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Volume 13077

Lecture Notes in Computer Science

Programming and Software Engineering

Editorial Board
Elisa Bertino
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA

Wen Gao
Peking University, Beijing, China

Bernhard Steffen
TU Dortmund University, Dortmund, Germany

Gerhard Woeginger
RWTH Aachen, Aachen, Germany

Moti Yung
Columbia University, New York, NY, USA

Founding Editors
Gerhard Goos
Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Karlsruhe, Germany

Juris Hartmanis
Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, USA
More information about this subseries at http://​www.​springer.​com/​
series/​7408
Editors
Gwen Salaü n and Anton Wijs

Formal Aspects of Component Software

17th International Conference, FACS 2021, Virtual
Event, October 28–29, 2021, Proceedings
1st ed. 2021
Editors
Gwen Salaü n
Grenoble Alpes University, Saint-Martin-d’Hères, France

Anton Wijs
Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands

ISSN 0302-9743 e-ISSN 1611-3349

Lecture Notes in Computer Science
Programming and Software Engineering
ISBN 978-3-030-90635-1 e-ISBN 978-3-030-90636-8
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-90636-8

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2021

Chapter "A Linear Parallel Algorithm to Compute Bisimulation and

Relational Coarsest Partitions" is licensed under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). For further details see
license information in the chapter.

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer

Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham,
Switzerland
Preface
This volume contains the proceedings of the 17th International
Conference on Formal Aspects of Component Software (FACS 2021),
held online, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, during October 28–29,
2021.
Component-based software development proposes sound
engineering principles and techniques to cope with the complexity of
present-day software systems. However, many challenging conceptual
and technological issues remain in component-based software
development theory and practice. Furthermore, the advent of service-
oriented and cloud computing, cyber-physical systems, and the Internet
of Things has brought to the fore new dimensions, such as quality of
service and robustness to withstand faults, which require revisiting
established concepts and developing new ones.
FACS 2021 was concerned with how formal methods can be applied
to component-based software and system development. Formal
methods have provided foundations for component-based software
through research on mathematical models for components,
composition and adaptation, and rigorous approaches to verification,
deployment, testing, and certification.
We received 16 submissions for the conference, and all of them
were reviewed by three reviewers. Based on their reports and
subsequent discussions, the Program Committee (PC) decided to accept
eight papers (seven regular papers and one tool paper) for inclusion in
this volume and the program of FACS 2021. In addition, we invited
Radu Calinescu and Corina Pasareanu to give keynotes. This volume
contains an abstract of the talk given by Radu Calinescu and an invited
paper by Corina Pasareanu.
We thank Radu Calinescu and Corina Pasareanu for accepting our
invitations to give an invited talk, as well as all authors who submitted
their work for FACS 2021. We thank the members of the PC for their
effort to write timely and high-quality reviews, and their discussions to
make the final selection of papers. We also thank the FACS Steering
Committee for useful suggestions and support. Finally, we thank the
other members of the FACS 2021 organizing committee, Radu
Mateescu, Ajay Muroor Nadumane, and Ahang Zuo, for their
contribution to organizing the conference.
Gwen Salaün
Anton Wijs
September 2021
Organization

Program Committee Chairs

Gwen Salaün Université Grenoble Alpes, France
Anton Wijs Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

Steering Committee
Farhad Arbab CWI and Leiden University, The Netherlands
Kyungmin Bae Pohang University of Science and Technology, South
Korea
Luís Soares Barbosa INESC TEC and University of Minho, Portugal
Sung-Shik Jongmans Open University and CWI, The Netherlands
Zhiming Liu Southwest University, China
Markus Lumpe Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
Eric Madelaine Inria Sophia Antipolis, France
Peter Csaba Ölveczky University of Oslo, Norway
Corina Pasareanu CMU, USA
José Proença CISTER, Portugal
Gwen Salaün Université Grenoble Alpes, France

Program Committee
Kyungmin Bae Pohang University of Science and Technology, South
Korea
Christel Baier TU Dresden, Germany
Luís Soares Barbosa University of Minho, Portugal
Simon Bliudze Inria Lille, France
Javier Camara University of York, UK
Francisco Duran University of Malaga, Spain
Fatemeh Ghassemi University of Tehran, Iran
Sung-Shik Jongmans Open University and CWI, The Netherlands
Olga Kouchnarenko University of Franche-Comté, France
Alfons Laarman Leiden University, The Netherlands
Ivan Lanese University of Bologna, Italy
Zhiming Liu Southwest University, China
Alberto Lluch-Lafuente Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
Markus Lumpe Swinburne University of Technology, Australia
Eric Madelaine Inria Sophia Antipolis, France
Mieke Massink CNR ISTI, Italy
Hernán Melgratti University of Buenos Aires, Argentina
Fabrizio Montesi University of Southern Denmark
Peter Csaba Ölveczky University of Oslo, Norway
Jun Pang University of Luxembourg, Luxembourg
José Proença CISTER, Portugal
Jorge Pérez University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Camilo Rocha Pontificia Universidad Javeriana Cali, Colombia
Gwen Salaün Université Grenoble Alpes, France
Ana Sokolova University of Salzburg, Austria
Jacopo Soldani University of Pisa, Italy
Anton Wijs Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands
Shoji Yuen Nagoya University, Japan

Additional Reviewers
Zahra Moezkarimi
Yuanrui Zhang
Vincent Hugot
Zeynab Sabahi Kaviani
Wanwei Liu
Renato Neves
Parametric and Interval Model Checking: Recent
Advances and Applications (Abstract of Invited
Paper)
Radu Calinescu
Department of Computer Science, University of York, UK

radu.calinescu@york.ac.uk
Abstract. The model checking of Markov chains is a powerful technique
for verifying performance, dependability and other key properties of
systems with stochastic behaviour, both during development and at
runtime. However, the usefulness of this technique depends on the
accuracy of the models being verified, and on the efficiency of the
verification. This invited talk will describe how recent advances in
parametric and interval model checking address major challenges
posed by these prerequisites, enabling the application of the technique
to a broader range of component-based systems.
Keywords: Parametric model checking · Parametric Markov chains ·
Confidence-interval model checking · Interval Markov chains · Change-
point detection
This talk is based on research reported in [1–7], and funded by the
UK Research and Innovation project EP/V026747/1 ‘Trustworthy
Autonomous Systems Node in Resilience’, the Assuring Autonomy
International Programme, and the ORCA-Hub Partnership Resource
Fund project ‘COVE’.

References
1. Alasmari, N., Calinescu, R., Paterson, C., Mirandola, R.: Quantitative
verification with adaptive uncertainty reduction. arXiv preprint arXiv:
https://​arxiv.​org/​abs/​2109.​02984 (2021)
2. Calinescu, R., Ceska, M., Gerasimou, S., Kwiatkowska, M., Paoletti,
N.: Efficient synthesis of robust models for stochastic systems. J. Syst.
Softw. 143, 140–158 (2018). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1016/​j.​jss.​2018.​05.​
013
3. Calinescu, R., Ghezzi, C., Johnson, K., Pezzé, M., Rafiq, Y.,
Tamburrelli, G.: Formal verification with confidence intervals to
establish quality of service properties of software systems. IEEE Trans.
Reliab. 65(1), 107–125 (2016). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TR.​2015.​
2452931
4. Calinescu, R., Johnson, K., Paterson, C.: FACT: A probabilistic
model checker for formal verification with confidence intervals. In:
22nd International Conference on Tools and Algorithms for the
Construction and Analysis of Systems (TACAS), pp. 540–546 (2016).
https://​doi.​org/​10.​1007/​978-3-662-49674-9_​32
5. Calinescu, R., Paterson, C., Johnson, K.: Efficient parametric model
checking using domain knowledge. IEEE Trans. Softw. Eng. 47(6),
1114–1133 (2021). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​TSE.​2019.​2912958
6. Fang, X., Calinescu, R., Gerasimou, S., Alhwikem, F.: Fast
parametric model checking through model fragmentation. In: 43rd
IEEE/ACM International Conference on Software Engineering (ICSE),
pp. 835–846 (2021). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1109/​ICSE43902.​2021.​00081
7. Zhao, X., Calinescu, R., Gerasimou, S., Robu, V., Flynn, D.: Interval
change-point detection for runtime probabilistic model checking. In:
35th IEEE/ACM International Conference on Automated Software
Engineering (ASE), pp. 163–174 (2020). https://​doi.​org/​10.​1145/​
3324884.​3416565
Contents
Invited Paper
Learning Assumptions for Verifying Cryptographic Protocols
Compositionally
Zichao Zhang, Arthur Azevedo de Amorim, Limin Jia and
Corina Pă să reanu
Modelling and Composition
Component-Based Approach Combining UML and BIP for Rigorous
System Design
Salim Chehida, Abdelhakim Baouya and Saddek Bensalem
Composable Partial Multiparty Session Types
Claude Stolze, Marino Miculan and Pietro Di Gianantonio
A Canonical Algebra of Open Transition Systems
Elena Di Lavore, Alessandro Gianola, Mario Romá n,
Nicoletta Sabadini and Paweł Sobociń ski
Corinne, a Tool for Choreography Automata
Simone Orlando, Vairo Di Pasquale, Franco Barbanera, Ivan Lanese
and Emilio Tuosto
Verification
Specification and Safety Verification of Parametric Hierarchical
Distributed Systems
Marius Bozga and Radu Iosif
A Linear Parallel Algorithm to Compute Bisimulation and
Relational Coarsest Partitions
Jan Martens, Jan Friso Groote, Lars van den Haak, Pieter Hijma and
Anton Wijs
Automated Generation of Initial Configurations for Testing
Component Systems
Frédéric Dadeau, Jean-Philippe Gros and Olga Kouchnarenko
Monitoring Distributed Component-Based Systems
 Yliès Falcone, Hosein Nazarpour, Saddek Bensalem and
Marius Bozga
Author Index
Invited Paper
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Padang, Sumatra. The shocks were accompanied by an enormous
sea-wave. Two hundred and thirty people were killed and many
injured. Much damage was done.

----------EARTHQUAKES: End--------

ECHEGARAY, Jose.

See (in this Volume)

NOBEL PRIZES.

ECONOMIC FORESTRY.

See (in this Volume)

CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1901-1906.
From revolution to revolution.

General Eloy Alfaro, who was made President by the revolution

of 1895 (see in Volume VI.), was succeeded peacefully in 1901
by General Leonidas Plaza, and the latter, in turn, by Lugardo
Garcia; but in 1906 the revolutionary method was revived in
favor of General Alfaro, and he ousted Senor Garcia from the
presidential chair.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1901-1906.
Participation in Second and Third International Conferences
of American Republics, at Rio de Janeiro.

See (in this Volume)

AMERICAN REPUBLICS.

ECUADOR: A. D. 1905.
Arbitration of boundary question with Peru.

See (in this Volume)

 PERU: A. D. 1905.

EDMONTON:
Capital of the Province of Alberta.

See (in this Volume)

CANADA: A. D. 1905.

----------EDUCATION: Start--------

EDUCATION: AUSTRALIA: A. D. 1907.

Latest Statistics of State Schools.

Statistics published in July, 1909, by the Commonwealth

Government show that over £2,500,000 was spent on education by
the Australian States in 1907 in 7500 State schools. The total
daily average attendance at the schools for the year was
444,000. The disbursements of the States on University
education amounted to £113,000.

EDUCATION: CANADA: A. D. 1905.

The question of State Support to Sectarian Schools revived on
the creation of two new Provinces.

See (in this Volume)

CANADA: A. D. 1905.

EDUCATION: CANADA: A. D. 1907.

The founding and endowment of Macdonald College.

On the 16th of October, 1907, there was opened a new college

of fine character and great importance, on a noble site,
overlooking the Ottawa river, at Sainte de Bellevue, twenty
miles west of Montreal. It bears the name of its founder. Sir
William Macdonald, from whom it received an endowment of
$4,000,000. This Macdonald College is divided into three
schools: The School for Teachers, the School of Agriculture,
 the School of Household Science. Its main purposes are
announced to be:

(1) "The carrying on of research work and investigation and

the dissemination of knowledge, with particular regard to the
interests and needs of the population in rural districts"; and

(2) the providing of "suitable and effective training for

teachers, especially for those whose work will directly affect
the education in schools in rural districts." It thus
appropriates to itself a field of education for the betterment
of farm life and work, the important need of which, looking to
everything in national character and prosperity, is only
beginning to be understood.

EDUCATION: CHINA: A. D. 1887-1907.

Christian Mission Schools.

"In the historical Volume presented in 1907 at the Shanghai

Conference Dr. Arthur H. Smith makes the following interesting
comparison of the statistics presented at the three Protestant
Missionary Conferences held in China in 1887, 1890, and 1907:

See, in this Volume,

MISSIONS, CHRISTIAN.

1876. 1889.
1907.

Number of societies. 29 41
82

Foreign teachers. 473 1,296

3,833

Stations and substations. 602

5,734

Pupils in schools. 4,909 16,836

57,683

"The above statistics, although incomplete, do serve as an

indication of the vigorous growth of Protestant missionary
educational activity in China. In this work the various
missionary foundations made their most notable advance in
interdenominational cooperation. In many instances several
denominations have combined in union schools or colleges. …
One of the chief agencies in reaching this unity and effective
cooperation has been the Educational Association of China,
founded as early as 1887. …

{192}

"No survey of missionary education in China would be complete

without mention of the widespread, well-organized Roman
Catholic activities. Of the eleven different Catholic orders
having representatives in China, the Jesuits are carrying on
the largest educational work. In 1907, in their five colleges
and seventy-two schools, a total of 25,335 students were
enrolled. All the Catholic orders together supervise the
instruction of over 75,000 Chinese students; this total, it
will be seen, being somewhat higher than that of Protestant
missions."

George Marvin,
The American Spirit in Chinese Education
(The Outlook, November, 1908).

EDUCATION: A. D. 1901-1902.
Edicts of Reform.
Modernizing of Examinations for Literary Degrees
and for Military Degrees.
New Universities, Colleges, and Schools.
Students sent abroad.

"An Edict on Reform in Education, published by the Chinese

Government on the 29th of August, 1901, commanded the
abolition of essays or homilies on the Chinese classics in
examinations for literary degrees, and substituted for them
essays and articles on modern matters, Western laws, and
political economy. The same procedure was also to be observed
in the future in the examination of candidates for office. By
the same Edict it was ordered that as the methods in use for
gaining military degrees—namely, trials of strength with stone
weights, agility with the great sword, and marksmanship with
the bow and arrow on foot and on horseback—were not of the
slightest value in turning out men for the army, where
knowledge of strategy and military science were the sine quâ
non for military officers, these trials of strength, etc.,
should be thenceforth abolished forever.

"Another Edict for the establishment of new universities,

colleges, and schools in China was published on the 12th of
September, 1901. It commanded all existing colleges in the
empire to be turned into schools and colleges of Western
learning. Each provincial capital was to have a University
like the Peking University, whilst the colleges in the
prefectures and districts of the various provinces were to be
schools and colleges of the second and third classes.

"Another Edict, for sending students to be educated abroad,

was published on the 17th of September, 1901. It commanded the
Viceroys and Governors of other provinces of the Empire to
follow the example of the Viceroy Liu Kun-yi of Liangkiang,
Chang Chihtung of Hukuang, and Kuei Chun (Manchu) of Szechuen,
in sending young men of scholastic promise and ability abroad
to study any branch of Western science or art best suited to
their abilities and tastes, so that they might in time return
to China and place the fruits of their knowledge at the
 service of the empire.

"Those who are acquainted with China know very well that many
of the Edicts of the Government do not amount to much more
than waste paper. In this case, however, it has not been so.
The Imperial College in Shansi has been opened, with some 300
students, in the hope that it will develop into one of the
provincial universities. It is divided into a Chinese and a
Foreign Department. … The Edicts have not been a dead letter
in the other provinces either, though there has been enormous
difficulty in getting a sufficient number of professors to
teach or of text-books to use. Some Chinamen who under the old
system of education would not have got more than £30 per annum
now get £240, and there are not enough of them. At the lowest
estimate text-books and books of general knowledge of the West
to the value of £25,000 must have been sold during this year
alone. Books to the value of £6,000 were sold by the Society
for the Diffusion of Christian Knowledge.

"I subjoin a list of the new colleges opened in ten different

provinces in 1901-1902:

Provinces. Funds provided.

Chekiang 50,000 strings of cash

per annum
(about Taels 50,000, or
over £6,000).

Honan. 30,000 Taels per annum.

Kweichow. 20,000 Taels per annum.

Fookien. 50,000 Mex. Dollars per

annum.
 (about £5,000).

Kiangsi. over 60,000 Mex.

Dollars per annum.

Kwangtung. 100,000 Taels per

annum.

Soochow several tens of

thousands of Taels.

Nanking —

Shantung 50,000 Taels per annum.

Shansi 50,000 Taels per annum.

Chihli —

Prefectural Colleges
in Soochow. Taels 10,000.

Prefectural Colleges
in Shantung under
R. C. Bishop Anzer. Taels 2,000

"This comes to about half a million of Taels annually for the

whole Empire for modern education. Such is the new departure,
which dates from 1901-1902."

Timothy Richard,
The New Education in China
(Contemporary Review, January, 1903).
EDUCATION: A. D. 1906.
Chinese Students in Japan.

The following is from a communication to the State Department

at Washington from the American Legation at Tokyo, under date
of January 3, 1906:

"During the past year Chinese students have come to this

country in continually increasing numbers. Last summer the
number was estimated at 5000, of whom 2000 had been sent at
the expense of the Chinese Government. In November the number
is said to have reached 8000. In addition to the supervision
of the Chinese legation the students are looked after by eight
superintendents sent to reside here by their Government.

"Until recently the Japanese authorities seem to have done

nothing in this matter, but the magnitude of the number of
Chinese students finally made a certain degree of supervision
on their part seem wise. Accordingly, regulations for
controlling schools open to the Chinese were promulgated by
the minister for education on November 2, to go into effect
from the 1st instant. … The publication of these regulations
was greeted by a storm of protest. Bodies of Chinese students
passed indignant resolutions, saying that their liberty was
being assailed and seemed to find in the new rules an
indignity to their nationality. The restriction in choosing
schools and lodgings and the need of a letter of
recommendation annoyed them most. The agitation was so great
that over a thousand students returned to China; and no more
have been coming since the trouble."

{193}

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.
The administration of the Department of Education in the
Chinese Government.
 Under the date of November 9, 1908, the Peking correspondent
of the London Times wrote of the administration of the
governmental Department of Education as follows:

"The Ministry of Education is under the presidency of a

learned scholar of the old type, Chang Chih-tung. The old
system of examination has entirely been abolished. Education
is improving, but there is little attempt at uniformity. There
is no lack of desire to learn, but the teaching outside of the
mission schools or of colleges under foreign control is quite
unsatisfactory. No attempt is made to obtain the services of
the best man. Japan engaged the best foreign teachers that
money could find, with the result that the standard of
education is there very high. But China seems to think any
teacher good enough so long as he is a shade better educated
than the pupil he has to teach."

On the other hand, Professor Thomas C. Chamberlin, of the

University of Chicago, who spent four months of the past year
in China, investigating educational conditions, has reported
that "the old education has practically passed away, and the
government is making strenuous, and on the whole remarkably
successful, efforts to build up a system of education modelled
on that of Europe and America. In all the larger cities of
China buildings have been erected, teachers and pupils
gathered, and schools of the modern type organized. In not a
few cases, as, for example, at Foochow and in the far west at
Chentu, the old examination halls have been torn down to make
place for schools modelled on those of the west."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.
Chinese Students in America.

"The disposition on the part of the Chinese Government to send

picked students to America for their education, although
interrupted formally years after the first set of twenty came
in 1872, has since 1890 shown a comparatively steady growth.
During the past year 155 Chinese students were maintained at
various educational institutions in this country on
foundations provided either by the Imperial or the Provincial
Governments. Out of this number seventy-one are under the
charge of the Imperial Chinese Legation at Washington;
twenty-seven are under the direction of Chang-Chuan,
Commissioner of Education for the Viceroyalties of Hupuh and
Kiang-man; fifty-seven others have been during the past year
under the direction of Dr. Tenny, at present Chinese Secretary
of our Legation at Peking. These last, although coming from
various parts of the Empire, all received their elementary
education at the Peyang College in Tientsin, of which Dr.
Tenny was formerly principal. At the request of Yuan-Shih-Kai,
then Viceroy of Chihli, of which province Tientsin is the
chief city, Dr. Tenny in 1906 assumed charge at Cambridge of
the Peiyang candidates sent to America, including those now at
Harvard and the various other colleges where, at his
suggestion, they were quartered. Since Dr. Tenny’s return in
July last to Peking, his position has been filled by the
appointment of Mr. H. F. Merrill, for many years Commissioner
of Customs at Tientsin. …

"Quite apart from this official recognition of the advantages

of an American education, many Chinese families send their
sons at their own expense to schools and colleges in this
country. It has been impossible to procure exact statistics of
the number of these privately supported students, but,
according to the best advices obtainable at the Chinese
Legation, there are about two hundred. …

"More important than anything that has yet taken place in this
movement of Chinese education in America is the recent
determination on the part of the Imperial Government to devote
a sum equal to that placed at their disposal by the remission
of the Boxer indemnity to the founding of an Educational
Mission in this country. … According to the terms of the
agreement contained in the note of Prince Ch’ing to Mr.
 Rockhill last July, by the end of the fourth year from the
inauguration of the scheme four hundred students, sent by the
Imperial Government, will be added to the large and growing
number of their young fellow-countrymen already coming to
America."

George Marvin,
The American Spirit in Chinese Education
(The Outlook, November, 1908).

An English correspondent, writing from Peking, September 24,

1909, reported: "This week 47 students selected by examination
for proficiency in English and Chinese are leaving Peking for
the United States to enter upon studies paid for by funds from
the unexpended balance of the Boxer indemnity. They have been
selected from nearly 500 candidates who competed for this
great reward from many provinces of the Empire. An excellent
body of young men, they ought to do credit to their country."

See (in this Volume)

CHINA: A. D. 1901-1908.

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909.
Progress in Technical Education.

The following statements were in a Press despatch from

Tien-tsin, July, 1909:

"Technical education in China shows unmistakable signs of

extension. A very few years ago nothing existed which was
worthy of the name, while now it is not too much to say that
in the course of a few years the engineering schools of China
will be second only to the best in Europe and America.
Engineering courses are now being given at the following
institutions:
Imperial Polytechnic Institute, Shanghai;
Imperial University of Shansi, Tai-yuan-fu;
 Tangshan Engineering and Mining College, Tangshan; and
Imperial Pei Yang University, Tien-tsin."

EDUCATION: A. D. 1909.
Formation in Great Britain and America of the China
Emergency Appeal Committee.

"Speaking at the Mansion House meeting [London] of the China

Emergency Committee held under the presidency of the Lord
Mayor on March 16, 1909, Sir Robert Hart, whose long work as
Inspector-General of the Imperial Chinese Customs has given
him the profoundest knowledge of China and its people, said:
‘We are alarmed lest Western knowledge and Western science may
give the Chinese people strength without principle, and may
even bring in a crude materialism without that higher teaching
and higher guidance which are necessary for the best welfare
of any people.’

"It is the realization of that danger, but even more a

realization of the needs of China, which have led to the
formation of the China Emergency Appeal Committee. … It is the
object of this Committee to utilize to the full the unexampled
present opportunity of establishing in China institutions
through which the Chinese people may be trained to educate
themselves in the Western knowledge and civilization which
they have set themselves to acquire.

{194}

"There is, first, China’s crying need of medical education—of

schools and hospitals in which Chinese students will be taught
and practise medicine and surgery. … Not less needed is the
establishment of colleges and centres for the training of
Chinese teachers for the primary and secondary schools which
are being established everywhere throughout this Empire of
400,000,000 inhabitants. The China Emergency Committee appeals
for £40,000 to build and equip these training colleges.
 Thirdly, there is a demand throughout China for translations
of European books. The demand far exceeds the supply, though
it is only through literature that the Chinese gentleman will
acquaint himself with Western thought and learning. The books
sell in vast numbers, but the work of translation involves
heavy preliminary expenses. … These are the three objects for
the attainment of which the China Emergency Committee has been
established."

London Times,
July 17, 1909.

On the initiative of the English Committee, of which Sir

Robert Hart is chairman, a proposal to move similarly in
America came before a recent conference of foreign mission
boards of the United States and Canada. A committee, Rev. Dr.
Arthur J. Brown, chairman, to whom the proposition was
referred, reported favorably. The conference approved the
report, and provided that a permanent committee be appointed,
to consist of those serving with Dr. Brown, together with
twelve laymen, to be chosen by the committee. This new
committee is "to promote a larger interest in Christian
education in China." It will assist the boards and other
Christian agencies and cooperate with the general education
committee appointed by the Shanghai conference and with the
China Educational Association.

EDUCATION: Cuba: A. D. 1899-1907.

Organization of Schools during the American Occupation.
Census-showing of results in 1907.

"During the American occupation of Cuba especial attention was

given to the establishment of common schools and other
educational institutions. The enrollment of the public schools
of Cuba immediately before the last war shows 36,306 scholars,
but an examination of the reports containing these figures
indicates that probably less than half the names enrolled
represented actual attendance. There were practically no
separate school buildings, but the scholars were collected in
the residences of the teachers. There were few books and
practically no maps, blackboards, desks, or other school
apparatus.

"The instruction consisted solely in learning by rote, the

catechism being the principal textbook, and the girls
occupying their time chiefly in embroidery. The teachers were
allowed to eke out their unpaid salaries by accepting fees
from the pupils. … At the end of the first six months of
American occupation the public school enrollment of the island
numbered 143,120. The schools were subjected to a constant and
effective inspection and the attendance was practically
identical with the enrollment. …

"All over the island the old Spanish barracks and the barracks
occupied by the American troops which had been withdrawn were
turned into schoolrooms after thorough renovation. The
pressure for education was earnest and universal. The
appropriations from the insular treasury for that purpose
during the first year of American occupation amounted to four
and a half millions.

"At the close of American occupation there were 121 boards of

education elected by the people (the system was kept out of
politics); the work of changing the old barracks throughout
the island into schoolhouses had been completed; a thoroughly
modern school building costing $50,000 had been erected at
Santiago; one school building in Habana had 33 rooms, with a
modern kindergarten, manual-training branch, two gymnasiums,
and baths; large schools had been established by changes in
government buildings at Guineas, Pinar del Rio, Matanzas,
Cieguo de Avila, and Colon; over 3600 teachers were subjected
to examination, and approximately 6000 persons applied for and
received examination as teachers. For six weeks during the
summer vacation of 1901, 4000 teachers were collected in
 teachers’ institutes."

Establishment of Free Government in Cuba

(58th Congress, 2d Session, Senate Document number 312).

"The public-school system organized under the first

intervention in Cuba, is producing excellent results. Of the
population 10 years of age and over, 56.6 per cent could read,
showing a decided gain in that respect since 1899. Of the
native whites, 58.6 per cent could read, and of the colored 45
per cent were similarly educated."

National Geographic Magazine,

February, 1909, p. 202.

EDUCATION: Egypt: A. D. 1901-1905.

Recent Development of Public Primary Schools.
Schools for Girls.

"Before the English occupation great masses of Egyptians

remained ignorant. Over 91 per cent. of the males and almost
99½ per cent. of the females could neither read nor write.
Until within the last five years public primary education for
the poorer classes, aside from the mere learning of the Koran,
was almost unknown. At the present time public schools are
being established everywhere, and grants in aid of these
schools are paid in proportion to the attendance and the
records made by the pupils. Likewise, certain positions in the
civil service can be filled only by those who hold
certificates from schools of certain grades. As a consequence
there has been a great awakening of interest. Most of the
teachers of these public schools are Mohammedan, and the
schools are non-Christian in their instruction. The Koran is
still used as a text-book for many purposes, but the education
is practical in its general nature. The children are taught,
besides reading and writing, the elements of the sciences, and
they choose either French or English as the foreign language
 which they will learn, and that in which they will receive
instruction in the more advanced studies where Arabic
text-books cannot readily be provided. It is a noteworthy fact
that while, in the earlier days, French was the language more
frequently chosen, nearly all the pupils are now selecting
English. There are also provisions for training in law,
medicine, agriculture, engineering, etc. The law school is the
most popular, while the agricultural college—although the
basis of Egyptian wealth and prosperity is and must always be
agriculture—suffers from lack of pupils. Female education has
not been neglected, and we may expect in the near future that
instead of 99½ per cent. of the women being unable to write, a
very large per cent. of the mothers of the country will be
able to give their children the rudiments of education at
home."

Professor J. W. Jenks,
The Egypt of To-day
(International Quarterly Review, October, 1902).

{195}

"A revolution is a growth, not a cataclysm: the seeds of the

Egyptian Revolution were sown in the autumn of 1901 when Miss
Amina Hafiz Maghrabi was admitted to the Stockwell Road
Training College for Teachers. Miss Amina is the daughter of
one of the Officials in the Ministry of Public Instruction at
Cairo, and after passing a preliminary examination was sent to
England to be educated at the expense of the Egyptian
Government. … Miss Amina spent nearly three years at
Stockwell; then she returned to her own people; now she is a
teacher at the Abbas Public Girls’ School at Cairo, and the
right hand of Miss Spears, the Principal; this seed is bearing
fruit. No Revolution can be a success unless the women take it
up, and it is the women who are going to turn Egypt upside
down; it is the Mussulman women who have already begun to do
so. …
 "The really astonishing work that has been going on for nearly
two years is the education for the teaching profession of
girls of the better class aged from about fourteen to twenty.
There are two or three schools where these girls are received
as boarders, and carefully tended by European mistresses; the
amazing thing is that they throw aside their veils and consent
to be taught by men. … In all the State schools of Egypt the
Koran is taught. In one corner of the garden is a small room
built to serve as a mosque; attendance is voluntary, but three
times a day each girl retires there for private prayer.

"These schools have been recently founded to provide female

teachers; they have not been in existence long enough for any
girls to have completed the two-years’ course; it may be they
will fail in their primary object; it is possible that the
girls who have been educated will none of them persevere in
the teaching profession; nevertheless, as Egyptian wives and
mothers, they must become the leaders of the revolution."

Edmund Verney,
A Revolution in Egypt
(Contemporary Review, July, 1905).

EDUCATION: A. D. 1908.
Gordon Memorial College at Khartoum.

From the eighth annual report of the Director of Education in

the Sudan it appears that the Gordon Memorial College, founded
at Khartoum in 1899 (see, in Volume VI. of this work, EGYPT:
A. D. 1898-1899), is now composed of the following educational
units:

"The primary school, which has been attended by 190 pupils,

the training college—vernacular and English—by 178, of which
150 belong to the vernacular side, and the upper school for
the training of engineers and surveyors by 28 students. One
 hundred and seventy-two are on the roll of the instructional
workshops. There is, he remarks, no doubt whatever about the
popularity of the military school among the inhabitants of the
country, both Arab and Sudanese. Some 20 young men have now
received commission in the famous black battalions, or in the
new Arab levies now being raised. They have almost all been
well reported on. He understood that the responsible Army
authorities propose to increase this school substantially, and
to render it capable of holding twice the present number of
cadets." The College is reported to have "felt the strain of
existing financial difficulties very keenly, and the rate of
progress has hardly been maintained this year."—1908.

EDUCATION: England: A. D. 1902.

The Education Act, in the interest of the Voluntary or
Church Schools.
Text of its provisions most obnoxious to the Nonconformists.
"Passive resistance" among them to the law.

The Education Act of 1870 created in England for the first

time a system of officially regulated and publicly supported
elementary schools.

See in Volume I. of this work,

EDUCATION: MODERN: ENGLAND: A. D. 1699-1870.

Those schools divided the work of elementary education with

schools of another, older system, founded, maintained, and
managed by the churches of the country,—mainly by the
predominant Established Church of England. The public
elementary schools, supported out of local rates and governed
by locally-elected school boards were called Board Schools;
the others were called Voluntary Schools. The latter received
some public money from an annual Parliamentary grant, but
nothing from the local taxation which supported the former. In
the Voluntary Schools under church control religious teaching
was prescribed and given systematically; in the Board Schools
 it was not. Those who held religious teaching, of their own
denominational orthodoxy, to be a vital part of education,
were ardent partisans of the Voluntary Schools. Those who
approved the exclusion of theological differences from the
teaching of the Board Schools were equally ardent champions of
those. As a rule, the adherents of the Established Church and
of the Roman Catholic Church were opponents of the public
system, while the Dissenters or Nonconformists of all sects
gave it strenuous support. Thus the two systems were
mischievously antagonized, and almost from the beginning of
the operation of the Act of 1870 it had been manifest that one
or the other must ultimately give way to its rival.

In 1902 the Conservative party, in which the Established

Church of England is most largely represented, found itself
strong enough in Parliament to undertake the nationalizing of
the Voluntary Schools in England and Wales, incorporating them
with their rivals in one reconstructed national system, but
securing their domination in it, along with equal sharing from
the public purse. A Bill for the purpose was proposed to the
House of Commons on the 24th of March by Mr. Balfour, then the
Administration leader in the House. In his speech on a motion
for leave to bring it in he spoke of the need of a single
authority for education, primary, secondary, and technical; of
the disadvantages of the two organizations of elementary
schools, and of the absurdity of supposing that the great
number of Voluntary Schools and Endowed Schools could be swept
away and replaced at enormous public cost. The proposed Bill,
based on these views, would extinguish the local School Boards
and make the County Council in counties and the Borough
Council in county boroughs the one local education authority.
As introduced subsequently and enacted, after heated and long
debate, the Bill accomplished its leading objects, so far as
concerned elementary education, by provisions of which the
following is the text:

{196}
"Part III. Elementary Education.

5.
The local education authority shall throughout their area
have the powers and duties of a school board and school
attendance committee under the Elementary Education Acts, 1870
to 1900, and any other Acts, including local Acts, and shall
also be responsible for and have the control of all secular
instruction in public elementary schools not provided by them,
and school boards and school attendance committees shall be
abolished.

"6.
(1) All public elementary schools provided by the local
education authority shall, where the local education authority
are the council of a county, have a body of managers
consisting of a number of managers not exceeding four
appointed by that council, together with a number not
exceeding two appointed by the minor local authority. Where
the local education authority are the council of a borough or
urban district they may, if they think fit, appoint for any
school provided by them a body of managers consisting of such
number of managers as they may determine.

"(2) All public elementary schools not provided by the local

education authority shall, in place of the existing managers,
have a body of managers consisting of a number of foundation
managers not exceeding four appointed as provided by this Act,
together with a number of managers not exceeding two
appointed—

(a) where the local education authority are the council

of a county, one by that council and one by the minor local
authority; and

(b) where the local education authority are the council

of a borough or urban district, both by that authority.

"(3)
Notwithstanding anything in this section—

(a) Schools may be grouped under one body of managers

in manner provided by this Act; and

(b) Where the local education authority consider that

the circumstances of any school require a larger body of
managers than that provided under this section, that authority
may increase the total number of managers, so, however, that
the number of each class of managers is proportionately
increased.

"7.—
(1) The local education authority shall maintain and keep
efficient all public elementary schools within their area
which are necessary, and have the control of all expenditure
required for that purpose, other than expenditure for which,
under this Act, provision is to be made by the managers; but,
in the case of a school not provided by them, only so long as
the following conditions and provisions are complied with:—

"(a) The managers of the school shall carry out any

directions of the local education authority as to the secular
instruction to be given in the school, including any
directions with respect to the number and educational
qualifications of the teachers to be employed for such
instruction, and for the dismissal of any teacher on
educational grounds, and if the managers fail to carry out any
such direction the local education authority shall, in
addition to their other powers, have the power themselves to
carry out the direction in question as if they were the
managers; but no direction given under this provision shall be
such as to interfere with reasonable facilities for religious
instruction during school hours:
"(b) The local education authority shall have power to
inspect the school;

"(c) The consent of the local education authority shall

be required to the appointment of teachers, but that consent
shall not be withheld except on educational grounds; and the
consent of the authority shall also be required to the
dismissal of a teacher unless the dismissal be on grounds
connected with the giving of religious instruction in the
school. … [Here follow provisions relative to schoolhouses and
teachers’ dwellings.]

"(3) If any question arises under this section between

the local education authority and the managers of a school not
provided by the authority, that question shall be determined
by the Board of Education.

"(4) One of the conditions required to be fulfilled by

an elementary school in order to obtain a parliamentary grant
shall be that it is maintained under and complies with the
provisions of this section.

"(5) In public elementary schools maintained but not

provided by the local educational authority, assistant
teachers and pupil teachers may be appointed, if it is thought
fit, without reference to religious creed and denomination,
and, in any case in which there are more candidates for the
post of pupil teacher than there are places to be filled, the
appointment shall be made by the local education authority,
and they shall determine the respective qualifications of the
candidates by examination or otherwise.

"(6) Religious instruction given in a public elementary

school not provided by the local education authority shall, as
regards its character, be in accordance with the provisions
(if any) of the trust deed relating thereto, and shall be
 under the control of the managers: Provided that nothing in
this subjection shall affect any provision in a trust deed for
reference to the bishop or superior ecclesiastical or other
denominational authority so far as such provision gives to the
bishop or authority the power of deciding whether the
character of the religious instruction is or is not in
accordance with the provisions of the trust deed.

"(7) The managers of a school maintained but not

provided by the local education authority shall have all
powers of management required for the purpose of carrying out
this Act, and shall (subject to the powers of the local
education authority under this section) have the exclusive
power of appointing and dismissing teachers.

"8.—
(1) Where the local education authority or any other persons
propose to provide a new public elementary school, they shall
give public notice of their intention to do so, and the
managers of any existing school, or the local education
authority (where they are not themselves the persons proposing
to provide the school), or any ten rate payers in the area for
which it is proposed to provide the school, may, within three
months after the notice is given, appeal to the Board of
Education on the ground that the proposed school is not
required, or that a school provided by the local education
authority, or not so provided, as the case may be, is better
suited to meet the wants of the district than the school
proposed to be provided, and any school built in contravention
of the decision of the Board of Education on such appeal shall
be treated as unnecessary.

{197}

"(2) If, in the opinion of the Board of Education, any

enlargement of a public elementary school is such as to amount
to the provision of a new school, that enlargement shall be so
treated for the purposes of this section.

"(3) Any transfer of a public elementary school to or from a

local education authority shall for the purposes of this
section be treated as the provision of a new school.

"9. The Board of Education shall, without unnecessary delay,

determine, in case of dispute, whether a school is necessary
or not, and, in so determining, and also in deciding on any
appeal as to the provision of a new school, shall have regard
to the interest of secular instruction, to the wishes of
parents as to the education of their children, and to the
economy of the rates; but a school for the time being
recognized as a public elementary school shall not be
considered unnecessary in which the number of scholars in
average attendance, as computed by the Board of Education, is
not less than thirty."

The main contentions were raised by these sections of the

Bill, and as soon as their bearing and effect were discerned
the Nonconformist opposition was rallied in strong force. "The
main ground of objection taken," says the Annual Register,
"was that, while throwing the whole charge of the maintenance
of denominational schools (apart from that of the fabrics) on
public funds, it failed to secure to the local public any real
control over the management of the schools so maintained, and
amounted in effect to a new endowment of the Church of
England; also that it perpetuated and enhanced the injustice
of the pressure of the system of religious tests in the
profession of elementary teaching, which would now, it was
said, if the Bill should pass, be the permanent monopoly of
Anglicans in the schools educating more than half of the
children of the working classes. Denunciatory resolutions
based generally on grounds of this character, were passed by
the National Free Church Council, the London Congregational
Union (April 8), the General Committee of the Protestant
Dissenting Deputies, and other bodies; and at an early date a
disposition, to which both encouragement and expression were
vigorously administered by the British Weekly, was somewhat
extensively shown to urge that it would be the duty of
Nonconformists to refuse to pay the education rate if the Bill
should become law. Dr. Parker, of the City Temple, in a letter
to the Times (April 5), avowed himself earnestly in
favour of this policy, which was also defended by the Rev. H.
Price Hughs. It was opposed by the Rev. John Watson, of
Liverpool (known in the literary world as ‘Ian Maclaren’), but
the voices of restraint among the Nonconformist opposition
were less audible than those of indignant reproach and
menace."

Annual Register,
1902, p. 107.

The following from an article by Rev. J. Guinness Rogers shows

the attitude and feeling of the Nonconformist opposition:

"Hitherto a certain proportion of the cost of these schools

has been borne by Churchmen themselves, and Nonconformists
have been content to regard that as fairly providing for the
sectarian teaching that was given. They did not regard the
arrangement as wise or salutary. But they acquiesced
considering that they had no responsibility whatever for the
denominational teaching that was given. The new Act altered
all the conditions. The State now assumes all the
responsibility for the support of these schools. The last
vestige of voluntary support is swept away, and they become in
every sense part of the National School system. The burden of
their support is thrown upon the public funds. Only in the
matter of control and of their religious teaching do they
retain anything of their private character. … They are to be
supported out of the public funds. But they constitute a
privileged class of schools under private managers, and their
chief teachers have to belong to a particular Church and to
give instruction in its principles and doctrines. It is this
which has stirred the indignation of Nonconformists. They
conscientiously object to pay for the support of schools
staffed by Anglican teachers and employed in the dissemination
of Anglican doctrines. …

"For thirty years the Free Churches of England have quietly

submitted to an arrangement which practically left thousands
of the schools under the absolute sway of the clergy. There
were thus vast districts of the country, and those the
districts least open to the free play of public opinion, in
which Nonconformist children were forced into the ranks of the
pupils, while Non-conformist teachers were just as resolutely
kept out of these favoured preserves of sectarianism. But even
this did not satisfy the clergy and their friends. During
almost the whole of the period in question there have been
continual attempts to secure better terms for those already so
highly privileged. At length came the period for decided
action. … The whole character of our educational apparatus has
been changed, and changed in a manner as unfavourable to
constitutional liberty as to religious equality. School boards
were institutions in which Nonconformists had taken a deep
interest and in which in many of the large towns they had
achieved conspicuous success. They have been ruthlessly swept
away, and henceforth the work of education in our large towns
and cities is entrusted to committees chosen by County
Councils; Mr. Balfour showing here the same dislike of popular
control as characterises his administration in the House of
Commons. Can it be thought wonderful that Nonconformists have
been goaded into resistance by a policy so high-handed and so
determined? We have heard enough of the intolerable strain put
upon the supporters of the voluntary schools. The strain of
clerical intolerance and Tory partiality has become still more
intolerable."

J. Guinness Rogers,
The Nonconformist Uprising
(Nineteenth Century, October, 1903).
 A weightier and more statesman like objection to the Act was
set forth by the Right Honourable James Bryce in the
following:

"Of all the causes which have kept education in England,

secondary as well as elementary, below the level it has
reached in such countries as Switzerland and Scotland and New
England, the most deep seated is the want of popular interest
and popular sympathy. The people have not felt the schools to
be their own, have not been associated with the management,
have not realised how largely the welfare and prosperity of
the nation depend on the instruction which each generation
receives. Since 1870 something has been done to stimulate
popular interest by the creation of School Boards (whose
admirable work in the large towns is admitted even by the
Ministry which proposes to destroy them), by the introduction
of a large representative element upon the governing bodies of
endowed secondary schools, and by entrusting County and
Borough Councils with power to spend money upon technical
instruction.
{198}
What can be plainer than that a wise statesmanship ought to
follow in the same path endeavouring to create everywhere
local educational authorities chosen by the people and
responsible to the people, keeping these local authorities up
to the mark by making a share in the imperial grant
conditional upon full efficiency, but teaching them to look
upon the schools as their own, and to feel that it is their
own interest as parents and citizens to make their schools
worthy of an advancing nation? No such idea has been present
to those who framed this Bill. It reduces, instead of in
creasing, the element of popular interest and popular control.

"School Boards are to be swept away, and with them those

elected women members who have been so valuable and
influential an element. The substituted County and Borough
Councils are, no doubt, elective bodies. But they have so many
functions already besides those educational functions which
are now to be thrown on them that the latter will play a small
part, and their discharge of those functions cannot be
effectively reviewed by the people at an election. Moreover,
every Council is directed to act through an Education
Committee largely, or possibly entirely, consisting of persons
outside their own bodies. It is certainly desirable to secure
an element of special knowledge. But the policy of these
committees—and policy (except as regards finance) is to rest
with them—will never be subject to any review by the electors,
to whom the committees are nowise responsible. The fault is
still worse when we come to the local managers. Where there
exist only denominational schools, there will be no popular
control at all, for the permissive appointment by the
Education Committee of not more than one-third of the local
managers is a merely nominal concession, quite illusory for
the purpose of securing any local power, any local interest,
any local sympathy. In most cases this permissive right of
appointment will probably be used to add to the denominational
managers some person or persons recommended by them, or one of
them, to the Education Committee, which sits in the distant
county town and may know nothing about the locality.

"It is not from any superstitious faith in popular election or

in what are called ‘democratic principles’ that I deplore
these provisions of the Bill. It is because they tend to
withdraw from education one of its most valuable propulsive
forces. Let us hear the Schools Inquiry Commissioners of 1868,
among whom were the present Archbishop of Canterbury, the late
Bishop of Winchester, and another eminent ecclesiastic.

"‘No skill in organisation, no careful adaptation of the means

in hand to the best ends, can do as much for education as the
earnest co-operation of the people. The American schools
appear to have no great excellence of method. But the schools
are in the hands of the people, and from this fact they derive
a force which seems to make up for all their deficiencies. …
In Zurich the schools are absolutely in the hands of the
people, and the complete success of the system must be largely
ascribed to this cause. … It is impossible to doubt that in
England also inferior management, if it were backed up by very
hearty sympathy from the mass of the people, would often
succeed better than much greater skill without such support.’

"These words were spoken of secondary education. They apply

with even greater force to elementary. The experience of
thirty-four years confirms them. But there is nothing in this
Bill to give effect to their principle."

James Bryce,
A Few Words on the Few Education Bill
(Nineteenth Century, May, 1902).

The Education Bill passed its third reading in the House of

Commons on the 3d of December, by a vote of 246 against 123,
being a majority of exactly two-thirds. In the House of Lords
it received brief discussion and a few amendments, which the
Commons accepted, and it was sent quickly to the King,
receiving the royal assent December 18. And now there came
into action the stubborn revolt which took the name of
"passive resistance,"—the refusal, that is, of a considerable
body of people to pay the rates levied for school purposes
under a law which they held to be unjust. Their attitude, and
the consequences they suffered, in imprisonment and the
seizure and sale of their property, are described in the
following passages from an article by one of the leaders of
the movement:

"It is difficult to believe that, at the beginning of the

twentieth century, Englishmen of high character and
indisputable loyalty are being sent to prison for exactly the
same reasons as those which were urged for committing John
Bunyan to Bedford Gaol; for exposing Richard Baxter to the
 browbeating of Judge Jeffreys and a sentence of eighteen
months incarceration; and for sending George Fox to the
noisome dungeons of Carlisle and Derby, Lancaster and London.
Americans cannot credit it. The colonists of Canada and
Australia say, ‘Can these things be?'?; and even Englishmen
would never accept the humiliating conclusion, if they were
not confronted by the undeniable fact. The fact is that nearly
one hundred freemen of England, respectable and God-fearing
citizens, have been sentenced to different periods of
imprisonment since November, 1903. …

"Imprisonment is only one phase of this advancing cause;

another is that of the public sale of the furniture, pictures
and books of those who refuse to submit. The first sale was at
Wirksworth, in Derbyshire, on June 26th, 1903; and it has been
followed by about 1,600 more in different towns and villages,
all over England. … In one extremely flagrant instance, one
hundred pounds’ worth of goods were taken for the sum of
fifteen shillings, and in many cases fidelity to conscience
has meant loss of trade and of position, … No less than 40,000
summonses have been sent forth by the overseers to compel
recalcitrant rate-payers to appear before the magistrates and
‘show cause’ why they will not pay. …

"Now, it is for that process we cannot and will not pay any
rate whatever. We object to many of the provisions of the
Education Acts. They are anti-democratic, unfair, unjust; they
are destructive of educational efficiency and social peace;
but the one thing that has created the Passive Resistance
movement is not the destruction of the School Board, not the
loss of popular control, but this intrusion into the realm of
conscience by the State.
{199}
That is the prime factor in this situation. To that ‘we will
not submit,’ declared Mr. Fairbairn to Mr. Balfour when the
Bill was before the House. In short, we say with Bunyan to our
persecutors, ‘Where I cannot obey actively, there I am willing