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Jorge E. Corredor

Coastal Ocean
Observing
Platforms, Sensors and Systems
Coastal Ocean Observing
Frontispiece: Tropical Ocean Observing
Art courtesy of Mr. Mark Sabino, member of the CariCOOS Board of Directors
Jorge E. Corredor

Coastal Ocean Observing

Platforms, Sensors and Systems
Jorge E. Corredor
Department of Marine Sciences (retired)
University of Puerto Rico
La Parguera, Puerto Rico

ISBN 978-3-319-78351-2    ISBN 978-3-319-78352-9 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78352-9

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018939416

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
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in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer International Publishing AG
part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To past and present members of the
Caribbean Coastal Ocean Observing System
(CariCOOS) whose collective knowledge I
hope to here accurately reflect.
To the United States Integrated Ocean
Observing System (US IOOS) and its
predecessor OCEAN.US, institutions that
provided funding and guidance without
which CariCOOS would have been
impossible.
To members of the other ten fellow US IOOS
Coastal Ocean Observing Systems who
generously provided support, advice, and
encouragement in the establishment of
CariCOOS.
Preface

This book arises from material initially compiled for a practical graduate field course
on oceanographic techniques taught at the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez
Campus (UPRM), Department of Marine Sciences at La Parguera Puerto Rico over
a period of 35 years. Oceanographic techniques encompass practices developed to
observe ocean properties and obtain experimental samples, practices which are in
large part remote since instrument deployment is performed mostly from vessels at
sea. The course included the operation and maintenance of oceanographic probes
provided with a variety of electronic and electro-optical sensors, and of an equally
wide variety of instruments deployed for remote sampling of water, sediment, and
plankton. Data collection and processing from instrument casts as well as handling
and preservation of sample obtained with the various collection devices were
included in the curriculum. Concurrent graduate courses on theoretical and practical
aspects of chemical oceanography and marine pollution provided material regarding
electrochemical sensors, their design, operation, and limitations.
In 1993, support became available for the implementation of an oceanic time
series observing effort off the south coast of Puerto Rico. The Caribbean Time
Series (CaTS) was occupied at monthly intervals aboard various oceanographic ves-
sels through the year 2006. Vertical profiles of physical and biogeochemical water
column features were obtained using instruments here described beginning with
casts to 200 m depth and eventually reaching depths of 3000 m. The CaTS effort
provided a seagoing laboratory for these courses and spurred periodic updates as
new instruments and techniques became available.
Support for a Caribbean Coastal Ocean Observing System (CariCOOS) for
Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands (PR and USVI) within a nation-
wide Integrated United States Ocean Observing System (US IOOS) beginning
around 2004 provided unprecedented autonomous observing capabilities. Through
the efforts of researchers at the University of Puerto Rico and the University of the
Virgin Islands, a multicomponent coastal ocean observing system was planned,
designed, and implemented and is now operational. The reward has been a wealth

vii
viii Preface

of data-rich sources including instrumented buoys, coastal HF radar stations, and

operational autonomous glider transects yielding in turn a wealth of data products
in user-friendly formats serving the coastal maritime community.
The 11 independent but coordinated Integrated Coastal Ocean Observing
Systems established in US coastal waters have filled a void of information that has
already proven its values in daily use as well as in several high profile events and
climate-driven emergencies. Through these efforts, sustained ocean observations
now allow the publication of operational data products available through a wide
variety of electronic means to stakeholders and the general public. It has now
become possible for the mariner to know the measured winds and waves, the tem-
peratures and currents at several sites throughout the coastal zone with data updated
within the hour through internet and cellular network connectivity. Moreover, this
data, coupled to numerical models guided by assimilation of real-time instrumental
data, has allowed operational implementation of hindcasts, nowcasts, and short-­
term forecasts of ocean conditions at a scale commensurate to the needs of the
coastal ocean stakeholder.
The shift in observing strategies to prominently include autonomous land- and
sea-based electronic sensing systems prompted refocusing of the coursework at
UPRM to include, in addition to expeditionary oceanographic techniques, the prac-
tice of coastal ocean observing using autonomous observing platforms. Happily,
these courses spanned the period over which most of the modern suite of instru-
ments and platforms became commercially available. Many of these were put to use
and indeed are still operational as part of the current observing effort.
Active involvement of the author in the establishment of the Caribbean Regional
Association for Coastal Ocean Observing (today a not-for-profit entity incorporated
in the state of Puerto Rico under the name of CariCOOS) provided first-hand expe-
rience in planning and implementation of observing systems. During the develop-
ment of CariCOOS, opportunity arose for implementing high frequency radar as a
dual-use technology to detect and track vessels at sea while simultaneously tracking
ocean surface currents over a wide swath of the coastal ocean. Numerous other
opportunities arose for mutually beneficial collaboration with various academic,
governmental, and private-sector organizations which are discussed below in greater
detail. Concurrent service of the author on the Ocean Studies Board of the US
National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine provided expert views
on many of the topics here discussed, particularly regarding ocean observing,
numerical modeling, and carbon biogeochemistry.
The book is biased to the practice of ocean observing in the balmy tropics. Due
apologies are extended to colleagues working in more rigorous climes and to the
reader for the comparative void of information in this regard. Likewise, interna-
tional readers outside the USA will find the book necessarily biased to the author’s
experience within this jurisdiction to which PR and USVI are subject.
Preface ix

Professor Aurelio Mercado offered invaluable assistance in clarifying and

correcting concepts regarding numerical modeling. Drs. Roy Armstrong and Miguel
Canals were extremely helpful in the graphic documentation of oceanographic
instruments and platforms in current operational use. Most of the equipment here
depicted is composed of working units. The challenges of the environment where
they are deployed are readily apparent.

La Parguera, Puerto Rico Jorge E. Corredor

Contents

1 Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing ������������������������������������������    1

References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    5
2 Electronic Sensors and Instruments for Coastal
Ocean Observing������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    7
2.1 Transducer-Driven Instruments for Ocean Observing��������������������    7
2.2 Electronic Sensors and Instruments for Ocean Observing ������������    9
2.2.1 Seawater Temperature��������������������������������������������������������    9
2.2.2 Seawater Pressure ��������������������������������������������������������������   12
2.2.3 Ocean Currents�������������������������������������������������������������������   12
2.2.4 Ocean Tides������������������������������������������������������������������������   20
2.2.5 Ocean Waves ����������������������������������������������������������������������   23
2.2.6 Ocean Winds ����������������������������������������������������������������������   26
2.2.7 Light in the Sea ������������������������������������������������������������������   28
2.3 Electrochemical Sensors for Coastal Ocean Observing������������������   30
2.3.1 Seawater Salinity����������������������������������������������������������������   30
2.3.2 Dissolved Oxygen in Seawater ������������������������������������������   33
2.3.3 The Inorganic Carbon System and pH in Seawater������������   37
2.3.4 Inorganic Nutrients Dissolved in Seawater������������������������   45
2.4 Electro-Optical Sensors for Measurement of Organic Matter
in Seawater��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   48
2.4.1 Colored Dissolved Organic Matter in Seawater������������������   48
2.4.2 Sensing and Tracking Petroleum Pollution
in the Marine Environment ������������������������������������������������   52
2.5 Sensors for Biological Compounds and Processes: Chlorophyll,
Accessory Pigments, and Photosynthetic Activity��������������������������   54
2.5.1 In Vitro/In Vivo Chlorophyll Fluorometry��������������������������   55
2.5.2 Automated Sell Sorting, Counting, and Bio-optical
Characterization������������������������������������������������������������������   57
2.5.3 Remote Sensing of Photosynthetic Pigments ��������������������   59
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   63

xi
xii Contents

3 Platforms for Coastal Ocean Observing����������������������������������������������   67

3.1 Fixed Ocean Observing Platforms��������������������������������������������������   67
3.1.1 Land-Based Ocean Observing Platforms����������������������������   67
3.1.2 Ocean-Based Ocean Observing Platforms��������������������������   69
3.2 Mobile Ocean Observing Platforms������������������������������������������������   73
3.2.1 Manned Vessels and Shipboard Deployed Vehicles������������   74
3.2.2 Lagrangian Drifters������������������������������������������������������������   77
3.2.3 Autonomous Surface Vehicles��������������������������������������������   78
3.2.4 Underwater Gliders������������������������������������������������������������   80
3.3 Ocean Observing Satellites in Terrestrial Orbit������������������������������   82
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    83
4 Environmental Constraints to Instrumental Ocean Observing:
Power Sources, Hydrostatic Pressure, Metal Corrosion,
Biofouling, and Mechanical Abrasion��������������������������������������������������    85
4.1 Power Supplies for Autonomous Coastal Ocean Observing
Platforms and Instrument Payloads������������������������������������������������   85
4.2 Ocean Observing Instrument Mounts and Housings����������������������   86
4.3 Metal Corrosion Considerations Pertinent to Ocean
Observing����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������   88
4.3.1 Fundamentals of Electrochemistry ������������������������������������   88
4.3.2 Electrochemistry of Metals in Seawater ����������������������������   89
4.3.3 Metal Corrosion in Seawater����������������������������������������������    90
4.3.4 Corrosion Protection ����������������������������������������������������������    93
4.4 Biofouling of Ocean Observing Instruments and Platforms����������    95
4.5 Mechanical Abrasion of Ocean Observing Platform
Components������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    99
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������    99
5 Signal Conditioning, Data Telemetry, Command Signaling
and Platform Positioning in Ocean Observing������������������������������������ 101
5.1 Data Signal Conditioning for Ocean Observing ���������������������������� 101
5.2 Electromagnetic Data Transmission for Coastal
Ocean Observing���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
5.2.1 Satellites in Terrestrial Orbit as Communication
Platforms ���������������������������������������������������������������������������� 105
5.2.2 Cellular Network Data Transmission for Coastal
Ocean Observing���������������������������������������������������������������� 107
5.2.3 Cable Connections for Coastal Ocean Observing�������������� 108
5.3 Acoustic Data Links for Coastal Ocean Observing������������������������ 108
5.4 Satellite-Aided and Autonomous Underwater Navigation
for Ocean Observing ���������������������������������������������������������������������� 109
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 110
6 Numerical Models for Operational Ocean Observing������������������������ 113
6.1 Constraints to Spatial and Temporal Resolution of Ocean
Observing Models�������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113
Contents xiii

6.2 Physical Models for Operational Ocean Observing������������������������ 114

6.2.1 Ocean General Circulation Models for Operational
Ocean Observing���������������������������������������������������������������� 114
6.2.2 Coastal Ocean Hydrodynamic Models ������������������������������ 116
6.3 Coastal Ocean Wave Models���������������������������������������������������������� 118
6.4 Lagrangian Tracking for Spill Response and Search
and Rescue�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 120
6.5 Chemical Models for Coastal Ocean Observing���������������������������� 120
6.6 Biological Models for Coastal Ocean Observing �������������������������� 121
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 122
7 Coastal Ocean Observing Data Quality Assurance and Quality
Control, Data Validation, Databases, and Data Presentation������������ 125
7.1 Introduction������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 125
7.2 Quality Assurance and Quality Control (QA/QC) for In Situ
Ocean Observing Data�������������������������������������������������������������������� 126
7.3 Experimental Validation of Remote Sensing and Ocean
Model Output Data ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 128
7.4 Ocean Observing Databases ���������������������������������������������������������� 130
7.5 Ocean Observing Data Visualization for Environmental
Awareness �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 131
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 133
8 Planning, Implementation, and Operation of Coastal Ocean
Observing Systems �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 135
8.1 Ocean Observing Data Needs Assessment ������������������������������������ 135
8.2 Planning Coastal Ocean Observing Systems���������������������������������� 137
8.2.1 Instrument and Platform Selection������������������������������������� 137
8.2.2 Platform Site Selection and Regulatory Constraints���������� 138
8.2.3 Selection, Sub-sampling, and Optimization
of Satellite Imagery������������������������������������������������������������ 141
8.2.4 Selection and Design of Numerical Model
Implementations������������������������������������������������������������������ 141
8.3 Deployment and Maintenance of Ocean Observing Platforms
in the Coastal Zone ������������������������������������������������������������������������ 142
8.3.1 Buoy Deployment and Maintenance���������������������������������� 142
8.3.2 High Frequency Radar Deployment
and Maintenance ���������������������������������������������������������������� 144
8.3.3 Glider Deployment and Recovery�������������������������������������� 145
8.4 Partnerships in Coastal Ocean Observing�������������������������������������� 146
8.5 Applied and Scientific Research in Coastal Ocean
Observing���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 146
References������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 148

Afterword���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 151

Index������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 155
Chapter 1
Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing

One major development of the past decade was the

advancement of operational oceanography and, specifically, the
implementation of ocean observing systems that encompass
observations, models, and analysis to yield societally relevant
oceanographic information in near real time.
Edwards et al. (2015)

Abstract Technology developments in the fields of electronic sensing, signal

amplification, communications, and autonomous navigation have led to the design,
manufacture and deployment of autonomous environmental sensors in distributed
networks allowing monitoring of a number of environmental variables in near real
time at multiple locations. Autonomous instrument-laden platforms plumb the
ocean depths at unprecedented data rates, and active and passive electromagnetic
sensing instruments aboard satellites in terrestrial orbit provide wide ranging synop-
tic views of ocean surface and subsurface features. Advances in autonomous remote
sensing are contrasted to the historical practice of ocean observing aboard manned
vessels. The nature and priorities of operational coastal observing systems are set
forth emphasizing the timely release of data and data products tailored to provide
societally relevant oceanographic information.

Keywords Electronic sensing · Distribute networks · Autonomous platforms ·

Data products

Modern electronic environmental sensors using recently developed materials can

quantify states and process rates for numerous physical and biogeochemical vari-
ables. Parallel advances in integrated electronic circuitry allow the ability to collect
data at unprecedented rate, accuracy, and precision. Data processing, integration
and telemetry, battery storage capacity, and electronic 3-D navigation have equally
improved. Availability of novel primary transducers together with these advances
has led to the development of robust, miniaturized, field deployable instruments.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 1

J. E. Corredor, Coastal Ocean Observing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78352-9_1
2 1 Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing

The advent of electro-optical devices has revolutionized the capability for detecting
and measuring a wide range of chemical and biological variables and processes.
These advances have now reached the point of allowing sustained, widely dis-
tributed collection of environmental data by compact, autonomous instrument sys-
tems. Wide band dual communications allow remote operation of these networks
with ever-increasing capabilities. Hart and Martinez (2006) define such integrated
systems as environmental sensor networks where these capabilities are integrated
into systems providing multilayered, data-dense views of spatial and temporal vari-
ability of environmental conditions.
In the field of ocean science, expeditionary oceanographic research aboard
manned vessels provided an important testbed for the design and development of
such instrument systems. Today, instruments recording temperature and salinity and
other variables routinely operate at data sampling rates up to 24 Hz. Vertically oper-
ated profiling instruments known as CTDs (for conductivity (C), temperature (T)
and depth (D)), descending at rates up to 60 m.min−1 thus achieve sampling densi-
ties up to 24 data points per meter or 120,000 data points for a full ocean depth cast
to 5000 m.
Instrumental Data: Then and Now
Fifty years ago a vertical hydrographic wire cast from a ship sampling to full ocean
depth would have sampled 24 data points using reversing mercury thermometers
for temperature measurement mounted on bottle samplers for subsequent laboratory
salinity and oxygen analyses making a total of 86 data records including depth,
derived from temperature anomalies of protected versus non-protected thermometer
pairs. Bottles were affixed sequentially to a weighted wire rope and then tripped by
means of bronze messengers (weights sequentially traveling down the wire rope) to
invert the thermometers and simultaneously trip the bottle to capture a water sam-
ple. Paired thermometers were read at sea (through a handheld magnifying glass)
upon retrieval of the array and salinity was determined with bench salinometers in
the laboratory. Dissolved oxygen and a few other variables were measured in the
laboratory using wet chemical techniques. The same cast today, performed with
sensor-based electronic instrumentation, obtains 5000 times more coupled depth,
temperature, salinity and oxygen data points with real-time graphical representa-
tion, electronic readout, and digital data recording. Data density may be increased
severalfold by addition of various optical, bio-optical, and opto-chemical sensor
devices to the instrument package.
CTD and shipboard flow-through systems have evolved into multiparameter data
acquisition systems incorporating a variety of optical, chemical, and biophysical
sensors. Many current profiling instrument packages accommodate modular sensors
interchangeable in the field as may be required in addition to the traditional pres-
sure, temperature, and conductivity sensors. Many versions of these instruments,
first developed for cable deployment, are now employed in shipboard or s­ hore-­based
infrastructure using pumped flow-through sensor systems. Flow-through sensors,
1 Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing 3

vertical profiling and sampling systems, and towed vehicle-mounted instruments

have vastly multiplied the data-gathering capability of research vessels.
Despite such advances, sustained coastal ocean observing programs involving
periodic occupation of established stations and/or transect lines remain rare due to
the expense of operating manned vessels at sea which can range well into the tens
of thousands of dollars per day. Fisheries surveys and fishery-related data gathering
remain the exception although some such observing mission are now being per-
formed by autonomous surface and underwater vessels equipped with acoustic fish
sensing instrumentation. Remarkable among such sustained, manned vessel-based
efforts is the CALCOFI Survey, arising from the preceding California Cooperative
Sardine Research Program dating to 1949. CALCOFI arose in response to the col-
lapse of the California sardine fishery. Today, the survey incorporates 60 core sta-
tions along 11 transect lines normal to the California coast. While a large part of the
effort is devoted to fish stock assessment through various means, hydrographic pro-
files including physical, chemical, and biological variables are secured at all sta-
tions. CTD/rosette casts provide instrumental profiles plus bottle samples. Variables
that require calibration samples, or those for which electronic transducers do not
exist, are measured from bottle samples. Process rates such as primary biological
production (photosynthetic rate) are also measured.
Oceanic in character and research-driven in practice the Bermuda Atlantic Time
Series (BATS) and the Hawaii Ocean Time Series (HOT) also deserve mention.
Large, research ships equipped with sophisticated sampling systems and shipboard
laboratories are dedicated to long-term documentation of biogeochemical ocean
properties and processes and their response to climate forcing. Together, these
efforts, occupying single stations at monthly intervals have provided irrefutable evi-
dence for a long-term ocean warming trend and have demonstrated strong covari-
ance of ocean pH decrease with the increasing atmospheric CO2 load (Dore et al.
2009).
Today, expeditionary oceanography is increasingly being supplemented, and
replaced in some cases, by instrumental observations using a variety of autonomous
stationary and mobile platforms equipped with dedicated suits of advanced sensors
coupled to electronic navigational, computational, and telemetric packages. Coastal
ocean observing systems, in particular, have burgeoned in recent years spurred by
these advances and responding to the growing needs of a wide range of stakeholders
operating in this domain.
Ocean observatories, of great value to oceanographic research and in some
ways akin to the astronomical observatories, are primarily concerned with the
advancement of science. Ocean observing systems, on the other hand, while
invariably useful to science, are primarily dedicated to serving stakeholder needs.
Stakeholders in the commercial, conservation, recreational, regulatory, security, and
scientific fields increasingly rely on observing system data products, nowcasts, and
forecasts for operational planning and execution. Such packaged data products are
now supplied by government-supported integrated coastal ocean observing systems
(such as those forming part of the United States Integrated Ocean Observing System
4 1 Introduction to Coastal Ocean Observing

IOOS) as well as by commercial enterprises. These developments have brought us

to the dawn of an era of truly operational autonomous ocean observing.
This book is focused on the practice of operational coastal ocean observing pro-
viding data and data products useful to the stakeholder. The book describes the wide
available range of electromechanical, electrochemical, electro-optical, and electro-­
acoustic sensor systems at the heart of current field-deployable ocean observing
instruments. Their principles of operation, precision, and accuracy are discussed in
detail as well as their power requirements and associated electronics. Observing
platforms bearing these instruments cover a diverse spatial range from satellites in
orbit, to surface vessels or buoys afloat, to submerged vehicles, and to subsurface
and ocean bottom emplacements. Autonomous profiling buoys are now capable of
characterizing water column properties from the surface to great depths. Shore-­
based platforms also provide meteorological data and the novel capability of HF
radar surface current mapping for coastal ocean observing. Active and passive elec-
tromagnetic sensing instruments aboard satellites in terrestrial orbit provide wide
ranging synoptic views of ocean surface and subsurface features. Observing plat-
forms ranging from the traditional to the most recently developed are described as
are the challenges of integrating instrument suits to individual platforms.
Operating and maintaining a coastal ocean observing network is subject to the
challenges posed to operating electronic instruments and platforms in remote envi-
ronments where electrical power is unavailable and equipment is subject to harsh
conditions. The book describes currently available provisions for reliable power
supplies and for protection from seawater pressure, corrosion, and biofouling, pro-
visions which are essential to operational ocean observing.
Large volumes of data are generated by distributed networks of observing plat-
forms constituting an observing system. Depending on the platform, observations
from one to several instruments, together with metadata such as time stamps, geo-
location, and depth must be integrated into a standardized data packet for transmis-
sion to one or more data assembly centers. Electronic data is digitized, filtered, and
processed into discrete data packages prior to transmission. Data are then either
made available in a few currently accepted data formats or integrated into value-­
added data visualization products. The book describes the processes involved in
data conditioning, quality assurance, and quality control procedures as well as
accepted data formats and representative data products.
Data from remote observing sites must be transmitted to the operator. Data
telemetry can make use of cables to shore. Data from subsurface emplacements
must be transmitted to the sea surface via acoustic means due to the opacity of
seawater to radio and microwave frequencies electrical, or via fiber-optic or electrical
cable. Telemetry from surface platforms may make use of radio or microwave fre-
quency electromagnetic radiation to shore-based receiving antennae, satellites
relays, or, increasingly for coastal platforms, the commercial cellular data networks.
Command-and-control of the platform and instruments is likewise effected through
such means. Navigation of mobile platforms, and station-keeping assurance of fixed
References 5

ones, is performed using satellite geolocation for surface platforms or by acoustic

means if submerged.
Increasingly, instrumental ocean observations serve to inform continuously run-
ning numerical simulations (mathematical models) of state variables such as sea-­
surface temperature (SST), sea-surface salinity (SSS), sea-surface height (SSH),
winds, waves, currents, and ocean color in near real time. Such data assimilation
schemes constrain model drift extending model prediction skill. Some of the most
widely used models and their operational products available through the internet
and other applications are discussed.
The process of data dissemination in particular has changed substantially over
the last few decades. The majority of data products, including numerical forecasts,
can now be retrieved and displayed electronically through access to the internet.
Indeed, many of the data products now being disseminated are specifically designed
as mobile applications accessible while at sea aboard small vessels over smart-
phones or handheld tablet computers.
Integrated ocean observing systems operating sophisticated platforms and instru-
ments at sea require significant infrastructure and human resources for sustained
systems operation and maintenance and for data archival and product development
and dissemination. A final chapter is devoted to the challenges of planning, deploy-
ing, and maintaining such systems.

References

Dore JE, Lukas R, Sadler DW, Church MJ, Karl DM. Physical and biogeochemical modulation of
ocean acidification in the central North Pacific. PNAS. 2009;106:12235–40.
Edwards CA, Moore AM, Hoteit I, Cornuelle BD. Regional ocean data assimilation. Annu Rev
Mar Sci. 2015;7:21–42. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-marine-010814-015821. Epub 2014
Aug 6.
Hart JK, Martinez K. Environmental sensor networks: a revolution in the earth system science?
Earth Sci Rev. 2006;78:177–91.
Chapter 2
Electronic Sensors and Instruments
for Coastal Ocean Observing

Abstract Electromechanical, electro-optical, opto-chemical, and electrochemical

sensors are now available that allow continuous real-time monitoring of a wide
range of environmental parameters and process rates. These sensors are integrated
into electronic instruments capable of directly or remotely capturing these proper-
ties or rate processes in quantitative terms as analog or digital data. This chapter
describes in detail the wide range of commercially available sensors and instru-
ments with examples for the most commonly measured physical, chemical, and
biological variables in the marine environmental field. Principles of operation and
limitations of available sensors are also described.

Keywords Transducer · Instrument · Thermistor · Conductivity bridge · Bridge

oscillator · Current meter · Current profiler · Anemometer · High frequency radar ·
Radar tide gauge · Optode · Spectrophotometer · Fluorometer · Wet chemistry ·
Nutrients

2.1 Transducer-Driven Instruments for Ocean Observing

Transducers are electronic devices that allow measurement of a physical, chemical,

or biological property or process. Environmental forcing alters electromagnetic
properties of the transducer such as to change its electrical resistance or cause the
generation of an electrical potential, mechanical deformation, or electromagnetic
emission. Piezoelectric, electromechanical, electrochemical, optical, and acoustic
transducers respond to physical, chemical, and biological environmental forcing.
A passive autonomous measurement instrument is composed of the primary
transducer, an electronic signal amplification unit often incorporating the primary
transducer, a computerized instrument control module and data processing unit, a
power source, and appropriate signal transmission and reception capabilities. The
amplification and processing circuitry provides a readable signal in the form of digi-
tally storable readouts. More elaborate active measurement instruments require
probes to be applied to the target necessitating an acoustic, electrical, or electro­
magnetic source and associated circuitry for conditioning of the probe signal.

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 7

J. E. Corredor, Coastal Ocean Observing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-78352-9_2
8 2 Electronic Sensors and Instruments for Coastal Ocean Observing

Well ­calibrated, many of these variables can be reported on the scales of the
International System for Weights and Measures (SI for the French Système interna-
tional d’unités) which govern these fundamental measurements assuring wide-
spread consensus on data accuracy and precision (Bureau International des Poids et
Mesures 2006).
An exponential increase in capability of underwater instrumentation has been
fueled by the advent of modern electronics. Electronic signal detection and amplifi-
cation technology was originally developed for radio communications and artillery
ranging and detection during the Second World War. Vacuum cathode ray devices
that amplify and modulate electronic signals permitted sending and receiving atmo-
spheric radio signals and, subsequently, underwater acoustic signals. Modern
devices incorporating solid state technology far surpass the performance and reli-
ability of the original vacuum tube and have allowed miniaturization of the compo-
nents and freedom from the fragile, failure prone vacuum tube technology of
50 years ago. Solid state transistors, at the heart of all electronic instruments today,
are composed of semiconductor mineral phases of materials such as silicon and
germanium. Diodes (bipolar transistors) consist of a monolithic physical junctions
of two such mineral formulations displaying opposite negative (N) or positive (P)
electronic properties. Electrical leads to the source (positive) and from the drain
(negative) connect the device to the operating circuit. Diodes permit current flow in
only one direction, constituting effective electronic on/off valves that rectify oscilla-
tory alternating current to flow in only one direction. Signal amplification transis-
tors known as bipolar junction transistors incorporated an additional mineral phase
gate interposed between the diode elements yielding the configurations PNP or
NPN. These electronic valves, analogous to the triode vacuum tubes of (recent)
yore, allow amplification of the low power signal through modulation imparted to a
carrier wave. The low power signal energizes the central gate element in a pattern
dictated by the sensor and transmitted across the assembly to the drain element both
as amplified by the source and as modulated by the gate. Such power transistors are
recognizable in electronic circuits as those attached to large fluted metal heat sinks.
Power transistor heat loss however constitutes a limiting factor for the operation of
remote sensors. In practice, these transistors are incorporated into integrated ampli-
fication circuits such as the well-known analog operational amplifier. External oscil-
lator circuits feeding op/amps provide frequency modulation. Since the signal from
any electronic transducer including acoustic, radio, microwave, and optical emis-
sion may be similarly modulated, the application of solid state technology using
electronic sensors is extended to many practical ocean observing applications here
discussed. In addition to primary data sensing, separate circuitry is required for
electronic data conditioning and transmission (Chap. 5).
Today diode- and triode-like logic gate transistors in integrated circuits (IC) with
dimensions down to 45 nm can have transistor counts of more than 109 per IC. The
metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET) and similar designs have
proved especially suitable for incorporation into these circuits that are fabricated
through photolithographic procedures. In contrast to the original monolithic double
junction transistors, incorporating three fused mineral phases (NPN and PNP), a sin-
gle mineral phase can serve as source and drain. A constriction at the virtual gate is
2.2 Electronic Sensors and Instruments for Ocean Observing 9

overlain by the field effect element where signal charge accumulates or depletes
­varying resistance across the gate thus modulating the higher power source current.
Paired complementary MOSFET units of opposite electronic configuration
­constitute the so-called cMOS, fast logic switches that draw current only during the
switching operation minimizing energy consumption. Integrated circuits are now used
to condition power for sensor energization, and instrument detection circuitry, to gener-
ate and modulate active electromagnetic or acoustic probe signals and to generate and
modulate radio frequency or microwave communication signals. Proton-ion selective
MOSFET triodes are now integrated into instruments capable of precise, continuous
remote pH measurement. Junction photodiodes, semiconductor PN junctions sensitive
to light, have allowed the design and construction of a wide variety of light-sensing
optoelectronic devices for optical applications. Silicon photodiodes perform best in the
visible region (400–700 nm), while SiC formulations are used for near UV detection
(200–400 nm) and InGaAs alloys are used for the near IR band (>700 nm).
The following sections of this chapter are devoted to detailed description of the
principles of operation of a wide variety of environmental transducers applicable to
ocean observing and to the specific capabilities of various commercially available
instruments (referred to occasionally as sensors) operating on these principles.
Examples of basic transducers as well as circuitry, power requirements and endur-
ance of typical instruments are discussed. Sensors are categorized according to dis-
cipline. Instruments measuring physical phenomena including temperate, pressure,
winds, waves, tides, and ocean currents are discussed first followed by instruments
targeting chemical and biogeochemical variables.
The advanced user is directed to the online publications of the nonprofit US-based
Alliance for Coastal Technologies (ACT) http://www.act-us.info/ accessed
11/16/2017) for further reference to the subject matter discussed below. The mis-
sion of ACT is the evaluation of commercially available sensors for coastal ocean
observing. In fulfilling this mission ACT has developed stringent protocols for
­sensor testing under a wide variety of environmental conditions. Invaluable techni-
cal reference is provided by ACT Workshop Reports, Sensor Evaluations, and
Technologies Database.

2.2 Electronic Sensors and Instruments for Ocean Observing

2.2.1 Seawater Temperature

Temperature (T) is perhaps the most widely measured environmental property since,
together with pressure, it governs such fundamental properties as the physical state
of water and the electrical conductivity of ions in seawater. An intensive property, T
depends not only on the heat content of the recipient matter but also its heat capacity
which can vary widely. The atmospheric thermosphere at altitudes of 100–1000 km
with temperatures ranging beyond 2000 °C is in this sense a rather paradoxical
example. Its high temperature is due to the absorption of high energy solar radiation
by resident gases but the sparsity of these same gases in the rarified atmosphere
results in its remarkably low heat content.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
Nervous instability, and reading, 69;
and arithmetic, 122.
Nervous system, 49.
Neurotic children, 69, 122.
Non-reader, four-year study of, 71 f.
Non-readers, summary of studies of, 89 f.

Oakland schools, organization of, 204.

O’Brien, J. A., 97.
Ophthalmologists, reports of, 59.

Pannenberg, H. J., 163, 166, 182.

Pannenberg, W. A., 163, 166, 182.
Performance, as criterion of ability, 5.
Performance tests, Pintner’s, 85.
Peter, R., 163.
Peters, W., 140.
Phonics, taught to non-readers, 66;
carried to excess, 67.
Pictorial completion test, Healy’s, 85.
Pittman, M. S., 113.
Plato, 1.
Platt, W., 182.
Pöhler, Otto, 91.
Poull, L. E., 93, 97.
Problem-solving, 119
Prodigies, 122 f.
Pryor, H. C., 113.
Psychographs, to picture individuality, 38 ff.;
of individuals, 39, 40, 41, 155, 177, 179.
Psychological analysis, of reading, 58;
of spelling, 98;
of calculation, 116;
of talent in drawing, 143;
of musical talent, 165;
of leadership, 192.

Quantitative investigation, results of, 4 f.;

methods of, 11 f.

Ranschburg, P., 58, 97, 140.

Reading, relation to IQ, 57;
very early, 58;
mental age necessary for, 61 f.;
oral, 60;
special defect in, 65 ff.;
special ability in, 91 f.;
effect on spelling, 106.
Révész, G., 47, 166, 171, 182.
Richet, C., 182.
Riley, H. A., 52, 56.
Rogers, A. L., 40, 115, 140.
Rugg, H. O., 47, 211.
Rupp, H., 166, 182.

Scarborough school, experimentation in, 106 f.

Schmitt, C., 65, 90, 97, 119, 140.
Schröck, G., 63, 96.
Schussler, H., 166, 168, 169, 182.
Scripture, E. W., 123, 140.
Seashore, C., 7, 10, 166, 167, 171, 182.
Senile dements, 20 f., 26.
Simon, Th., 21, 24, 46.
Simpson, B. R., 18, 47, 147.
Smith, J. H., 119, 140.
Spaulding, F. E., 211.
Spearman, C., 5, 11, 15, 16, 22, 23, 24, 29, 30, 34, 47, 54.
Special abilities, measurement of, 37 ff.;
detection of, 37 ff.;
origin of, 43, 45;
frequency of, 44;
relation to school progress, 201 f.
Special defects, and brain anatomy, 52;
detection of, 37 ff.;
origin of, 43, 45;
frequency of, 44;
relation to school progress, 201 f.
Special senses, in reading, 59.
Speech defects, 70.
Spellers, psychological examination of, 100 f.
Spelling, correlation with IQ, 100;
special defect in, 98 ff.;
analysis of, 98 ff.
Stanford-Binet, 57, 58, 68, 85, 95, 109, 150, 191, 193.
Stanton, H. M., 175, 182.
Stenquist, J. L., 190, 195.
Stern, W., 10, 11.

Tachistoscope, 58.
Taussig, F. W., 195.
Terman, L. M., 47, 92, 97, 131, 193, 201, 211.
Terry, P. W., 140.
Thompson, J. R., 47.
Thomson, G., 29, 30, 47, 54.
Thorndike, E. L., 10, 11, 15, 16, 33, 34, 47, 62, 97, 116, 117, 140, 146,
163, 190, 195, 211.
Thorndike-McCall scale, 57, 82, 83.
Tildesley, M. L., 163.
Tilney, F., 52, 56.
Tone deafness, 172.
Tonoscope, 174.
Trabue, M. R., 190.
Trabue’s scale, 57, 77 ff.
Transfer of training, 28, 104.
Truant officers, 199.
Types, folk notions concerning, 2;
human beings not divided into, 6.

Uhl, W. L., 97, 119, 121, 140.

Unmusical children, 169.

Washburn, C., 211.

Weglein, D. E., 17, 48.
Weseen, M. H., 113.
White, A., 93, 97.
Whitford, W. G., 163.
Winford, C. A., 105.
Winnetka schools, organization of, 205, 207.
Witmer, L., 113, 170.
Woodworth, R. S., 51, 56, 96.
Woolley, H. T., 211.
Word blindness, 63 f.
Wundt, W., laboratory of, 4.

X, instruction of, in reading, 71 ff.

Zirbes, L., 211.

6ξd2
1. ρ = 1 − n(n2 − 1)

Resemblance equals one minus six times the sum of the differences (in rank)
squared, over the number (of cases) times the number (of cases) squared, minus
one.
6ξd2
2. ρ = 1 − n(n2 − 1)
Formula explained, opposite page.

3. Thompson has recently shown that a coefficient of zero does not necessarily
mean absence of relationship between two factors. There might be a strong
influence making for negative correlation, and at the same time an equally strong
influence making for positive correlation, which might, by just counterbalancing
each other, produce a spurious effect of no connection at all, namely, a coefficient
of 0.00.

4. A curious case of negative correlation between cancellation and other tests

has been reported by McCall (see references).

5. “Insanity” and “dementia” seem to be synonymous, as used by Hart and

Spearman. But in American texts “dementia” is limited to mean intellectual
deterioration.

6. Because of the probabilities in die-casting, every single value for red would
have the same median value among the throws of yellow, which turn up in
connection with it, if enough throws are made. This is not what happens in
measuring mental traits. For any single value, high or low, in one function, the
median of repeated measures in the other function is very different, for most traits,
from the median for other values.

7. For explanation of technical terms see McCall’s How to Measure in

Education.

8. This suggestion originated with a colleague of the present writer, who is

working upon allied problems.

9. See Reference to Ladd and Woodworth.

10. It must be remembered that children and adults of almost any birthday age
may be at this general intelligence level.

11. If alternates are counted instead of the four tests which directly involve
reading or spelling, these IQ’s become 88, 85, 87, respectively.

12. For all practical purposes, IQ’s differing from each other by not more than
5 points are equal.

13. Fildes’ subjects ranged in birthday age from 9 to 16 years. In criticism it

should be stated that correlation between IQ and ability to read cannot be clearly
interpreted unless an array of birthday ages is given in conjunction. Fildes does not
give such an array.

14. The substance of discussion under this topic is reprinted by courtesy of the
Teachers College Record, from the issue of that journal for March, 1919.

15. Quoted by permission of the Atlantic Monthly Press.

16. Bidder died at 72.

17. The writer is indebted to Miss Mabel R. Goodlander, R’s teacher in the
fourth grade, for this report.
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES

Page Changed from Changed to

97 Schröck, G.—“Uber Schröck, G.—“Über
kongenitale kongenitale
Wortblindkeit”; Wortblindheit”;
Klinische Monatsblatt Klinische
Monatsblätter
199 hired tutors. It is true hired tutors. It is true
that the pubic that the public
ceremonies may, ceremonies may,
perhaps perhaps

Typos fixed; non-standard spelling and dialect

retained.
Used numbers for footnotes, placing them all at
the end of the last chapter.
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