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HOWKINS & BOURNE
SHAW'S TEXTBOOK OF GYNAECOLOGY
HOWKINS & BOURNE
SHAW'S TEXTBOOK
OF GYNAECOLOGY
Edited by
eritus Editars
S, FRCOG (LOND)
edor Professor and Head,
bstetrics and Gynaecology
ge Medica l College, New Delhi
ELSEVIER
ELSEVIER
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Shaw's Textbook of Gynecology, 17e, Sunesh Kumar, VG Padubidri, and Shirish N Daftary
Copyrij,•ill.© 2018 by RELX India Pvt. Ltd. (formerly known as Reed Else,ier India Pvt.. Ltd.)
All rij,•ills reserved.
Pre,ious editions copyrighted 1936, 1938, 1941, 1945, 1948, 1952, 1956, 1962, 1971, 1989, 1994,
1999,2004,2008,2011,2015
ISBN: 978-81-312-5411.0
e-Book ISBN: 978-81-31%412-7
No part. of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any forrn or by any means, electronic
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w·ww.ciSC\·i cr.<.:orn/ pcnnissions.
This book and the indi,idual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein) .
Notice
Practitioners and researchers must alway~ rely on their own experience and knowledge in
evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds or experiments described herein. Be-
cause of rapid advances in the medical sciences, in particular, independent verification of
dial,'tlOSt:S and drug dosaj,>eS should be made. To the fiJIIest extent. of the law, no responsibility is
assumed by Else,ier, authors, editors or contributors for any injury and/or damaj,>e to persons or
property as a mauer of products liability, negligence or othenvise, or from any use or operation of
any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
Sevemeenth Edition of this popular book "Shaw's Textbook of helping me reviewing the text, video recording and collect-
O)"wecology" is in your hands. Writing prefuce tO this new ing photographs. P•·ofessor San deep Mathur of Pat110logy at
edition brings me t11e nosta lgic memo•) ' of my studem days AIIMS, New Delhi pr-ovided excellent coloured photomicro-
when all t11e studenlS read t11is book and when each word graphs.
wriuen in the book was like a statemem from experLS. Last l do not have enough words to express my t11anks to my
sixty years since first edition of t11e book has seen lot secreta•)', Ms. Sapna Gulati for doing w•·iting, editing and
of adva nceme nt in t11c speciali ty of gynaecology. fVF and correction work in t11e textbook in a p rofessio nal manne1·.
Endoscopic sw·ge•y arc two ve•) ' im porta nt advances which Special thanks are due to Ms. Shi va ni Pal and Ms. Sheenam
has made speciali ty of gynaecology challe nging with a Agarwal of Elsevier Ind ia for their pa ti e nce and persistence.
bright fullt re. Reali zing ex tre me hardshi p faced by students befo re
I have made best effo rLS to update most of th e topics. final examinatio ns a new secti on of Audi o-vis ual presenta-
Such a n e ndeavo ur was possible o nly wit11 ac tive support tion o n important topics has bee n added.
of Ill)' colleagues, reside nts and other staff. My special Do se nd )'Our comm ents fo r im provingfuu.tre p ublications.
t11anks are due to Dr. Ans hu Yadav, Dr. Aa nhi S Jayraj,
Dr. Ro hitha C and OLhe r Reside nts in my department for Smush Kwrwr
VI
Preface to the 16th Edition
\>\'e, the editors of Huwkins and Bounu Shaw's Textbook of A website of the book has been created for more infor-
OynaecolQ(Jj) are pleased to acknowledge that this book has mation on tlle su~ect in the form of video clips, online
continued tO provide basic foundation of this speciality testing and MCQs for enu-ance tests and tile latest updates
since 1936. Keeping in view of the popularity of the book, on tlle subject.
tl1e first Lndian edition ( I 0'" edition) was published in We owe our special thanks to the entire staff of Elsevier
1989. Since then, tl1e book has been updated ft·om time to for tl1eir wholeheaned support and en couragement. We will
tim e in tl1e ligh t of the adva nces made in tl1is speciality. fail in o ur duty if we did not make a special reference lO
T he 15th editio n was revised in 20 10. O ur comm itm en t to Shabina Nasim with whom we interact o n a daily basis and
tl1 e swd enLS to improve a nd upda te the quali ty of th e also Re nu Rawa L. We appreciate their p rofessional atti tude
boo k, and provide th e m wi tl1 th e adva nced kn owledge and the ir knowledge towards th e prqjec t, tl1e ir effi cie ncy
p ro mp ted us to b ri ng o ut the 16'" ed ition. and enorm o us patience to bring o ut the best for th is
Ln tl1 is editio n, not o nly we have added the latest knowl- p roject.
edge o n tl1e subject, but also inse n ed mo re illustra tio ns, Ou r veqr special tlHt nks and gra tiu.tde go lO Mr YR
flowc harts and tab les to make the read ing easie r and under- Chadh a, Pub lis hi ng Cons ult.'llll, Bl Ch urchill Livingsto ne,
standable. We have added mo re MRI, CT, and man y other New Delhi, who in itiated and gu ided us in tile Firs t Indian
illusu<~tions wherever req uired. Edition in 1989, witho ut whose pers uasion and enco umge-
Considering the high associated morbid ity and mortali ty ment tl1is book wo uld not have seen tile day. There
of gynaecological malignancies, we have approached the are many others who have worked behind tile scene, we
topic of genital tract cancers more exhaustively in tl1is edi- acknowledge our thanks to them.
tion. Emphasis has also been laid on the gynaecological prob- Last. but not ti1e least, we thank our readers and tl1e
lems amongst adolescents and menopausal women. Minimal student communiL) for their unstinted suppon over
invasive surgel} for the benign conditions is now being re- the last 25 ) ears.
placed b) non-surgical tl1emp) such as M RI~uided ablative
tllerapy without the need for hospitaliation. Hopefully ti1ese VG Padubidri
procedures willwrn safe and effective in near future. Shirish N Dajlary
VII
Preface to the 1Oth Edition
Ever since SltaiU~ Ttxtbook of C,•IWI'COiog)• a ppeared in Lhe been incorporated. In additi on , the latest metl1ods of birtlt
United Kingdom in 1936, it has maintained iLS popularity control and a separate chapter on Medical Tennination of
with teachers, exa miners and th e student community. Pregnancy have been added to equip our studenLS wilh Lhe
ll has gone through several editions. The nimh edit.ion, knowledge re qui•·ed to pr·o mote India's fa mil y welfare pro-
edited by Dr J ohn Howkins and Dr Gordon Bourne, was gramme.
brought out in 197 1, and its populat·ity in India has We have also tded to make tlte text more concise by
remained undiminished. It is th erefo re timely and oppor- deleting informati o n that we fell was unnecessa ry for tl1e
tune tha t this standa rd textbook should be revised by Indian undergradua te stude nt, witl10ut substamiall y chang-
Indian teachers of gynaecology to meet th e requirements ing the original style.
of o ur unde rgraduate stude nts. We consider o urselves We are indebted to Mr YR Chad ha, Publis hing Director
fortunate for having bee n assigned thi s challe nging task b)' of Bl Churchill Li vingsto ne, New Delhi for his constant e n-
th e publishers. couragement and inva luable suggesti ons in tl1 e preparation
In revising tl1 e boo k we have e ndeavoured to upda te the of tl1 is edition. Since re thanks are exte nded to Ch urchill
comenLS to include new metJ1ods of investigations and treat- Livingstone, Edinburgh, fo r Lheir assistance in making this
me nt. In particu lat~ recent advances in tlte physiology of edition possible.
me nsu·uatio n and iLS hormonal co ntrol, carcinoma of the
cervix and related preve nLive meas ures, e ndo meuiosis, and VG P(Ulubidri
tlte management of wbe rculosis o f the genital u·act have Shirish N Daftary•
VIII
Table of Content
11 Abnormal Uterine Bleeding (AUB) 111!1 , 128 28 Tuberculosis of the Female Gen ital Tract, 347
12 Primary and Secondary Amenorrhoea, 141 29 Sexually Transmitted Diseases Including HIV
Infection, 356
13 Fibroid Uterus ~ , 155
IX
x TABLE OF CONTENT
SECTION 6 URINARY AND INTESTINAL TRACT 39 Radiation Therapy, Chemotherapy and Palliative
IN GYNAECOLOGY, 371 Core for Gynaecological Cancers, 494
To access th e vid eo:; and lecture PPT•, .can the •rmbols 0 and E prodded in the chapters.
Approach to a Gynaecological
Patient
History Investigations 6
Physical Examination 3 Key Points 11
Gynaecological Examination 4 Self-Assessment 11
T he term gynaecology (from th e Gree k, gynae meanin g 3. Justice: T his is r en th e ph ysician ma kes
wo man and logos mea ns discou rse) pe11_ains tO th e diseases access LO care, · re, the a ttention provided
of women and is ge nerally llsed for disea es re laLed LO the and t.h e cost to the needs of the paLiem .
fe male gen iLal organs. 4. Avoiding · · dern Lim es, it is imporLant LO
Th e interac ti on of a p ati ent with a p hysician can ofte n be avoid in eatm em which may lead to p os-
an a nxi ety-produ cing event, p articul arly so in Lhe prac ti ce sible - · . For a d eLailed desc riptio n it is
of gynaecology because of t he sensitive naLure of th e p rob- a . oipt.i onsgiven by Ley P, Lipkin Mjt~
le ms tha Lneed LO be disc ussed; he nce, th e o bserva nce of the man R, Lewan M, Todd AD, Fish er S.
hig hes t standards of e thical and profession al be haviow· is
J-Sical examination constitute the ftmda men-
req uired to establish rapport, while no L creaLing a host.li e
h rest th e tentaLive diagn osis, the tests to be
enviro nm enL in which Lhe p aLi em fee ls embarrassed or t in-
and th e treatm em to be recommended (Table 1.1 ).
comfo n able LO allow a meaningful assessmem of h er under-
lyin g medica l p roble m.
The fo llowin g fou r ethi cal principl es must be nt -
graLed into t he ca re and n amre of se rvices offered L
pa Lient. Careful histo ry and p hysical examina Lion for m the basis
of pati ent evaluati on, clini cal diagn os is a nd manage ment.
1. Privacy and respect: Nowadays, co unsel-ling on s an lnvestigaLio n are ma de LO confi rm the di agnosis a nd for
importa nL aspec t of consul tat.i o n. T he th e fo ll ow-up of u·eatm enL
aeco logical ail ment, reason fo r a lt L~ advisable LO ask Lhe pati ent to desc ribe h e r main com-
a nd iLS predi ct.i ve va lHe h ould b ms plainL in her ovm words and take her own Lime narrating the
sion on treatme nt options witif h ir d eritS a nd m er- evo lution of the problem, the aggravating and re lieving fac tors
its will enable a wo ma n tO lOOS 1.h e treatment she and the investigations and treatment she has already 1.mder-
co ns iders besL for he1: The gy 1 co logist sh o11ld, h ow- gone. Good and patie m listening is essenti al to obtain maxi-
ever, guide her in ma king th e right decision. T he clini- mum coop eraLion during th e sub.sequem pelvic examination.
cia n mu.st respect the pa ti em as an individual. Re me m- Hist0ry begin with th e recording of th e basic informa-
be r tha t th e pati e m has th e righL LO make dec ision tio n abo uL t11 e paLient as sh own in the samp le p roforma in
abo ut h er health care. lt is n ot eLhi cally or m orally right Table 1.1.
to en force Lhe ph ysician 's opinion on the patien t. T l-lis
wil! safeguard agains t any ch arge of n egligen ce, if a
medi colegal problem arise a t a later date. T he records PRESENT ILLNESS
should be prop erly main tain ed and th e doc umen rs T h e clini cian must record th e patie m ' co mplainrs in th e
should be preserved. T h e pa tie nt should fee l assured at sequence in whi ch Lhey occ urred , no t.ing Lhe ir dura ti o n,
a ll tim es a bout ' privacy and confidenti ali L)" . Talkin g th eir aggravating a nd relieving fa ctors and th e ir relati o n to
sofLly a nd pa t.i e ntly lisLening are of a great help . m enstruation , micturiti on a nd defecati on. T he investiga-
2. Beneficence: The medical aLLendant must be vi gil ant tions pe rform ed and th e resp o nse to treatm ent given so far
LO ensure that th e thera peutic advi ce re ndered to Lhe sh ould be noLed.
pa ti ent should be in ' good faith '. It sh ould be aimed at
be nefiting her. Al l m edical m easu res a dopte d du ring the
course of medical u·eaune nt should be guided and evalu-
PAST AND PERSONAL HISTORY
ated on the basis of th e principle of the cosL/ benefit Pas Lm edical and surgica l p roblems may have a bearing o n
ra ti o acc ruing out of th e m edical advice given. th e present complaints. For example, a history of di abetes
2 SHAW'S TEXTBOOK OF GYN AECOLOGY
occur as a resu lt of raised inu·aabdomina l pressure and is pubic hair is distributed in an inverted u·iangle, with the
observed with large wmours, ascites and pregnancy. The base cenu·ed over the mons pubis. The extension of the hair
mobility of the abdominal wall with breathing should be line upwards in tl1e midline along t11 e linea nigra up to tl1e
observed carefully. In case of an intraabdominal tLLmOLLr, tunbilictLS is seen in about 25% of women, especially in
the abdominal wall moves over the tumour during breath- women who are hirsute or mild!) androgenic as in PCOD.
ing so that its upper margin is appare ntly altered. ln case of Witl1 the patient in lithotOm) and he r thighs well paned,
pelvic pe •·ito n iLis. t11 e movements of t11 e lower abdomen note t11e variolLS su·ucwres of th e vulva. Look for the
below the umbilicus are ofte n restricted. The presence of presence of an) discharge or blood. Ask the patient to bear
striae is seen in parous women, pregnam women, in obese down and obsen•e for any p•·oU'LLSion due tO pol) p or genital
suqjects and in women harbouring large tumours. descent such as cystocele, rectocele, ute•·ine descent or
procidentia. Separate t11e labia wide apart and examine
PALPATION the fourcheue to see whether it is intact or reveals an old
'•\lith the clinician standing on the •ight side of tl1e patient, healed tear.
it is desirable LO palpate t11e liver, spleen and kidneys ,,;th the
right hand, and LO use t11e sensitive ulnar border of the left SPECULUM EXAMINATION
hand from above downwards to palpate swellings a•·ising Speculum examination should ideall y precede bimanual
from the pelvis. The upper and lateral margins of such swell- vaginal examination especiall y when the Papanicolaou
ings can be felt, but t11 e lower border ca nnot be reached. ( Pap) smear and vaginal smear need to be taken.
Myo mas feel firm and have a smooth surface, unless they A bivalve self-retaining spec ulum such as CtL~co's spec ulum
are mu ltip le, whe n tile)' present a bossed surface. Ovarian is ideal for an office exa mination (Figs 1.1 and 1.2). It allows
neop lasms often feel cysti c, and may be flucwant. T he upper satisfactory inspection of t11e ce rvix, ta king of a Pap smear,
margin oftheseswelli ngs is often we ll fe lt, unless the swelli ng colleCLion of the vaginal discharge from t11e posterior fornix
is too large. The pregnant uterus fee l~ soft and is known to for hanging drop/KOI I smear and colposcopic examination.
harden intermiuen tly during th e Brax to n Hicks contrac- Sims' vagina l spec ulum (Fig. 1.3) wi tl1 an anterior vagi-
tion s; this is characte•istic of pregnanC)'· The fu ll b ladder nal wa ll retractor can be used for the above examination. lt
bulges in tl1e lower abdomen and feel5 tense and tende1: permits an assessment of Lhe vaginal wall for cystocele and
£xu·eme tenderness on palpation below the umbi lict.LS is sug- rectocele. However, an assistant is required to help the clini-
gestive of peritoneal irrit.ation , seen in women witl1 ectOpic cian dttring this examination and t11e woman needs to be
pregnancy, PLD, twisted ovarian cyst, a mptured corpLLS lu- brought to tl1e edge of the table. Stress-incontinence sho uld
tewn haemaLOma or red degeneration in a fibroid often as- be looked for especiall) in t11e presence of vaginal prolapse.
sociated wilh pregnanC). In women witl1 an acute smgical ln tl1is case. tl1e patient is e xamined with a full bladder.
condition. guarding in th e lower abdomen and •igidity on
attempting deep palpation a re noted.
BIMANUAL EXAMINATION
PERCUSSION After separating the labia \\ith t11e tluunb and index fingers
Ute•·ine m)•omas a nd ova•·ian C)SLS are dull tO percussion, of the left hand, two fingers of the •ight hand (index and
but the flanks a•·e resonanL Dullness in t11e flanks and shift- forefinger), after lubrication, are gradually introduced
ing dullness indicate t11e presence of a free fluid in the be)ond the introitus to reach the fornices. If the fingers
peritoneal cavity. Ascites may be associated with tuberculous encounter tl1e anterior lip of the ce•vix first, it denotes the
peritonitis, malignancy or pseuclo-Meig S)'ndrome. cervix is pointing dowmvards and back tOwards tl1e poste-
rior vaginal wall, and that t11e uterus is in tl1e antevened
AUSCULTATION position, conve•'Sely whe n t11e posterior li p of tl1e cervi.x is
This reveals peristalti c bowel sounds, fetal heart sounds in encountered fi1'S4 it is indicative of a retroverted uterus.
pregnancy, souffle in vascular neoplasms and pregnant uterus.
Hyperperistalsis may indicate bowel obsuuction; feeble or
absent peristalsis indicates ileus, calli ng for aggressive atten-
tion. Retw·n of peristalti c so unds follo,,ing pelvic surgery is a
welcome sign of recovery and an ind ication to stan oral feeds.
GYNAECOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
RECTAL EXAMINATION
ln virgins, a 'oaginal examination is avoided. Instead a well-
lubt·icated finger insened into the rectum can be used for a
bimanual assessment of the pelvic structures. No"oada)'S, pt-ac-
tically all gynaecologistS prefer ultrasonic scanning tO recta l
examination, which , apart from being unpleasa nt, is not that
accurate. A rectal examination is a very useful add itional ex-
amination whenever ll1ere is any palpable pathology in the
pouch of Douglas. It often allows the ovaries to be more easily
identified. In parameuitis and endomeu·iosis, t11e uterosacral
ligamentS are often thickened, nodular and tender. It con-
finns t11e swelling to be amerior to the rectum, and if the
rectum is ad herem to that swelling. This is important in case
of carcinoma of t11e ce tYix to detennine the extent of itS pos-
terior spread. A rectal examination is manclatOt')' in women
having rectal symptoms. This should begin by inspecting the
anus in a good light, when lesions such as fissures, fistula-
in-ano, polyps and piles may come to ligl1 L Introduction of
Figure 1.6 Bimanual exam ination in the case of an ovarian cyst. The a well-lubricated proctoscope to inspect the rec wm and
nature of the tumour is determined on bimanual examination because
anal canal helps to complete the examination. Ulu·asound
the uterus can be Identified apart from the abdominal tumour. Com pare
nowada)'S has reduced ll1e importance of rect.al exa mination
Fig . 1.5. In some cases the pedicle can be distinguished If the fingers
In the vagina are p laced high up in the posterior fornix. Movements of
except in cancer of the cervix and pelvic endomeu·iosis.
the abdominal tumour are clearly not transmitted to the cervix.
INVESTIGATIONS
Detailed history and clinical examination often clinch the
diagnosis or reduce ll1e differential diagnosis to a few pos-
sibilities. However, investigations may be necessary to con-
finn ll1e diagnosis, to assess the extent of t11e disease, tO
establish a baseline for future comparison regarding the
response to a therapy and finall y tO de te rmine t11 e patiem's
fi mess tO undergo surgery.
Common disorders: Age re lated (see table 1.3 )
Preoperative investigaLions are described in the chapter women older than 2 1 years should undergo an ann ual
on preoperative and posLOperative care. Special investiga- check-up witl1 three yearly Pap test. Aside from premalig-
tions are discussed as follows. nant and malignant changes, otJ1er local conditions can
Special investigations: oft.en be recognized b) the cytologist. The Pap smear is
only a screening test. Positive test (abnormal cells) requires
• Special tests such as LUmour markers: CA-125 in sus- further investigations such as colposcop)'• cervical biopsy
pected adenocarcinoma of the ovary; carcinoembryonic and fractional curettage. Unfonunately, the Pap test cru1
amigen (Cf.A), oc-fetoproteins and ~hCG in suspected detect on I> about60%-70% of precancer and cance•· of the
ov;uian teratoma and other germ cell tumours of ovary. cen~x and less than 70% of endomeu·ial cance•: Reliability
• Bacterial examinations of th e genital tract. These include of the repon depends on the slide preparation and tl1e skiU
the following: (a) examination of the vaginal dischru-ge of the C) LOiogist. Although a single test yields as much as
for trichomoniasis; (b) 10% KO H-treated smear for de- 10%-15% false-negathe reading, it is reduced to only 1%
tecting candida; (c) I% b•illian t creS)'I violet for staining with repeated tests. A false-positive finding is reponed in
trichomonad, but not the other bacte•ia and leucocytes; the presence of infection. A yearly negative Pap sme;u· for
(d) platinum loop for collection of discha•·ge (in sus- 3 years is assuring, and thereafter 5-yearly test is adequate.
pected gonon·hoea) from the urethra, ducts of Bartholin Th e Pap smear should be obtained before vaginal
and the endocervical secretio n fo r cul tu re on chocolate examination, because the nngers may remove tl1 e desqua-
aga•~ (e) immunofluo rescent examination of the dis- mated cervical cells and give a false-negative repo rt, lubri-
charge of endocervical cells for suspected chl amydia! ca m may prevent de tec ti o n of orga nisms a nd a ny vaginal
infec tion; and (f) mi croscopic exa minati on of the clue bleedin g during exa min atio n may preclude a prope r visu-
cells for diagnosis of bacte rial vaginosis (Chapter 9) . a li zati o n of th e ce rvix. T he patient s ho uld no t have inte r-
co urse or to uch fo r 24 ho urs befo re the Pap test. T he bes t
Feinberg-Whi tti ngton mediu m is used for u·icho mo nad time to do Pap smear is a ro und ov ulatio n, b ut any other
and Nickerson-Sabouraud for candiasis. T he presence of time can a lso do. T he patient is placed in th e do rsal posi-
cl ue cells ind icates bacte•ial vaginosis. tion, with the lab ia parted, and Cusco's self- retaining
Pol>•merase chain reacLion (PC R) staining has been spec ulu m is gemly introd uced witho ut the use of lubrican t
extensively utilized in the diagnosi.~ of various infections. or jelly. The cervix is exposed; the sq uamoco lu mnar ju nc-
tion is now scraped with Ayre's spatula by rotating tl1e
SPECIAL TESTS spatula all around (Fig. 1.8 0). The scrapings are evenly
spread onto a glass slide and immediately fixed by dipping
HANGING DROP PREPARATION the slide in the jar containing equal parts of 95% ethyl
ln women complaining leucon·hoea, the discharge collected alcohol and ether. After fixing it for 30 minutes, the slide
from the postel'ior fornix on the blade of the speculum is air-d•;ed and stained with Pap or shon stain. The slide is
should be suspended in saline and submitted to microscopic considered satisfact011, if endocen'ical cells are seen. To
ex;unination. ormal 'oaginal discharge shows the presence improve the predictive valve, endocen'ix is also scraped
of exfoliated 'oaginal epithelial cells and the presence of with a brush and added to the slide. owadays, a fixative
large rod-like lacLObacilli known as Doderlein's bacilli. A spray (cytospray) is a\oailable and can be used conveniently
fresh suspension of the discharge may reveal the motile flag- in an office set-up. For honnonal cytological evaluation,
ellated o•-ganisms known as TridwmQIWS vagina.l.is. Another the scrapings are taken from the upper lateral pan of the
common cause of \'llginal infection is fungal infection or vaginal walls; tlwee types of cells are found in the normal
vll{,riual cmulidir~:>i:>, this can also be detected f•·om a micro- smear: (i) the basal and pa•-abasal cells are small, •·otmded
scopic examination of the vaginal discharge. To the suspen- and basophilic wi th la •-ge nuclei; (ii) the cells from th e
sion of the vaginal discharge, add an eq ua l amount of 10% mi ddle layer are squamous cells, tra nsparent a nd baso-
KOH soluti on. Place a drop of the mi xtu re o n a slide, cover philic witl1 vesicular nuclei; a nd (iii) th e cells from th e
it with a cover sli p, wa nn the slide and exa mine it under the s uperficial la>•e •· are acidop hilic with charac teris ti c p yk-
low power of the microscope. T he KO H dissolves all cellular noti c nuc lei. ln add ition, endome tri al cells, histiocytes,
debris, leaving be hi nd the mo re resista nt yeast-like organ- blood cells a nd bacteri a ca n be seen . Malignant cells a re
isms. Typical h)•p hae o r m>•celia and b udding spores can hyperc hro ma ti c with a great increase in c hro matin co n-
be easil)' detec ted. Many C<'lses of vagi nitis are attrib uted to te nt. Th e n uclei va11' in size a nd th e re is usua lly o nly a
bacterial Vll{,rim},)i~ (nonspecific vaginiLis); also known as s ma ll amo unt of C)'top lasm in the un d iffe re miatecl malig-
Garrlnendla voginalil. The vis ua liz.1tion of 'clue cells' seen n am cell (Figs 1.9 and 1.1 0). T he nucle us/cytoplasmic
preferably in a stained smear of the vaginal d isc harge is ratio is increased in malignant cells.
high ly suggestive of the infection. Vaginal infections have Papru1icolaou classincation:
been discussed later in detail in Chapter 9.
Grade l Nonnal cells (Fig. 1.9)
Grade ll Slightl) abnonnal, suggestive of inflamma-
PAPANICOLAOU TEST
tOI") change; repeat smear after treating
Screening for Cancer tl1e infection
First described b) Papanicolaou and Traut in 1943, this Grade Ill A more se•ious t} pe of abnonnality, usu-
screening test is often •·efen·ed to as the 'Pap test' or a sur- all> indicative of the need for biopsy
fuce biopsy or exfoliative C) tology (C) to logy is a Greek Grade IV Distinctly abnonnal, possibly malignruu
word, meaning swdy of cells). It forms a pan of the routine and dennitely requi•·ing biopsy
gynaecological examination in women. All sexually active Grade V Malignant cells seen (Fig. 1.1 0)
8 SHAW'S TEXTBOOK OF GYN AECOLOGY
R gure 1.8 (A) Papanicolaou sampling devices. Left to right: Cervix -Brush, Cytobrush, wooden spatula, plastic spatula, tongue blade and
cotton swab applicator. (B) Pap smear with a brush. (Source for (A): From Agure 16, Pre-prooedure. Prooedure ConsUlt. Pap Smear. Editors: Michael
L Tuggy and Jorge Garcia; Source tor (B): From Figure 1, Pre-prooedure. Procedure Consult. Papanicolaou Testing. Editors: Todd W Thomsen and
,,
Gary S Setnik.)
0 Scan to play How to take pap smear
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. :·.. '
' 1.;
.
•. ·"o"
·l
1.
~ ' .
fl .'
B
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.. - .. (,· .. ~
Rgure 1.9 Normal cervical smear showing superficial (pink) and intermediate (blue/green) exfoliated cervical cells (low power magnification).
(Source: From Agure 20·5, ian Symonds a"~d Sab.,.-atnam Arul<umaran: Essential Obstetrics and Gynaecology, 5th Ed. Elsevier, 2013.)
A newer classification (Tahlc I . I) describes the cytology oestrogen defici e ncy, a 10-day co urse of oestrogen cream
smears as follows: exposes th e squamocolumnar j un ction better a nd yields
a n acc urate resu lt. Pos trad iatio n cytology is d ifficu lt to
1. Normal cyto logy samp le because of sca rring and atrop hy of th e vagina.
2. lnflam ma tOr)' smea r T he cells are often e n larged, vacuo lated with mu ltip le
3. Cervical inu·aepitJle lial neoplasia (CLN l) or mi ld dysplasia nucleation and nuc lea r wrinkling. InflammatOry cells
4. Cl N ll, Ill and carcinoma in situ nuclear abno rma lities ma)' be present (Tab le 1.5 ).
5. MalignanL cells and tadpole ce ll~ wiLit nuclear abnor- Liquid-ba~ed C)>
tology us ing a thin preparation is s upe-
ma lities rior to Pap smear (Fig. I. II ). T he liq uid is used to screen
lt is reasonable LO e nquire abo ut the percentage of for papilloma virus. Cervical ca ncer screening is described
Lmsuspected cancers, including carc inoma in situ, that in Fig. 1.12. This is described in detail in Chapter 33.
are likely to be diagnosed on routine cytology. The In- Outer metJ1ocls of cervical screening are also described in
dian Council of Medical Researc h (LCMR). ew Delhi, Chapter 33.
screened the population of women o lder L11an 30 years
and found 5-15 smears to be abnormal per 1000 women VISUAL INSPECTION AFTER ACETIC ACID APPLICATION
examined. The incidence of d)Splasia reponed at Llle All (VIA)
india l nsliune of Medical Sciences, ew Delhi, was Gross inspection of cen·ix after application of 3% or 5%
16/ 1000 patients screened. In a posunenopausal woman, acetic acid for I minute helps in detecting acetowhite area
if the squamocolumnar junction is indrawn due to which may harbour Cl / neoplasia.
CHAPTER 1 - APPROACH TO A GYNAECOLOGICAL PATIENT 9
II
Ill M ild LS IL
IV Moderate II HSIL
CYTOHORMONAL EVALUATION
The ovarian hormones oesu·ogen and progesterone influence
ilie vagin al mucosa; thus, the epitltelial cells exfoliaLed in the
vagina reflect the influence of the pt"C\'<liling dominam hor- Figure 1.13 Hi stology of proliferative phase. (Courtesy: Dr Sandeep
mone in the system at that Li me. The oestrogen-dominated Mathur, AIIMS.)
smear appear-s clea n and shows tl1e p r-esence of discreLe corni-
fied polygona l sq ua mes. The progesLerone-dom inaLed smear
appears cUny and reveals tlt e predom inance of in termed iate be sa ti sfactory for obta ining adeq uaLe sa mp les. lL can be
cells. During p regnancy, t11e cytology smea r shows interme- uti lized as an office p roced ure; abo ut 90% acc uracy with no
diate cells and navic ul ar cells. After Lhe menopause due to false-positi ve findings is cla imed with this proced ure .
tlte deficiency of u1e ova ri an ho rmo nes, tlte vaginal mucosa
tltins down and Ule exfo liated cells are predominantly para-
COLPOSCOPY
basal and basal t)•pes. In human papilloma virus (HPV)
infection, one can recognize ko ilocyLes with perinuclear T he colposcope is a b inocular microscope giving a 10-
halo and peripheral conde nsatio n of cytoplasm. The 20 times magnificatio n. It is useful in loca ting abnorma l
nucleus is irregular and hype rchroma tic (Fig. 1.10). areas and accurately obtaining directed biopsy from tlte
suspicious areas on the cervix and vagina in women witlt
Karyopyknotic Index or KPI (Maturation Index) positive Pap smears. This wa> the frequency of false-negative
11. is u1e ratio of mature squamous cells over tl1e imennedi- biopsy is reduced. so also the need for con iLaLio n, a proce-
aLe and basal cells. It is more tl1an 25% in proliferative dure Lhat is accompanied witJ1 considerable amoum of
(oes u·ogenic) phase (Fig. 1.1 3) and low in secrewry bleeding and morbid it) (Chapter 18).
(progestational) phase (Fig. 1. 11) a nd during pregnancy.
During pregnanC)', a ratio of more tl1an 10% indicaLes
progesterone deficiency. onnally, a peak value of KPI
ENDOMETRIAL BIOPSY (Fig. 1.14A and B)
is reached on Ute day of ovulation (2 days after serum An office or outpatient procedure was aLone Lime very popu-
E..! peak). lat· in ilie investigations of the female panner for infea·LiliLy. 11.
is performed in Ute premenstrual phase. A fine cureue is in-
troduced into Ul e uterine cavity to obtain a small su·ip ofthe
UTERINE ASPIRATION CYTOLOGY
endometrial lining for histopat11ological examination, sene-
Perimenopausal a nd posu11enopa usal women on a h or- tory endomeuium denotes ovulaLOry cycle. Witlt t11e avail-
mone therapy are now being screened for endometYial abili ty of uluasoamd, a noninvasive method for tlte detection
cancer. T he uterine aspiration syainge o r brush is fo und to of ovul ati on, U1is procedure is now generall y not employed.
A
Figure 1.14 (A) Histology of secretory phase. (B) Midsecretory endometrium. (Source for (A): Copyright 2009 by the Unillllrsity of Aorida)
CHAPTER I - APPROACH TO A GYNAECOLOGICAL PATIENT 11
OTHER IMAGING MODALITIES I. List t11e simple steps in history taking of a gynaecological
patient.
Radiological investigation such as h)SterosalpingQgJ-aphy is 2. Describe the imponance of Pap smears in clinical practice.
utilited for stud)ing the patency of the fallopian tubes in an 3. WhaL is t11e role of imaging and endoscopy in the clinical
infertile patient. CT scan and MRI are advanced investiga· practice of gynaecolom•?
tions that detenn ine the extent of tumours and their
spre<1d. For details, refer to Chapter 40. Sonosalpingog•-a·
ph y is employed in women with infe rti lity and wh en uterine SUGGESTED READING
poi)'P is suspected. Ley P. Commun ications with Patient$. London, Croom I !elm, 1988.
Lipkin M .J r. The me dical interview and related skills. In BrdnCh "WT
(ed). Office Practice ofMedidne. Philadelphia. WB Saunders, 1987;
GYNAECOLOGICAL ENDOSCOPY 1287-306.
SirnpM>n M , Buck1nan R. Ste,.lart ~·f, ct al. Doctor paticnl communica-
Botlt diagnostic laparoscopy and hysteroscopy are estab Ushed tion. ThcTor<>nto consensus statcrnem. B:.tj 1991; 30!l: 1386-7.
use ful tools in the armamentarium of t11e gynaecologist. For Todd AD, Fi>hcr S. The Social Orgdnir.ation of Doctor-P:otienL Com-
details, refer to Chapter 41 (Endoscop) in Gynaecology). munication, 2nd ed. ~onvood, ~- Ablex Publi>hing, 199!l; 243-65.
ANATOMY, PHYSIOLOGY
AND DEVELOPMENT OF FEMALE
REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS
12
Anatomy of Female
Genital Tract
Uterus
Ovary
Rgure 2.1 General view of internal genital organs showing t he
normal uterus and ovaries.
Prepuce
Frenum Clitoris
Vestibule _ ,._,1---,f+.- Labium majus
Labium minus -~i----+1 l.!l--1+-+1'- External urethral
orific.e
Vaginal introitus -..,.-+--1--SI
Opening of
Bartholin's duct
Hymen
1-+- -- - Perineum
in width. Clitoris o f more than 3.5 on in le ngth and I em The ve~tibule is the space I) ing be twee n the anterio r and
in width is called clitoro megaly, and occurs in virilism due to the inner aspects of the labia minora a nd is bounded poste-
excess o f androge n ho nno ne. The clitoris is well supplied rioliy by the vaginal in troitus. The I'Xf t'rrUllurintt ')' 11U!lt iLIS iies
with nerve endings and is e xu·emely sensitive . Dlll·ing coiLUs, immediatel) posterio r to the clito •is. The vaginal orifice lies
it becomes e rect a nd pla)S a conside rable pan in inducing poste,;or to th e meatus and is surrounded by the hp nen.
orgasm in the female. The clito•·is is highl)' vascular. An in- In virgins, the h)lne n is re p•-esellled b)• a thin membra ne
jury to the clitoris causes profuse bleeding and can be very cove red o n each surface by sq uamous e pithelium. It gener-
painful. a lly has a small eccenu·ic opening, which is usua lly not wide
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elle eut retiré ses mains et que j’eus rouvert les yeux, il me sembla
qu’il y avait au ciel deux ou trois lunes, et qu’elles versaient sur tous
les arbres du parc une pluie d’argent qui tombait de branche en
branche et de feuille en feuille en grésillant.
Cependant elle avait ramassé son sac de maroquin et s’était
enfuie d’un pied léger. Je m’élançai à sa poursuite. Au bout de dix
pas, je m’arrêtai, posant la main sur mon cœur, qui battait à tout
rompre. — Tony, me dis-je, ne faisons pas follement une chose
raisonnable.
J’étais mal remis de mon émotion quand je vis se dessiner près
de moi, sur le sable de l’allée, l’ombre d’un cheval et d’un cavalier.
Une voix me cria : — C’est vous, Tony ? Je suis bien aise de vous
rencontrer ; j’avais un mot à vous dire. Ce matin, on s’est permis
d’outrager indignement une personne que j’estime et à qui je dois
protection, car elle fait partie de ma maison. On a formé le projet,
paraît-il, de la chasser d’ici à force de mauvais procédés et de
dégoûts. Soyez assez bon pour insinuer à l’inventeur de ce petit
complot qu’il joue gros jeu, et qu’il risque de me pousser à des
résolutions extrêmes, dont je serais peut-être le premier à me
repentir.
Puis, sans attendre ma réplique, il piqua des deux, et l’épaisseur
d’une charmille le déroba bientôt à ma vue.
Dans le courant de la même soirée, Mlle Holdenis se présentait
chez Mme de Mauserre. Trouvant le verrou tiré, elle frappa
timidement et murmura : — Ouvrez, madame, je vous en supplie ; je
viens vous annoncer une bonne nouvelle.
La porte s’entre-bâilla. — Une bonne nouvelle ! répondit Mme de
Mauserre, qui ne put se résoudre à prendre la main que lui tendait
Meta. Et c’est vous qui l’apportez ?
— Que vous êtes pâle, madame ! et que votre visage fait peine à
voir ! Tout à l’heure, quand vous m’aurez entendue, les roses vont
refleurir sur vos joues, et vous sourirez comme autrefois. Sachez
donc… Madame, je suis si troublée que je ne sais par où
commencer.
Elle finit pourtant par trouver son commencement, et de fil en
aiguille elle raconta l’entretien qu’elle avait eu avec moi et nos
communes conclusions. Mme de Mauserre eut un saisissement de
joie, elle la pressa sur son cœur comme si elle eût voulu l’étouffer. —
Que je vous aime, ma chère ! s’écriait-elle ; vous le méritez bien,
d’abord parce que vous êtes un cœur honnête et franc comme l’or,
mais surtout parce que vous aimez Tony, car vous l’aimez, n’est-ce
pas ? et vous l’épouserez. Pourquoi m’en avoir fait un mystère ?
— Excusez-moi, madame ; j’avais peine à démêler mes propres
sentiments. J’étais hésitante, combattue, incertaine d’être aimée. La
première fois qu’il m’a dit : Voulez-vous être ma femme ? il avait le
ton demi-badin, et il me parut qu’il se moquait de moi. Un jour, il m’a
parlé si durement que j’ai cru qu’il me méprisait. Je doutais de lui,
aujourd’hui je ne doute presque plus. Adieu, madame ; j’ai voulu
vous procurer une bonne nuit, et j’y ai réussi, je pense.
Elle se retirait ; Mme de Mauserre la rappela. — Et cette lettre qui
doit tout sauver, tout réparer, l’avez-vous écrite ?
— La pauvre tête que je suis ! répondit-elle. Je viens de passer
une heure devant ma table, cherchant vainement à rassembler mes
idées, qui dansaient autour de moi comme des écoliers en révolte.
Au surplus, la main me tremblait si fort que ma pauvre lettre n’aurait
pas été lisible. Il vaut mieux que je m’endorme sur mon émotion :
j’écrirai demain.
— Demain ?
— Soyez sans crainte, il aura ma lettre avant midi.
— Non, ma chère. Il faut écrire dès ce soir ; demain n’est pas à
nous. Je vous aiderai, on se tire quelquefois d’affaire avec un peu de
secours, et, si la main vous tremble, je vous servirai de secrétaire ;
vous n’aurez que la peine de recopier.
Aussitôt, malgré les protestations et les résistances de Meta, elle
apporta sur la table un encrier, une plume, un buvard d’où elle tira un
cahier de papier rose. — Voyez comme ce papier est joli ! disait-elle ;
il va nous inspirer, car il faut que notre épître soit très-amoureuse,
n’est-il pas vrai ?
— Il m’a recommandé de la faire aussi tendre que possible,
répondit Meta en souriant, et c’est là ce qui m’embarrasse ; je suis si
novice dans ce genre de littérature !
— Quand je vous dis que je vous aiderai ! Je tiens la plume ;
comment débuterons-nous ? Je vais écrire : Tony, je vous adore.
— Ah ! madame, je vous prie, ménagez ma fierté, fit-elle en lui
retenant la main. Et puis vous l’appelez Tony, vous en avez le droit ;
c’est une liberté que je n’ai jamais prise avec lui…
— Et qu’il faut prendre aujourd’hui, répliqua Mme de Mauserre.
N’oubliez pas que la lettre que nous allons composer est ce qu’on
appelle en diplomatie une lettre ostensible.
Après bien des tergiversations et des discussions, cette
malheureuse minute se trouva rédigée tant bien que mal ; elle était
ainsi conçue :
« Ce que la surprise et la joie m’ont empêchée de vous dire, je
vous l’écris, Tony ; mais pourquoi faut-il que j’écrive ? Je croyais
vous avoir tout dit sans parler. Ai-je rêvé qu’un soir nous étions
ensemble, que le hennissement d’un cheval nous a fait tressaillir,
que je me suis dégagée de votre bras enlacé autour de ma taille, et
qu’avant de m’enfuir… Ce baiser, Tony, n’était-il pas une réponse ? Il
vous en faut une autre ; il est donc vrai que vous vous défiez de moi !
Soyez satisfait, cette lettre vous apprendra, si vous l’ignorez, que je
vous aime, que depuis longtemps mon cœur vous appartient tout
entier. Tony, je vous abandonne le soin de ma destinée, je suis prête
à vous suivre au bout du monde. Ne me trompez pas, le jour où
vous le voudrez, je serai votre femme. »
Après avoir tracé le dernier mot de ce brouillon, qu’elle relut à
haute voix : — C’est parfait, s’écria Mme de Mauserre ; il ne manque
plus que la date. Vite à l’ouvrage, ma belle ! voici du papier. La main
vous tremble-t-elle encore ?
— Non, madame, répondit Meta, qui trempa résolûment sa plume
dans l’écritoire.
— Permettez, reprit Mme de Mauserre, j’oubliais que ce papier est
marqué à mon chiffre ; si on s’en apercevait, on pourrait croire que je
suis pour quelque chose dans cette affaire, et que je vous ai soufflé
votre leçon… Vous écrirez chez vous tout à l’heure. Êtes-vous sûre
de votre mémoire, ou voulez-vous emporter ce petit chiffon rose ?
— C’est inutile, madame, lui repartit gaîment Meta. Je sais ma
romance sur le bout du doigt ; désirez-vous que je vous la récite ?
Et à ces mots, roulant le chiffon rose en papillote, elle se
disposait à le brûler à la bougie. Mme de Mauserre le lui arracha et le
serra dans son buvard. — Je crains toujours que vous ne vous
ravisiez. Ce brouillon est un témoin, et j’entends le conserver jusqu’à
demain pour vous confondre, si votre copie n’était pas exacte ; au
besoin, je le montrerais à Tony. Vous voilà tenue de le transcrire bien
fidèlement ; vous me le jurez par toutes les larmes que vous m’avez
coûtées !
Là-dessus, elle lui prit et lui secoua les deux mains, et la mit à la
porte en s’écriant : — Ou je suis bien abusée, ou avant peu mon
malade sera guéri, et je serai la plus consolée des femmes.
XI