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Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing
Urszula Bentkowska
Interval-Valued
Methods in
Classifications
and Decisions
Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing
Volume 378
Series editor
Janusz Kacprzyk, Polish Academy of Sciences, Systems Research Institute,
Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: kacprzyk@ibspan.waw.pl
The series “Studies in Fuzziness and Soft Computing” contains publications on
various topics in the area of soft computing, which include fuzzy sets, rough sets,
neural networks, evolutionary computation, probabilistic and evidential reasoning,
multi-valued logic, and related fields. The publications within “Studies in Fuzziness
and Soft Computing” are primarily monographs and edited volumes. They cover
significant recent developments in the field, both of a foundational and applicable
character. An important feature of the series is its short publication time and
world-wide distribution. This permits a rapid and broad dissemination of research
results.
Indexed by ISI, DBLP and Ulrichs, SCOPUS, Zentralblatt Math, GeoRef,
Current Mathematical Publications, IngentaConnect, MetaPress and Springerlink.
The books of the series are submitted for indexing to Web of Science.
Interval-Valued Methods
in Classifications
and Decisions
123
Urszula Bentkowska
Faculty of Mathematics and Natural
Sciences
University of Rzeszów
Rzeszów, Poland
This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To my Family and Friends,
especially to my Parents
Preface
I saw the need, but I did not know how to satisfy it. I posed
the problem to my best friends, Herbert Robins and Richard
Bellman, because as mathematicians they were better qual-
ified than I was to come up with a theory which was needed.
Both were too busy with their own problems. I was left on my
own.
Lotfi A. Zadeh [1]
Since the seminal paper on fuzzy sets was published [2], plenty of books and papers
devoted to the topic of fuzzy sets theory, its extensions and applications appeared.
According to the Web of Science, there are over 198,000 works with the fuzzy as a
topic. Among them, there are also works of the best friends mentioned in the
quotation by Lotfi Zadeh (e.g., [3]). The author of this monograph also would like
to contribute to the subject of fuzzy sets, especially interval-valued fuzzy sets,
which are one of the most important and developing generalizations of the fuzzy
sets theory. However, the presented results may be also advantageous to the whole
community, not only fuzzy, but more generally involved in research under uncer-
tainty or imperfect information.
Fuzzy sets theory and its extensions are interesting not only from a theoretical
point of view, but also they have applications in many disciplines such as computer
science and technology. Fuzzy sets turned out to be effective tools for many
practical applications in all areas, where we deal with natural language and per-
ceptions. Fuzzy sets and fuzzy logic contributed to the development of the artificial
intelligence and its applications. Fuzzy sets theory and its diverse extensions are
still one of the most important approaches for dealing with uncertain, incomplete,
imprecise, or vague information. The aspect of data uncertainty is studied inten-
sively in many contexts and scientific disciplines. Many different forms of uncer-
tainty in data have been recognized. Some come from conflicting or incomplete
information, as well as from multiple interpretations of some phenomenon. Other
arise from lack of well-defined distinctions or from imprecise boundaries. It is
impossible to eliminate completely uncertainty and ignorance from everyday
experience of scientists, specialists in various fields, and also the life of an average
man. According to Lotfi A. Zadeh As complexity rises, precise statements lose
vii
viii Preface
meaning and meaningful statements lose precision. This is why there is a need to
develop effective algorithms and decision support systems that would be able to
capture the arising problems.
The main aim of this monograph is to consider interval-valued fuzzy methods
that improve the classification results and decision processes under incomplete or
imprecise information. The presented results may be useful not only for the com-
munity working on fuzzy sets and their extensions, but also for researches and
practitioners dealing with the problems of uncertain or imperfect information. The
key part of the monograph is the description of the original classification algorithms
based on interval-valued fuzzy methods. The described algorithms may be applied
in decision support systems, for example, in medicine or other disciplines where the
incomplete or imprecise information may appear (cf. Chap. 4), or for data sets with
a very large number of objects or attributes (cf. Chap. 5). The presented solutions
may cope with the challenges arising from the growth of data and information in
our society since they enter the field of large-scale computing. As a result, they may
enable efficient data processing. The presented applications are based on theoretical
results connected with the family of comparability relations defined for intervals
and other related notions. We show the origin, interpretation, and properties of the
considered concepts deriving from the epistemic interpretation of intervals.
Namely, the epistemic uncertainty represents the idea of partial or incomplete
information. It may be described by means of a set of possible values of some
quantity of interest, one of which is the right one [4]. Since the subject is wide, we
mainly concentrate on theory and applications of new concepts of aggregation
functions in interval-valued fuzzy settings. The theory of aggregation functions
became an established area of research in the past 30 years [5]. Apart from theo-
retical results, there are many applications in decision sciences, artificial intelli-
gence, fuzzy systems, or image processing. One of the challenges is to propose
implementable aggregation methods (cf. [6]) to improve the usability of the pro-
posed ideas. Such methods provide a heuristic which may be conveniently
implemented and easily understood by practitioners. Moreover, another challenge is
related to the ability of including in the proposed solutions human-specific features
like intuition, sentiment, judgment, affect, etc. These features are expressed in
natural language which is the only fully natural means of articulation and com-
munication of the human beings. This idea led to considering aggregations inspired
by the Zadeh idea computing with words [7]. Computing with words (CWW) (cf.
[8]) has a very high application potential by its remarkable ability to represent and
handle all kinds of descriptions of values, relations, handling imprecision. There are
many aggregation methods that try, with success, to resolve the challenges of
nowadays problems (cf. [9–16]). In this book, we examine the so-called possible
and necessary aggregation functions defined for interval-valued fuzzy settings. One
of the reasons to consider these types of aggregation operators is connected with the
fact that these notions of aggregation functions were recently introduced [17] and
they have not been widely examined before.
Preface ix
The book consists of two parts. In the first part, theoretical background is pre-
sented and next in the second part application results are analyzed. In theoretical
part, in Chap. 1 elements of fuzzy sets theory and its extensions are provided. There
are presented the notions of interval-valued fuzzy calculus. Diverse orders applicable
for interval-valued comparing, including interval-valued fuzzy settings, are dis-
cussed. Furthermore, in Chap. 2 aggregation functions defined on the unit interval
½0; 1 are recalled and useful notions and properties are provided. Construction
methods of interval-valued aggregation functions derive from the real-line settings
and interval-valued aggregation functions often inherit the properties of their com-
ponent functions defined on the unit interval ½0; 1. All these issues will be presented
in Chap. 2.
Part II covers two major topics: decision-making and classification problems.
Chapter 3 is devoted to decision-making problems with interval-valued fuzzy
methods involved. It is pointed out the usage of new concepts with possible and
necessary interpretation involved. Next, the classification problems are discussed.
When classifiers are used there is a problem of lowering its performance due to the
large number of objects or attributes and in the case of missing values in attribute
data. In this book, it is shown that in such situations interval-valued fuzzy methods
help to retrieve the information and to improve the quality of classification. These
issues are discussed in Chaps. 4 and 5. In Chap. 4, there are proposed methods of
optimization problem of k-NN classifiers that may be useful in diverse computer
support systems facing the problem of missing values in data sets. Missing values
appear very often in data sets of computer support systems designed for the medical
diagnosis, where the lack of data may be due to financial reasons or the lack of a
specific medical equipment in a given medical center. Chapter 5 presents methods of
dealing with large-scale problems such as large number of objects or attributes in
data sets. Specifically, there is presented a method of optimization problem of k-NN
classifiers in DNA microarray methods for identification of marker genes, where
typically there is faced the problem of huge number of attributes. Finally, in Chap. 6,
there is presented the performance of the new types of aggregation functions for
interval-valued fuzzy settings in the computer support system OvaExpert [18].
The book ends with a brief description of the future research plans in the area of
presented problems, both in the theoretical and practical aspects.
The book is aimed at practitioners working in the areas of classification and
decision-making under uncertainty, especially in medical diagnosis. It can serve as
a brief introduction into the theory of aggregation functions for interval-valued
fuzzy settings and application in decision-making and classification problems. It
can also be used as supplementary reading for the students of mathematics and
computer science. Moreover, the results on aggregation functions may be inter-
esting for computer scientists, system architects, knowledge engineers, program-
mers, who face a problem of combining various inputs into a single output. The
classification algorithms considered in this book (in Chaps. 4 and 5), along with
other supplementary materials are available at [19], where there are provided
suitable files to download and run the experiments.
x Preface
I would like to thank Prof. Józef Drewniak for introducing me to the subject of
fuzzy sets theory. Moreover, I would like to thank other Professors that helped me
in better understanding the nuances of fuzzy sets theory, its extensions, and
applications. Namely, these are the following persons (listed in the alphabetical
order): Jan G. Bazan, Humberto Bustince, Bernard De Baets, Przemysław
Grzegorzewski, Janusz Kacprzyk, Radko Mesiar, Vilém Novák, and Eulalia
Szmidt. I am also grateful to my colleagues from Poland and abroad with whom I
cooperated working on scientific problems or whom I met during scientific con-
ferences. Especially, I would like to thank my colleagues from the University of
Rzeszów with whom we spent many hours on seminars discussing scientific
problems.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my family and friends
for their constant encouragement and support.
References
1. Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy logic–a personal perspective. Fuzzy Sets Syst. 281, 4–20 (2015)
2. Zadeh, L.A.: Fuzzy sets. Inf. Control 8, 338–353 (1965)
3. Bellman, R., Giertz, M.: On the analytic formalism of the theory of fuzzy sets. Inf.
Sci. 5, 149–156 (1973)
4. Dubois, D., Prade, H.: Gradualness, uncertainty and bipolarity: making sense of fuzzy sets.
Fuzzy Sets Syst. 192, 3–24 (2012)
5. Beliakov, G., Bustince, H., Calvo, T.: A Practical Guide to Averaging Functions. Studies in
Fuzziness and Soft Computing. Springer International Publishing, Switzerland (2016)
6. Albers, S.: Optimizable and implementable aggregate response modeling for marketing
decision support. Int. J. Res. Mark. 29, 111–122 (2012)
7. Kacprzyk, J., Merigó, J.M., Yager, R.R.: Aggregation and linguistic data summaries: a new
perspective on inspirations from Zadeh’s fuzzy logic and computing with words. IEEE
Computational Intelligence Magazine (forthcoming) (2018)
8. Zadeh L.A.: Computing with Words—Principal Concepts and Ideas. Studies in Fuzziness and
Soft Computing, p. 277, Springer (2012)
9. Blanco-Mesa, F., Merigó, J.M., Kacprzyk, J.: Bonferroni means with distance measures and
the adequacy coefficient in entrepreneurial group theory. Knowl.-Based Syst. 111, 217–227
(2016)
10. Castro, E.L., Ochoa, E.A, Merigó, J.M., Gil Lafuente, A.M.: Heavy moving averages and
their application in econometric forecasting. Cybern. Syst. 49(1), 26–43 (2018)
11. Castro, E.L., Ochoa, E.A, Merigó, J.M.: Induced heavy moving averages. Int. J. Intell.
Syst. 33(9), 1823–1839 (2018)
12. Liu, P., Liu, J., Merigó, J.M.: Partitioned Heronian means based on linguistic intuitionistic
fuzzy numbers for dealing with multi-attribute group decision making. Appl. Soft Comput.
62, 395–422 (2018)
13. Merigó, J.M., Palacios Marqu´es, D., Soto-Acosta, P.: Distance measures, weighted averages,
OWA operators and Bonferroni means. Appl. Soft Comput. 50, 356–366 (2017)
Preface xi
14. Merigó, J.M., Gil Lafuente, A.M., Yu, D., Llopis-Albert, C.: Fuzzy decision making in
complex frameworks with generalized aggregation operators. Appl. Soft Comput. 68,
314–321 (2018)
15. Merigó, J.M., Zhou, L., Yu, D., Alrajeh, N., Alnowibet, K.: Probabilistic OWA distances
applied to asset management. Soft Comput. 22(15), 4855–4878 (2018)
16. Zeng, S., Merigó, J.M., Palacios Marqu´es, D., Jin, H., Gu, F.: Intuitionistic fuzzy induce-
dordered weighted averaging distance operator and its application to decision making.
J. Intell. Fuzzy Syst. 32(1), 11–22 (2017)
17. Bentkowska, U.: New types of aggregation functions for interval-valued fuzzy setting and
preservation of pos-B and nec-B-transitivity in decision making problems. Inf. Sci. 424,
385–399 (2018)
18. Dyczkowski, K.: Intelligent Medical Decision Support System Based on Imperfect
Information. The Case of Ovarian Tumor Diagnosis. Studies in Computational Intelligence,
Springer (2018)
19. http://diagres.ur.edu.pl/*fuzzydataminer/
Contents
Part I Foundations
1 Fuzzy Sets and Their Extensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Elements of Fuzzy Sets Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Basic Notions of Fuzzy Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.2 Fuzzy Connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Elements of Interval-Valued Fuzzy Sets Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Basic Notions of Interval-Valued Fuzzy Calculus . . . . . . . 9
1.2.2 Order Relations for Interval-Valued Fuzzy Settings . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Linear Orders for Interval-Valued Fuzzy Settings . . . . . . . 15
1.2.4 Possible and Necessary Properties of Interval-Valued
Fuzzy Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 17
1.2.5 Interval-Valued Fuzzy Connectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... 20
2 Aggregation in Interval-Valued Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Aggregation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1.1 Development of the Concept of Aggregation Function . . . . 26
2.1.2 Classes of Aggregation Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.1.3 Dominance Between Aggregation Functions . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.2 Classes of Aggregation Functions for Interval-Valued Fuzzy
Settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 38
2.2.1 Interval-Valued Aggregation Functions with Respect
to the Classical Order . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 39
2.2.2 Pos-Aggregation Functions and Nec-Aggregation
Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 42
2.2.3 Interval-Valued Aggregation Functions with Respect
to Linear Orders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 45
xiii
xiv Contents
Part II Applications
3 Decision Making Using Interval-Valued Aggregation . . . . . . ...... 71
3.1 Preservation of Interval-Valued Fuzzy Relation Properties
in Aggregation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 72
3.2 Multicriteria Decision Making Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 74
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 81
4 Optimization Problem of k-NN Classifier for Missing Values
Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.1 Construction of the Classifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.1.1 Aggregation Operators for Interval-Valued Settings . . . . . . 85
4.1.2 Missing Values in Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.1.3 k-NN Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.1.4 New Version of Classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.2 Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.1 Conditions of Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.2.2 Discussion and Statistical Analysis of the Results . . . . . . . 97
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5 Optimization Problem of k-NN Classifier in DNA Microarray
Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.1 DNA Microarray Methods from Biological Point of View . . . . . . 108
5.2 DNA Microarray Methods from Information Technology
Point of View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.3 A Method of Constructing a Complex Classifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Contents xv
In this part there are presented concepts related to fuzzy sets theory and its exten-
sions. Moreover, short historical mentions regarding the development of these notions
are provided. There are recalled diverse types of comparability relations between
intervals, including orders and linear orders. Mostly, this part of book concerns
aggregation functions defined both on the real line (or the unit interval [0,1]) and
for interval-valued settings. There are presented diverse representation methods of
interval-valued aggregation operators, their properties, construction methods and
dependencies between diverse classes of these operators. The considered aggrega-
tion operators may fulfil various monotonicity conditions, namely with respect to
the classical partial order, with respect to the linear orders or with respect to the
two other distinguished comparability relations derived from the epistemic inter-
pretation of intervals. Special attention is paid to the recently introduced notions of
pos-aggregation functions and nec-aggregation functions. There is also discussed the
problem of preservation of width of intervals by aggregation operators.
Chapter 1
Fuzzy Sets and Their Extensions
In this chapter basic notions regarding fuzzy calculus, its history and basic properties
are recalled. Moreover, extensions of fuzzy sets are briefly described and the most
important results concerning interval-valued fuzzy calculus are provided. Especially,
the notions of diverse order and comparability relations for interval-valued settings
are discussed.
Lotfi A. Zadeh is credited with inventing the specific idea of a fuzzy set, i.e. an exten-
sion of the classical notion of set in his seminal paper on fuzzy sets [2]. He gave a
formal mathematical representation of the concept which was widely accepted by
scholars. In fact, the German researcher Dieter Klaua independently published a
German-language paper presenting examples of fuzzy sets in the same year, but he
used a different terminology (he referred to many-valued sets, mehrwertiger men-
genlehre in German, [3]). The ideas of a fuzzy set, as a generalized characteristic
function, appeared much earlier. Jan Łukasiewicz is a pioneer with the concept of
multivalued logic. In 1920 he introduced the concept of a trivalent logic [4]. Edward
Szpilrajn considered a generalized characteristic function with the values in the Can-
tor Set [5]. Examples of fuzzy relations were provided by Karl Menger in 1951
(ensembles flous in French, [6]). Helena Rasiowa in 1964 considered generalized
characteristic functions (functions f : X → L, where L is any logical algebra, cf.
[7]), but did not use them in the sense of fuzzy sets.
Farther important papers on fuzzy sets published after 1965 are the ones on fuzzy
relations by Zadeh [8] and L-fuzzy sets by Goguen [9]. Now there exist a long list of
papers on fuzzy sets theory and there exist a long list of applications such as digital
cameras, fraud detection systems, fuzzy logic blood pressure monitors, fuzzy logic
based train operation systems and many others. Fuzzy sets theory is a very wide
branch of science. In this section we will provide only some basic notions connected
with the theory of fuzzy sets.
Definition 1.4 (cf. [2]) Let B : [0, 1]2 → [0, 1]. A sup–B–composition of relations
R ∈ F R(X, Y ) and W ∈ F R(Y, Z ) is the relation (R ◦ B W ) ∈ F R(X, Z ) such
that for any (x, z) ∈ X × Z it holds
In the next section the notions of fuzzy connectives are recalled. They are exten-
sions of adequate notions of the classical propositional calculus.
Fuzzy connectives are important notions in fuzzy sets theory. A fuzzy negation, a
fuzzy conjunction, a fuzzy disjunction, a fuzzy implication, and a fuzzy equivalence
are the basic connectives.
6 1 Fuzzy Sets and Their Extensions
The next class of fuzzy connectives consists of fuzzy conjunctions and disjunc-
tions. There exist diverse definitions of these notions (cf. [12]). We recall one of the
weakest approach to define fuzzy conjunctions and disjunctions along with some of
their important subclasses.
Definition 1.6 (cf. [11, 13]) An operation C : [0, 1]2 → [0, 1] is called a fuzzy
conjunction (respectively disjunction) if it is increasing and C(1, 1) = 1, C(0, 0)
= C(0, 1) = C(1, 0) = 0 (respectively C(0, 0) = 0, C(1, 1) = C(0, 1) = C(1, 0)
= 1). A fuzzy conjunction is called a triangular seminorm (respectively triangular
semiconorm) if it has a neutral element 1 (respectively 0). A triangular seminorm
(respectively triangular semiconorm) is called a triangular norm (respectively trian-
gular conorm) if it is commutative and associative.
Triangular norms (t-norms for short) and triangular conorms (t-conorms for short)
are precisely discussed in the monograph [11].
Example 1.3 ([11]) Examples of fuzzy conjunctions are the following well-known
t-norms (denoted by T ) given here with their usually used abbreviations:
TM (x, y) = min(x, y), TP (x, y) = x y, TL (x, y) = max(x + y − 1, 0),
⎧
⎪
⎨x, if y = 1
TD (x, y) = y, if x = 1 .
⎪
⎩
0, otherwise
T D TL T P T M , S D SL S P S M . (1.6)
Other examples and classes of fuzzy conjunctions and disjunctions are gathered for
example in [14].
Fuzzy implications are interesting connectives in fuzzy settings which may fulfil
many additional properties (cf. [12, 15]).
Definition 1.7 ([15], pp. 2, 9) A function I : [0, 1]2 → [0, 1] is called a fuzzy impli-
cation, if it is decreasing with respect to the first variable, increasing with respect to
the second variable and fulfils the truth-table of a crisp implication, i.e. I (1, 0) = 0,
I (1, 1) = I (0, 1) = I (0, 0) = 1.
A fuzzy implication I fulfils the identity principle, if