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CONTENTS
Preface xiii
Acknowledgments xvi
Chapter 1 The Science of Chemistry 1

1.1 Chemistry—A Scientific Discipline 1
1.2 Scientific Research and Technology 3
1.3 The Scope of Chemistry 4
1.4 How Chemists Discover Things—The Scientific Method 4
Experiments, Observations, and Data 5
Scientific Facts 6
Scientific Laws 7
Scientific Hypotheses 7
Scientific Theories 8
1.5 The Limitations of the Scientific Method 10
1.6 Application Limitations for methods of Science 11
Concepts to Remember 11 • Key Terms Listing 12
Practice Problems By Topic 12 • Multiple-Choice Practice Test 15
Chapter 2 Numbers From Measurements 17

2.1 The Importance of Measurement 17
2.2 Exact and Inexact Numbers 18
2.3 Accuracy, Precision, and Error 18
2.4 Uncertainty in Measurements 20
2.5 Significant Figures 22
2.6 Significant Figures and Mathematical Operations 27
Rounding Off Numbers 27
Operational Rules for Mathematical Operations 29
Significant Figures and Exact Numbers 33
Multiplication by a Small Whole Number 33
2.7 Expressing Numbers in Scientific Notation 35
Exponents 36
Converting from Decimal to Scientific Notation 37
Significant Figures and Scientific Notation 38
Converting from Scientific to Decimal Notation 39
Uncertainty and Scientific Notation 40
2.8 Mathematical Operations in Scientific Notation 42
Multiplication in Scientific Notation 42
Division in Scientific Notation 44
Addition and Subtraction in Scientific Notation 45
Practice Problems By Topic 49 • Multi-Concept Problems 57
Multiple Choice Practice Test 58
Chapter 3 Unit Systems and Dimensional Analysis 60

3.1 The Metric System of Units 60
SI Units 61
Metric System Prefixes 62
3.2 Metric Units of Length 63
3.3 Metric Units of Mass 64
3.4 Metric Units of Volume 65
3.5 Units in Mathematical Operations 68
v
vi Contents
3.6 Conversion Factors 68

English-to-English Conversion Factors 69
Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factors 69
Metric-to-English and English-to-Metric Conversion Factors 70
3.7 Dimensional Analysis 72
Metric-to-Metric Conversion Factor Use 72
English-to-English Conversion Factor Use 77
English-to-Metric and Metric-to-English Conversion Factor Use 78
Units Involving More Than One Type of Measurement 82
3.8 Density 83
Using Density as a Conversion Factor 86
3.9 Equivalence Conversion Factors Other than Density 88
Concentration and Dosage Relationship Conversion Factors 88
Rate Relationship Conversion Factors 89
Cost Relationship Conversion Factors 90
3.10 Percentage and Percent Error 91
Using Percentage as a Conversion Factor 92
Percent Error 95
3.11 Temperature Scales 96
Temperature Readings and Significant Figures 101
Chapter 4 Basic Concepts About Matter 111

4.1 Chemistry—The Study of Matter 111
4.2 Physical States of Matter 112
4.3 Properties of Matter 113
Physical and Chemical Properties 114
Intensive and Extensive Properties 115
4.4 Changes in Matter 116
Use of the Terms Physical and Chemical 118
4.5 Pure Substances and Mixtures 119
4.6 Heterogeneous and Homogeneous Mixtures 120
Use of the Terms Homogeneous and Heterogeneous 121
4.7 Elements and Compounds 123
4.8 Discovery and Abundance of the Elements 126
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 1: Joseph Priestley (1733–1804) 127
4.9 Names and Chemical Symbols of the Elements 127
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 2: Jöns Jakob Berzelius (1779–1848) 128
Chapter 5 Atoms, Molecules, and Subatomic Particles 140

5.1 The Atom 140
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 3: John Dalton (1766–1844) 141
5.2 The Molecule 143
5.3 Natural and Synthetic Compounds 146
5.4 Chemical Formulas 147
5.5 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons 149
Arrangement of Subatomic Particles Within an Atom 150
Charge Neutrality of an Atom 151
Size Relationships within an Atom 151
Additional Subatomic Particles 152
Contents vii
5.6 Atomic Number and Mass Number 152

Atomic Number 153
Mass Number 153
Subatomic Particle Makeup of an Atom 154
5.7 Isotopes 155
5.8 Atomic Masses 159
Relative Mass 159
Average Atom 161
Weighted Averages 162
Mass Spectrometry Experiments 165
5.9 Evidence Supporting the Existence and Arrangement of Subatomic Particles 166
Discharge Tube Experiments 166
Metal Foil Experiments 168
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 4: Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) 169
Chapter 6 Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity 182

6.1 The Periodic Law 182
6.2 The Periodic Table 183
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 5: Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (1834–1907) 185
Periods and Groups of Elements 185
The Shape of the Periodic Table 187
6.3 The Energy of an Electron 188
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 6: Erwin Schrödinger (1887–1961) 190
6.4 Electron Shells 190
6.5 Electron Subshells 191
6.6 Electron Orbitals 193
Electron Spin 195
6.7 Electron Configurations 195
Aufbau Principle 195
Aufbau Diagram 196
Writing Electron Configurations 197
Condensed Electron Configurations 199
6.8 Electron Orbital Diagrams 201
6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Law 204
6.10 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table 205
6.11 Classification Systems for the Elements 211
6.12 Chemical Periodicity 213
Metallic and Nonmetallic Character 214
Atomic Size 215
Chapter 7 Chemical Bonds 228

7.1 Types of Chemical Bonds 228
7.2 Valence Electrons and Lewis Symbols 229
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 7: Gilbert Newton Lewis (1875–1946) 232
7.3 The Octet Rule 233
7.4 The Ionic Bond Model 233
7.5 The Sign and Magnitude of Ionic Charge 236
Isoelectronic Species 238
7.6 Lewis Structures for Ionic Compounds 239
viii Contents
7.7 Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds 241

7.8 Structure of Ionic Compounds 243
7.9 Polyatomic Ions 244
7.10 The Covalent Bond Model 246
7.11 Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds 247
7.12 Single, Double, and Triple Covalent Bonds 250
7.13 Valence Electron Count and Number of Covalent Bonds Formed 251
7.14 Coordinate Covalent Bonds 252
7.15 Resonance Structures 254
7.16 Systematic Procedures for Drawing Lewis Structures 255
7.17 Molecular Geometry 261
Electron Pairs versus Electron Groups 263
Molecules with Two VSEPR Electron Groups 263
Molecules with Three VSEPR Electron Groups 264
Molecules with Four VSEPR Electron Groups 265
7.18 Electronegativity 268
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 8: Linus Carl Pauling (1901–1994) 268
7.19 Bond Polarity 270
7.20 Molecular Polarity 273
Chapter 8 Chemical Nomenclature 291

8.1 Classification of Compounds for Nomenclature Purposes 291
8.2 Types of Binary Ionic Compounds 292
8.3 Nomenclature for Binary Ionic Compounds 294
Fixed-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds 295
Variable-Charge Binary Ionic Compounds 297
8.4 Chemical Formulas for Polyatomic Ions 301
8.5 Nomenclature for Ionic Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions 303
8.6 Nomenclature for Binary Molecular Compounds 306
Common Names for Binary Molecular Compounds 308
8.7 Nomenclature for Acids 309
8.8 Systematic Procedures for Using Nomenclature Rules 314
Chapter 9 Chemical Calculations: The Mole Concept

and Chemical Formulas 327
9.1 The Law of Definite Proportions 327
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 9: Joseph-Louis Proust (1754–1826) 328
9.2 Calculation of Formula Masses 331
9.3 Significant Figures and Formula Mass 333
9.4 Mass Percent Composition of a Compound 335
9.5 The Mole: The Chemist’s Counting Unit 337
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 10: Lorenzo Romano Amedeo Carlo Avogadro
(1776–1856) 339
9.6 The Mass of a Mole 341
Summary of Mass Terminology 346
9.7 Significant Figures and Avogadro’s Number 347
9.8 Relationship Between Atomic Mass Units and Gram Units 347
9.9 The Mole and Chemical Formulas 348
Contents ix
9.10 The Mole and Chemical Calculations 351

9.11 Purity of Samples 358
9.12 Empirical and Molecular Formulas 361
9.13 Determination of Empirical Formulas 362
Empirical Formulas from Direct Analysis Data 363
Empirical Formulas from Indirect Analysis Data 366
9.14 Determination of Molecular Formulas 370
Chapter 10 Chemical Calculations Involving Chemical Equations 387

10.1 The Law of Conservation of Mass 387
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 11: Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) 388
10.2 Writing Chemical Equations 389
10.3 Chemical Equation Coefficients 390
10.4 Balancing Procedures for Chemical Equations 392
10.5 Special Symbols Used in Chemical Equations 397
10.6 Classes of Chemical Reactions 398
Synthesis Reactions 398
Decomposition Reactions 399
Single-Replacement Reactions 399
Double-Replacement Reactions 400
Combustion Reactions 401
10.7 Chemical Equations and the Mole Concept 403
10.8 Balanced Chemical Equations and the Law of Conservation of Mass 406
10.9 Calculations Based on Chemical Equations—Stoichiometry 407
10.10 The Limiting Reactant Concept 413
10.11 Yields: Theoretical, Actual, and Percent 418
10.12 Simultaneous and Sequential Chemical Reactions 421
Combining Sequential Chemical Reaction Equations into a Single Overall Chemical
Reaction Equation 423
Chapter 11 States of Matter 439

11.1 Factors that Determine Physical State 439
11.2 Property Differences among Physical States 441
11.3 The Kinetic Molecular Theory of Matter 442
11.4 The Solid State 443
11.5 The Liquid State 444
11.6 The Gaseous State 444
11.7 A Comparison of Solids, Liquids, and Gases 445
11.8 Endothermic and Exothermic Changes of State 446
11.9 Heat Energy and Specific Heat 447
Heat Energy Units 447
Specific Heat 449
11.10 Temperature Changes as a Substance is Heated 453
11.11 Energy and Changes of State 454
11.12 Heat Energy Calculations 457
11.13 Evaporation of Liquids 461
Rate of Evaporation and Temperature 462
Evaporation and Equilibrium 463
x Contents
11.14 Vapor Pressure of Liquids 464

11.15 Boiling and Boiling Points 465
Factors that Affect Boiling Point 466
11.16 Intermolecular Forces in Liquids 467
Dipole–Dipole Interactions 468
Hydrogen Bonds 468
London Forces 471
Ion–Dipole Interactions 472
Ion–Ion Interactions 472
11.17 Hydrogen Bonding and The Properties of Water 473
Vapor Pressure 473
Thermal Properties 473
Density 475
Surface Tension 477
Chapter 12 Gas Laws 488

12.1 Properties of Some Common Gases 488
12.2 Gas Law Variables 489
Pressure Readings and Significant Figures 493
12.3 Boyle’s Law: A Pressure–Volume Relationship 494
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 12: Robert Boyle (1627–1691) 494
12.4 Charles’s Law: A Temperature–Volume Relationship 498
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 13: Jacques Alexandre César Charles (1746–1823) 499
12.5 Gay-Lussac’s Law: A Temperature–Pressure Relationship 502
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 14: Joseph Louis Gay-Lussac (1778–1850) 502
12.6 The Combined Gas Law 504
12.7 Avogadro’s Law 507
12.8 An Ideal Gas 511
12.9 The Ideal Gas Law 511
12.10 Modified Forms of the Ideal Gas Law Equation 516
The Molar Mass of a Gas 516
The Density of a Gas 518
Using Density to Calculate Molar Mass 519
12.11 Volumes of Gases in Chemical Reactions 520
12.12 Volumes of Gases and the Limiting Reactant Concept 523
12.13 Molar Volume of a Gas 525
Standard Temperature and Standard Pressure Conditions 527
Using Molar Volume to Calculate Density 528
12.14 Chemical Calculations Using Molar Volume 530
12.15 Mixtures of Gases 537
12.16 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures 538
Chapter 13 Solutions 564

13.1 Characteristics of Solutions 564
13.2 Solubility 566
Effect of Temperature on Solubility 566
Effect of Pressure on Solubility 567
Terminology for Relative Amount of Solute in a Solution 567
Aqueous and Nonaqueous Solutions 568
Contents xi
13.3 Solution Formation 568

Factors Affecting the Rate of Solution Formation 569
13.4 Solubility Rules 569
13.5 Solution Concentrations 571
13.6 Percentage Concentration Unit 571
Using Percent Concentrations as Conversion Factors 575
13.7 Parts Per Million and Parts Per Billion Concentration Units 578
13.8 Molarity Concentration Unit 581
Using Molarity as a Conversion Factor 582
13.9 Molarity and Chemical Reactions in Aqueous Solution 588
13.10 Dilution Calculations 592
13.11 Molality Concentration Unit 596
Chapter 14 Acids, Bases, and Salts 616

14.1 Arrhenius Acid–Base Theory 616
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 15: Svante August Arrhenius
(1859–1927) 617
14.2 Brønsted–Lowry Acid–Base Theory 618
Generalizations about Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Brønsted-Lowry Bases 620
14.3 Conjugate Acids and Bases 621
Amphiprotic Substances 623
14.4 Mono-, Di-, and Triprotic Acids 623
14.5 Strengths of Acids and Bases 625
14.6 Salts 628
14.7 Reactions of Acids 629
Reaction with Metals 629
Reaction with Bases 629
Reaction with Carbonates and Bicarbonates 631
14.8 Reactions of Bases 631
14.9 Reactions of Salts 631
Reaction with Metals 632
Reaction with Acids 632
Reaction with Bases 633
Reaction of Salts with Each Other 633
14.10 Self-Ionization of Water 635
Ion Product Constant for Water 636
Effect of Solutes on Water Self-Ionization 636
Effect of Temperature Change on Water Self-Ionization 637
Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions 638
14.11 The pH Scale 638
Integral pH Values 639
Nonintegral pH Values 640
14.12 Hydrolysis of Salts 644
Types of Salt Hydrolysis 645
Chemical Equations for Salt Hydrolysis Reactions 646
14.13 Buffers 648
Chemical Equations for Buffer Action 649
14.14 Acid–Base Titrations 651
xii Contents
Chapter 15 Chemical Equations: Net Ionic and Oxidation–Reduction 665

15.1 Types of Chemical Equations 665
15.2 Electrolytes 666
15.3 Ionic and Net Ionic Equations 667
15.4 Oxidation–Reduction Terminology 671
15.5 Oxidation Numbers 673
15.6 Redox and Nonredox Chemical Reactions 678
15.7 Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 680
15.8 Oxidation Number Method for Balancing Redox Equations 681
15.9 Half-Reaction Method for Balancing Redox Equations 686
15.10 Disproportionation Reactions 692
15.11 Stoichiometric Calculations Involving Ions 696
Multiple-Choice Practice Test 707
Chapter 16 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 710

16.1 Collision Theory 710
Molecular Collisions 711
Activation Energy 711
Collision Orientation 711
16.2 Endothermic and Exothermic Chemical Reactions 712
16.3 Factors that Influence Chemical Reaction Rates 713
Physical Nature of Reactants 714
Reactant Concentration 714
Reaction Temperature 714
Presence of Catalysts 715
16.4 Chemical Equilibrium 716
16.5 Equilibrium Mixture Stoichiometry 717
16.6 Equilibrium Constants 719
16.7 Equilibrium Position 722
16.8 Temperature Dependency of Equilibrium Constants 723
16.9 Le Châtelier’s Principle 724
Concentration Changes 724
■ THE HUMAN SIDE OF CHEMISTRY 16: Henri-Louis Le Châtelier (1850–1936) 725
Temperature Changes 726
Pressure Changes 726
Addition of a Catalyst 727
16.10 Forcing Chemical Reactions to Completion 728
Glossary 739
Answers to Odd-Numbered Practice Problems 748
Credits 763
Index 764
PREFACE
Introduction to Chemical Principles is a text for students who have had little or no previous instruction in
chemistry or whose instruction was so long ago that a thorough review is needed. The text’s purpose is to
give students the background (and confidence) needed for a subsequent successful encounter with a main
sequence, college-level, general chemistry course.
Many texts written for preparatory chemistry courses are simply watered-down versions of general
chemistry texts: They treat almost all topics found in the general chemistry course, but at a superficial
level. Introduction to Chemical Principles does not fit this mold. My philosophy is that it is better to treat
fewer topics extensively and have the student understand those topics in greater depth. I resisted the very
real temptation to include lots of additional concepts in this new edition. Instead, my focus for this edition
was on rewriting selected portions to improve the clarity of presentation.
NEW FEATURES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION

• “Chemical Insights” are used to bridge the gap between mathematics and chemistry. This
new “insight” feature, which is appended to many of the worked-out example problems in the text that
involve calculations, focuses on the element or compound that is the subject of the calculation. These
insights give information on the subject element’s/compound’s occurrence, its properties and uses, its
relationship to the environment, its relationship to living systems (biochemistry), and so on. It is easy
for students to become so involved in the mathematics of problem solving that they completely forget
about the “realness” of the type of matter that is the subject of the calculation. There are 85 total insights
which address this “realness” issue.
• A “Student Learning Focus” feature is used as a mini study guide for students. These learning
objectives, found at the start of all sections of all chapters, “pinpoint” for the student what it is hoped
they will gain by study of the given section.
• New Worked-Out Example Problems. Nineteen of the 236 worked-out example problems in the
text are new. Worked-out-in-detail example problems with their extensive commentary constitute
one of the greatest strengths of the text.
• Extensive revision of “End-of-Chapter Problem Sets.” Although the total number of end-of-
chapter problems, which already exceeds that of most other similar texts, has not increased signifi-
cantly, almost 500 of the previous edition’s 2200 problems have been replaced with new problems.
A special effort was made to create new problems that address specifically the “core concepts” as-
sociated with a given chapter section’s subject matter. In most chapters several of the newly added
problems involve presentation of data in a “visual form” rather than in a “sentence form.” Many of the
“visual problems” involve situations where reasoning, with little or no calculation, is needed to test a
student’s grasp of a key concept.
Content changes to individual chapters. After ten successful editions of Introduction to Chemical
Principles, the need for drastic alterations in chapter ordering and chapter content does not exist. Changes
that have been made relate to “fine tuning” of the presentation of the subject matter. Among the most impor-
tant changes to this edition are the following:
• Chapters 4 and 5: The last four sections of chapter 4 of the previous edition (atoms, molecules,
and chemical formulas) has been moved to the start of Chapter 5. Material concerning unstable
nuclei previously found in chapter 5 has been deleted
• Chapter 13: Material dealing with the use of the molarity concentration unit in chemical calculations
now immediately follows the introduction of the concept of molarity. Previously this material was
found at the end of the chapter.
xiii
xiv Preface
IMPORTANT CONTINUING FEATURES IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION

1. Development of each topic starts out at ground level. Because of the varied degrees of under-
standing of chemical principles possessed by students taking a preparatory chemistry course, each
topic is developed step by step from ground level until the level of sophistication required for a
further chemistry course is attained.
2. Problem-solving pedagogy is based on dimensional analysis. Over forty years of teaching
experience suggest to me that student “troubles” in general chemistry courses are almost always cen-
tered on the inability to set up and solve problems. Whenever possible, I use dimensional analysis in
problem solving. This method, which requires no mathematics beyond arithmetic and elementary al-
gebra, is a powerful and widely applicable problem-solving tool. Most important, it is a method that
an average student can master with an average amount of diligence. Mastering dimensional analysis
also helps build the confidence that is so valuable for future chemistry courses.
3. Detailed commentary accompanies all worked-out example problems. In all chapters, one or
more worked-out example problems follow the presentation of key concepts. These examples walk
students through the thought processes involved in solving the particular type of problem. Detailed
commentary accompanies all of the steps involved in solving a problem.
4. “Answer Double Check” feature. Over half (60%) of the text’s worked-out examples are enhanced
by the feature called “answer double check.” The purpose of this feature, which is appended to the end
of the worked-out example discussion, is to encourage students to consider whether the answer they
obtain in working a problem is a reasonable answer in terms of items such as numerical magnitude,
number of significant figures present, sign convention (plus or minus), and direction of change (increase
or descrease). An unreasonable answer is often a sign that a calculator error has been made.
5. Significant-figure concepts are emphasized in all problem-solving situations. Routinely,
electronic calculators display answers that contain more digits than are needed or acceptable. In all
worked-out examples, students are reminded about these unneeded digits by the appearance of two
answers to the example: the calculator answer (which does not take into account significant figures)
and, in color, the correct answer (which is the calculator answer adjusted to the correct number of
significant figures).
6. Operation rules for standardizing uncertainty in numbers are used. Students often experi-
ence a relatively high degree of frustration when they correctly solve a problem and yet obtain an
answer that differs slightly from the one given in the answer section at the back of the book. They
want to get the exact number shown in the answer section. Most often the discrepancy is due to
differing degrees of uncertainty in the input numbers used for the calculation, for example, in mo-
lecular mass values. To minimize such frustration, operational rules have been introduced for stan-
dardizing uncertainty in input numbers. The standard mode of operation is always (1) to round all
atomic masses to hundredths before using them in molecular mass calculations, and (2) to specify
frequently used numbers, such as Avogadro’s number, molar volume, and the ideal gas constant to
four significant figures. Using these operational rules for input numbers, student answers will match
the back-of-the-book answers to the last significant digit.
7. Defined terms always appear in self-standing complete sentences. All definitions are high-
lighted in the text when they are first presented, using boldface and italic type. Each defined term
appears as a complete sentence; students are never required to deduce a definition from context. In
addition, the definitions of all terms appear in a separate glossary found at the end of the text. All
defined terms have been reexamined to see if they could be stated with greater clarity. The result is
a rewording of many defined terms. In addition, the number of defined terms has been increased.
There are 29 new or modified definitions in this new edition of the text.
8. All end-of-chapter exercises occur in matched pairs. In essence, each chapter has two inde-
pendent, but similar, problem sets. Counting subparts to problems, there are over 5000 questions
and problems available for students to use in their journey to proficient problem solving. Answers
to all of the odd-numbered problems are found at the end of the text. Thus, two problem sets exist,
one with answers and one without.
Preface xv
9. “Multiple-Choice Practice Test” feature. The emphasis in this text has always been and still is
on working problems from scratch. Some, but certainly not all instructors, use this same approach
when giving class examinations. A multiple-choice question examination is another common type
of examination given. To aid students whose examinations involve multiple-choice examinations,
a 20-question “multiple-choice practice test” in included as the last feature in each chapter. It is in-
tended that students use this feature as an aid in reviewing subject matter for an upcoming multiple-
choice examination.
10. Historical vignettes are used to address some of the “people aspects” of chemistry. These
vignettes, entitled “The Human Side of Chemistry,” are brief biographies of scientists who helped de-
velop the foundations of modern chemistry. In courses such as the one for which this text is written,
it is very easy for students to completely lose any feeling for the people involved in the development
of the subject matter they are considering. If it were not for the contributions of these people, many
of whom worked under adverse conditions, chemistry would not be the central science that it is
today.
11. Marginal notes are used extensively. The two main functions of the marginal notes are (1) to
summarize key concepts and often give help for remembering concepts or distinguishing between
similar concepts, and (2) to provide additional details, links between concepts, or historical informa-
tion about the concepts under discussion.
SUPPLEMENTS
For the Instructor
Instructor Solutions Manual (download only): (ISBN: 0321815130) by Nancy J. Gardner, California
State University–Long Beach. Contains full solutions to all of the end-of-chapter problems in the text.
TestGen Computerized Test Bank: (ISBN: 0321815319) by Pamela Kerrigan, Mount Saint Vincent.
Contains approximately 1000 multiple-choice and short-answer questions, all referenced to the text.
CourseSmart: (ISBN: 0321815149) Access your college textbook in online format at www.coursesmart.com.
For the Student

Student Solutions Manual: (ISBN: 0321815122) by Nancy J. Gardner, California State University–
Long Beach. Includes full solutions to all odd-numbered end-of-chapter problems and answers to all mul-
tiple choice practice test questions in the text.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I’d like to gratefully acknowledge the valuable contributions of my accuracy reviewer Andreas Lippert of
Weber State University.
Every effort has been made to rid this text of any typographical errors. I encourage my read-
ers who notice anything suspicious, or who have other questions or comments, to e-mail me at the
address below.
H. Stephen Stoker
e-mail: hstoker1@weber.edu
Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

Joel Case Kiran Kuar
University of Wisconsin Solano Community College
Lisa Devane Kent Lau
Bladen Community College San Francisco State University
Reviewers of the Tenth Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

John M. Allen, Ann van Heerden,
Indiana State University Lonestar College–CyFair
Ashton T. Griffin, Virginia Lea Miller,
Wayne Community College Montgomery College
Lisa DeVane, Douglas S. Cody,
Bladen Community College Nassau Community College
Charles Spillner, Andreas Lippert,
Solano Community College Weber State University
Todd M. Johnson,
Weber State University
xvi
C H A P T E R
1
The Science of Chemistry
1.1 Chemistry—A Scientific Discipline

1.2 Scientific Research and Technology
1.3 The Scope of Chemistry
1.4 How Chemists Discover Things—The Scientific Method
1.5 The Limitations of the Scientific Method
1.6 Application Limitations for Methods of Science
1.1 CHEMISTRY—A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

Student Learning Focus: Understand the relationship of the scientific discipline called chemistry to
other scientific disciplines and be familiar with the sub-structuring that occurs with the discipline
of chemistry.
Chemistry is part of a larger body of knowledge called science. Science is the study in
which humans attempt to organize and explain, in a systematic and logical manner,
knowledge about themselves and their surroundings.
Because of the enormous scope of science, the sheer amount of accumulated
knowledge, and the limitations of human mental capacity to master such a large and
diverse body of knowledge, science is divided into smaller subdivisions called scientific
disciplines. A scientific discipline is a branch of science limited in size and scope to
make it more manageable. Examples of scientific disciplines are chemistry, astronomy,
botany, geology, physics, and zoology.
Figure 1.1 shows an organizational chart, with emphasis on chemistry, for the vari-
ous scientific disciplines. These disciplines can be grouped into physical sciences (the
study of matter and energy) and biological sciences (the study of living organisms).
Chemistry is a physical science.
Rigid boundaries between scientific disciplines do not exist. All scientific disciplines
borrow information and methods from each other. No scientific discipline is totally inde-
pendent. Environmental problems that scientists have encountered in the last two decades
1
2 Chapter 1 • The Science of Chemistry
FIGURE 1.1 An
organizational
Science
chart showing the
relationship of the Scientific Disciplines
scientific discipline
called chemistry
to other scientific
disciplines and also
the sub-structuring Physical Sciences Biological Sciences
that occurs within the Study of Matter and Energy Study of Living Organisms
discipline of chemistry.
Astronomy Geology Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology

(plants) (animals)
Astrochemistry Geochemistry Chemical Biochemistry

Physics
Analytical General Inorganic Organic Physical
Analysis Fundamental Noncarbon- Carbon- Energy

and laws containing containing changes
composition and concepts substances substances
particularly show the interdependence of the various scientific disciplines. For example,
chemists attempting to solve the problems of chemical contamination of the environment
find that they need some knowledge of geology, zoology, and botany. It is now common
to talk not only of chemists, but also of geochemists, biochemists, chemical physicists,
and so on. The middle portion of Figure 1.1 shows the overlap of the other scientific dis-
ciplines with chemistry.
Discipline overlap requires that scientists, in addition to having in-depth knowledge
of a selected discipline, also have limited knowledge of other disciplines. Discipline over-
lap also explains why a great many college students are required to study chemistry. One
or more chemistry courses are required because of their applicability to the disciplines in
which the student has more specific interest.
The body of knowledge found within the scientific discipline of chemistry is itself
vast. No one can hope to master completely all aspects of chemical knowledge. However,
the fundamental concepts of chemistry can be learned in a relatively short period of time.
The vastness of chemistry is sufficiently large that it, like most scientific disciplines,
is partitioned into subdisciplines. The lower portion of Figure 1.1 shows the five funda-
mental branches of chemistry: analytical, general, inorganic, organic, and physical. Most
of the subject matter of this textbook falls within the realm of general chemistry, the fun-
damental laws and concepts of chemistry.
The American Chemical Society (ACS) is the largest scientific organization in the
world. Examination of the names of the 33 subdivisions of ACS (see Table 1.1) further
Chapter 1 • The Science of Chemistry 3
TABLE 1.1 Names of the Divisions of the American Chemical Society
Agricultural and Food Chemistry Fluorine Chemistry

Agrochemicals Fuel Chemistry
Analytical Chemistry Geochemistry
Biochemical Technology History of Chemistry
Biological Chemistry Industrial and Engineering Chemistry
Business Development and Management Inorganic Chemistry
Carbohydrate Chemistry Medicinal Chemistry
Catalysis Science and Technology Nuclear Chemistry and Technology
Cellulose and Renewable Materials Organic Chemistry
Chemical Education Petroleum Chemistry
Chemical Health and Safety Physical Chemistry
Chemical Information Polymer Chemistry
Chemical Toxicology Polymeric Materials: Science and Engineering
Chemistry and the Law Professional Relations
Colloid and Surface Science Rubber
Computers in Chemistry Small Chemical Businesses
Environmental Chemistry
illustrates the wide diversity of subject matter and activities encompassed within the dis-
cipline of chemistry.
1.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

Student Learning Focus: Understand how the fields of basic scientific research and applied sci-
entific research differ from each other and how the concepts of applied chemical research and
technology are related.
The basic activity through which new knowledge is added to the various scientific disci-
plines, including chemistry, is that of scientific research. Scientific research is the pro-
cess of methodical investigation into a subject in order to discover new information about
the subject. There are two general types of scientific research—basic and applied. Basic
scientific research is research whose major focus is the discovery of new fundamental
information about humans and other living organisms and the universe in which they
live. The number of scientists involved in basic scientific research is small compared to
those involved in applied scientific research. Most scientists function in the area of ap-
plied scientific research. Applied chemical research is research whose major focus is the
discovery of products and processes that can be used to benefit humankind.
In many ways, basic scientific research is the precursor to applied scientific research.
The former is the lifeline that supplies the latter with new ideas on which to work. No
change in quality of life results from basic scientific research endeavors unless something
is done with the body of information that accumulates. Use of this information for the
betterment of humankind is the role of applied chemical research and the ensuing tech-
nology that results from it. Technology is the application of applied chemical research to
the production of new products to improve human survival, comfort, and quality of life.
Whether or not a given Technological advances began affecting our society more than 200 years ago, and new
piece of scientific knowl- advances still continue, at an accelerating pace, to have a major impact on human society.
edge is technologically
used for beneficial or
Both benefits and detriments can be obtained from the same piece of scientific
detrimental purposes de- knowledge, depending on the technology used to put it to work. For example, knowledge
pends on the motives of concerning the closely related structures of the naturally-occurring substances morphine
those men and women, and codeine, obtained through basic research, has led to the development of several im-
whether in industry or portant codeine-derivatives currently used in modern medicine as prescription painkillers
government, who have
the decision-making
(hydrocodone and oxycodone) as well as the synthesis of the illegal drug heroin, whose
authority. In democratic structure parallels closely that of morphine.
societies, citizens (the
voters) can influence
many technological 1.3 THE SCOPE OF CHEMISTRY
decisions. It is important
for citizens to become Student Learning Focus: Be able to list several areas in which chemistry applications are important
informed about scientific to human beings.
and technological issues.
Although chemistry is concerned with only a part of the scientific knowledge that has
been accumulated, it is in itself an enormous and broad field. Chemistry touches all parts
of our lives.
Many of the clothes we wear are made from synthetic fibers produced by chemical
processes. Even natural fibers, such as cotton or wool, are the products of naturally occur-
ring chemical reactions within living systems. Our transportation usually involves vehicles
powered with energy obtained by burning chemical mixtures such as gasoline or diesel
and jet fuels. The drugs used to cure many of our illnesses are the result of chemical re-
search. The paper on which this textbook is printed was produced through a chemical
process, and the ink used in printing the words and illustrations is a mixture of many
chemicals. Almost all of our recreational pursuits involve objects made of materials pro-
duced by chemical industries. Skis, boats, basketballs, bowling balls, musical instruments,
and television sets all contain materials that do not occur naturally, but are products of
human technological expertise.
Our bodies are a complex mixture of chemicals. The principles of chemistry are
fundamental to an understanding of all processes of the living state. Chemical secretions
(hormones) produced within our bodies help determine our outward physical character-
istics such as height, weight, and appearance. Digestion of food involves a complex series
of chemical reactions. Food itself is an extremely complicated array of chemical sub-
stances. Chemical reactions govern our thought processes and how knowledge is stored
in and retrieved from our brains. In short, chemistry runs our lives.
A formal course in chemistry can be a fascinating experience because it helps us
understand ourselves and our surroundings. We cannot truly understand or even know
very much about the world we live in or about our own bodies without being conversant
with the fundamental ideas of chemistry.
1.4 HOW CHEMISTS DISCOVER THINGS—THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Student Learning Focus: List procedural steps associated with the problem-solving approach called
the scientific method and distinguish among the terms experiment, scientific fact, scientific law,
scientific hypothesis, and scientific theory.
There is no one single correct way to do scientific research, be it basic or applied

(Sec. 1.2). Different scientists often have different approaches to solving the same
problem. However, the various approaches used always have embodied within them
a number of common characteristics that constitute the problem-solving approach
known as the scientific method.
Chapter 1 • The Science of Chemistry 5
The scientific method is a set of general procedures based on experimentation and

observation used to acquire scientific knowledge and explain natural phenomena. The
procedural steps in the scientific method are as follows:
1. Identify the problem, break it into small parts, and carefully plan procedures to ob- Although two different
tain information about all aspects of this problem. scientists rarely approach
the same problem in ex-
2. Collect data concerning the problem through observation and experimentation (see actly the same way, there
Figure 1.2). are always similarities in
3. Analyze and organize the data in terms of general statements (generalizations) that their approaches. These
summarize the experimental observations. similarities are the proce-
4. Suggest probable explanations for the generalizations. dures associated with the
scientific method.
5. Experiment further to prove or disprove the proposed explanations.
On occasion, a great discovery is made by accident, but the majority of scientific

discoveries are the result of the application of these five steps over long periods of
time. There are no instantaneous steps in the scientific method: applying them requires
considerable amounts of time. Even in those situations where luck is involved, it must
be remembered that chance favors the prepared mind. To take full advantage of an
accidental discovery, a person must be well trained in the procedures of the scientific
method.
The imagination, creativity, and mental attitude of a scientist using the scientific
method are always major factors in scientific success. The procedures of the scientific
method must always be enhanced with the abilities of a thinking scientist.
There are special vocabulary terms associated with the scientific method and its use.
This vocabulary includes the terms experiment, scientific fact, scientific law, scientific
hypothesis, and scientific theory. An understanding of the relationships among these terms
is the key to a real understanding of how to obtain chemical knowledge.
Experiments, Observations, and Data

The beginning step in the search for chemical knowledge is the identification of an as-
pect of a chemical system that needs study. After determining what other chemists have
already learned about the selected situation, a chemist sets up experiments for obtaining
FIGURE 1.2 Chemistry

is an experimental
science. Most
discoveries in
chemistry are made
through analysis of
data obtained from
experiments carried
out in laboratories.
(iStockphoto)
more information. An experiment is a well-defined, controlled procedure for obtaining

information about a system under study.
Performing an experiment involves making careful observations about a system
under study. An observation is a statement that describes something we see, hear, smell,
taste, or feel. Instrumentation is most often used as an aid in making observations.
Observations obtained while performing an experiment are called data. Such data may
be qualitative or quantitative, with the latter being preferred. Qualitative data is non-
numerical data consisting of general observations about a system under study. The ob-
servation that ice is less dense than liquid water is an example of qualitative information
about a system. Quantitative data is numerical data obtained by various measurements
on a system under study. The information that ice has a density of 0.9170 grams per cubic
centimeter at 0°C whereas liquid water has a density of 0.9999 grams per cubic centimeter
at the same temperature represents quantitative data. Quantitative observations are more
useful than qualitative ones because they can be compared with each other and trends or
patterns in information can be seen.
An experiment typically involves study of at least two quantities, that is, variables
that have changing values. Usually, the effect of change in one variable on another vari-
able, with all other variables held constant, is measured. For example, the effect that
temperature change has on the density of a fixed quantity of a gas, with pressure held
constant, can be measured.
A well-designed experiment is always performed under controlled conditions, that
is, the values of all variables are always noted, not just those that are changing. When
such is the case, the experimental data can be reproduced, if needed, by repeating the
experiment.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Distinguishing between Qualitative

and Quantitative Data
Classify each of the following pieces of information as qualitative data or quan-
titative data.
a. The patient’s high fever has reached 105.3°F.
b. The cricket is chirping more loudly tonight than last night.
c. The package of candy contains about 200 gummi bears.
SOLUTION
a. Quantitative data—the temperature was measured with a thermometer.
b. Qualitative data—no measurement was made.
c. Qualitative data—even though a number is specified, it is an estimated number
rather than a measured number.
Scientific Facts
The individual pieces of new information (data) about a system under study, obtained
by carrying out experimental procedures, are called scientific facts. A scientific fact
is a reproducible piece of data about some natural phenomenon that is obtained from
experimentation. Note the word reproducible in this definition. If a given experiment is
repeated under exactly the same conditions, the same results (scientific facts) should be
obtained. To be acceptable, all scientific facts must be verifiable by anyone who has the
time, means, and knowledge needed to repeat the experiments that led to their discovery.
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wonderful it is to see such an absence of trickery, you know, such
simplicity. Does he live here?
No, he just brings his books in here when it's too cold in his own
room.
He is poor?
Yes.
He is poor!
Not very poor, you know. When he really gets down to his last cent
he can always find things to do at once. He's happy to be poor.
And he lives quite alone?
Yes. Oh, yes.
And he is poor. (This caused her a moment's astonished reflection,
until she burst out:) But you know, that is not right! It is society's duty ...
that is, society should be proud to protect such people. Someone very
gifted should be appointed to watch over such people.
But, Princess, James Blair values his independence above
everything. He doesn't want to be watched over.
They should be watched over in spite of themselves. Look, you will
bring him to tea some day. I am sure my husband's library has some
more old maps of the Campagna. We have the bailiff's reports of the
Espoli back into the Sixteenth Century. Wouldn't that bring him?
Even surprised at herself, the Princess tried for a time to talk of other
things, but presently she returned to praise what she called Blair's
single-mindedness; she meant his self-sufficiency, for while we are in
love with a person our knowledge of his weaknesses lies lurking in the
back of our minds and our idealization of the loved one is not so much
an exaggeration of his excellences as a careful "rationalization" of his
defects.
When next I saw Blair he wasted two or three hours before he got up
courage to ask me who she was. He listened darkly while I spoke my
enthusiasm. At last he showed me a note in which she asked him to
drive with her to Espoli, look over the estate, and to examine the
archives. He was to bring me if I wanted. James wished greatly to go;
but he was suspicious of the lady. He liked her and yet he didn't. He
was trying to tell me that he only liked ladies who didn't like him first. He
twisted the letter about trying to decide, then going to the table wrote a
note of refusal.
Then began what it is merely brutal to call a siege. Driving in the
Corso Alix would say to herself: There's nothing unconventional in my
stopping at his room to see if he wants to drive in the Gardens. I could
do as much for a dozen men and it would be perfectly natural. I am
much older than he is, so much so, that it would merely be an act of ...
thoughtfulness. When she stood on the platform before his door (for
she was not content to send up the chauffeur) she would experience a
moment of panic, wishing to recall her ring, imagining when no one
answered that he was in hiding behind the closed door, listening, who
knows, in anger or contempt to her loud heartbeats. Or she would
debate all evening among the gilt chairs of her little salon as to whether
she might drop him a note. She would count the days since last she
had spoken to him and gauge the propriety (the inner, the spiritual
propriety, not the wordly propriety: for the Cabalists the latter had
ceased to exist) of a new meeting. She was always coming upon him
by accident in the city (she called it her proof of the existence of
guardian angels) and it was with these chance meetings that she had
generally to content herself. She would attract his attention the length
of the Piazza Venezia and carry him to whatever destination he
confessed to. No one has ever been happier than Alix on these few
occasions when she sat beside him in her car. How docilely she sat
listening to his lecture; with what tenderness she secretly noticed his tie
and shoes and socks: and with what intensity she fixed her gaze upon
his face trying to imprint upon her memory the exact proportions of his
features, the imprint that indifference retains so much better than the
most passionate love. There was a possibility that they might have
become the most congenial of friends, for he dimly sensed that there
was something in her that allied her to the great ladies of his study. If
she had only succeeded in concealing her tenderness. At the first signs
of his liking for her she would become so intoxicated with the intimation
of cordiality that she would make some shy little remark with a faintly
sentimental implication; she would comment on his appearance or ask
him to lunch. And lose him.
One day he gave her a book that had been mentioned in their
conversations. He did not stop to think that it was the first move he had
made spontaneously in the whole relation. Hitherto every suggestion,
every invitation, had proceeded from her (from her, trembling,
presuffering a rebuff, lightly) and she longed for a first sign of his
interest. When this book was brought to her, then, she lost her balance;
she thought it justified her in pushing the friendship on to new levels, to
almost daily meetings, and to long comradely lazy afternoons. She
never realized that in his eyes she was, first, an enemy to his studies,
and second, that strange hedged monster which all his wide reading
had not been able to humanize: a married woman. She called once too
often. Suddenly he changed; he became rude and abrupt. When she
climbed his stairs he did hide behind the door and the bell rang in vain
and with a menacing sound, though she had her ways of knowing he
was in. She became terrified. Again she confronted that cavern of
horror in her nature: she seemed always to be loving those that did not
love her. She came to me, distraught. I was cautious and offered her
philosophy until I could sound Blair in the matter.
Blair came to me of his own accord. He paced up and down the
room, bewildered, revolted, enraged. His stay in Rome had become
impossible. He no longer dared remain in his room and when he was
out he clung to the side streets. What should he do?
I advised him to leave town.
But how could he? He was in the middle of some work that. Some
work that. Damn it all. All right, he'd go.
I begged him before he went to come to dinner with me once when
the Princess would be present. No, no. Anything but that. I, in turn,
became angry. I analyzed the different kinds of fool he was. An hour
later I was saying that the mere fact of being loved so, whether one
could return it or not, put one under an obligation. More than an
obligation to be merely kind, an obligation to be grateful. Blair did not
understand, but consented at last on the difficult condition that I was
not to reveal to the Princess that he was leaving for Spain on the very
night of the dinner.
Of course, the Princess arrived early, so enchantingly dressed that I
fairly floundered in admitting her. She held tickets for the opera; one no
longer cared to hear Salome, but Petrushka was being danced after it,
at ten-thirty. Blair's train left at eleven. He arrived and played his most
gracious. We were really very happy, all of us, as we sat by the open
window, smoking and talking long over Ottima's excellent zabiglione
and harsh Trasteverine coffee.
It was a continual surprise to me to see that in Blair's presence she
was always a proud detached aristocrat. Even her faintly caressing
remarks were such as would not be noticed if one had let them fall to
someone with whom one was not secretly in love. Her fastidious pride
even drove her to exaggerating her impersonality; she teased him, she
pretended she did not hear when he addressed her, she pretended she
was in love with me. It was only when he was not present that she
became humble, even servile; only then could she even imagine calling
on him unasked. At last she rose: It's time to go to the Russian Ballet,
she said.
Blair excused himself: I'm sorry I must go back and work.
She looked as though a sword had gone through her. But surely,
three-quarters of an hour with Stravinsky is a part of your work. My
car's right here.
He remained firm. He too had a ticket for that night.
For a moment she looked blank. She had never met obstinacy under
such conditions and did not know what to do next. After a moment she
bent her head and pushed back her coffee-cup. Very well, she said
lightly. If you can't, you can't. Samuele and I shall go.
Their parting was grim. During the drive to the Constanzi she
remained silent, fingering the folds of her coat; during the ballet she sat
at the back of the box thinking, thinking, thinking, with staring dry eyes.
At the dose scores of friends pressed about her in the corridor. She
became gay: Let's go to the cabaret run by the Russian refugees, she
said. At the door of the cabaret she dismissed her chauffeur, telling him
that her maid need not sit up for her. We danced for a long time in
silence, her depression stealing back upon her.
When we left the hall the unfriendliest moonlight in the world was
flooding the street. We found a carriage and started towards her home.
But falling into the most earnest conversation in all our acquaintance
we failed to notice that the carriage had reached her door and had
been standing there for some time.
Look, Samuele, do not make me go to bed now. Let me go in and
change my clothes quickly. Then let us drive about and watch the sun
come up over the Campagna. Would that make you angry with me?
I assured her that it was just what I wanted and she hurried into the
house. I paid off the driver who was drunk and quarrelsome and when
she rejoined me we strolled through the streets talking and gradually
inviting a resigned drowsiness. We had experimented with vodka at the
cabaret and the alcohol conferred upon our minds the same mood that
the moonlight was shedding upon the icy bubble of the Pantheon. We
strayed into the courtyard of the Cancelleria and criticized the arches.
We returned to my rooms for cigarettes.
Last night I wasn't at all brave, she said, lying back in the darkness
on the sofa. I was desperate. That was before I received your invitation.
Could I go to see him or couldn't I? A week had gone by. I asked myself
would he feel ... well, insulted, if a lady knocked on his door at ten
o'clock. It was about ten o'clock. Really, there's nothing peculiar about a
lady's paying a perfectly impersonal call at about nine-thirty. There's
nothing self-conscious, Samuele, about my being here now, for
instance. Besides I had a perfectly good reason for going. He asked me
what I thought of La Villegiatura, and since then I had read it. Now tell,
my dear friend, would it have been ridiculous from the American point
of view if I had...?
Beautiful Alix, you are never ridiculous. But wasn't your meeting with
him tonight all the fresher, all the happier, just because you hadn't seen
him for so long?
Oh, how wise you are! she cried. God has sent you to me in my
trouble. Come by me and let me hold your hand. Are you ashamed of
me when you have seen me suffer so? I suppose I should be ashamed.
You see me without any dignity. You have kind eyes and I am not
ashamed in front of you. I think you must have loved too, for you take
all my foolishness as a matter of course. Oh, my dear Samuele, every
now and then the thought comes over me that he despises me. I have
all the faults that he hasn't. When I have this nightmare that he not only
dislikes me but laughs at me, yes, laughs at me, my heart stops beating
and I blush for hours at a time. The only way I can save myself then is
by remembering that he has said many kind things to me; that he sent
me that book; that he has asked after me. And then I pray God very
simply to put into his mind just a bit of regard for me. Just a bit of
respect for those things ... those things that other people seem to like in
me.
We sat in silence for a time, her feverish hand plunged deep into
mine and her bright eyes gazing into the darkness. At last she began
speaking again in a lower voice:
He is good. He is reasonable. When I am analytical this way I unfit
myself for his loving me. I must learn to be simple. Yes. Look, you have
done so much for me, may I ask for one more favor. Play to me. I must
get out of my mind that wonderful music where Petrushka wrestles with
himself.
I felt ashamed of playing before her who played far better than any
of us, but I drew out my folios and started right through Gluck's Armide.
I had hoped that the inept performance would awaken an æsthetic
annoyance and so shake her out of her dejection, but I presently saw
that she had fallen asleep. After a long and adroit diminuendo I left the
piano, turned on a shaded light near her, and stole off into my own
room. I changed my clothes and lay down ready for the walk in which
we were to see the sun rise. I was trembling with a strange happy
excitement, made up partly of my love and pity for her, and partly from
the mere experience of eavesdropping on a beautiful spirit in the last
reaches of its pride and suffering. I was lying thus, proud and happy in
the role of guardian, when my heart suddenly stopped beating. She
was weeping in her sleep. Sighs welled up from the depths of her
slumber, hoarse protests, obstinate denials and moans followed one
upon another. Suddenly her broken breathing ceased and I knew she
was awake. There was a half-minute of silence; then a low call:
Samuele.
Hardly had I appeared at the door before she cried: I know he
despises me. He runs away from me. He thinks me a foolish woman
who pursues him. He tells the servant to tell me he is out, but he stands
behind the door and hears me go away. What shall I do? I'd better not
live. I'd better not live any more. It's best, dear Samuele, that I go out
right now, in my own way, and stop all this mistaken, this, this, futile
suffering of mine. Do you see?
She had arisen and was groping for her hat. I really have courage
enough tonight, she muttered. He is too good and too simple for me to
worry him as I do. I'll just slip out ...
But Alix, I cried. We love you so. So many people love you.
You can't say that people love me. They like to greet me on the
stairs. They like to listen and smile. But no one has ever watched under
my window. No one has secretly learned what I do every hour of the
day. No one has ...
She lay back on the sofa, her cheeks flushed and wet. I talked to her
for a long time. I said that her genius was social, that she was made for
the delight of company, that she relieved others of the weight of their
own boredom, their disguised self-hatred. I promised her that she could
find happiness in the exercise of her gift. I could see by a glimpse of
her wet cheek turned away, that it calmed her to be told so, for she
possessed the one form of genius that is almost never praised to its
face. She grew more tranquil. After a pause she began talking in a
dreamy tone:
I will leave him alone. I will never see him again, she began. When I
was a girl and we lived on the mountains, Samuele, I had a pet goat
named Tertullien that I loved very much. One day Tertullien died. I
would not be comforted. I was hateful and obstinate. The nuns with
whom I went to school could do nothing with me and when it was my
turn to recite I refused to speak. At last my dear Mother Superior called
me into her room and at first I was very bad, even with her. But when
she began to tell me of her losses I flung my arms about her and wept
for the first time. As a punishment she made me stop everyone I met
and say to them twice: God is sufficient! God is sufficient!
After a pause she added: I know that it can be true for other people,
but I still wanted Tertullien. When is your patience with me coming to an
aid, Samuele?
Never, I said.
The windows were beginning to show the first light of dawn.
Suddenly a little bell rang out near by, a tinkle of purest silver.
Hush, she said. That's the earliest mass at some church.
Santa Maria in Trastevere is just around the corner.
Hurry!
We let ourselves out of the palace and breathed the cold gray air. A
mist seemed to hang low about the street; puffs of blue smoke lay in
the corners. A cat passed us. Shivering but elated we entered the
church joining two old women in wadded clothes and a laborer. The
basilica loomed above, the candles of our side-chapel picking out
reflections in the curious marbles and the gold of the mosaics in the
vast black cave. The service of the Mass was enrolled with expedition
and accuracy. When we came out a milky light had begun to fill the
square. The shutters of several shops were being lowered; drowsy
passers-by made the diagonals staggering; a woman was lowering her
chickens in a basket from the fifth story for a long day's scratching.
We walked over to the Aventine, crossing the Tiber which twisted
like a great yellow rope under a delicate fume. We stopped for a glass
of sour blue-black wine and a paper bag of peaches.
For the time at least the Princess seemed to herself to have forever
closed her mind to even the remotest hope that she would ever see
Blair again. Sitting on a stone bench on the gloomy Aventine while the
sun shouldered its way up through plunging orange clouds, we mused.
She seemed for a time to have fallen back into her old despondency; I
resumed the arguments that spoke more glowingly of her gifts.
Suddenly she straightened up. All right. I will try it for you. I must do
something. Where are you going today?
I murmured that Mme. Agaropoulos was giving a sort of a musicale:
that she was introducing a young compatriot who claimed to have
discovered the secret of ancient Greek music.
Write her a note. Telephone her. Ask her if I may come. I too shall
learn about ancient Greek music. I shall be introduced to everyone
there. I shall be asked to everyone's house. Listen, Samuele, since you
say it is my talent I shall get to know everyone in Rome. I shall die of
social engagements: Here lies the woman who never refused an
invitation. I shall meet two thousand people in ten days. I shall lay
myself out to please anybody on earth. And mind you, Samuele, if that
does not nourish me, we shall have to finish trying, you know....
Mme. Agaropoulos was staggered with joy when she discovered that
the unhoped for the unprocurable Princess was coming to her house.
Mme. Agaropoulos was not the slave of social categories, but she
longed to frequent the Cabala, as some long for the next world. She
assumed that in that company all was wit and love and peace. There
one would find no silly people, none envious, none quarrelsome. She
had met the Princess d'Espoli once and had ever since taken her as
the type of person she would herself have been if she had been better-
looking, thinner and had had more time to read, little realizing that all
these had been more in her power than in Alix, and that she had
spoiled her own progress by a lazy kindliness, great kindliness but lazy.
The Princess called for me in her car at five o'clock. It would be
impossible for me to describe her clothes; it is enough to say that she
had the most incredible power of supplying new angles, shades, lines,
that interpreted her character. This aptitude received added éclat from
her residence in Italy, for Italian women, though often more beautiful,
lack both figure and judgment. They anxiously spend enormous sums
in Paris and achieve nothing but bundles of rich stuffs that bulge or trail
or blow about them in effects they half guess to be unsuccessful, and
seek to repair with a display of stones.
We pursued the Via Po for a mile or two and alighted at the ugliest
of its houses, an example of that modern German architecture that has
done so much for factories. As we mounted the stairs she kept
muttering: Watch me! Watch me! In the hall we found a host of
latecomers standing with their fingers on their lip while from the drawing
rooms there issued the sound of passionate declamation accompanied
by the plucking of a lyre, the desolate moto perpetuo of an oriental flute
and a rhythmic clapping of hands. In other words we had arrived too
early; our campaign for meeting two thousand souls in ten days was
being balked at the outset. Fretted we pushed on into the garden
behind the house. Sitting down on a stone bench, with the tragic ode
still faintly sounding in our ears we gave our attention to the spectacle
in the middle distance of a white-haired gentleman in a wheel-chair
overflowing with brightly-colored shawls. This was Jean Perraye; I told
the Princess of how Mme. Agaropoulos had found the saintly old
French poet at the point of death, wrapt in shawls in a wretched little
hotel at Pisa, and how by supplying him with tender interest, whole milk
and a group of pet animals she had restored his muse, comforted his
last years and effected his entrance into the French Academy. At this
moment he was engaged in addressing a circle of attentive cats. These
six cats, intermittently licking the fine silk of their shoulders, and casting
polite glances at their patron, were gray angoras, the color of cigarette
ash. We had read the poet's latest book and knew their names: six
queens of France. We practically dozed on the bench—the hot sunlight,
the choruses of the Antigone behind and Jean Perraye's exordium to
the queens of France and Persia before, would have made drowsy
even those who had not passed a night of confession and tears.
When we came to ourselves the audition was over and the
company, doubly noisy after music, was shouting its appreciation. We
re-entered the house, hungry for pastry and encounters. A sea of hats,
with scores of self-conscious eyes staring about in perpetual search of
new salutations, marking down the Princess for their own; occasionally
the large stomach of a senator or an ambassador swathed in serge and
bound with a golden chain.
Who's the lady in the black hat? whispered Alix.
Signora Daveni, the great engineer's wife.
Fancy! Will you bring her to me or should you take me to her. No, I'll
go to her. Take me.
Signora Daveni was a plain little woman presenting the high lifted
forehead and fresh eyes of an idealistic boy. Her husband was one of
Italy's foremost engineers, an inventor of many tremendous trifles in
airplane construction and a bulwark of conservative methods in the
rising storm of labor agitation. The Signora was on every philanthropic
committee of any importance in the whole country and during the War
had directed incalculable labors. The consciousness of her
responsibilities combined with a touch of brusqueness from her humble
extraction had brought her into many a short triumphant struggle with
cabinets and senates and there are stories of her having sharply
rebuked the vague, well-intentioned interferences of the royal ladies of
Savoy. Yet these distinctions had only made her manners the simpler
and her quick cordiality was continually deflating the deference that
was paid to her. She dressed badly; she walked badly, her large feet
pushing before her like those of some jar-carrier in an upland village. It
had been rather fine in uniform, but now that she must return to hats
and gowns and rings the consciousness of her lack of grace caused
her much depression. Her home was in Turin, but she lived a great deal
in Rome out among the open lots of the Via Nomentana and knew
everyone. The Princess with the unexpectedness that lies in the very
definition of genius turned the conversation upon the use of sphagnum
moss as a surgical dressing. The diverse excellence of the two women
glimpsed one another; the Princess was astonished to find such quiet
mastery in a woman without a de and the Signora was amazed to find
the same quality in a noblewoman.
I drifted off, but presently the Princess rejoined me. She is real, that
woman. I am going to dinner with her Friday; so are you. Find me some
more. Who is that blonde with the voice?
You don't want to know her, Princess.
She must be important with that voice; who is she?
She is the woman in the whole world who is most your opposite.
Then I must know her. Will she give me tea and introduce me to a
dozen people?
Oh, yes, she'll do that. But you haven't a thing in common. She is a
narrow British woman, Princess. Her only interest is in the Protestant
Church. She lives in a little British hotel....
But where does she get that authority—and the Princess made a
gesture of perfect mimicry.
Well, I admitted, she has received the highest honors an
Englishwoman can receive. She wrote a hymn and they made her a
Dame of the British Empire.
You see I must be caught out of myself. I must meet her right now.
So I led her up to Dame Edith Steuert, Mrs. Edith Foster Prichard
Steuert, author of Far From Thy Ways, I Strayed, the greatest hymn
since Newman's. Daughter, wife, sister, what not, of clergymen, she
lived in the most exciting currents of Anglicanism. Her conversation ran
on vacant livings and promising young men from Shropshire, and on
the editorials in the latest St. Georges Banner and The Anglican Cry.
She sat on platforms and raised subscriptions and got names. She
seemed to be forever surrounded by a ballet of curates and widows
who at her word, rose and swayed and passed the scones. For she
was the author of the greatest hymn of modern times and gazing at her
one wondered when the mood could have struck this loud conceited
woman, the mood that had prompted those eight verses of despair and
humility. The hymn could have been written by Cowper, that gentle soul
exposed to the flame of an evangelism too hot even for negroes. For
one minute in her troubled girlhood all the intermittent sincerity of
generations of clergymen must have combined in her, and late at night,
full of dejections she could not understand, she must have committed
to her diary that heartbroken confession. Then the fit was over, and
over for ever. It was a telling example of that great mystery in religious
and artistic experience: the occasional profundity of nobodies. Dame
Edith Steuert on being presented, straightened visibly to show that she
was not impressed by the title. With a candor that was another surprise,
Alix asked her if she might use her name as reference on her nephew's
application for entrance into Eton College. To be sure the nephew was
in Lyons, but if Dame Edith would permit the Princess to call upon her
some afternoon she would bring some of the boy's letters, photographs
and sufficient apparatus to convince her that he was a student
recommendable. Friday afternoon was agreed upon, and the Princess
rejoined me for new introductions.
So it went on for an hour. The Princess had no method; each new
encounter was a new problem. Within three minutes the meeting
became an acquaintance, and the acquaintance a friendship. Little did
the new friends guess how strange it was to her. She kept asking me
what their husbands "did." It delighted her to think that their husbands
did anything; she had never guessed that one could meet such people
and smiled amazedly like a girl about to meet a real printed poet. A
doctor's wife, the wife of a man in rubber, fancy.... Toward the end of
the afternoon her enthusiasm waned. I feel a little dusty, she
whispered. I feel very Bovary. To think that all this has been going on in
Rome without my knowing it. I'll go and say goodbye to Mme.
Agaropoulos,—tiens, who is that beautiful lady. That is an American,
isn't it? Quick.
For the only time in my life I saw the beautiful and unhappy Mrs.
Darrell who had come to take leave of her Roman friends. As she
entered the room a silence fell upon the company; there was something
antique, something Plato would have seized upon in the effect of her
beauty. She made much of it, with that touch of conceit that we allow to
a great musician listening exaggeratedly to his own perfect phrasing, or
to the actor who sets aside author, fellow-players and the fable itself, in
order to improvise the last excessive moments of a death scene. She
dressed, she glanced, she moved and spoke as only uncontested
beauties may: she too revived a lost fine art. To this virtuosity of
appearing, her illness and suffering had added a quality even she could
not estimate, a magic of implied melancholy. But all this perfection of
hers was unapproachable; none of her dearest friends, not even Miss
Morrow, dared to kiss her. She was like a statue in a solitude. She
presuffered her death, and her spirit was set in defiance. She hated
every atom of a creation where such things were possible. The next
week she was to retire to her villa at Capri with her collection of
Mantegnas and Bellinis and to live through four months with their
treacherous love-affair and to die. But this day in the serenity of the
selfishness that was her perfection and the selfishness that was her
illness she effaced the room.
He would have loved me if I had looked like that, breathed Alix into
my ear, and sinking into a retired chair covered her mouth with her
hand.
Mme. Agaropoulos took Helen Darrell's fingertips a little timidly and
led her to the finest chair. No one seemed able to say anything. Luigi
and Vittorio, sons of the house, went up and kissed her hand; the
American ambassador approached to compliment her.
She is beautiful. She is beautiful, muttered Alix to herself. The world
is hers. She will never have to suffer as I must. She is beautiful.
It would not have consoled the Princess if I had explained to her that
Helen Darrell, having been admired extravagantly from the cradle had
never been obliged to cultivate her intelligence to retain her friends and
that, if I may say it respectfully, her mind was still that of a school-girl.
Fortunately the flautist was still there to play and during the
performance of the Paradise music from Orpheus scarcely a pair of
eyes in the room left the newcomer's face. She sat perfectly straight,
allowing herself none of the becoming attitudes which music suggests
to her kind, no ardent attention, no starry-eyed revery. I remember
thinking she marked too deliberately the anti-sentimental. When the
music was over she asked to be taken to say goodbye, for the present,
to Jean Perraye. From the window I could see them alone together,
with the gray cats, queens of France, moving meaninglessly about
them. One wonders what they said to one another as she knelt beside
his chair: as he said later, they loved one another because they were ill.
Alix d'Espoli would not stir until she knew that Mrs. Darrell had left
the house and garden. All her suffering had rushed back upon her. She
pretended to be sipping a cup of tea while she gathered herself
together. I understand now, she murmured hoarsely. God has never
meant me to be happy. Others may be happy with one another. But I
shall never be. I know that now. Let us go.
Then began what was ever after known to the Cabala as Alix aux
Enfers. She would lunch at a tiny pension with some English spinsters;
stop in at some studio in the Via Margutta; pass through a reception at
an Embassy; dance till seven at the Hotel Russie as the guest of some
cosmetic manufacturer's wife; dine with the Queen Mother; hear the
last two acts of the Opera in Marconi's box. Even after that she might
feel the need of finishing the day at the Russian cabaret, perhaps
contributing herself a monologue to the program. She no longer had
any time to see the Cabala and it watched her progress with terror.
They begged her to come back to them, but she only laughed at them
with her bright febrile eyes and dashed off into her new-found
whirlpools. Long after when some Roman name arose in their
conversation they would all cry: Alix knows them! To which she would
reply coolly: Of course I know them, and a roar would arise from the
table. The acquaintances she was now pursuing for distraction, I had
long since pursued for study or from simple liking; but she soon
outstripped me by the hundreds. I went to a few engagements with her,
but often enough we would come upon one another in ludicrous
situations; whereupon we would retire behind a door and compare
notes as to how we got there. Did Commendatore Boni ask a few
people to the Palatine? she was there. Did Benedetto Croce give a
private reading of a paper on George Sand? we glimpsed one another
gravely in that solemn air. She lost a comb in defence of Reality at the
stormy opening of Pirandello's Sei Personaggi in Cerca d'Autore; at
Casella's party for Mengelberg, who had been surpassing himself at
the Augusteo, dear old Bossi stood on her train and the sound of
ripping satin caught the enraptured ear of a dozen organists.
When the bourgeoisie discovered that she was accepting invitations
there was a tumult as of many waters. Most of her hostesses assumed
that she would not have come to them were it not for the fact that better
doors were beginning to be closed against her, but fair or foul they
would accept her. And they had her at her best; the faint touch of frenzy
that was driving her on only rendered her gift the more dazzling. People
who had spent their lives laughing at tiresome jokes were now given
something to laugh at. She would be begged to do this or that "bit"
which had become famous. Have you heard Alix do the Talking Horse?
No, but she did the Kronprinz in Frascati for us last Friday. Oh, aren't
you lucky!
For the first time she was seeing something of artists and among
them she was enjoying her liveliest successes. The underpainting of
her misery which especially these days rendered her wit so magical
was much clearer to them than to the manufacturers. They never failed
to mention it and their love led them to paying her the strangest tributes
which at the time she was in too great a daze to stop and value.
For a while I thought she was enjoying all this. She would laugh so
naturally over some of the accidents of the days. Moreover I noticed
that she was forming some very rare attachments and I hoped that the
friendship of Signora Daveni or of Duse or of Besnard would be able to
comfort and finally reconcile her. But one evening I was suddenly
shown how utterly ineffectual this plunging about the jungle was.
After a month's absence James Blair wrote me from Spain that he
had to come back to Rome, even if it were only for a week. He
promised to see no one, to keep up side-streets and to get out as soon
as it was possible.
I wrote him back in the strongest profanity that it was impossible. Go
anywhere else. Don't fool with such things.
He replied, no less angry, that he could move about the earth as
freely as everybody else. Whether I liked it or not he was coming to
Rome the following Wednesday and nothing would stop him. He was
on the traces of the Alchemists. He wanted to know all that was left of
the old secret societies and his search was leading to Rome. Since I
could do nothing to prevent his coming I could at least devote my
energies to concealing it. I took almost ridiculous precautions. I even
saw to it that Mlle de Morfontaine had Alix in Tivoli over the week-end
and that Besnard had her sitting for a portrait most of the mornings. But
there is a certain spiritual law that requires our tragic coincidences.
Which of us has not felt it? Take no precautions.
The seer whom Blair had returned to visit, Sareptor Basilis, lived in
three rooms on the top floor of an old palace in the Via Fontanella di
Borghese. Rumor had it that he could make lightning play about his left
hand and that when his meditations approached ecstacy he could be
seen sitting among the broken arcs of a dozen rainbows; and that as
you mounted the dark stairs you fought your way through the
welcoming ghosts as through a swarm of bees. In the front room where
the meetings were held (Wednesdays for adepts, Saturdays for
beginners) one was awed by discovering a circular hole in the roof that
was never closed. Under it had been laid a zinc-lined depression that
carried off the rain water and in this depression stood the master's
chair.
Long meditation and ecstatic trances had certainly beautified his
face. His blue-green eyes, not incapable of sudden acuteness, drifted
vaguely about under a smooth pink forehead; he had the bushy white
eyebrows and beard of Blake's Creator. Except for his long walks he
seemed to have no private life, but sat all day and night under the hole
in the roof, lending an ear to a whispering visitor, writing slowly with his
left hand, or gazing up into the sky. A host of people from every walk of
life sought him out and held him in reverence. He gave no thought to
practical necessities, for his admirers, spiritually prompted, were
continually leaving significant looking envelopes beside him on the
zinc-lined depression. Some left bottles of wine and bars of bread, and
brown silk shirts. The only human occupation that arrested his attention
was music, and it is said that he would stand by the door of the
Augusteo on the afternoon of a symphony concert and wait for some
passerby, spiritually prompted, to buy him a ticket. If none came, he
would continue on his way without bitterness. He composed music
himself, hymns for unaccompanied voices which he affirmed he had
heard in dream. They were written in a notation resembling our own,
but not sufficiently so to allow of transcription. I have puzzled for hours
over the score of a certain Lo, where the rose of dispersion empurples
the dawn. This motet for ten voices, a chorus of angels on the last day,
began plainly enough with the treble clef on five staves, but how was
one to interpret a sudden shrinkage of the horizontal lines to two in all
parts? I humbly approached the master on this subject. He replied that
the effect of the music at that point could only be expressed by a
radical departure from standard notation; that the economy of staves
denoted an acuity of pitch; that the note on which my thumb was
reposing was an E, a violet E, an E of the quality of a lately-warmed
amethyst ... music powerless to express ... ah ... the rose of dispersion
empurples. At first the nonsense in which he moved and thought
enraged me. I invented opportunities for provoking his absurdity. I
improvised a story about a pilgrim who had come up to me in the nave
of the Lateran and told me it was God's will that I should return with him
to a leper colony in Australia. Dear Master, I cried, how shall I know if
this be my real vocation? His answer was not clear. I was told that
destiny herself was the mother of decision, and that my vocation would
be settled by events not by consideration. In the next breath I was
bidden to do nothing rashly; to lay my ear over the lute of eternity and
to plan my life in harmony with the cosmic overtones. During the course
of a year thousands of women visited him, of every rank, and in every
sort of perplexity, and to each one he offered the comforts of metaphor.
They came away from him with shining faces; these phrases were
beautiful and profound to them; they wrote them in their diaries and
murmured them over to themselves when they were tired.
Basilis was attended by two homely sisters, the Adolfini girls. Lise
must have been thirty and Vanna about twenty-eight. They say that he
ran across them in the Italian quarter of London where they were
serving as attendants in a ballet school. Penury and abuse had left
them scarcely the human semblance. Every evening at eleven when
they had unlaced the last slipper of the night class, treated the floor
with tallow, polished the bars and tied up the chandelier, they went
around the corner to the Café Roma for a thimbleful of coffee to sip with
their bread. Here Basilis was to be found, a photographer's assistant
with grandiose pretensions. He was vice-president of the Rosicrucian
Mysteries, Soho Chapter, a group of clerks, waiters and idealistic
barbers who found compensation for the humiliations they underwent
by day in the glories they ascribed to themselves by night. They met in
darkened rooms, took oaths with one hand resting on the works of
Swedenborg, read papers on the fabrication of gold and its
metaphysical implications, and elected one another with great
earnestness to the offices of arch-adept and magister hieraticorum.
They corresponded with similar societies in Birmingham, Paris and
Sydney, and sent sums of money to the last of the magi, Orzinda-
Mazda of Mount Sinai. Basilis first discovered his power over the minds
of women when he fell into the habit of talking to the two mute sisters in
the café. They listened wide-eyed to his stories of how some workmen
near Rome, breaking by chance into the tomb of Cicero's daughter,
Tulliola, discovered an ever-burning lamp suspended in mid-air, its wick
feeding on Perpetual Principle; of how Cleopatra's son Cæsarion was
preserved in a translucent liquid "oil of gold," and could be still seen in
an underground shrine at Vienna; and of how Virgil never died, but was
alive still on the Island of Patmos, eating the leaves of a peculiar tree.
The wonder-stories, the narrator's apocalyptic eyes, the excitement of
being spoken to without anger, and the occasional offer of Vermouth
bewitched the sisters. They became his unquestioning slaves; with the
money they had saved up he opened a Temple where his gift met
extraordinary success. The girls left the ballet school and became
doorkeepers in the house of their lord. The new leisure into which they
entered, the sufficient food, the privilege of serving Basilis, his
confidence and his love, combined to constitute a burden of happiness
almost too great to be borne. Happiness is in proportion to humility: the
humility of the Adolfini girls was so profound that there was in it no
room for the expression of gratitude or surprise; in the face of it food
could not fatten them nor love soften their bony features; not even
when after some altercation with the London police Basilis and his
handmaidens removed to their native Rome. To be sure the master in
turn never confessed his indebtedness to the girls for their silent and
skillful ministration. Even in love he was impersonal; they merely
provided him with that mood of gentle satiety of the senses which is an
indispensable element of the philosopher's meditation.
It was under this skylight then that Blair and I sat at about eleven-
thirty, waiting for the public séance to begin. We were early, and leaning
back against the wall we watched the little group of visitors that one by
one moved up to the unboxed confessional that was the master's ear. A
clerk with watery eyes and trembling hands; a stout lady of the middle
class, gripping a large shopping purse and talking with great rapidity
about her nepote; a trim little professional woman, probably a lady's
maid, stuffing a tiny handkerchief into her mouth as she sobbed.
Basilis' eyes seldom strayed to his visitors' faces, while he dismissed
them with a few measured grave sentences his glance revealed
nothing but its serene abstraction. Presently a younger woman, heavily
veiled, crossed the floor swiftly to the empty chair beside him. She must
have been there before, for she lost no time in greetings. Under deep
emotion she pleaded with him. A little surprised by her vehemence he
interrupted her several times with the words Mia figlia. The reproaches
only increased her energy, and brushing back her veil with her hand in
order to thrust her face into the sage's she revealed herself as Alix
d'Espoli. Terror went through me; I seized Blair's arm and made signs
that we were to escape. But at that moment the Princess with a gesture
of anger, as though she had come, not so much to ask the sage's
counsel, as to announce a determination, rose and turned to the door.
Unerringly her eyes met ours, and the rebellious light died out, to be
replaced by fear. For a moment the three of us hung suspended on one
cord of horror. Then the Princess collected herself long enough to
tincture the despairing contraction of her mouth with a smile; she
bowed to us deliberately in turn and passed almost majestically from
the room.
At once I returned home and wrote her a long letter, using the whole
truth as a surgeon in an extremity would resort to a wholesale
guesswork with the knife. I never received an answer. And our
friendship was over. I had often to meet her again, and we even came
finally to have agreeable conversations together, but we never
mentioned the affair and there was a glaze of impersonality over her
eyes.
From the night she had seen us in Basilis' rooms the Princess gave
up her social researches as abruptly as she had begun them. Nor did
she ever go to the Rosicrucian again. I heard that she was attempting
the few remaining consolations that lie open to affliction: she took to the
fine arts; she climbed up ladders respectfully placed for her in the
Sistine Chapel and stared at the frescos through magnifying glasses;
she resumed the culture of her voice and even sang a little in public.
She started off on a trip to Greece, but came back without any
explanations a week later. There was a hospital phase during which
she cut off her hair and tiptoed about among the wards.
At last the beating of the wings, the darting about the cage,
subsided. She had come to the second stage of convalescence: the
mental pain that had been so great that it had to be passed into the
physical and that expressed itself in movement, had now sufficiently
abated to permit her to think. All her vivacity left her and she sat about
in her friends' homes listening to their visitors.
Little by little then her old graces began to reappear. First a few wry
sarcasms, gently slipping off her tongue; then some rueful narratives in
which she appeared in a poor light; then ever so gradually the wit, the
energy, and last of all the humor.
The whole Cabala trembled with joy, but pretended to have noticed
nothing. Only one night when for the first time at table she had returned
to her gorgeous habit of teasing the Cardinal on his Chinese habits,
only once on leaving the table did he take her two hands and gaze
deep into her eyes with a significant smile that both reproached her for
her long absence and welcomed her back. She blushed slightly and
kissed the sapphire.
I, who know nothing about such things, assumed that the grand
passion was over and dreaded any moment seeing her interesting
herself in some new Northerner. But one little incident taught me how
deep a wound may be.
One afternoon at the villa in Tivoli we were standing on the balcony
overlooking the falls. Whenever she was left alone with me her charm
abated; she seemed to be fearing that I might attempt a confidence; the
muscles at the corners of her mouth would tighten. We were joined
from the house by a well-known Danish archaeologist who began to
discourse upon the waterfall and its classical associations. Suddenly he
stopped and turning to me, cried:
Oh, I have a message for you. How could I have forgotten that! I met
a friend of yours in Paris. A young American named Blair—let me see,
was it Blair?
Yes, Doctor.

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Chapter 1 The Science of Chemistry 1

Chapter 2 Numbers From Measurements 17

Chapter 3 Unit Systems and Dimensional Analysis 60

3.6 Conversion Factors 68

Chapter 4 Basic Concepts About Matter 111

Chapter 5 Atoms, Molecules, and Subatomic Particles 140

5.6 Atomic Number and Mass Number 152

Chapter 6 Electronic Structure and Chemical Periodicity 182

Chapter 7 Chemical Bonds 228

7.7 Chemical Formulas for Ionic Compounds 241

Chapter 8 Chemical Nomenclature 291

Chapter 9 Chemical Calculations: The Mole Concept

9.10 The Mole and Chemical Calculations 351

Chapter 10 Chemical Calculations Involving Chemical Equations 387

Chapter 11 States of Matter 439

11.14 Vapor Pressure of Liquids 464

Chapter 12 Gas Laws 488

Chapter 13 Solutions 564

13.3 Solution Formation 568

Chapter 14 Acids, Bases, and Salts 616

Chapter 15 Chemical Equations: Net Ionic and Oxidation–Reduction 665

Chapter 16 Reaction Rates and Chemical Equilibrium 710

NEW FEATURES OF THE ELEVENTH EDITION

IMPORTANT CONTINUING FEATURES IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION

For the Student

Reviewers of the Eleventh Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

Reviewers of the Tenth Edition of Introduction to Chemical Principles, Stoker

1.1 Chemistry—A Scientific Discipline

1.1 CHEMISTRY—A SCIENTIFIC DISCIPLINE

Astronomy Geology Physics Chemistry Botany Zoology

Astrochemistry Geochemistry Chemical Biochemistry

Analytical General Inorganic Organic Physical

Analysis Fundamental Noncarbon- Carbon- Energy

TABLE 1.1 Names of the Divisions of the American Chemical Society

Agricultural and Food Chemistry Fluorine Chemistry

1.2 SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY

1.4 HOW CHEMISTS DISCOVER THINGS—THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

There is no one single correct way to do scientific research, be it basic or applied

The scientific method is a set of general procedures based on experimentation and

On occasion, a great discovery is made by accident, but the majority of scientific

Experiments, Observations, and Data

FIGURE 1.2 Chemistry

more information. An experiment is a well-defined, controlled procedure for obtaining

EXAMPLE 1.1 Distinguishing between Qualitative

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