇa in Sanskrit.
In Zen Buddhism, jundō can mean any ritual circuit or circumambulation. At Tassajara each
morning, the officiating priest (導師 dōshi) visits four different altars on their way to the zendō,
to make bows and offerings of incense. This jundō begins with the first rolldown of the han
and ends as the dōshi enters the zendō with the third rolldown. After offering incense and
bowing at the altar, the dōshi walks around the zendō behind the meditators, in what is called
the kentan, inspection of the sitting platform. As the dōshi passes, each resident raises their
hands in gasshō without bowing. This joins the dōshi and sitters in mutual
acknowledgement.
THE DYNAMISM OF THE YANTRA
It consists of three concentric parts:
1. An inner figure of interpenetrating triangles. This 2gure, symmetric in its vertical
central axis, contains both upward-pointing triangles (vahni), symbolizing the male
element (“Purusha”, the Cosmic Person), and downward-pointing triangles (sakti ),
symbolizing the female aspect (“Prakriti”, i.e. energy) of divinity. There are 4 male
triangles, and 5 female ones. Their inter-penetration symbolizes the complementarity
of the opposite principles in creating the illusion of duality through ignorance,
whereas the general symmetry and balance of the whole 2gure symbolizes the more
profound reality of Unity of God through its various unfoldings.

2. Two concentric rings, holding a regular lotus (padma) design. The inner pattern bears
8 lotus petals, the outer one 16. These patterns symbolize the sanctity of the inner
diagram, used as instrument (yantra) in yoga meditation; such diagrams are abstract
analogues of the more profusely decorated tibetan thankas
3. A triple Greek-like key-pattern, the bhupura ( , or si# sirita # (shivered) frame. It
symbolizes the ground-plan of a temple with 4 square openings, in the 4 directions of

59
 space. This sanctuary is the seat (pitha) . ha) of one’s chosen deity or devata, representing
one’s Higher Self. The Sri Yantra diagram is a sacred symbol of Tantric Hinduism, and it
is traditionally used in yoga meditation exercises. The original edition of Zimmer had
erroneous descriptions of Sr ! Yantra, according to the later English translation.
Unfortunately, that one is also marred with errors in diagrams, and unclear references to
inside-out construction instructions for the drawing of the triangular central pattern. T
For those who are interested in obtaining a deeper insight please read- Theoretical
Computer Science 281 (2002) 609 – 628 www.elsevier.com/locate/tcs, Sri Yantra
Geometry, Gerard Huet which gives aa more precise analysis of Sr ! Yantra than was
previously available in the published literature. We oGer this study as evidence of the
non-triviality of bridging the cultural gap between Humanities and Science on the one
hand, and Eastern–Western knowledge, or sensibility, on the other.
Vaastu Shastra, the ancient Indian canons of architecture and town planning, employs
symmetrical drawings called mandalas. Complex calculations are used to arrive at the
dimensions of a building and its components. The designs are intended to integrate
architecture with nature, the relative functions of various parts of the structure, and ancient
beliefs utilizing geometric patterns (yantra), symmetry and directional alignments. However,
early builders may have come upon mathematical proportions by accident. The
mathematician Georges Ifrah notes that simple "tricks" with string and stakes can be used to
lay out geometric shapes, such as ellipses and right angles.

The mathematics of fractals has been used to show that the reason why existing buildings
have universal appeal and are visually satisfying is because they provide the viewer with a
sense of scale at different viewing distances. For example, in the tall gopuram gatehouses
of Hindu temples such as the Virupaksha Temple at Hampi built in the seventh century, and
others such as the Kandariya Mahadev Temple at Khajuraho, the parts and the whole have the
same character, with fractal dimension in the range 1.7 to 1.8. The cluster of smaller towers
(shikhara, lit. 'mountain') about the tallest, central, tower which represents the holy Mount
Kailash, abode of Lord Shiva, depicts the endless repetition of universes in Hindu
cosmology. The religious studies scholar William J. Jackson observed of the pattern of
towers grouped among smaller towers, themselves grouped among still smaller towers, that:
The ideal form gracefully artificed suggests the infinite rising levels of existence and
consciousness, expanding sizes rising toward transcendence above, and at the same time
housing the sacred deep within.
The Meenakshi Amman Temple is a large complex with multiple shrines, with the streets
of Madurai laid out concentrically around it according to the shastras. The four gateways are
tall towers (gopurams) with fractal-like repetitive structure as at Hampi. The enclosures
around each shrine are rectangular and surrounded by high stone walls.[
Sacred geometry ascribes symbolic and sacred meanings to certain geometric shapes and
certain geometric proportions. It is associated with the belief that a god is the geometer of the
world. The geometry used in the design and construction of religious structures such
as churches, temples, mosques, religious monuments, altars, and tabernacles has sometimes
been considered sacred. The concept applies also to sacred spaces such as temenoi, sacred
groves, village greens, pagodas and holy wells, Mandala Gardens and the creation
of religious and spiritual art.
Mathematics and art: The belief that a god created the universe according to a geometric
plan has ancient origins. Plutarch attributed the belief to Plato, writing that "Plato said god

60
geometrizes continually" (Convivialium disputationum, liber 8,2). In modern times, the
mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss adapted this quote, saying "God arithmetizes".
Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) believed in the geometric underpinnings of the cosmos
Harvard mathematician Shing-Tung Yau expressed a belief in the centrality of geometry in
2010: "Lest one conclude that geometry is little more than a well-calibrated ruler – and this is
no knock against the ruler, which happens to be a technology I admire – geometry is one of
the main avenues available to us for probing the universe. Physics and cosmology have been,
almost by definition, absolutely crucial for making sense of the universe. Geometry's role in
this may be less obvious, but is equally vital. I would go so far as to say that geometry not
only deserves a place at the table alongside physics and cosmology, but in many ways it is the
table.
A religious symbol is an iconic representation intended to represent a specific religion, or a
specific concept within a given religion.
Religious symbols have been used in the military in many different countries, such as
the United States military chaplain symbols. Similarly, the United States Department of
Veterans Affairs emblems for headstones and markers recognize 57 symbols (including a
number of symbols expressing non-religiosity).
A mandala (Sanskrit: मण्डल, or 'circle', is a geometric configuration of symbols. In
various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners
and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid
to meditation and trance induction. In the Eastern
religions of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Shintoism it is used as a map representing
deities, or especially in the case of Shintoism, paradises, kami or actual shrines. A mandala
generally represents the spiritual journey, starting from outside to the inner core, through
layers.
In spiritual or religious process, a mandala is a period of approximately 40 days in which
time the human system completes one physiological cycle.

In Hinduism, a basic mandala, also called a yantra, takes the form of a square with four
gates containing a circle with a center point. Each gate is in the general shape of a T.
Mandalas often have radial balance
A yantra is similar to a mandala, usually smaller and using a more limited colour palette. It
may be a two- or three-dimensional geometric composition used in sadhanas, puja or
meditative rituals, and may incorporate a mantra into its design. It is considered to represent
the abode of the deity. Each yantra is unique and calls the deity into the presence of the
practitioner through the elaborate symbolic geometric designs. According to one scholar,
"Yantras function as revelatory symbols of cosmic truths and as instructional charts of the
spiritual aspect of human experience"
Many situate yantras as central focus points for Hindu tantric practice. Yantras are not
representations, but are lived, experiential, nondual realities. As Khanna describes:
Despite its cosmic meanings a yantra is a reality lived. Because of the relationship that exists
in the Tantras between the outer world (the macrocosm) and man's inner world (the
microcosm), every symbol in a yantra is ambivalently resonant in inner–outer synthesis, and
is associated with the subtle body and aspects of human consciousness.[6]

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The term 'mandala' appears in the Rigveda as the name of the sections of the work, and Vedic
rituals use mandalas such as the Navagraha mandala to this day
Mandala is the Sanskrit word for “circle.” The term mandala was introduced into
the Buddhist and Hindu religions as an aid to meditation. A mandala is a vaguely circular
shape with repeating patterns. Some mandalas include a square with four “gates” within the
circle. Each gate has a center point in the form of a T. To a Buddhist or Hindu, a mandala
represents a cosmos within the universe. It is considered a sacred art form with spiritual
significance. In Western culture mandalas are often found in diagrams, charts, or geometric
designs. Mandalas are recently popular art forms used in adult coloring books. They are
intricate and beautiful once color is added.

In Hinduism, mandalas have both religious and political significance. Their intricate designs
can symbolize various forms of power in government, as well as spiritual focus and unity. A
mandala can represent a governmental system and can be used as almost a map of a particular
political infrastructure. In religion, the mandala itself is not seen as having supernatural
powers as an idol might. It is merely a tool used by Hindus to aid them in focusing,
“centering,” and meditating. Many traditional mandalas include depictions of a lotus flower,
which is sacred in Hinduism and some other false religions. The intricate designs found
within a mandala have significance for devout Hindus, but that significance is usually lost to
the general public. Because Hinduism is such a loosely defined religion, mandalas have no
strict definition or usage, either.

The question arises as to whether Christians should shun mandalas because of their
significance in false religion. Some people believe the mandala’s association with paganism
requires Christians to avoid them the way they would a carved idol. Since an idol is a
representative of godless religion and thought to have supernatural powers, it should not be
enjoyed in any way by followers of Jesus. Other people are completely unaware of the
mandala’s religious ties and simply enjoy the beauty and intricacies of the designs. And some
Christians land in the middle of these two views: they are aware of the Buddhist and Hindu
origins of mandalas but see no problem with enjoying them as coloring projects or in other
artistic avenues. Since there is no religious significance attached to a Christian’s use of the
mandala, is the picture wrong in itself?

The answer to whether or not a mandala is wrong has to do with one’s conscience and
motivation. Paul addresses some similar issues in great detail in Romans 14. In his day, the
question was whether or not Christians should celebrate the Sabbath or eat food offered to
idols. People in the church were taking sides and creating division. Each faction hoped that
the apostle would side with them and tell the others how wrong they were. Instead, Paul
wrote, “One person’s faith allows them to eat anything, but another, whose faith is weak, eats
only vegetables. The one who eats everything must not treat with contempt the one who does
not, and the one who does not eat everything must not judge the one who does, for God has
accepted them” (Romans 14:2–3). He went on to say, “One person considers one day more
sacred than another; another considers every day alike. Each of them should be fully
convinced in their own mind” (verse 5).

His conclusion was that “whatever you believe about these things keep between yourself and
God. Blessed is the one who does not condemn himself by what he approves. But whoever
has doubts is condemned if they eat, because their eating is not from faith; and everything
that does not come from faith is sin” (Romans 14:22–23). Paul stressed the importance of
having a clear conscience in matters that were not clearly sinful.

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When we apply that principle to mandalas, our stance should be, “What would God have me
do? Does my conscience bother me when I enjoy a mandala?” If we can’t color, paint, or
enjoy mandalas without thinking of Hindu religious practices, then it is wrong for us. But just
because one person’s conscience condemns him does not mean the consciences of others are
so condemned. On the other hand, if we are hosting a former Hindu who equates mandalas
with false religion, then it may be offensive for us to display our mandala collection. Doing
so could cause a brother to stumble (1 Corinthians 8:13). Our highest priority must always be
unity, purity, and doing everything for the glory of God (1 Corinthians 10:31).

Here is an example of a mandala:

The Shri Yantra, Sri Yantra, or Shri Chakra is a form of mystical diagram (yantra) used
in the Shri Vidya school of Hinduism. It consists of nine interlocking triangles of which 4 are
for Shiva and 5 for Raj rajeshwari(parvati ) that surround a central point known as a bindu.
These triangles represent the cosmos and the human body. Because of its nine triangles, Shri
Yantra is also known as the Navayoni Chakra.[1] When the two-dimensional Shri Yantra is
represented in three dimensions, it is called a Mahameru. Mount Meru derives its name from
this shape. In addition to Mount Meru, all other yantras derive from the Shri Yantra.
In the 2009 issue of Brahmavidya (the journal of the Adyar Library), Subhash Kak argues
that the description of Shri Yantra is identical to the yantra described in the Śrī Sūkta in veda.

The Shri Yantra's 9 constituent triangles vary in size and shape and intersect to form 43
smaller triangles, organized in 5 concentric levels. Together they represent the totality of the
cosmos and express Advaita or non-duality. In the middle, the power point (bindu) represents
the cosmic center. The triangles are circumscribed by two concentric circles composed of 8
and 16 petals, representing the lotus of creation and reproductive vital force. The entire
configuration is framed by the broken lines of an earth square, representing a temple with
four doors open onto the regions of the universe.

Shri Yantra in various forms

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 Shri Yantra engraved in metal/// The Shri Yantra shown in the three-dimensional
projection called Mahāmeru/ The Lalita Sahasranama in diagrammatic form, showing
how its nine interlocking triangles form a total of 43 smaller triangles.

S Y M B O L I S M
The worship of the Shri Yantra is central to the Shri Vidya system of Hindu worship. It
represents the Goddess in the form of Devi Tripura Sundari, the natural beauty of the three
worlds: Bhu Loka (Physical Plane, Consciousness of the Physical Plane), Bhuvar Loka
(Antariksha or Intermediate Space, Sub-Consciousness of the Prana) and Swar Loka
(Svarga or Heaven or Super-Consciousness of the Divine Mind). The Shri Yantra is the
symbol of Hinduism, which is based on the Hindu philosophy of the vedas. The Shri Yantra
is the object of devotion in Shri Vidya.[5]
The Shri Yantra represents the evolution of the multiverse as a result of the natural Divine
Will of the Godhead Aadi Paraa Shakti. The four upward-pointing isosceles
triangles represent the Goddess's masculine embodiment Brahm, while the five downward-
pointing triangles symbolize the female embodiment Jagat jannani.[5] The 12 and 15 sides of
the four upward and five downward triangles also correspondingly symbolise, on the physical
plane, the 12 sidereal zodiac signs of the Sun and 15 'nityas' phase-signs of the Moon.[6]
The Shri Yantra is also known as the nav chakra because it can be seen to consist of nine
concentric layers that radiate outward from the bindu. ("Nau" or "nava" means "nine"
in Sanskrit.) Each level corresponds to a mudra, a yogini and a specific form of the deity
Tripura Sundari along with her mantra. The various deities residing in the nine levels of the
Shri Yantra are described in the Devi Khadgamala Mantra. These levels, listed from
outermost to innermost, are:

1. Trailokya Mohana, the outermost square, traced in three lines and interrupted by four
recessed portals;
2. Sarvasaa Paripuraka, the outer lotus, consisting of 16 petals;
3. Sarva Samkshobahana, the inner lotus, consisting of 8 petals;
4. Sarva Saubhagyadayaka, the outermost ring of small triangles (14 in total);
5. Sarvarthasadhaka, the next ring of triangles (10 in total);
6. Sarva Rakshakara, a smaller ring of 10 triangles;
7. Sarva Rogahara, a ring of 8 small triangles;
8. Sarva Siddhiprada, one small triangle containing the bindu at its center;
9. Sarva Anandamaya, the bindu.

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The sound of the shankha symbolises the sacred Om sound. Vishnu holding the conch
represents him as the god of sound. Brahma Vaivarta Purana declares that shankha is the
residence of both Lakshmi and Vishnu, bathing by the waters led through a shankha is
considered like bathing with all holy waters at once. Sankha Sadma Purana declares that
bathing an image of Vishnu with cow milk is as virtuous as performing a million yajnas (fire
sacrifices), and bathing Vishnu with Ganges river water frees one from the cycle of births. It
further says "while the mere sight of the conch (shankha) dispels all sins as the Sun dispels
the fog, why talk of its worship?” Padma Purana asserts the same effect of bathing Vishnu by
Ganges water and milk and further adds doing so avoids evil, pouring water from a shankha
on one's own head before a Vishnu image is equivalent to bathing in the pious Ganges river.
A Shankha (conch shell) has religious ritual importance in Hinduism. It is the shell of any
suitable sea snail which had a hole made for the performer's embouchure.
In Hindu history, the shankha is a sacred emblem of The Hindu preserver god Vishnu. It is
still used as a trumpet in Hindu ritual, and in the past was used as a war trumpet. The shankha
is praised in Hindu scriptures as a giver of fame, longevity and prosperity, the cleanser of sin
and the abode of goddess Lakshmi, who is the goddess of wealth and consort of Vishnu.
The shankha is displayed in Hindu art in association with Vishnu. As a symbol of water, it is
associated with female fertility and serpents (Nāgas). The shankha is the state emblem of the
Indian state of Kerala and was also the national emblems of the Indian princely
state of Travancore, and the Kingdom of Cochin.
The shankha is one of the eight auspicious symbols of Buddhism, the Ashtamangala, and
represents the pervasive sound of Buddhism.
A powder made from the shell material is used in ayurveda as a treatment for stomach
ailments.
In the Western world, in the English language, the shell of this species is known as the
"divine conch" or the "sacred chank". It may also be simply called a "chank" or conch. The
more common form of this shell is known as "right-turning" in a religious context, although
scientists would call it "dextral". A very rarely encountered form has reverse coiling which is
called "left-turning" in a religious context, but is known as "sinistral" or left-coiling in a
scientific context.[
In Buddhism, the conch shell has been incorporated as one of the eight auspicious symbols,
also called Ashtamangala. The right-turning white conch shell, represents the elegant, deep,
melodious, interpenetrating and pervasive sound of Buddhism, which awakens disciples from
the deep slumber of ignorance and urges them to accomplish their own welfare and the
welfare of others
Shankha was the Royal State Emblem of Travancore and also figured on the Royal Flag of
the Jaffna kingdom. It is also the election symbol of the Indian political party Biju Janata Dal.
Shankh was also used by sikh warriors before they started the war. The maryada is still
practiced by all nihangs while doing aarti aarta prayer and is used in hola mohalla festival as
well.

65
 A shankha carved
Shankha is one of the main attributes of Vishnu. Vishnu's images, either in sitting or standing
posture, show him holding the shankha usually in his left upper hand, while Sudarshana
Chakra (chakra – discus), gada (mace) and padma (lotus flower) decorate his upper right, the
lower left and lower right hands, respectively.
Avatars of Vishnu like Matsya, Kurma, Varaha and Narasimha are also depicted holding
the shankha, along with the other attributes of Vishnu. Krishna – avatar of Vishnu is
described possessing a shankha called Panchajanya. Regional Vishnu forms
like Jagannath and Vithoba may be also pictured holding the shankha. Besides Vishnu, other
deities are also pictured holding the shankha. These include the sun god Surya, Indra – the
king of heaven and god of rain[17] the war god Kartikeya,[18] the goddess Vaishnavi[ and the
warrior goddess Durga. Similarly, Gaja Lakshmi statues show Lakshmi holding a shankha in
the right hand and lotus on the other.[
Sometimes, the shankha of Vishnu is personified as Ayudhapurusha "weapon-man" in the
sculpture and depicted as a man standing beside Vishnu or his avatars. [21] This subordinate
figure is called the Shankhapurusha who is depicted holding a shankha in both the hands.
Temple pillars, walls, gopuras (towers), basements and elsewhere in the temple, sculpted
depictions of the shankha and chakra – the emblems of Vishnu – are seen. [22] The city
of Puri also known as Shankha-kshetra is sometimes pictured as a shankha or conch in art
with the Jagannath temple at its centre.

66
Carved conches or Vamavarta shankhas, circa 11–12th century, Pala period, India: The
leftmost one is carved with the image of Lakshmi and Vishnu, and has silver
additions.RIGHT A Shankha (conch shell) with Vishnu emblem carved.
Shaligrams are iconographic fossil stones particularly found in the Gandaki River in Nepal
which are worshipped by Hindus as representative of Vishnu. The shaligrama – which has the
marks of a shanka, chakra, gada and padma arranged in this particular order – is worshipped
as Keshava. Twenty-four orders of the four symbols defined for Shaligrama are also followed
in worship of images of Vishnu with different names. Out of these, besides Keshava the four
names of images worshipped starting with Shankha on the upper hand,
are: Madhusudanah, Damodara, Balarama and Vamana
A Hindu legend in the Brahma Vaivarta Purana recalls the creation of conchs: Shiva flung a
trident towards the asuras, burning them instantaneously. Their ashes flew in the sea creating
conchs.[4] Shankha is believed to be a brother of Lakshmi as both of them were born from the
sea. A legend describes an asura named Shankhasura, who was killed by Vishnu's
fish avatar, Matsya.
In the Hindu epics of Ramayana and Mahabharata, the symbol of Shankha is widely adopted.
In the Ramayana epic, Lakshmana, Bharata and Shatrughna are considered part-incarnations

67
of Sheshanaga, Sudarshana Chakra and Shankha, respectively, while Rama, their eldest
brother, is considered one of the ten Avatars of shri Vishnu.
During the great Mahabharata war, Krishna, as the charioteer of the Pandava prince and a
protagonist of the epic – Arjuna – resounds the Panchajanya to declare war. Panchajanya in
Sanskrit means 'having control over the five classes of beings'. All five Pandava brothers are
described having their own shankhas. Yudhishthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula and Sahadeva are
described to possess shankhas named Ananta-Vijaya, Poundra-Khadga, Devadatta, Sughosha
and Mani-pushpaka, respectively.

68
 Constructed in a quite simplistic albeit breathtakingly beautiful futuristic architectural
style on idea of a famed female musician and spiritual teacher going by the name of
Shri Anandi Ma, Nikora ashram is a unique place of tranquility as well as spirituality.
With a picturesque tree - lined pathway leading to the temple’s main gate, Nikora is like a
magical mirage situated deep in the recesses of the nearby forest by offering devotees and
tourists alike a magnificent view towards the shores of Narmada Nadi.
Geographically situated in the heart of the sleepy Indian village named “Nikora”, Nikora
ashram may not be an age - old shrine but nonetheless, it’s not one to be ignored for it serves
as a refuge for the needy and it houses a small medical center for diagnose and treatment of
rare diseases and a number of eye problems.
With time, the modern - looking temple gained popularity as a site where everyone, no matter
of their religion or social standing, could seek spiritual advice and immerse themselves in the
world of meditation.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. THE BOROBUDUR VESSELS IN CONTEXT A Thesis by DOUGLAS ANDREW

INGLIS Submitted to the Office of Graduate and Professional Studies of Texas A&M
University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF
ARTS,2014
2. The Ambiguous Feasibility of Borobudur Temple- Irmawati Marwoto , Mandala
Manurung2 1Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities, University of

69
 Indonesia. International Journal of Innovation, Creativity and Change. www.ijicc.net
Volume 14, Issue 8, 2020 749
3. The famous Borobudur Temple, Indonesia is a Dreamland heavily influenced by the
ancient Indian 'Gupta Era' art . It was built by the legendary "Sailendra" Dynasty
using a combination of both buddhist and Hindu architecture. It's also a UNESCO
WORLD HERITAGE site.
4. The Restoration and Conservation Project of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia. Planning:
Research: Design Caesar Voûte Studies in Conservation-Vol. 18, No. 3, Special Issue
on the Conservation of Borobudur Temple, Indonesia (Aug., 1973), pp. 113-130 (18
pages)

5. GPS STUDY FOR RESOLVING THE STABILITY OF BOROBUDUR TEMPLE

SITE By Dwi Lestari ST., University of Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 1998
A thesis submitted to The University of New South Wales in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the Degree of Master of Engineering School of Surveying and
Spatial Information Systems (Formerly the School of Geomatic Engineering) The
University of New South Wales Sydney NSW 2052, Australia March, 2006
http://unsworks.unsw.edu.au/fapi/datastream/unsworks:4635/SOURCE1?view=true

6. The Symbolism of Mount Meru,I. W. Mabbett,History of Religions

Vol. 23, No. 1 (Aug., 1983), pp. 64-83 (20 pages),Published By: The University of
Chicago Press,https://www.jstor.org/stable/1062318

7. A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE NATURE OF CANDI BOROBUDUR by Kathy

Cheng Mei K u
Proceedings of INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR Borobudur, Magelang, f - 5'" July 2008
pn -Uncovering the Meaning of the Hidden Base of Candi Borobudur

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