Review On Structural Nutritional and Anti-Nutritional Composition of Teff Eragrostis Tef in Comparison With Quinoa Chenopodium Quinoa Willd.

Cogent Food & Agriculture
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Review on structural, nutritional and anti-

nutritional composition of Teff (Eragrostis tef) in
comparison with Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa
Willd.)
Neela Satheesh & Solomon Workneh Fanta |
To cite this article: Neela Satheesh & Solomon Workneh Fanta | (2018) Review on structural,
nutritional and anti-nutritional composition of Teff (Eragrostis tef) in comparison with
Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), Cogent Food & Agriculture, 4:1, 1546942, DOI:
10.1080/23311932.2018.1546942
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Satheesh & Fanta, Cogent Food & Agriculture (2018), 4: 1546942
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1546942
FOOD SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY | REVIEW ARTICLE

Review on structural, nutritional and
anti-nutritional composition of Teff (Eragrostis
tef) in comparison with Quinoa (Chenopodium
Received: 20 October 2018 quinoa Willd.)
Accepted: 07 November 2018
First Published: 10 November 2018 Neela Satheesh1* and Solomon Workneh Fanta1
*Corresponding author: Neela Abstract: Consumer’s concern on health through diet has been increased in recent
satheesh, Postharvest Technology,
Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia time and majority of the population are trying to be healthy by consuming proper
E-mail: neela.micro2005@gmail.com
diet. Cereals, pseudo cereals, and pulses are getting appreciation from the consu-
Reviewing editor:: mers and the nutritionists because of their treasure of nutrition and taste. In recent
Fatih Yildiz, Food Engineering and
Biotechnology, Middle East times, the term “super grain” is became popular and fewer cereals and pseudo
Technical University, Turkey
cereals are joined under this group. Different dieticians are recommending the
Additional information is available at grains such as Oats, Freekeh, Quinoa, Kamut, Teff, Faro, Spelt, Amaranth, Sorghum
the end of the article
and Millets for their nutritional and health benefits. Among these, quinoa is world
famous, got much appreciation from the consumers. Some of the cereals like teff
are endemic to limited countries or part of the globe even though they are nutri-
tionally rich but received very poor appreciation from the consumers. Teff is culti-
vating in Ethiopia and believed to be a rich source of nutrients, but the consumption
and awareness of the teff is limited as compared to the quinoa. The major objective
of this review is to compare the structural, nutritional and anti-nutritional properties
of the teff and quinoa along with their applications.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Dr. Neela Satheesh is an associate professor in Quinoa is considered as the top super grain and
Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering, is widely studied as the healthiest pseudo-cereal.
Postharvest Technology Department, Institute of This is having the highest demand and appre-
Technology, Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. He ciation from the consumers and available for
obtained his PhD degree from JNTU (Jawaharlal high cost. Now, in the research community there
Nehru Technological University) Anatapur, India. is a huge discussion stated for the other super
His research areas include Postharvest grains and many experts suggested that teff is
Management, Technology, Food Product the next super grain and articles readily available
Development and Food Quality and Safety, in famous editorials like The Guardian, BBC
Processing and Handling of perishables and dur- (British Broadcasting Corporation), Readers
ables. Digest, etc. In the case of teff, cultivation and
Dr. ir. Solomon Workneh Fanta is an assistant consumption are limited to some parts of the
professor in faculty of Chemical and Food world. The price of the teff is very low compared
Neela Satheesh Engineering, Postharvest Technology to quinoa and people also not aware about the
Department, Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar nutritional quality of the teff. This paper is
University, Ethiopia. He planned to review the differences between the
obtained his PhD degree from KU Leuven, quinoa and teff in structural, nutritional, anti-
Belgium, working in the area of Postharvest nutritional properties. This document will give the
Technology, Development and modeling of clarity about both crops for the researchers,
Thermal and non-thermal storage structures for which will help and encourage.
perishables and durables, Transportation phe-
nomenon, Food Quality and Safety.
© 2018 The Author(s). This open access article is distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) 4.0 license.
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Subjects: Food Additives & Ingredients; Food Chemistry; Food Engineering;
Keywords: anti-oxidant properties; nutritional properties; Quinoa; super gains; Teff
1. Introduction
Individuals always concern for ways to extend both their life span and quality of life. Longevity
gets through a complex phenomenon, because many dietary, behavioral, socio-demographic and
environmental factors influence aging and life-expectancy (Chrysohoou & Christodoulos, 2013).
Most deaths in low- and middle-income nations are now due to chronic disease. Mathers and
Dejan (2006) reported that worldwide mortality from chronic age-associated disease will projected
to 66% in the next decade. According to United Nation Organization (2015), core vision of the post
2015 development agenda is a ‘‘healthy life for all” in a world where everyone consumes food that
is ‘‘affordable and nutritious”.
Several Sustainable Development Goals are intended to support consumer choice and boosted
nutrition by promoting agricultural productivity among small-scale producers and supporting links
between local and global markets. Healthy and balanced nutrition is crucial for everyone; it can
obtained from various food sources like fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and protein source (Gul,
Singh, & Rifat, 2016). Our body needs foods to develop, replace and repair cells and tissues, and
also provide energy to keep our body warm, routine exercise and protect our body from potential
disease causing microbes. By consuming balanced nutrition, people can avoid several health
problems, such as hypertension, diabetes, coronary heart disease, gallbladder disease, certain
cancers, dyslipidemia, stroke, osteoarthritis, and sleep apnea (Mir, Charanjit, & Sukhcharn, 2018).
Cereals are the staples, major source of carbohydrates, and energy and dietary pillar for the
people on the globe. Most of the cereals also appreciated for fair amount of dietary fiber as well as
several trace minerals, vitamins, and phyto-chemicals (Poutanen, Sozer, & Valle, 2014). Wholegrain
foods have long been recognized as an essential part of a healthy diet, and many researchers
appreciated whole grains foods as the source of nutrition (Fardet, 2010; Slavin, 2003). Different
medical and epidemiological studies steadily reported that higher consumptions of whole grains
are sturdily connected with reduced risk of acute and chronic diseases, including type 2 diabetes,
cardiovascular disease and certain cancers, namely colorectal cancer (Aune et al., 2016; Geng,
Alisa, Frank, & Qi, 2016; Hongyu et al., 2015).
In the case of the cereals, some are widely available like maize, wheat, rice, etc. Some are
endemic to the some parts of the county or some regions like teff and quinoa. Both teff and quinoa
cultivation and utilization traditionally limited to the some parts of the world, but recent times due
to the proven health beneficial effects cultivation and utilization of quinoa and teff has practicing
other than the place of origin (Poutanen et al., 2014). Both the crops cultivation is opened the new
channels and reaching to the different parts of the world than cultivation regions. People are much
known about the quinoa and it is considered as one of the costly crop. In the case of the teff now
people are getting aware particularly in western world. Teff prices are low as compared quinoa .
Both these crops are considered as the gluten free and super grains. Recent times, a discussion
already started in the scientific media as teff is the next super grain to replace Quinoa (Goodyer,
2015). Thus, this review is planned to give the full insight for the readers with the major objective
to review and compare the structure, nutritional, antioxidant, and anti-nutritional properties of
both the crops along with their food applications.
2. Distribution and production of quinoa and teff

Quinoa is a pseudo-cereal and belongs to the family Chenopodiacea, endemic in all countries of the
Andean region from Colombia to northern Argentina and southern Chile. Andean region has
considered as the centre of origin and been cultivated for more than 7000 years (Pearsall, 1992).
Teff is an ancient agricultural crop of highlands of Ethiopia and belongs to poaceae family. Teff has
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been cultivated in the Horn of Africa for at least 2,000 years, Ethiopia is known as the center of
origin (Mengesha, 1966) and domestication for teff (Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a). Now, in contempor-
ary world people and food markets have considered that both quinoa and teff are ancient and
“super grains”.
Since the last two decades the quinoa has gained worldwide attention because of its ability to
grow in various stress conditions like soil salinity, acidity, drought, frost, etc. (Bhargava, Sudhir, &
Deepak, 2006; Jacobsen, Mujica, & Ortiz, 2003; Jensen et al., 2000; Rockwell, Marjorie, Jennifer,
Laura, & Caroline, 2014; Vacher, 1998). Teff is cultivated successfully in a wide range of agro
ecological conditions, such as marginal water logged soils to drought conditions.
Until recently, quinoa cultivation was restricted in some regions of South America (Bhargava
et al., 2006). Quinoa cultivation is spreading from origin to the different countries as of now it is
cultivating in more than 70 countries. Quinoa cultivation has been reported in France, England,
Sweden, Scandinavia, Denmark, Holland, Italy, United States, Canada, Kenya and India (FAO,
2011). Teff cultivation has dated back to ancient times in Ethiopia, it has a wider distribution in
high altitude and rainfall regions of central, eastern and southern Africa. In contrast to the quinoa,
teff cultivation has bounded to some parts of the world, the United States of America, South Africa,
Australia, India, Kenya, Eritrea, Djibouti, south-eastern Sudan and Netherlands (Curtis, Entsminger,
Cowee, Davison, & Harris, 2008). Both the crops are cultivating for the purpose of food and feed.
FAO intended to focus world attention on the role that quinoa can play in providing food security
and nutrition, and in the eradication of poverty. Due to the drought stability and nutritional quality,
FAO considers quinoa as a perfect food (FAO, 2011) and quinoa cultivation and consumption in
different parts of world has started. To encourage the quinoa production and utilization, FAO
named and considered year 2013 was the “International year of quinoa”. FAO announced that
quinoa is one of the crops destined to offer food security in the twenty-first century (Jacobsen
et al., 2003).
3. Common usage and nutritional composition of quinoa and teff

There has been increasing interest in both quinoa and teff due to its perceived greater nutritional
quality compared to other grains. Quinoa is used primarily in the same custom as wheat and rice
and other grains. It is grounded into flour to prepare breads, cakes, and fermented drinks
(Bhargava et al., 2006; Hitomi et al., 2002). The pre-Colombian Andean people used quinoa as
a staple food component. Also it helps to replace the protein from animal source in their diet
(Koziol, 1992). Teff accounts for about two-third of the daily protein intake in the diet of Ethiopian
population. It also accounts for close to 26% of the annual crops and 31% of the cereals. It is
commonly grounded into flour to make the popular pancake-like thin spongy Ethiopian bread
called Injera (Asfaw & Gatahun, 2000). It is also used to make porridge (muk), local alcoholic drinks
called tela and katikalla, as well as cakes and sweet dry unleavened bread (kita) (National Research
Council, 1996; Seyfu, 1997). Recent studies reported the possibility of different non-traditional
products from teff (Table 1).
Researchers are highly interested in quinoa due to its carbohydrates (77.6%), protein
(12.9%), a balanced amino-acid spectrum of high lysine and methionine contents, lipids
(6.5%), and rich in dietary fiber (Atwell, Patrick, Johnson, & Glass, 1983; Gross et al., 1989;
Hitomi et al., 2002; Ruales & Nair, 1994). Quinoa is also rich in mineral nutrients (3.0%),
especially the K, Ca, Mg, P, and Fe contents which are much higher than those of conven-
tional cereals (Calderelli et al., 2016; Konishi, Shigeru, Hideki, & Masao, 2004). Similarly, Teff
grains are nutritionally well packed containing 9.4–13.3% protein with an excellent balance in
essential amino acids including leucine, valine, proline, alanine and glutamic and aspartic
acids being the major, 73% starch present in whole kernel stored as polygonal starch
granules in the endosperm section of the grain (Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a), 2.6–3.0 % ash,
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Table 1. Different types of the products developed from the teff
S. no. Product name Major components References

1 Injera Teff alone and combination with Ashenafi, 2006; Samuel, 2015
some cereals like wheat, barley,
sorghum or maize or a combination
of some of these cereals used to
prepare injera.
Teff-white sorghum, barley-wheat Baye, Claire, Christèle, Isabelle, &

and wheat-red sorghum flour mixture Jean, 2013
were used to produce injera
Teff-white sorghum flour mixture was Baye, 2014; Ghebrehiwot, Hussein,

used to produce injera Kevin, Mark, & Tafadzwanashe, 2016
Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) strains were Fischer et al., 2014

selected to reduce the phytic acid
(PA) content in injera
Teff Flours with Sorghum blends were Mohammed, Ahmed, & Babiker, 2011
used to make injetra
2 Extruded products Teff, corn and soy protein isolate were Fikreyesus, Zerihun, Amsalu, Nardos,
used for extruded foods & Seife, 2011
Teff, sorghum, millet, amaranth, and Robin, Christinek, & Sathaporn, 2015
quinoa were used to produce
extruded foods
Ready to eat porridge prepared by Helen & Mammo, 2014

whole grain teff using extrusion
cooking technology
3. Breads Teff flour was incorporated into Hofmanová, Hrušková, & Švec, 2014
wheat flour up to 30% to formulate
bread
Teff flour was mixed with wheat flour Ronda, Workineh, Sandra, & Concha,
up to 40% to make breads 2015
Blend of teff, green pea, and Collar, 2016; Collar, Teresa, & Antonio,
buckwheat flours was incorporated 2015
into wheat flour to formulate bread
Gluten free breads of teff, brown rice, Renzetti, Fabio, & Elke, 2008
maize, buckwheat, oat, and sorghum
were produced with microbial trans
glutaminase (TGase)
Gluten free bread was produced with Hager, Anika, Fritz, Emanuele, & Elke,
teff and 2012b
compared with other gluten free and
wheat breads
Gluten free teff bread was prepared Hager & Elke, 2013
with Hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose
(HPMC) and/or xanthans
Teff flour was used to produce gluten Wolter et al., 2013

free breads and was compared with
that of quinoa, buckwheat, sorghum,
and oat.
Breads were prepared with different Wolter et al., 2014

buckwheat, oat, quinoa, sorghum, teff
and compared the glycaemic indexes
the commercial gluten-free bread
Teff variety and wheat flour strength Callejo et al., 2016

on bread making properties of
healthier teff-based breads
(Continued)
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4 Sour dough bread Teff flour was fermented using Moroni, Elke, & Dal, 2011
selective LAB to produce sourdough
which was incorporated in bread
production
Gluten free breads were formulated Anika Wolter et al., 2014b

with teff flour and its sourdough
produced from hetero-fermentation
by lactic acid bacteria
Gluten free breads were formulated Campo, Lis Del, Leyre, Rosa, & Ana
with teff flour and different Ferrer, 2016
sourdoughs
Teff, selected enzymes are Alaunyte, Valentina, Andrew, Paul, &

ingredients and sour dough method Emma, 2012
used to bread preparation
5 Cookies Sugar-snap cookies were prepared by Manuel, Mancebo Picón, & Javier
teff rice, maize, and buckwheat Gómez, 2015
Cookies prepared from okara, red teff Hawa, Neela, & Kumela, 2018
and wheat flours with different
concentrations
6 Cake, cookie, Bakery products were made from Coleman, Abaye, William, & Wade,
biscuit, bread teff-wheat composite flour with up to 2013
100% teff
7 Malt and Teff malt-wort fermented by Gebremariam, Ahmed, et al., 2015

beverages Lactobacillus amylolyticus to produce
beverage
Different variety Teff grains different Gebremariam, Martin, & Thomas,

length of storage (1 or 3 years after 2013a
harvesting) were used for malt
production
Effects of drying temperature and Gebremariam, Martin, & Thomas,

time (kilning) on the activities of 2013b
amylases and limit dextrinase and
dimethyl sulfide level in teff malt
were studied
Thermal stability of starch hydrolysis Gebremariam et al., 2013b

enzymes in teff during mashing was
studied.
Mashing program for pure teff malt Gebremariam et al., 2012

was developed for lactic acid-
fermented beverage
Optimum conditions for teff malt- Gebremariam, Kebede, et al., 2015

wort fermentation by LAB to produce
lactic acid
Tella Ethiopian traditional beverage Ashenafi, 2006

produced by the malting of barley,
wheat., maize, millet, sorghum, teff or
other cereals
8 Pasta Gluten free egg spaghetti was Hager, Michael, Jürgen, Emanuele, &
produced from teff flour Elke, 2013
Egg pasta produced from oat, teff Hager, Fabian, Emanuele, & Elke,
and wheat flour were prepared 2012a
Gluten free tagliatelle was produced Giuberti, Antonio, Lucia, Paola, &
from teff flour with the incorporation Francesco, 2016
of common bean flour
(Continued)
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Table 1. (Continued)
9 Weaning food Weaning food was made from teff Griffith, Castell-Perez, & Griffith, 1998
and pearl millet and legume was
prepared
Grain Teff, Sorghum and Soybean Heiru, 2017

Blending Ratio was used to prepare
the weaning food
Red teff flour, malted soybean flour, Mezgebo et al., 2018

and papaya
fruit powder composition used to the
preparation of porridge
10 Traditional The following different traditional Temesgen, 2013

Ethiopian weaning foods were prepared from teff
foods Gruel: Teff, Sorghum, Barley, Maize,
Wheat, emmer wheat, and enset
Porridge: Teff, sorghum, barley,
maize, wheat, emmer wheat and
enset
Fetfet: Teff, sorghum, barley, maize,
wheat, broad beans, chick-peas, field
peas, and lentil
Kitta: Teff, sorghum, barley, maize,
wheat, enset and chick peas
Dabo: Teff, sorghum, barley, maize,
wheat and emmer wheat
10 Fat replacer Teff was pasted with stearic acid for Teklehaimanot, Kwaku, &
the use as fat replacer in low calorie Mohammed, 2013)
mayonnaise-type emulsions
11 Food grade starch Teff and maize starches added with D’Silva, John, & Emmambux, 2011
stearic acid
and 2.0–3.1% lipid (Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a; Gebremariam, Martin, & Thomas, 2012) with rich
source of Fe, Ca, Zn, Mg than other cereal grains (Abebe et al., 2007).
In addition, both quinoa and teff have recently been receiving global attention particularly as
a “healthy food” due to the absence of gluten and gluten-like proteins, making it suitable for celiac
disease patients (Spaenij-Dekking, Yvonne, & Frits, 2005). These super grains are currently emerging
as healthy alternatives to gluten-containing grains in the gluten-free diet. Kupper (2005) and
Ogungbenle (2003) reported that quinoa is easy to digest and is a complete food due to the gluten
free, well-balanced set of essential amino acids with good source of proteins and minerals. Likewise,
Teff has dietary advantages such as slow-release of carbohydrate constituents that are useful for
diabetic patients (Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a). Recently, the use of teff in food systems is gaining
popularity as both a naturally gluten-free alternative to wheat products and a nutrient-rich ingredient
in the baby food industry (Curtis et al., 2008; Hopman et al., 2008). Rich source of the fiber is the other
common factor in both of the seeds which makes them dietary choice for the entire world.
Teff contains substantial levels of Vitamins A and C, as well as niacin, and their amount is generally
increased by the yeast fermentation process involved in the production of injera (National Research
Council, 1996). Forsido, Vasantha, and Tess (2013) reported antioxidant properties of teff indicate that
it could be used for producing healthy food products. Similarly, the whole seeds of quinoa contain
a large variety of antioxidant compounds, such as carotenoids (Eberhardt, Lee, & Liu, 2000), vitamin C,
and flavonoids (De Simone, Dini, Pizza, Saturnino, & Schettino, 1990; Dini, Gian, & Antonio, 2004),
which are protective against a variety of diseases, particularly cancer, allergy, inflammatory diseases
and may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Consumers desire to try natural, different and
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ethnic foods, as well as interest in functional foods. Both of these seeds are an excellent example of
functional food, defined as lowering the risk of various diseases and exerting health-promoting
effects (Repo-Carrasco, Clara, & Jacobsen, 2003; Vega et al., 2010).
Both the quinoa and teff become attractive since last few decades. Quinoa has been eval-
uated as a food with excellent nutritional characteristics by the National Research Council and
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) (Schlick & David, 1993) and has been
noted as a new foodstuff in the world. Similarly, teff is a very attractive cereal in the Western
world since it is a gluten-free grain encompassing highly appreciated nutritional advantages.
Teff has attracted much interest in the international market (Spaenij-Dekking et al., 2005)
because it is a gluten-free food crop grown predominantly by small holders. It is given a high
market value because it is in high demand, meaning that farmers earn more from growing teff
than growing other staple crops (Araya, Keesstra, & Stroosnijder, 2010). During the last decade,
teff prices have increased between 30 and 36%, depending on the type of teff (red, white or
mixed). However, in the production year 2009, the price of teff increased dramatically by up to
35% with respect to the market prices recorded in 2008. Statistical reports reported that
between year 1992 and 2010, the cultivated area and total production of quinoa in the main
producer countries of Bolivia, Peru and Ecuador almost doubled and tripled, respectively,
because of the world demand. Different researchers reported clear difference in composition
of the quinoa and teff depends on the variety, agro ecological and geographical location of the
growth.
4. Structural properties
Teff grain is hull-less (naked) and comes in a range of colors from milky white to almost dark
brown. The most common colors are white, creamy white, light brown, and dark brown (Tefera,
Ayele, & Assefa, 1995). Similarly, Quinoa seed colors vary from white to grey or black, potentially
having tones of yellow, rose, red and purple and violet, often with very colorful mixes. Black is
dominant over red and yellow, white seed color.
Quinoa is flattened and circular-shaped seeds which may measure from 1.5 mm in diameter to
4 mm (about 350 seeds weigh 1 g) (Ruales & Baboo, 1993). The average length, width and
thickness of quinoa seeds were 1.889, 1.885 and 0.98 mm, respectively. About 72% of the 1000
seeds sampled had sizes varying from 1.7 to 2.0 mm, whereas about 27% were of sizes greater
than 2 mm. The mean equivalent diameter of seed varied from 1.4 to 1.6 mm. In case of teff, the
teff kernel is extremely small in oval-shaped with size mean length ranging 0.61–1.17 mm and
mean width ranging 0.13–0.59 mm, that gives an average thousand kernel weight of 0.264 g
(Bultosa, 2007), 2500–3000 grains weighing about 1 g (Babatunde Obilana & Manyasa, 2002). In
comparisons, with the quinoa, teff grains are very small and light in weight. The quinoa seed
comprises several layers, e.g., pericarp, seed coat and perisperm (Risi & Galwey, 1984) from outside
inwards (Figures 1 and 2) and may be conical, cylindrical or ellipsoidal, with saponins concentrated
in the pericarp.
Compositional and nutritional evaluation of quinoa whole-grain flour and mill fractions (Gross
et al., 1989) showed that the bran seed coat contained most of the sapogenins, protein, fat, fiber
and ash. However, in case of teff grain outer thin and membranous structure of the kernel is
termed pericarp, containing some starch granules, equivalent to the bran of wheat, beneath the
cuticle toward the nuclear epidermis, teff grain is known to bear slime layer (slime layer to absorb
and maintain moisture around the grain is implicated as a contributor to teff adaptive features to
moisture stress) rich in pectins (Arendt & Emanuele, 2013).
In the inner surface of the pericarp, the mesocarp and endocarp are fused and appear as a single
layer in teff grains. In this fused layer, some starch granules are present. Beneath the pericarp there is
a seed coat or testa, in red teff varieties contains polyphenols or tannin and is responsible for the red
color of the teff kernel. In some teff varieties, the testa is reported to contain tannins and is thus
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Figure 1. Scanning electron

microscope (SEM) micrograph of
section of quinoa grain. The
notations in image are as fol-
lows: H: hypocotylradicle axis; C:
cotyledons; F: funicle; P: peri-
sperm; SC; seed coat; R: radicul
tip (adapted from Arendt and
Emanuele (2013)).
Figure 2. Median longitudinal

section of the quinoa grain
(adapted from Arendt and
Emanuele (2013)).
presumed to be thick. Next to the testa is the aleurone layer which is particularly rich in protein and
lipid bodies. After the testa, the germ occupies a relatively large proportion of the grain and is rich in
protein and lipids in teff grain (Figure 3). The perisperm of quinoa seeds consisted of uniform, non-
living, thin-walled cells full of starch grains which were angular in shape. Simple and compound
starch grains occur in the same cells (Arendt & Emanuele, 2013).
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Figure 3. Scanning electron

microscope (SEM) longitudinal
cross section of teff grain (rep-
rinted from Arendt and
Emanuele (2013)).
Quinoa is referred as a pseudo-oilseed crop (Cusack, 1984) due to the exceptional balance
between protein and fats. The perisperm, embryo and endosperm are the three areas containing
food reserves in a quinoa seed (Prego, Sara, & Marisa, 1998). Protein and lipids are stored in the
endosperm and embryo, and starch in the perisperm. In general, the quinoa seed is characterized
by higher contents of protein and lipid and lower starch contents relative to the major cereals
(wheat, barley, maize and rice). In the mature seed, the endosperm is present only in the micro-
pylar region of the seed and consists of one to two cell-layered tissues surrounding the hypocotyl–
radicle axis of the embryo.
Similarly, the endosperm is the largest component of the grain and consists of outer and inner
layers in teff seeds. The outer layer is vitreous and contains most of the protein reserves of the
endosperm and a few starch granules. The inner layer is mealy consisting mainly of thin-walled
cells containing mostly starch granules with a few protein bodies. The endosperm represents the
major component of the grain and, comprises an outer vitreous layer. This contains most of the
protein of the kernel and a few starch granules and has an inner floury part which contains mainly
starch granules with a few protein bodies. The embryo, which constitutes the living part of the teff
kernel, occupies a relatively large proportion of the grain and is rich in protein and lipid bodies
(Babatunde Obilana & Manyasa, 2002; Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a) few protein bodies.
5. Detailed nutritional compositions of quinoa and teff
5.1. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are typically granular forms of various shapes and sizes and the major consti-
tuent of plants sources (grains, seeds and tubers). Starch is the major source of physiological
energy in the human diet and accordingly it is classified as available carbohydrate. The major
components of quinoa are carbohydrates, making up 60–74 % of the dry matter (Koziol,
1992; Wright, Pike, Fairbanks, & Huber, 2002). Starch is about 58.1–64.2 % of the dry matter
(Repo-Carrasco et al., 2003), of which around 10–21 % (depending on the variety) is amylose
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(Araujo-Farro, Podadera, Paulo, & Florencia, 2010; Lorenz & Coulter, 1991), located in the
perispem of the quinoa seed which is lower than that present in wheat or maize, greater
than some varieties of barley and similar to certain varieties of rice. Whereas, carbohydrates
are the main constitute of teff caryopsis and also present in different tissues of the teff kernel.
Among the carbohydrates, starch is the major component (73 % of the kernel dry weight) and
is mainly concentrated in the endosperm (Bultosa & John, 2004b). According to the studies of
Myoung, Ibáñez, and Shoemaker (2007) and Werner et al. (1999) quinoa starch has an average
molar of 11.3 × 106 g mol−1, teff has reported 13.9 × 107 g mol−1 mass lower than waxy maize
starch (17.4 × 106 g mol−1) or rice (0.52–1.96 × 108 g mol−1) and larger than wheat starch
(5.5 × 106 g mol−1). Starch of quinoa is highly branched, with a minimum degree of polymer-
ization of 4,600 glucose units, maximum of 161,000 and a weighted average of 70,000 (Werner
et al., 1999). The length of the chain depends on the botanical source, ranging from 500 to
6,000 glucose units.
Quinoa starch have a polygonal form with a diameter of 0.4–2.0 µm, being smaller than those
reported for maize (1–23 µm) and for wheat (2–40 µm) may be found as single entities or
aggregates of spherical or elliptical composite structures. However, Starch granules in teff are
conglomerates of many polygonal simple granules (Geremew, Alan, & John, 2002) and are very
small (2–6 µm in diameter). However, they are larger in size compared to amaranth and quinoa
and similar to rice starch granules (Geremew et al., 2002). As observed in other cereal grains,
starch granules in teff are mainly composed of a branched fraction, amylopectin, and a linear
fraction, amylose, which latter makes up 25–30 % of starch.
Tari, Uday, Rekha, and Pushpa (2003) reported that the amylopectin in quinoa starch is 77.5%, in
case of the teff the amylopectin reported around 83%. The fraction of amylopectin in both the
grains is high and comparable to that of some rice varieties (Tukomane & Saiyavit, 2008). In
quinoa, the amylopectin has a length distribution similar to waxy starch amylopectin, averaging
317 branching and average polymerization degrees of 6,700 glucose units per fraction. Quinoa
amylopectin, as well as buckwheat and amaranth, contains a large number of short chains from 8
to 12 units and a small number of longer chains from 13 to 20 units in comparison with starches
from other cereals (Abugoch, Nalda, Cristian, Jorge, & Monica, 2008; Tang, Katsumi, & Toshio,
2002). The gelatinization of quinoa starch occurs at a relatively low temperature, having been
reported between 62.6 and 67°C, whereas gelatinization temperature of raw teff (68–80 °C) is
similar to that of other tropical cereal starches like sorghum (67–81 °C), but occurs over a narrower
temperature range than that of maize (60–79 °C) (Gebremariam et al., 2012). Quinoa starch
gelatinizes at the temperatures less than amaranth starch and waxy barley, and little higher for
starch from wheat, rice and barley. It has high maximum viscosity, higher water absorption
capacity and greater swelling power, compared to starch from wheat and barley. The teff starch
pasting temperature is similar to that of maize starch, but the cooking time for peak viscosity is
longer. Peak, breakdown and setback viscosities are lower than those of maize starch (Bultosa and
Taylor, 2004b). Due to the smooth, very small and uniform size of its granules, teff starch offers
good functionality as a flavor and aroma carrier or fat replacer.
The rate of carbohydrate digestion of a food can be characterized by its glycemic index (GI)
(Harris & Raymond, 2009). The GI of a food depends on endogenous factors of the food matrix
such as starch susceptibility to α-amylase, protein and lipid content, and the macroscopic struc-
ture of the food (Fardet, Fanny, Delphine, Augustin, & Christian, 2006). Starch susceptibility to α-
amylase depends on its structure, encapsulation, crystal structure, degree of gelatinization, the
proportion of damaged granules as well as the retrogradation of the starch granules (Fardet et al.,
2006). In vitro digestibility (α -amylase) of raw quinoa starch was reported at 22%, while that of
autoclaved, cooked, and drum-dried samples was 32%, 45%, and 73%, respectively (Ruales & Nair,
1994). In comparison to wheat which has larger starch granules, the in vitro starch digestibility of
teff was found to be significantly lower (Wolter, Anna, Emanuele, & Elke, 2013). In line with this,
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the predicted glycemic index of teff (74) was significantly lower than that of white wheat (100) but
comparable to that of sorghum (72) and oats (71) but higher than quinoa (Wolter et al., 2013).
5.2. Dietary fiber

The dietary fiber in quinoa is mainly localized in the hull (seemingly seed coat and pericarp). Its
total dietary fiber content varies between 2.0 and 2.2 % of the dry matter, matching the value
reported for common grains and leguminous seeds (Varo, Laine, & Koivistoinen, 1983). In case of
fiber content in teff is 3 % (dry base) particularly high and exceeds that of most other cereals, such
as wheat (2%), rye (1.5%), rice (0.6–1.0%) and sorghum (0.6%) dietary fiber in dry basis
(Gebremariam et al., 2012). Additionally, more than 80% of the quinoa fiber is insoluble type
(Ranhotra, Gelroth, Glaser, Lorenz, & Johnson, 1993). Unlike soybean and peas, quinoa and teff
grains are not a significant source of soluble fiber. The total dietary fiber is close to the value found
in cereals (7 to 9.7% dry base), wherein the embryo contains higher levels than those in perisperm.
The soluble fiber content is reported ranging from 1.3% to 6.1% (dry base). Quinoa still presents
approximately 3% simple sugars, mostly maltose, followed by D-galactose and D-ribose, plus low
levels of fructose and glucose (Abugoch & Lilian, 2009). Higher fiber content in teff is due to the
fact that it is always consumed in the whole-grain form (bran and germ included), since it is
impossible to perform any fractionation during the milling process due to the small size of teff
grains (Bultosa & John, 2004b).
Dietary fiber has a number of beneficial effects related with its indigestibility in the small
intestine. Therefore, the reported high content of quinoa fibers can improve digestibility by facil-
itating the absorption process of the other nutrients present in quinoa in the large intestine
(Ogungbenle, 2003). The intake of gluten-free dietary fiber is considered inadequate, so, experts
recommend a higher intake of whole grains rich in fiber, unlike grains and refined products in the
diet of patients with celiac disease, relieving, at least partially, the deficit of fiber intake by that
portion of the population (Alvarez-Jubete, Arendt, et al., 2010a).
5.3. Proteins and amino acids

Plants store proteins in the embryo to provide nutrients for growth and development (Herman &
Larkins, 1999). In the plant foods, proteins stored in seeds are the source of the proteins consumed
directly as food by humans (Shewry, 2009). Stored proteins provide building blocks for rapid growth
upon seed and pollen germination (Herman & Larkins, 1999). The nutritional value of a food is
determined by its protein quality, which depends directly on amino acid content, digestibility,
influence of anti-nutritional factors, and the tryptophan to a large neutral amino acids ratio
(Comai et al., 2007). Proteins are functional and structural units of tissues, enzymes, hormones
and antibodies also involved in power supply and regulation of metabolic processes. Amino acids
provide nitrogen as major mineral and small amounts of sulfur compounds to the body. In the
form of lipoprotein, they are involved in the transport of different bio molecules (triglycerides,
cholesterol, phospholipids and fat-soluble vitamins). High quality of the protein is the major
problem population where majority of the diet is from animal source, so it is recommended to
replace the animal diet with the protein rich plant sources. This strategy may useful for the
prevalence of malnutrition by the contribution of essential amino acids in the diet.
Different researchers reported the mean protein content reported in quinoa seeds is 12–23%,
The difference in variety and agro ecological conditions are the major factors for variation in
protein (Abugoch et al., 2008; GonzáLez, Roldán, Gallardo, Escudero, & Prado, 1989; Hitomi et al.,
2002; Karyotis, Noulas, & Mitsibonas, 2003; Koziol, 1992; Ruales & Nair, 1994). Compared to cereal
grains, the total protein content of quinoa (16.3% dry base), in case of teff the protein content was
reported that between 8.7 and 11 % with a mean of 10.4 % (Bultosa, 2007). Quinoa protein is
higher than that of barley (11% dry base), rice (7.5% dry base), corn (13.4% dry base), and is
comparable to that of wheat (15.4% dry base) (Abugoch et al., 2008). Thus, the protein content of
the teff grain is comparable to that of other common cereals such as barley, wheat, maize and
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pearl millet and less than quinoa (Gebremariam et al., 2012). Protein is the second most abundant
component in both quinoa and teff after starch.
Teff’s fractional protein composition suggests that glutelins (45%) and albumins (37%) are the
major protein storages, while prolamins are a minor constituent (12 %) (Bekele, Roger, Arthur, &
Peter, 1995; Tatham et al., 1996). In contrast, more recent studies report that prolamins are the major
protein storages in teff (Adebowale, Abdul, Naushad, Mervyn, & John, 2011). The most abundant
amino acids are glutamic acid, alanine, proline, aspartic acid, leucine and valine. Methionine, alanine
and histidine contents are slightly higher than in most other cereals, but serine and glycine are lower
(Adebowale et al., 2011). Teff combines a good content and balance of essential amino acids;
however, as with many cereals, lysine represents its first limiting amino acid (Jansen, Di Maio, &
Hause, 1962). The overall amino acid profile of teff can be regarded as being well-balanced. However,
relative to cereal grains, quinoa proteins are particularly high in lysine, the limiting amino acid in most
cereal grains. Their essential amino acid balance is excellent because of a wider amino acid range
than in cereals and legumes with higher lysine (5.1–6.4%) and methionine (0.4–1%) contents (Ruales
& Baboo, 1993). Quinoa proteins have higher histidine content than barley, soy wheat proteins, while
the methionine, cystine content of quinoa similar to that of barley and soy, and lower than the
amounts in wheat. Quinoa proteins have adequate levels of aromatic amino acids (phenylalanine and
tyrosine) and similarly in histidine, isoleucine, threonine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, and valine contents.
Another important feature of teff and quinoa is that they have no gluten (Hopman et al., 2008;
Spaenij-Dekking et al., 2005) investigated the presence or absence of gluten in pepsin and trypsin
digests of 14 teff varieties and reported that gluten not presented in teff.
Several authors have reported different values for protein fractions in cereals as a result of
differences in the extraction conditions especially solvent used in the extraction (Chandna &
Narender, 1990; Moroni, Iametti, Bonomi, Arendt, & Dal, 2010). A large proportion of the storage
proteins in cereals contain disulfide bonds, so a reducing agent is necessary to efficiently extract
these proteins (Bean & Lookhart, 2000; Taylor, John, Michael, & de Suretha, 2005)
5.4. Fats
Cereals are not the good source of fat, but as they are often consumed in high quantities, cereals
can contribute a significant amount of essential fatty acids to the diet (Michaelsen et al., 2011).
Fatty acids are potentially beneficial to growth, development and long-term health. Consequently,
there has been a significant interest in recent years in their inclusion in diets. For instance,
increased intake of n-3 fatty acids (α-linoleic acid) were found to reduce biological markers
associated with cardio-vascular disease, cancer, inflammatory and autoimmune diseases among
others (Simopoulos, 2001).
Oil content in quinoa ranges from 1.8% to 9.5%, with an average content of 5.0–7.2%, which is
higher than that of maize (3–4%) lower than soybean (20.9% dry basis) (Oshodi, Ogungbenle, &
Oladimeji, 1999; Ranhotra et al., 1993; Ryan, Galvin, O’connor, Maguire, & O’brien, 2007; Wood,
Lawson, Daniel, Robison, & Andersen, 1993). In the case of Teff, grain contains lower levels of lipids
(approximately 2.0–3.0% of total grain weight) and other cereals such as maize, oats (6.9 %), millet
(4.2 %) and sorghum (3.4 %) as compared to quinoa.
In quinoa, saturated fatty acids make up approximately 11% of the total fatty acid in the seed
and others lipids in quinoa contain high amounts of neutral lipids in all the seed fractions analyzed.
Some researchers have characterized the fatty-acid composition of quinoa lipids as total saturated
19–12.3% (mainly palmitic acid), total monounsaturated 25–28.7% (mainly oleic acid), and total
polyunsaturated 58.3% (mainly linoleic acid) (Oshodi et al., 1999; Ranhotra et al., 1993; Ryan et al.,
2007; Wood et al., 1993). However, in teff grains are rich in unsaturated fatty acids (72.46 %),
among which 39.91% were polyunsaturated and 20.06 % were saturated fatty acids (El-Alfy et al.,
2012). The predominant saturated fatty acid in quinoa is palmitic (8.5 %).
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As in most other cereal grains, oleic (32.41 %), linoleic (23.83 %) and palmitic (15.9 %) acids are
the major fatty acids (El-Alfy et al., 2012). Linolenic acid levels are higher in teff than in maize,
sorghum, and wheat (Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a). Similarly, linoleic acid (C18:2) is one of the most
abundant polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) identified in quinoa like in teff. PUFAs have several
positive effects on cardiovascular disease (Abeywardena, Mc Lennan, & Charnock, 1991; Keys &
Willis, 1966) and improved insulin sensitivity (Lovejoy, 1999). The oil fraction both quinoa and teff
has high quality and is highly nutritious, based on the fact that it has a high degree of
unsaturation.
Teff grains are rich in unsaturated fatty acids, predominantly oleic acid (32.4%) and linoleic acids
(23.8%) (El-Alfy et al., 2012). Although a clear consensus has not been reached on the optimal
ratio between LA (linoleic acid) and ALA (alfa-linoleic acid) fatty acids, the Codex standards for
infant formula recommend a LA:ALA ratio in the range of 5–15 (Koletzko et al., 2005). The LA:ALA
ratio of 7:1 for teff can be considered satisfactory and is comparable to legumes that are good
sources of fatty acids.
Quinoa oil contains notably high concentration of squalene,where as amaranth reported high
squalenes in pseudo-cereals. Squalene is used as antimicrobials (bactericide) and ingredients in
pharmaceuticals, organic coloring materials, rubber and surface-active agents but squalienes not
reported in teff. All fatty acids present in quinoa are well protected by the presence of vitamin E,
which acts as a natural antioxidant (Ng, Alfred, Janice, & Martin, 2007).
Phytosterols are natural components with different biological activity (anti-inflammatory, anti-
oxidant, and anti-carcinogenic), they present in plant cell membranes, rich in oils seeds and grains.
Ryan et al. (2007) reported that the phytosterols present in quinoa were 63.7 mg 100 g–1 of β-
sitosterol, 15.6 mg 100 g-1 of campesterol and 3.2 mg 100 g-1 of stigmasterol, which are the most
abundant sterols in plants. These levels are higher than in pumpkin seeds, barley and corn, but
lower than in lentils, chickpeas and sesame seeds. The recommended dose is 0.8–1.0 g of
equivalent phytosterol per day, including natural sources, and they are important components in
dietary reduction of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) assisting in maintaining a healthy heart
(Abugoch & Lilian, 2009; Ryan et al., 2007). In the case of the teff, identification and composition
of phytosterols in teff remain to be systematically analyzed (Zhu, 2018) .
5.5. Minerals
Minerals unlike carbohydrates, lipids and proteins, are inorganic and cannot be produced by living
beings with very important functions in the body. Low intake or reduction of bioavailability may
generate imbalances in health and impairment of vital functions. Among the best known are
calcium, phosphorus, iron, potassium, sulfur, sodium, magnesium, zinc, copper, selenium, and
chromium (Vega et al., 2010).
Bultosa (2007) reported that the ash content of 13 teff varieties ranged from 3.16 to 1.99%,
whereas quinoa is 3.4%. Both these grains have the ash content greater than rice (0.5%), wheat
(1.8%), and other cereals, whereas quinoa has slightly higher ash than the teff. In addition to
providing protein and calories, teff is a good source of minerals, particularly Fe (16 mg 100 g−1),
resulting in a mineral content approximately two to three times that of wheat, barley, and sorghum
(Mengesha, 1966). However, quinoa was reported to contain the Fe content (13.2 mg 100 g−1)
slightly lesser then the teff. Both of these can be considered as the rich source found in the Fe.
Moreover, destruction of phytic acid by fermentation is known to contribute to high Fe availability in
diets (Adams, 1990) and, additionally, fermented teff foods are the staples in the production areas.
This explains the low frequency of anemia in the highlands of Ethiopia, where teff represents the first
cereal crop (Gebremariam et al., 2012; Mengesha, 1966). Studies showed that teff consumers have
higher level of hemoglobin in their blood than non-teff consumers, and they do not suffer from
hookworm anemia even when infested; however, hookworm anemia develops in non-teff eaters if
they are infested with hookworm. In Ethiopia, an absence of anemia seems to correlate with the
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levels of teff consumption and is presumed to be due to the grain’s high content of iron. In addition,
according to the same studies, malaria is frequently found in the groups with lower hemoglobin
levels (Molineaux & Biru, 1965; Tadesse, 1969).
Teff also contains high levels of Ca, P, Cu, Zn, and Mg (Bultosa & Taylor, 2004a; Seyfu, 1997). Teff
contains an excellent concentration (147 mg 100 g−1) of calcium and the level of this mineral in
teff is by far higher than other cereals like maize (16 mg 100g−1), sorghum (5.8 mg 100g−1), wheat
(39.5 mg 100g−1), and rice (23 mg 100g−1). Similarly, quinoa contains 148 mg/100 gm of the
calcium which is similar to the teff. The zinc content of teff (6.7 mg 100g−1) is also higher than that
of sorghum (1.7 mg 100g−1), wheat (1.7 mg 100g−1), rice (2.2 mg 100g−1), and wheat (1.7 mg
100g−1). However, Zn concentration of quinoa is reported to be 4 mg 100g−1. This is less than that
of teff but greater than other cereal like sorghum, wheat, rice, and wheat (Navruz-Varli & Nevin,
2016).
The concentration of magnesium in both teff (184 mg 100g−1) and quinoa (362 mg 100g−1) is
higher than that of wheat (103 mg 100g−1) and maize (142 mg 100g−1), but teff contains half
concentration Mg than quinoa. Potassium reported in quinoa and teff is 1475 mg 100g−1 and
477 mg 100g−1 respectively. The quinoa has reported a higher amount of the potassium
compared with teff and also wheat (478 mg 100g−1), maize (320 mg 100g−1), and rice
(80 mg 100g−1). According to Alvarez-Jubete, Wijngaard, et al. (2010a), calcium, magnesium,
and iron are the main mineral deficiency in gluten-free products. In particular, the high calcium
content of these seeds has great relevance for celiac individuals due to the well-known
prevalence of osteopenia and osteoporosis among patients recently diagnosed with this dis-
ease quinoa and teff contains more iron than ordinary cereals; however, its availability may be
affected to some extent by saponins and phytic acid present in the seeds. Both the teff and
quinoa have minerals in bio-available forms. Iron, calcium, magnesium, and potassium are
found in sufficient quantities in the quinoa grain for a balanced human diet (Bhargava et al.,
2006; Repo-Carrasco et al., 2003; Vega et al., 2010).
5.6. Vitamins
Vitamin B1 (thiamin) was reported in teff (0.39 mg100g−1) and quinoa (0.38 mg100g−1). Both are
almost the similar. Thiamin in the maize and wheat is similar with that of the teff and quinoa but
rice (0.06 mg 100g−1) contains the very less amount of thiamine. The riboflavin (vitamin B2) in teff
was reported to be about 0.27 mg100g−1 in quinoa 0.39 mg 100g−1 (Baye, 2014). Thus, quinoa has
high concentrations of the Vitamin B2 as compared with teff. The riboflavin concentration was
reported in the other common cereals like maize (0.10 mg 100g−1), rice (0.06 mg 100g−1), and
wheat (0.17 mg 100g−1). In the case of niacin, teff (3.363 mg 100g−1) conations high concentration
as compared with quinoa (0.70 mg 100g−1). Teff contains high Vitamin B3 compared to quinoa
(maize: 1.80 mg 100 g−1 and rice: 1.92 mg 100g−1). However, wheat is a good source of the niacin
(5.50 mg 100g−1), which is reported higher than all the staple cereals (Abugoch & Lilian, 2009;
Alvarez-Jubete, Arendt, et al., 2010a).
Vitamin B6 is reported to be 0.482 mg100g−1 in teff and 0.49 mg100g−1 quinoa. Both concen-
trations are almost similar. However, the pyridoxine in rice (0.51 mg100g−1) is reported to be
higher than teff and quinoa, but is less in wheat (0.41 mg100g−1) and oats (0.12 mg100g−1)
(Abugoch & Lilian, 2009). In the case of Vitamin E, quinoa is reported to be reported high
concentrations as 5.37 mg100g−1 than teff 0.08 mg100g−1. The Vitamin E in rice (1.20 mg
100g−1) and wheat (0.70 mg 100g−1) is less than the quinoa, but all are having the high concen-
tration of tochopherols as compared with the teff. Vitamin A in teff is reported to be 9 mg100g−1
whereas in quinoa it is reported to be high as 14 mg100g−1 (Navruz-Varli & Nevin, 2016). Other
cereals do not have Vitamin A in delectable level except the wheat. Wheat has the Vitamin
A concentration similar to that of the teff (Baye, 2014).
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6. Anti-oxidant properties of quinoa and teff

Antioxidants are famous due to the capacity of anti-oxidation chain reactions in different parts of
the body. Vega et al. (2010) reported the anti-oxidants usage as food preservative (it stops the
rancidity, toxic products formation and maintains nutritional quality and shelf life). Recently, much
attention has been focused on natural antioxidants, which reported the proven success in neural
functions, reducing the risk of several degenerative diseases, cancer, cardiovascular disease and
osteoporosis (Alvarez-Jubete, Mark, Elke, & Eimear, 2009; Vega et al., 2010; Yawadio, Hiroe, &
Yotaro, 2008). Appropriate diets that include fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and pseudocereals
may contribute to good health due to the rich source of anti-oxidants. Among these foods, cereals
and pseudocereals play an important role (Calderelli et al., 2016; Shela et al., 2008).
Phenolic acids are the most important anti-oxidant agents and in quinoa have reported as
251.5 μg g−1, ferulic acid, 1.1 μg g−1, p-coumaric acid and 6.31 μg g−1 caffeic acids on a dry
basis. Kotásková et al. (2016) reported the different poly phenols in teff as ferulic acid is the major
phenolic compound in teff and reported 160.0 μg g−1 as the free and 290.0 μg g−1 as the bounded
form in the brown teff from USA. In the case of the total ferulic acid (bounded+ free), teff had
shown high concentration than quinoa but there is a clear variability in the concentrations of this
phenolic acid depending on the variety and origin of the teff. Some other phenolic compounds
such as protocatechuic (25.5 μg g−1), Gentisic (15 μg g−1), vanillic (54.8 μg g−1), syringic (14.9 μg
g−1), coumaric (36.9 μg g−1), and cinnamic (46 μg g−1) acids are also present in teff in considerable
amounts (Blandino, Al-Aseeri, Pandiella, Cantero, & Webb, 2003). In the case of the quinoa, the
major sources of phenolic acids are vanillic (523.92 μgg−1), coumaric (275 μg g−1), 3,
4-Dihydroxybenzoic acid (275 μg g−1), p-hydroxybenzoic acid (97 μg g−1), galic acid (320 μgg−1),
and caffic acid (6.31 μgg−1). The quantitative and qualitative difference in the compositions of the
phenolic acids between teff and quinoa was reported (Tang & Rong, 2017).
In the case of the phenolic content, Yawadio et al. (2008) reported that quinoa sample from
Japan had the highest phenolic content (148.0 mg g−1) of equivalent tannic acid, while the quinoa
sample from Bolivia presented the lowest content (94.3 mg g−1). In the case of teff (15 mg g−1),
which is much lower than the quinoa, there is still a possibility of the effect of varieties and
agronomical conditions. These types of the studies are not yet studied to determine the effect of
the variety and agronomical conditions on the total phenolic content (Hurrell & Ines, 2010). Red
sorghum has the highest content of total polyphenols of flour (16.07 mg g−1), followed by barley
(3.10 mg g−1), wheat (1.43 mg g−1), and white sorghum (8.1 mg g−1). Among the all the quinoa is
the superior in the antioxidant activity.
7. Anti-nutritional properties of quinoa and teff

Anti-nutritional factors are the compounds present in a wide variety of plant foods. Anti-nutritional
factors in food reduce nutritional value of food, interfering with digestibility, and absorption of
nutrients. Anti-nutritional factors in quinoa reported are saponins, phytic acid, tannins, nitrates,
oxalates, and trypsin inhibitors. These substances are present in higher concentrations in the outer
layers of the grain. However, in th case of the teff only tannic and phytic acids are mostly reported.
The quinoa grain has a natural bitter coating called saponin, soluble in methanol or water and has
toxic properties (hemolysis). Some saponins form complexes with iron and zinc reducing their
absorption (González et al., 1989; Jancurová, Lucia, & Alexander, 2009; Ruales & Baboo, 1993). The
saponin content of 0.2–0.4 g kg−1 of dry matter in sweet genotypes and from 4.7 to 11.3 g kg−1 in
bitter genotypes was reported. The utilization of quinoa limited due to the presence of saponins
(which provides the bitter taste), to increase the sensory acceptability of quinoa many researchers
are reported different methods to remove them. To overcome this saponins, sweet varieties were
developed and for bitter varieties are reported to process by wet methods (strong washing in cold
alkaline water), dry methods (heat treatment, extrusion, roasting, or mechanical abrasion) or
a combination of both methods (Brady, Chi, Robert, Shengmin, & Mukund, 2007; Comai et al.,
2007; Jancurová et al., 2009). Data on the Saponins in the teff were not available.
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Phytic acid is capable of chelating bivalent minerals (Ca, Fe, Mg, Zn, and Cu), starch, protein and
enzymes. It is mainly found in the peel of most cereals and legumes, in concentrations of 1%–3%
dry matter, and also can be found in some fruits and vegetables (Jancurová et al., 2009; Ruales &
Baboo, 1993). Values from 10.5 to 13.1 mg/g of phytic acid from five different varieties of quinoa
were reported by Koziol (1992), and values close to those were found in barley grains (9.7 to
11.6 mg g−1), corn (from 8.9 to 9.9 mg g-1), rice (8.9 mg g−1) and wheat (6.2 to 13.5 mg g−1). In
case of teff 0.295 mg g−1, of phytate reported and the concentrations are far most less than that of
the all the cereals (Mezgebo, Tefera, & Neela, 2018). The process of removing saponins from quinoa
seeds by wet or dry methods and the food preparation methods like steeping, germination and
fermentation were reported to reduce the phytic acid content in the grains. Similarly, the fermen-
tation process (part of injera preparation) will reduce the phytic acid in teff (Fischer, Ines, Isabelle,
Richard, & Leo, 2014). The degradation efficiency is higher in processes that promote the activation
of phytase, such as fermentation and cooking (Khattab, Arntfield, & Nyachoti, 2009; Ruales &
Baboo, 1993). In the case of tannin, cereals are the best source for it and 0.111 mg g−1was
reported in the teff but data are not available for the quinoa.
The presence of trypsin inhibitor in the intestinal tract reduces the action of trypsin, which is
responsible for the digestion of proteins, leading to increased enzyme production by the pancreas
with resultant hypertrophy of this organ and reduction in growth. In human nutrition, such anti-
nutritional factors have little consequence because they are thermo-labile and are usually
destroyed in the normal conditions of domestic or industrial food preparation (Khattab et al.,
2009). This fact demonstrates that inactivation of this anti-nutrient in quinoa can be obtained by
techniques generally employed in domestic food preparation (Borges, Renata, Cláudia, Ludmilla,
& Márcia, 2010). The concentration of protease inhibitors in quinoa seeds is <50 ppm, but these
trypsin inhibiters are not reported in the teff.
Oxalate is often found in vegetables such as spinach, beets, chard, rhubarb, tomatoes, nuts and
cocoa. High intake of oxalate in the diet influences the absorption of minerals and trace elements,
playing a key role in hyperoxaluria, a risk factor for the formation of calcium oxalate stones in the
kidneys, due to the ability of the oxalate to form insoluble complexes with divalent cations in the
gastrointestinal tract (Jancurová et al., 2009). The highest oxalate content was found in leaves and
stems of quinoa in leaves and stems in roots (258–1029 mg100g−1) and seeds (143–232 mg100g−1)
(Jancurová et al., 2009). But oxalate-related data are not readily available for teff.
8. Value added products from quinoa and teff

Teff and quinoa both are the staple food crops in the production region. In the case of the teff, it is
used to prepare the fermented flat pan bread called as injera. Injera is a staple in Ethiopia and
famous dish in the different parts of the world. Teff is an ingredient in the different alcoholic
beverages products. In the case of quinoa, the seed is used as the basic staple in the adult and
children food. Along with the traditional usages, both crops are now using for the production of the
different value-added products, as shown inTables 1 and 2.
9. Conclusions
Quinoa and teff are sharing some structural, composition properties and some differences same
also reported. In the case of the basic nutritional compositions, these two are superior to the basic
cereals like rice and maize. Researchers already identified that teff consumption is positively
increasing the iron content and avoiding the Anemia in consumers. In the case of anti-oxidant
studies, the quinoa is reported to have better properties than teff. Still there is a lot research need
to be done in the case of the anti-nutritional and anti-oxidant properties of the teff. In the case of
the food application of the both crops, it was evident from the literature that these both crops are
using in baked products specially breads, pasta etc.. Already research studied the quinoa role in
edible films and coatings but still this type of advanced research work is limited on teff. In
conclusion, both the crops have the health beneficial components and can be used to different
products preparations.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1546942
Table 2. Different types of the products developed from the Quinoa

S. no. Product Compositions Reference
1 Edible films Quinoa protein chitosan blend edible Abugoch, Cristián, Maria, Mehrdad, &
films were prepared for food Díaz-Dosque, 2011
applications
Quinoa protein-chitosane -sunflower Valenzuela, Lilian, & Cristian, 2013
oil edible film was prepared for food
applications
Thymol nano emulsions incorporated Robledo et al., 2018
in quinoa protein/chitosan edible
films
Edible quinoa protein-chitosan based Valenzuela et al., 2015
films was produced and used to
refrigerated strawberry
Quinoa starch with various containing Araujo-Farro et al., 2010
various concentrations of glycerol and
alkaline pH values used for edible film
preparations
2 Bio-films Development of active bio-films of Pagno et al., 2015
quinoa containing gold nano particles
and evaluation of antimicrobial
activity
3 Quinoa Low glycemic index and increased Pineli et al., 2015
milk protein content in a novel quinoa milk
was determined
4 Fermented milk Fermented milk supplemented with Sabrina et al., 2014
quinoa flour was done
5 Sweet snack Sweet snacks were formulated with Sciammaro, Cristina, & Cecilia, 2018
a mix of three kinds of seeds:
7.8% chia, 22% quinoa, 22%
amaranth (51.8% of the total snack
weight).
6 Quinoa-based Beverage fermented with Zannini, Stephanie, Kiran, & Elke, 2018
yoghurt Weissella cibaria MG1 based on
aqueous extracts of whole meal
quinoa flour
7 Extruded snacks Amaranth, quinoa and kaniwa flour Martin, Ramos, Jussi-Petteri, Kevin, &
extruded snack prepared Ritva, 2015
Use of amaranth, quinoa and kañiwa Ramos et al., 2013)
in extruded corn-based snacks
Extrusion processing characteristics of Kowalski, Medina-Meza, Thapa,
quinoa was determined Murphy, & Ganjyal, 2016
Extruded product from corn grits- Coulter & Lorenz, 1991
quinoa blends was produced
Effect of temperature, screw speed, Dogan & Karwe, 2003
and feed moisture content on
physicochemical properties of
quinoa extrudates was determined
8 Spaghetti Quinoa and oat spaghetti prepared Chillo et al., 2009
with loaded with carboxy
methylcellulose sodium salt
Performance of quinoa flour in the Caperuto, Amaya-Farfan, & Camargo,
manufacture of gluten-free spaghetti 2000
was determined
(Continued)
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https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1546942
Table 2. (Continued)

9 Pasta Pasta was prepared by replacing 20% Lorusso et al., 2017)
of semolina with native and
fermented quinoa flour
Pasta production from the Schoenlechner, Jurackova, &
pseudocereals amaranth, quinoa and Berghofer, 2005
buckwheat
Amaranth, quinoa, buckwheat used Regine, Julian, Veronika, Katerina, &
to produce gluten free pasta Emmerich, 2007
10 Pasta-like product Nutritional improvement of corn Giménez, Drago, Bassett, Lobo, &
pasta-like product produced Sammán, 2016
with broad bean (Vicia faba) and
quinoa
11 Dark chocolate Dark chocolate was produced with Schumacher et al., 2010
addition of quinoa
12 Whole grain The snacks were quinoa, quinoa- Kahlon, Roberto, & Mei, 2016
snacks cayenne pepper, quinoa-ginger and
quinoa-turmeric.
13 Fermented food Proteolytic activities of whole-grain Ayyash, Stuart, Shao-Quan, Aysha, &
lupin, quinoa and wheat fermented Aisha, 2018
by three species of Bifidobacterium
spp. were employed in
solid-state fermentation
14 Tempe-type Prolonged tempe-type fermentation Starzyńska, Robert, Bożena, Barbara,
fermentation was done in order to improve & Agnieszka, 2016
bioactive potential and nutritional
parameters of quinoa seeds
15 Sourdough Quinoa g-aminobutyric acid (GABA) Villegas, Brown, de Giori, & Hebert,
was used in sour dough 2016
preparations
Quinoa and rice flour using the Axel et al., 2016
antifungal strains Lactobacillus Spp. aas
used
Evaluation of exopolysaccharide Wolter, Hager, et al., 2014b
producing strain for the production of
sourdough from Quinoa flours
Starch-quinoa bran sourdough was Föste, Mario, & Thomas, 2017
prepared
Amaranth, quinoa and oat doughs Lamacchia et al., 2010
compared with semolina dough
rheological properties
16 Breads, cakes and The performance of quinoa-wheat Lorenz, Coulter, & Johnson, 1995
cookies. flour blends (5/95, 10/90, 20/80, 30/
70) were evaluated in breads, cakes
and cookies.
17 Sprouts Amaranth and quinoa seeds and Paśko et al., 2009
sprouts was prepared and compared
the nutritional characters
Chemical, physical and sensorial D’ambrosio, Maria, Donato, Giuditta, &
characterization of fresh quinoa Giancarlo, 2017
sprouts and effects of
modified atmosphere packaging on
quality during cold storage was
determined
18 Infant food Nutritional quality of an infant food Ruales, Yolanda de, Patricio, & Baboo,
from quinoa was determined 2002
(Continued)
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19 Bread Bread with whole quinoa flour and Esther, Vicente, & Monika, 2015
Bifidobacterial culture was prepared
Chickpea, amaranth, quinoa and Burešová et al., 2017
buckwheat flours were enriched with
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in bread
preparation
Nutritional evaluation of quinoa seeds (Stikic et al., 2012)
as an ingredient in bread
formulations was done
Quinoa and Flaxseed used as Calderelli, de Marta, Jesuí, & Graciette,
potential ingredients in the 2010
production of bread with functional
quality
The relationship between rheological (Burešová, Stanislav, Petra, & Tomáš,
characteristics of gluten-free dough 2014)
and the quality of biologically
leavened bread
Use of sourdough made with quinoa Calderelli et al., 2016
flour and
autochthonous selected Lactic Acid
Bacteria used in white bread
preparation
Addition of quinoa and amaranth Machado et al., 2015
flour in gluten-free breads was done
and
Gluten-free breads from buckwheat, Wolter et al., 2013
oat, quinoa, sorghum, teff was
prepared
Breads based on gluten-free Wolter, Anna, Emanuele, Michael, &
buckwheat, quinoa, sorghum and teff Elke, 2014
flours were produced with addition of
20% sourdough fermented with
exopolysaccharide producing
Weissella cibaria
Quinoa and flaxseed composition was Calderelli et al., 2010
used for bread preparations
quinoa white flour was used to Elgeti et al., 2014
replace 40–100% of the rice and corn
flour in a bread
Gluten-free bread formulations Turkut, Hulya, Seher, & Sebnem, 2016
composed of quinoa, buckwheat, rice
flour and potato starch were
developed
1
Acknowledgements Chemical and Food Engineering, Bahir Dar Institute of
The authors are highly thankful to the Faculty of Chemical Technology, Bahir Dar University, P.O. Box 26, Bahir Dar,
and Food Engineering, Institute of Technology, Bahir Dar Ethiopia..
University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia, for encouragement and
support to finish this review paper successfully. Competing Interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Funding
The authors received no direct funding for this research.
Citation information
Author details Cite this article as: Review on structural, nutritional and
Neela Satheesh1 anti-nutritional composition of Teff (Eragrostis tef) in
E-mail: neela.micro2005@gmail.com comparison with Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.),
Solomon Workneh Fanta1 Neela Satheesh & Solomon Workneh Fanta, Cogent Food
E-mail: solworkneh@gmail.com & Agriculture (2018), 4: 1546942.
Page 19 of 27
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311932.2018.1546942
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

Subjects: Food Additives & Ingredients; Food Chemistry; Food Engineering;

Keywords: anti-oxidant properties; nutritional properties; Quinoa; super gains; Teff

2. Distribution and production of quinoa and teff

3. Common usage and nutritional composition of quinoa and teff

Table 1. Different types of the products developed from the teff

S. no. Product name Major components References

Teff-white sorghum, barley-wheat Baye, Claire, Christèle, Isabelle, &

Teff-white sorghum flour mixture was Baye, 2014; Ghebrehiwot, Hussein,

Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB) strains were Fischer et al., 2014

Ready to eat porridge prepared by Helen & Mammo, 2014

Teff flour was used to produce gluten Wolter et al., 2013

Breads were prepared with different Wolter et al., 2014

Teff variety and wheat flour strength Callejo et al., 2016

S. no. Product name Major components References

Gluten free breads were formulated Anika Wolter et al., 2014b

Teff, selected enzymes are Alaunyte, Valentina, Andrew, Paul, &

7 Malt and Teff malt-wort fermented by Gebremariam, Ahmed, et al., 2015

Different variety Teff grains different Gebremariam, Martin, & Thomas,

Effects of drying temperature and Gebremariam, Martin, & Thomas,

Thermal stability of starch hydrolysis Gebremariam et al., 2013b

Mashing program for pure teff malt Gebremariam et al., 2012

Optimum conditions for teff malt- Gebremariam, Kebede, et al., 2015

Tella Ethiopian traditional beverage Ashenafi, 2006

S. no. Product name Major components References

Grain Teff, Sorghum and Soybean Heiru, 2017

Red teff flour, malted soybean flour, Mezgebo et al., 2018

10 Traditional The following different traditional Temesgen, 2013

Figure 1. Scanning electron

Figure 2. Median longitudinal

Figure 3. Scanning electron

5. Detailed nutritional compositions of quinoa and teff

5.2. Dietary fiber

5.3. Proteins and amino acids

6. Anti-oxidant properties of quinoa and teff

7. Anti-nutritional properties of quinoa and teff

8. Value added products from quinoa and teff

Table 2. Different types of the products developed from the Quinoa

S. no. Product Compositions Reference

S. no. Product Compositions Reference

References S. Demissew & S. Belayneh (Eds.), Biology (pp.

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