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T H E NU rS E
M E NTor’S
HA NDBo o K
Supporting Students
in Clinical Practice
Thlrd
EdlTlo
n
DA NNY WA L S H
with contribitions by Julie Dixon,
Fran Maplethorpe,Wendy Leighton,
Clare Sobieraj and Karen Johnston
The Nurse Mentor’s
Handbook
The Nurse Mentor’s
Handbook
Supervising and Assessing
Students in Clinical Practice
THIRD EDITION
Danny Walsh
Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
8th Floor, 338 Euston Road
London
England
NW1 3BH
email: enquiries@openup.co.uk
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk
and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA
First published in this 3rd edition 2021
Copyright © Open International Publishing Limited, 2021
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purposes of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained
from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street,
London EC1N 8TS.
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library
ISBN-13: 9780335248612
ISBN-10: 0335248616
eISBN: 9780335248629
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data applied for
Typeset by Transforma Pvt. Ltd., Chennai, India
Fictitious names of companies, products, people, characters and/or data that may be
used herein (in case studies or in examples) are not intended to represent any real
individual, company, product or event.
Praise page
Out with the old and in with the new! Looking back on my nurse train-
ing I can vividly recall clinical placements where I was mentored by
inspirational, dynamic, enthusiastic, and nurturing mentors. However,
I can equally recall the toxic mentors that ruined clinical placements
and made me question whether I wanted to be a nurse at all! Support-
ing students in clinical practice is a privilege and getting it right is
essential! Danny Walsh’s book demystifies the NMC’s SSSA document
and provides a real insight into the meaning of the word mentorship,
along with practical advice on how to be a practice supervisor.
Mike Parker is an Associate Professor in
Emergency Nursing at the University of York, UK
This is a real-world book that offers practice supervisors and asses-

sors detailed guidance on their new role within the context of the
recent NMC (2018) standards for supervision and assessment of
students. It gives information on the background policy to the stan-
dards and what is expected of nurses who take on these new roles.
The book provides the theoretical base and practical guidance on
facilitating good quality learning experiences for students and on
teaching, assessment and providing evidence of learning. It is the
ideal handbook for nurses since it addresses all the issues that you
are likely to encounter whilst supporting students, with an easy ref-
erence system and great practical examples.
Professor Fiona Irvine - Emeritus Professor
in Nursing, University of Birmingham
A book worth recommending and adopting as a core text for mod-

ules, especially those in teaching, learning and assessment for new
mentors, practice assessors and supervisors. It can be a resource
for nurses returning to study, international students and anyone
involved in clinical guidance/teaching such as practice education
coordinators, facilitators, and nominated persons. It would also be
suitable for lecturers delivering core modules for Diploma, Degree,
Masters and Dissertations.
Leontia Hoy - Course Director - Bsc Hons/
Graduate Diploma/ Post Graduate Diploma–
Specialist Practice, School of Nursing,
Queens University Belfast
Contents
List of figures xi
Acknowledgements xiii
Introduction1
Who is this book for? 1
A brief summary 2
Quotes and narratives 3
Benefits of being a practice supervisor 4
Students’ views 4
Summary5
References5
1 The mentor’s new clothes: the NMC standards for

student supervision and assessment 6
Key points 6
History and context of student supervision 6
SLAiP: the NMC framework to support learning and
assessment in practice 7
NMC review of nurse education 2010 11
The mentor’s new clothes 2018 13
Summary20
Further reading 20
References20
2 Effective practice supervision 22

Key points 22
Motivation, Maslow, and practice supervisors 22
The characteristics and roles of the supervisor/mentor 24
Effective working relationships and the practicalities
of supervision 26
The first day and week 28
Active listening: the basis of effective working relationships 34
Student-centred leadership 39
Summary41
Further reading 41
References41
viiiContents
3 Supervision considerations 43
Key points 43
What can we learn from the clinical supervision
literature?43
Supporting students through clinical supervision 43
Toxic mentoring and supervising (how not to do it!) 49
Practice supervisor SWOT analysis 55
A useful alternative 57
Liaison with higher education institutions 58
The case of the associate nurse: a new role for
health and social care 60
Summary63
Further reading 63
References64
4 The clinical learning environment 66

Key points 66
Creating an environment for learning 66
Factors that enhance a placement experience 68
Factors that detract from a placement experience 72
Learning experiences 74
Learning resources 78
Placement profiles 80
Insight visits 82
Links with the School of Nursing/university 82
Role modelling 82
Structured teaching 83
Mapping of learning opportunities 83
Educational audit 85
SWOT analysis of the placement area 87
Students’ evaluation of placement 88
Physical safety 89
Evidence-based practice 89
Practice supervisor’s evaluation of placement 92
Conclusion: putting it all together 93
Summary94
Further reading 95
References95
5 Teaching and learning theory 96

Key points 96
Teaching and learning theories 97
Behaviourist theories 97
Humanistic theories 99
Contents ix
Cognitive theories 103

Learning styles 107
Criticisms of learning styles 112
Bloom’s taxonomy 113
Summary of key principles of good teaching 116
Summary117
Further reading 117
References118
6 Teaching in practice 119

Key points 119
Theory in practice! 120
Lesson planning 121
Teaching methods and strategies 126
Assessment of learning 140
Student evaluations 140
Conclusion141
Summary142
References142
7 Assessment: theory and practice reality 144

Key points 144
Theory of assessment 147
Cardinal criteria 148
Types of assessment 151
Evaluating learning 155
Factors influencing assessments 155
Assessment in practice 157
Levels of learner 162
Attitude163
Good practice in assessment 164
Summary166
Further reading 166
References166
8 Evidence of learning 168

Key points 168
What is a portfolio? 168
Structure of a portfolio 170
Reflection173
Types of evidence of learning 175
Learning contracts 176
Summary180
References180
xContents
9 Fostering a successful placement 182

Key points 182
Support mechanisms other than the practice supervisor 182
Link tutor/personal tutor 183
Students with disabilities and difficulties 188
Disability189
Dyslexia192
Dyscalculia193
Sickness and stress 193
Workplace harassment 195
Bad practice 195
Supporting the failing student 196
Reasons for failure 196
The error of leniency: why nurses fail to fail students! 197
Providing feedback 199
Avoiding failure and failing with fairness 203
Managing the process of failure 204
Attitude 208
Accountability and responsibility in practice 212
NMC requirements 216
Summary216
Further reading 216
Useful web resources 217
References217
10 Support and development for the practice

supervisor and assessor 219
Key points 219
Practice supervisor’s guide to surviving a placement! 219
The politics of time 221
Maintaining competence 222
Evidence for a portfolio 223
Research227
Revalidation 227
Support for practice supervisors/assessors 227
Common practice supervision/assessment problems 230
Some problems to ponder 235
Ongoing developments 236
Good practice for practice supervisors: a few reminders 238
The future! 239
Summary240
Further reading 241
Useful web resources 241
References241
Index243
Figures
1.1 How it might look! 19

4.1 Role of the nurse spider chart 76
4.2 Sample patient’s journey 78
4.3 Mapping learning experiences 79
4.4 Nursing action research cycle 91
4.5 Simplified nursing action research cycle 91
5.1 The nursing process 108
5.2 The nursing process and Kolb’s learning
cycle combined 109
6.1 The lesson-planning cycle 121
6.2 Example of the construction of a mind map 131
8.1 Student’s reflective cycle 174
Acknowledgements
For this third edition I am hugely indebted to a host of friends and col-
leagues. The advice and contributions of my colleagues Julie Dixon and
Fran Maplethorpe have been invaluable and their contribution on the art of
supervision does much to enhance this volume. I am also grateful to Clare
Sobieraj and Karen Johnston for their general overview of the Nursing and
Midwifery Council (NMC) changes to nurse education and student supervi-
sion. The material relating to nursing associates was written by Wendy
Leighton. My thanks also go to Diane Ramm who has drawn on her consid-
erable experience to write an important section detailing the key principles
of teaching clinical skills, and to Chris Craggs who contributed her insight
with the section relating to students with disability. Many of the mentor/
supervisor and student quotes used within were drawn from various student
evaluations from a range of nursing courses nationally. Many were also sent
to me anonymously, so to persons unknown I am especially grateful. Some
narratives were recollected on request specifically for this book and I am
grateful to these contributors: S. Bettles, A. Hurrell, N. Raybould, Y. Potter,
C. Burrows, Z. Mabandla, G. Helme and I. Trueman. Finally Sylvia Hep-
worth, whose wisdom and experience I called upon many times in the pro-
duction of the second edition, remains a major influence upon this third. I
have been lucky to have had such support from all those listed above – as far
as mentors go, there could be no better.
Introduction
Arguably the most important aspect of nursing and midwifery training is the
clinical placement during which nurses learn and practise their many skills
in the real world. The most important factor underpinning a good placement
is the practice supervisor who works with the student. All nurses have a
duty, through their professional code of conduct, to pass on their knowledge
and to teach students – and this book is a guide to doing just that. The sec-
ond edition of The Nurse Mentor’s Handbook embraced changes in nurse
education and this third edition has had to incorporate some wholesale
changes in pre-registration nurse training and student nurse mentorship
described by the NMC as not just an update but a radical revision. Not least
of these have been changes in terminology and the division of labour: nurse
mentors have been replaced by practice supervisors and practice assessors.
In a sense it is a case of the emperor’s new clothes (or titles) – of which more
in Chapter 1. Among other changes, there have also been new standards of
proficiency for registered nurses and the introduction of nurse associates.
What’s in a word!
While the mentor of old is now cast as a practice supervisor and some-
times practice assessor, the reality will see the same roles and skills being
used by the same nurses under new titles, with little practical difference.
The word mentor is still used in many instances throughout this book,
such as in the examples from practice taken before the new terminology
was in place; indeed, it will take a while for nursing to get used to the new
terminology – not least because the word mentor perfectly describes the
role of the supervisor and assessor in a clinical practice setting.
Who is this book for?
The purpose of the book is to examine and support the role of the nurse
acting as practice supervisor and/or assessor to pre-registration student
nurses in the light of the NMC 2018 Standards for Student Supervision and
Assessment (NMC 2018a). The book is intended primarily for qualified
nurses undertaking the roles of practice supervisor and assessor. However,
it will also be of value to all student nurses themselves, containing as it does
2 The Nurse Mentor’s Handbook
a wealth of guidance and ideas on useful learning experiences to undertake

in practice and how these can be presented as evidence of achievement of
proficiencies. It will also be useful to those undertaking mentorship or
supervision in other related health and social care settings, such as occupa-
tional therapy, physiotherapy and social work. The professional standards
might vary, but, as with midwives, the supervision skills and teaching ele-
ments will be transferable.
A brief summary
Chapter 1 ‘The mentor’s new clothes’ discusses the policy context and recent
changes arising out of the NMC’s (2018a) Standards for Student Supervi-
sion and Assessment which sets out the roles and requirements for practice
supervisors and assessors. The history and politics of mentorship are also
examined for valuable lessons to be learnt.
Chapter 2 ‘Effective practice supervision’ examines the role of the super
visor, trying to capture the essence of what it takes to be a good supervisor.
It examines some key principles – including effective working relationships
and communication – and offers much practical advice on how to make a
student feel valued and the placement successful.
Chapter 3 ‘Supervision considerations’ examines the literature around clin-
ical supervision to see how it informs practice supervision. It looks at the
concept of ‘toxic’ mentoring or supervision and how to audit your supervi-
sion skills. It also looks at the introduction of a new level of nurse associate
and examines their own needs in relation to supervision.
Chapter 4 ‘The clinical learning environment’ examines the qualities of a
good learning environment as well as what detracts from it. In any learning
environment, many factors affect the learning that takes place, for good and
for bad. Readers are asked to reflect upon their own experiences here in
order to explore key issues. The chapter also covers the key aspects of pro-
ficiency mapping and how this can be achieved, and explores the range of
potential learning opportunities in the clinical environment. Furthermore, it
introduces a range of strategies that can help improve the learning environ-
ment. An emphasis is placed upon evidence-based practice and the role action
research can play.
Chapter 5 ‘Teaching and learning theory’ explores the major educational
theories, examining them for their usefulness and practical application.
Behaviourist, cognitive and humanist approaches to learning and teaching
are explored alongside the concepts of andragogy and pedagogy. The chapter
also examines the concept of learning styles and the work of Kolb, Bloom,
and Honey and Mumford, among others.
Chapter 6 ‘Teaching in practice’ looks at the teaching cycle, planning for
teaching, and lesson planning. The chapter outlines the practicalities and
skills of delivering teaching in the practice setting and examines the various
Introduction 3
teaching methods and resources that are available, giving the practice
supervisor a range of strategies to choose from. It also looks at assessment
of learning.
Chapter 7 ‘Assessment: theory and practice reality’ focuses upon assessment,
examining the process and the theory behind it. From definitions and aims
of assessment, it goes on to discuss the cardinal criteria for assessment –
such as validity and reliability. From a practical point of view, a range of
assessment methods are examined which can be used to assess clinical pro-
ficiency, again giving the practice supervisor and assessor a range of strat-
egies to choose from.
Chapter 8 ‘Evidence of learning’ looks at the range of evidence which can
go towards demonstrating the student’s achievement of their proficiencies.
The role of portfolios which many students and qualified nurses have to
keep is examined. It also highlights the importance of reflection.
Chapter 9 ‘Fostering a successful placement’ provides a summary of good
practice in relation to supporting students generally. It also looks at the
ways in which mentors can help students with disabilities such as dyslexia
and dyscalculia, and support students under stress. The chapter also exam-
ines the work of Kathleen Duffy and others who identified that mentors were
‘failing to fail’ students for various reasons. The evidence and implications
are examined in detail before outlining a strategy for fair and objective sup-
port for a failing student. The implications for professional (and other)
accountability are made clear. Particular emphasis is placed upon the diffi-
cult area of assessing a student’s ‘attitude’. The chapter outlines good prac-
tice guidelines for practice supervisors and assessors and suggests ways in
which the supervisor can help the student get the best out of their placement.
Chapter 10 ‘Support and development for the practice supervisor and
assessor’ provides a range of strategies relating to how practice supervisors
can be supported. The chapter also looks at the evidence nurses could gen-
erate in relation to updating and building a portfolio of ongoing proficiency.
There is also an examination of commonly encountered placement problems
giving suggested strategies for dealing with them.
Quotes and narratives
The chapter themes are illustrated in part by quotes and narratives from
students in training, supervisors and previous mentors. These are real com-
ments and describe the students’ raw concerns. It is the kind of feedback
straight from the horse’s mouth that we should all be gathering and acting
upon. The importance of the role of practice supervisors in pre-registration
nurse education cannot be underestimated, a point reiterated and evidenced
throughout this book and one that these quotes highlight. Many of the quotes
from nurses are from recent times when they were still called mentors, and
I have kept that term for these quotes rather than change it to the new title
of practice supervisors.
Benefits of being a practice supervisor
As nurses, we have a professional duty towards students as set out in the

NMC Code paragraph 9.4 ‘Support students’ and colleagues’ learning to help
them develop their professional competence and confidence’ and 20.8 ‘Act as
a role model of professional behaviour for students’ (NMC 2018b). Becoming
a practice supervisor is a role nurses should wish to embrace, as it is by no
means just one-way traffic. Here are just a few of the tangible reasons for
becoming one:
• Increased job satisfaction
• Increased professional role
• Involvement with the higher education provider
• Being updated by and learning from the students
• Developing teaching skills
• Adding to personal profile/CV
• Supervision skills useful in other areas – such as management
• Gratitude of the students, and increased self-esteem
• Opportunity to impact upon curriculum and nurse training
• Maintaining the standards of your own profession
• Helping to protect the public
Students’ views
Here are a selection of student reflections suggesting that good practice

supervisors/mentors are highly valued.
Second-year student on medical ward

What stood out for me was working closely with motivated mentors who
were willing to share the wealth of their knowledge despite the pressures
of their hectic shifts.
Third-year student on surgical ward

Every member of the team was approachable and helpful. I was made to
feel valued at all times. Nothing was too much trouble for my mentor and
associate mentor.
(continued)
Introduction 5
Third-year student on emergency assessment unit

Very welcoming staff made the placement very enjoyable. I have gained
valuable knowledge and skills from excellent mentors. They put lots of
effort into the teaching despite the busy workload.
First-year student on medical acute placement

They gave me plenty of opportunity to take part in clinical skills and I
didn’t feel pressured to contribute if I felt I couldn’t do it. Everyone tried
to make me feel welcome and get the best experience I could.
Third-year student on forensic mental health placement

I think what makes a good supervisor is one that takes an interest in their
students’ learning and gets them involved. Somebody you can look up to
in terms of practice and say to yourself ‘I want to be like that’. Somebody
who can tell you what you don’t do well in such a way as to make it not
feel like a criticism but an opportunity. I’ve been very lucky.
First-year mental health student

This placement was a remarkable experience and the credit is due to my
mentor.
Summary
• This introduction has hinted at both the diversity and importance of
the role of the practice supervisor, and this will become even more
apparent in the following chapters.
• It is well documented that nurses who support students are pivotal
in ensuring a student nurse has a good placement experience, and
this view is supported by the students quoted in this book.
References
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018a) Realising Professionalism: Part 2:
Standards for Student Supervision and Assessment. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018b) The Code: Professional Standards of
Practice and Behaviour for Nurses, Midwives and Nursing Associates. London:
NMC.
The mentor’s new
1 clothes: the NMC
standards for student
supervision and
assessment
Key points
• The history and politics of nurse education can inform current prac-
tice
• Good collaboration between education and practice remains crucial
to nurse education
• The old mentor role is now split into those of practice supervisor and
practice assessor
• Nurse education can now be more multidisciplinary
• Practice learning is the responsibility of every registered nurse
The aim of this book is to explore the nature and role of supervising and
assessing student nurses in practice. Gone is the old title and role of mentor,
having been replaced by the roles of practice supervisor and practice asses-
sor. To understand how we have arrived here, it is useful to look back briefly
at the history and context in which the current situation has developed.
History and context of student supervision
In 1999, the Department of Health (DoH) published a strategy for nursing

entitled Making a Difference (DoH 1999). The document was critical of the
abilities of newly trained nurses on the previous Project 2000 curriculum,
saying that evidence suggested that in recent years students completing
training had not been equipped at the point of qualification with the full
range of clinical skills they needed. The strategy also heavily stressed the
importance of practice placements in nurse education, stating a determination
to enhance the status of those who provide practice-based training – i.e. the
mentors. The Department of Health wanted to ensure that nurses were ‘fit
for purpose’, having the necessary skills, knowledge, and ability to provide
The NMC standards for student supervision and assessment 7
the best care. During the same year, the UK Central Council for Nursing,
Midwifery and Health Visiting (UKCC) published its review of nurse educa-
tion entitled Fitness for Practice (UKCC 1999). Essentially, this document
stressed the need to emphasise the role of the mentor/teacher in the practice
setting and reiterated the belief that practice experience was crucial to
nurse education. The report also acknowledged the need for higher education
institutions (HEIs) and health service providers to formalise the preparation
of mentors for nurses in training. The other significant change was the
accreditation of 50 per cent given to the achievement of clinical practice
outcomes, thus raising the status of the clinical aspect of training and under-
lining the need for credible mentor preparation programmes.
Subsequent reports such as Placements in Focus (ENB/DoH 2001) confirmed
this message. Partnership between the National Health Service (NHS) and
HEIs was stressed, and both became responsible for providing and support-
ing clinical placements. The partnership between the clinical areas and the
HEIs is crucial because, as Hand (2006) points out, skill without knowledge
fosters unsafe practice and knowledge without skill fosters incompetence.
How robust do you consider the partnership between your own clinical
area and the university and how could this be improved upon?
SLAiP: the NMC framework to support learning and assessment in

practice
The NMC document Standards to Support Learning and Assessment in

Practice (NMC 2006) gave us the mentor standards describing the outcomes
nurses must attain to become mentors to student nurses.
The framework also identifies eight domains for achieving mentorship:
• Establishing effective working relationships
• Facilitation of learning
• Assessment and accountability
• Evaluation of learning
• Creating an environment for learning
• Context of practice
• Evidence-based practice
• Leadership
The domains were a revision of those previously published by the NMC in
2004 as Standards for the Preparation of Teachers of Nurses, Midwives and
Specialist Community Public Health Nurses. The 2004 standard of ‘Role
modelling’ was replaced with the domain of ‘Leadership’. They were also
modified slightly in 2008 in the second edition of Standards to Support
Learning and Assessment in Practice (NMC 2008).
These mentor domains (or standards as they were called) represented the
competencies and outcomes for mentors, with each domain broken down
into several outcomes:
Establish effective working relationships

• Demonstrate an understanding of factors that influence how students
integrate into practice
• Provide ongoing and constructive support to facilitate transition from
one learning environment to another
• Have effective professional and interprofessional working relation-
ships to support learning for entry to the register
Facilitation of learning
• Use knowledge of the student’s stage of learning to select appropriate
learning opportunities to meet their individual needs
• Facilitate selection of appropriate learning strategies to integrate
learning from practice and academic experiences
• Support students in critically reflecting upon their learning experiences
in order to enhance future learning
Assessment and accountability

• Foster professional growth, personal development, and accountability
through support of students in practice
• Demonstrate a breadth of understanding of assessment strategies
and the ability to contribute to the total assessment process as part
of the teaching team
• Provide constructive feedback to students and assist them in identify-
ing future learning needs and actions. Manage failing students so they
may either enhance their performance and capabilities for safe and
effective practice, or be able to understand their failure and the impli-
cations of this for their future
• Be accountable for confirming that students have met, or not met, the
NMC competencies in practice. As a sign-off mentor, confirm that stu-
dents have met, or not met, the NMC standards of competence in
practice and are capable of safe and effective practice
(continued)
Evaluation of learning
• Contribute to evaluation of student learning and assessment experi-
ences – proposing aspects for change as a result of such evaluation
• Participate in self- and peer evaluation to facilitate personal develop-
ment, and contribute to the development of others
Creating an environment for learning

• Support students to identify both learning needs and experiences that
are appropriate to their level of learning
• Use a range of learning experiences, involving patients, clients, carers,
and the professional team, to meet the defined learning needs
• Identify aspects of the learning environment that could be enhanced,
negotiating with others to make appropriate changes
• Act as a resource to facilitate personal and professional developments
of others
Context of practice
• Contribute to the development of an environment in which effective
practice is fostered, implemented, evaluated, and disseminated
• Set and maintain professional boundaries that are sufficiently flexible
for providing interprofessional care
• Initiate and respond to practice developments to ensure safe and
effective care is achieved and an effective learning environment is
maintained
Evidence-based practice
• Identify and apply research- and evidence-based practice to their area
of practice
• Contribute to strategies to increase or review the evidence base used
to support practice
• Support students in applying an evidence base to their own practice
Leadership
• Plan a series of learning experiences that will meet students’ defined
learning needs
• Be an advocate for students to support them accessing learning
opportunities that meet their individual needs – involving a range of
other professionals, patients, clients, and carers
(continued)
• Prioritise work to accommodate support of students within their

practice
• Provide feedback about the effectiveness of learning and assessment
in practice
While the landscape and terminology have changed, these domains and their
outcomes remain very relevant to the new practice supervisors and asses-
sors because essentially the skills and knowledge required have not changed.
The document Standards to Support Learning and Assessment in Practice
(NMC 2006) introduced what was often referred to as the student ‘passport’.
This is a record of each placement in a book/file that is taken from placement
to placement. From 2007 it became known as the ‘Ongoing Achievement
Record’ (OAR) and has recently morphed into a PAD or Practice Assessment
Document.
Previous mentor preparation programmes

The NMC requirements under SLAiP for nurse mentorship courses
declared that they should:
• be at a minimum of Level 2, otherwise known as diploma level or HE
intermediate level
• be a minimum of ten days in length, of which five days are protected
learning time
• include learning in both practice and academic settings
• have a work-based learning component as a key feature. This often
entailed acting as an associate mentor or undertaking tasks related
to student learning in the workplace as directed by the course
locally.
In reality there were many variations of this course nationally, it being
interpreted locally and creatively in many different ways. However,
another reality in many areas suggests that nurses often struggled to
secure their ten days training, often only managing five and making up
the rest in their own time. For managers, releasing staff is difficult at the
best of times, and the course was seen in the light of its predecessor,
which in many areas was interpreted as a three-day course. The NMC
had not previously defined a specific mentor course, and previous men-
tor preparation programmes were approved as part of pre-registration
and specialist practice qualification programmes, producing much
national variation.
With the onset of the new 2018 standards for student supervision and assess-
ment, the requirements for a mentorship course have radically altered and
shortened. The new requirements are explored in more detail below, but one
can argue that the new approach is a watering down of the supervision and
assessment (mentorship) training and represents a worrying devaluation of
the role. Cynically, it can also be seen as a neat way of addressing the wor-
rying lack of good mentors which dogged the old system by replacing a
limited pool of well-trained mentors with a readily available plethora of less
well-prepared, if nonetheless dedicated, practice supervisors.
NMC review of nurse education 2010
The revised Standards for Pre-registration Nursing Education (NMC 2010)

were born out of a consultation exercise commissioned by the NMC entitled
Nursing: Towards 2015 (Longley et al. 2007). The new standards ushered in
an all-degree profession arguing that this was necessary for the future and
to ‘enable new nurses to work more closely and effectively with other pro-
fessionals’ (NMC 2010, p. 8). The review also attempted to clarify the nature
of the concept of ‘due regard’, stating that other registered healthcare pro-
fessionals who have been suitably prepared can supervise and contribute
towards the assessment of nursing students. The new 2018 standards move
this on further in a welcome expansion and flexibility towards who can sup-
port and assess nursing students.
The politics of mentorship!

Many nursing workplaces are stressful and nurses are faced with con-
stant challenges, including lack of time, organisational reform, new tech-
nology, an increasingly aware and challenging patient group, high public
expectations, bed shortages, cost-saving measures, and increasing
non-nursing and administration duties. To this list we must add the almost
constant staff shortages that are the source of most care failings for
which nurses are sometimes erroneously blamed. On such a ward, the
picture to an outsider might be one of unremitting chaos. Yet in the face
of this chaos high standards of care remain and the fact that the above
factors do not often undermine the quality of nursing care, is testimony
to the professionalism of today’s nurses. It can be argued that they are
the glue that holds the NHS together.
This scenario also masks the unofficial training that accompanies such a
shift, whereby students witness thinking in action, intuitional decision-
making, and creative individualised care in the face of daunting con-
straints. Many examples of learning opportunities could be described if
one just sat and watched a shift, noting all that the nurse did on a clipboard.
(continued)
Alongside skilled physical and psychological care tasks are managerial

and decision-making skills, assertive and confident practice. Such
nurses can see beyond the chaos and achieve Benner’s (2001) intuition.
Merely being with these nurses is an important learning experience for
students. Much key learning takes place almost by osmosis with the stu-
dent soaking up styles of nursing, ways of reacting and dealing with
complex situations amid uncertainty and pressure. Such experience is
as beneficial as structured learning and the use of reflection can help to
make sense of it.
When students describe how they learnt to become a nurse, they usually
cite key role models whom they have witnessed regularly in such situa-
tions. It is the skill of the mentor in allowing the student to participate
according to their ability and level in such dynamic and chaotic scenar-
ios that gives the students the opportunity to build personal and profes-
sional competence.
The 2012 NHS London examination of nurse mentorship (Robinson et al.
2012) cites Pulsford and co-workers (2002), reminding us that mentors in
this study wanted more support from trust managers and more time for
mentoring activity, specifically help with managing multiple demands
upon their time. This is still the case and serves as a timely reminder that
if nursing shortages increase and mentorship is not given time, we may
well lose the most important, albeit chaotic, learning experience that stu-
dents get. The profession must monitor very carefully whether the new
approach to mentoring student nurses overcomes or exacerbates these
problems. The title ‘practice supervisor’ is quite succinct, but it doesn’t do
justice to the diversity of roles involved or the range of knowledge and
skills required to undertake it. That mentors did not get any ‘time out’ for
‘mentoring’ a student has been hard to reconcile with the requirements of
the role. Compared with other professions, before the dawn of the new
practice supervisor era, nurses were the poor relations. In their Stand
ards and Guidance for Mentors document (AODP 2006), the Association
of Operating Department Practitioners recommends that mentors have
four hours a week protected time per student. This is to allow them ‘suffi-
cient time to provide regular supervision, including assessment and feed-
back’. Social workers receive enhanced payments for mentoring
students. Occupational therapists are in the same boat as nurses. Their
Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct (College of Occupational Ther-
apists 2005) asks that they make a commitment to the education of stu-
dents in the workplace, having a ‘professional responsibility to provide
educational opportunities for occupational therapy students’ (5.5). For
this role, like nurses, there was no protected time or any extra remuner-
ation – they simply had to try and put aside time for a weekly supervision
session with their student. The NMC Standards to Support Learning and
Assessment in Practice (2006) state that mentors ‘will need time, when
(continued)
undertaking work with a student, to be able to explain, question, assess

performance and provide feedback to the student in a meaningful way’
(NMC 2006, p. 30). The document goes on to state as an NMC requirement
that sign-off mentors should be allowed one hour a week per student.
Given the professional responsibility involved here, this was derisory.
The document had little to offer non-sign-off mentors who had to balance
their clinical and managerial duties with mentoring students.
In 2009, the NMC began a review of pre-registration nurse education with
the aim of developing a teaching, learning, and assessment framework
suitable for the future of an all-degree profession. As part of this process,
a practice educator facilitator workshop identified ten priority areas of
concern, one of which was mentorship. It raised the question, should all
nurses be mentors? An acknowledgement perhaps that a significant
number of nurses have far too little time to be effective mentors, but it
also acknowledged a lack of funding for mentorship and, most tellingly,
lamented the lack of value attributed to the status of mentors. The nurs-
ing professional body should recognise the importance of mentoring by
introducing protected time, if not financial reward, for undertaking the
role. The theory side of training has been elevated to degree status, but
the practice side of training is arguably more deserving of elevation and
status, and this can be achieved in part by recognising and giving real
value to the role of the mentor. But the NMC have not chosen to do this;
they have instead changed the name to practice supervisor and said that
all nurses must be supervisors in an attempt to spread the mentoring
load.
The mentor’s new clothes 2018
Clare Sobieraj and Karen Johnston

In 2018, the Nursing and Midwifery Council – following intensive scrutiny
and consultation – published two new sets of standards. The first, Future
Nurse: Standards of Proficiency for Registered Nurses (NMC 2018a) focuses
on the knowledge, skills and attributes student nurses need to attain in train-
ing to become registered nurses. The second, Realising Professionalism,
sets out expectations regarding the provision of all pre- and post-registration
NMC-approved nursing and midwifery education programmes. Realising
Professionalism was set out in three parts.
• Part 1 Standards Framework for Nursing and Midwifery Education
(NMC 2018b)
• Part 2 Standards for Student Supervision and Assessment (NMC 2018c)
• Part 3 Standards for Pre-registration Nursing Programmes (NMC
2018d)
This book focuses upon Part 2: The Standards for Student Supervision and
Assessment (NMC 2018c) as these are the standards which superseded the
Standards to Support Learning and Assessment in Practice (SLAiP, NMC
2008) which outlined the requirements of the well-established mentor role,
for supporting and assessing student nurses within the practice learning
environment.
Background
The NMC have historically defined the term ‘mentor’ as a registered nurse
who has met the approved preparation and standards and who facilitates
learning and supervises and assesses students in a practice setting (NMC
2008). In preparation for this dual role, prospective mentors with a mini-
mum of one year’s experience and a period of preceptorship after registra-
tion were required to undergo an NMC-approved preparation course, to
demonstrate achievement of the eight NMC Standards to Support Learn-
ing and Assessment in Practice, as described earlier (SLAiP, NMC 2008).
Recorded on a maintained register, mentors in practice then worked with,
guided and supported, the student throughout their placement, assessing
them through various means, including direct observation in practice,
reflective discussions, question and answer sessions, reflective writing
and assessment of a range of clinical and essential skills through continu-
ous, formative and summative means. Both written and verbal feedback
from other team members, such as clinical and practice educators and the
interprofessional team, were implicit within this model. It was a require-
ment that the supernumerary student would spend 40 per cent of their
placement time with a qualified mentor who would work closely with them
and simultaneously oversee and assess the student at defined points, while
giving constructive feedback and support aligned to required compe-
tences and experience. Furthermore, there was a sign-off mentor role,
who having met further requirements stipulated by the NMC, was required
to ‘sign off’ final placement nursing students to assure the required level
of competence had been met for entry onto the register. By and large the
model worked well, but there were some problems with this approach –
most notably time limitations and role pressures for already hard-working
pressurised nurses. The management of challenging or failing students
was also highlighted by many, notably Duffy (Duffy 2003). Not all nurses
were mentors, so workloads could become unevenly spread with no remis-
sion from nursing duties to offset the time pressures of mentoring stu-
dents. The lengthy mentorship course of up to ten days also contributed to
a diminution in the supply of mentors. The 2018 Standards for Student
Supervision and Assessment (NMC 2018c) set out to address these issues
and outline the new approach to nurse mentorship. They set out new
expectations for the learning support, supervision and assessment of stu-
dents in the practice environment, and replace the mentor and sign-off
mentor role with those of practice supervisor, practice assessor and aca-
demic assessor.
The Standards for Student Supervision and Assessment (NMC 2018c) are
divided into three headings:
1. Effective practice learning
2. Supervision of students
3. Assessment of students and confirmation of proficiency
Effective practice learning
This reiterates the need for students to remain supernumerary. It says that all
NMC registrants should now be involved in practice learning. It also states that
the practice supervisor is encouraged to utilise interprofessional learning in
order to meet specific programme and proficiency requirements for the individ-
ual needs of students, tailored to their stage of learning. The perspective of users
and carers is essential to modern healthcare, and students should be encouraged
to follow the patient’s journey in a supportive and flexible learning environment
which encompasses a range of settings and other professionals, as appropriate.
The students themselves are to be regarded as active participants, included and
involved in their own learning, in order to enjoy experiences specific to their
stage of learning and to achieve outcomes relevant to their programme.
Supervision of students
There is now a clear division and separation between the role of practice
supervisor, who works with the student and facilitates their learning, and that
of the practice assessor, whose role is to assess the student in practice and
determine achievement of proficiencies as stipulated in the student’s practice
assessment document. This is a clear move towards improving the objectivity
of the assessment process as the ‘teacher’ (practice supervisor) and assessor
are no longer the same person. Following this, the academic assessor from
the approved education institution (AEI) must determine whether proficiency
and programme outcomes are met in order to confirm progression.
Roles and responsibilities of the supervisor role

The maintenance of public protection and the provision of safe and effective
care remain of paramount importance for the NMC, and it is the practice
supervisor’s role to safeguard this. In general, the practice supervisor should
facilitate and identify learning opportunities for the student based upon
their individual needs and the stage of learning the student is at. Such super-
vision should aim to promote independent learning and can decrease as pro-
ficiency and confidence develop.
All NMC-registered nurses, midwives and nursing associates can be included
in the supervisory role; they are no longer required to be on the same part of
the register or within the same field. As role models, practice supervisors
should practise effectively, in line with their code of conduct, and support
the student to meet their proficiencies and programme outcomes.
Apart from nurses, one major change is that any registered health and social
care professional may take on the role of supervisor to students and provide
ongoing support and guidance for the duration or part of the placement.
This role might be undertaken by occupational therapists, physiotherapists,
nursing associates, social workers, paramedics and potentially pharmacists
and doctors as registered professionals – essentially any professional within
the multidisciplinary team. A significant outcome of this change may be that
capacity for student nurses in placement could well increase, with a wider
professional workforce responsible for supervision rather than one individ-
ual in one profession. Another benefit may be the potential for movement
around services and agencies as part of neighbourhood teams, and primary
care networks with more flexible working across boundaries. These other
registered health and social care professionals are also tasked with training
their own profession, and may not feasibly have capacity to extend this to
nursing students. However, adopting a more interprofessional workforce
approach to training should lead to the development of more knowledgeable
practitioners who are able to more readily understand each other’s roles and
liaise more effectively across team and profession boundaries. Such poor
interprofessional and inter-team communication has often been cited as a
key factor in many recent tragedies where care has failed.
Effective record-keeping on behalf of the supervisor will be essential, while
direct observations and reflective discussions and other resources – for
example, fellow professionals, patients and service users’ views – can be
drawn on to inform decisions. Supervisors will provide feedback to the prac-
tice assessor and ascertain the achievement of clinical skills. As supervisors
can change over the course of a week, a ‘go to’ professional may manage
and oversee learning opportunities to ensure a diverse and relevant range of
skills and proficiencies are observed, attempted, practised and assessed.
The NMC (2018c) state that a nominated person in each practice setting
should be identified to actively support students and address their concerns.
Thus, in case of difficulty, the students will have an identified ‘go to’ person.
This will be locally managed by practice partners with the support of their
approved education institute partner. The supervisor also contributes
through both written and verbal feedback to the student’s overall assess-
ment of proficiency and achievement of programme outcomes, and so must
have a good understanding of these through effective preparation and sup-
port. Liaison and meeting with the practice assessor are also essential to
discuss direct observations, progress, and the development of skills. Super-
visors should seek support from assessors when raising concerns. Once
effectively prepared, supervisors can also take on an assessor role but can-
not supervise and assess the same student, in order to enhance objectivity.
Many aspects of a student’s placement will look much the same and remain
unchanged, they will still need an induction to the placement, an initial inter-
view, mid-point and final interviews. Indeed, the skills and practicalities of
supervising and assessing remain pretty much as they were under the title
of mentorship. Role modelling used to be a staple of good mentorship, and

the new approach from the NMC reiterates the importance of this, stating
that supervisors serve as role models for safe and effective practice.
Preparation and support for the supervisor role

The preparation and support for the practice supervisor and assessor role
are no longer NMC-approved but determined through collaboration between
the practice partner and the student’s approved education institution, who
are accountable for the local delivery and management of approved pro-
grammes, thus allowing innovative approaches to be developed. The super-
visor role requires knowledge and understanding of the proficiencies and
programme outcomes, and preparation for this is important for potential
non-nursing supervising professionals. Coordination and ongoing support
for the role will therefore be essential to ensure that safe and effective prac-
tice learning take place. There must be opportunities to discuss feedback
with assessors and others, and raise concerns to ensure that fitness to prac-
tise is upheld. This new flexible approach has developed without the require-
ment for an NMC-approved preparation course. The NMC do, however, need
to be satisfied that preparation of supervisors is adequate and that support
for them is in place as part of their approval processes.
Some issues
The preparation for the role of supervisor is now the remit of the AEI in
coordination with the employing organisation, and so could theoretically
vary widely between providers. Such variation could be in the depth and
level of supervisor training, and preparation from face-to-face, university,
in-house-led or online courses – this is a far cry from the previous restric-
tions of the NMC under SLAiP, which involved the administrative burden of
managing a database and checks on mentor status, annual updates and tri-
ennial review, not to mention the ten-day mandatory training.
Questions may also arise as to whether the student’s professional identity
will be maintained in the absence of a registered nurse as their supervisor. It
is possible that student nurses may access placements where no registered
nurse is employed, and is conceivable that over two placements they may be
supervised solely by the other professions.
Much like the old system of mentorship, the new practice supervisors will
need to ensure that their managers allow them sufficient time to supervise
students in a useful and meaningful way.
Assessment of students and confirmation of proficiency
The 2018 NMC standards for student supervision and assessment state that
responsibility for the development of an effective, objective, robust and evi-
denced-based approach to the assessment process lies in the collaboration
of partners, AEIs and employing organisations. To support this, the NMC
have clearly defined practice and academic assessor roles to ensure that
timely assessments facilitate confirmation of proficiency and student
achievement of competence.
The practice assessor

The practice assessor does not work with the student on a daily basis but is
involved purely for the purposes of objective assessment. They liaise closely
with practice supervisors, observe a clinical episode of care, attend inter-
views, provide constructive feedback, and liaise with the new role of aca-
demic assessor from the AEI. The practice assessor is required to possess
current knowledge and expertise within their field of practice and have
in-depth knowledge of proficiencies and programme outcomes, as well as an
understanding of the students’ learning in theory. Individual students are
required to be allocated to an assigned practice assessor for each practice
placement area and to an academic assessor for each part of the programme.
These assessors are required to be registered nurses or midwives to assess
midwifery students, while student nursing associates can be assigned to a
registered nurse or associate. The NMC stipulate that the practice assessor
should have ‘equivalent experience for the student’s field of practice’. This is
quite vague, but it means that the assessor should have work experience and
knowledge to understand and assess what the student is trying to achieve.
Liaison with the academic assessor will be integral to the new system so that
recommendations for progression for each part of the programme can be
made. The practice assessor requires the opportunity to periodically observe
the student in practice, and must conduct assessments to confirm student
achievements of proficiencies and programme outcomes for practice learn-
ing. They will not supervise the student while on placement, but will observe
them periodically as part of the assessment. Heavy reliance on feedback
from supervisors will therefore be integral to the success of this method.
Practice assessors should confirm and challenge achievement of outcomes
with the student and support supervisors when raising concerns.
It is feasible a failing student may go unnoticed in this new more flexible
learning environment, but this can be mitigated through effective recording
in the practice assessment document and good communication between
supervisors and assessors.
Preparation and support for the practice assessor role

The effective preparation of practice assessors new to student assessment,
and for those existing mentors already holding mentor qualifications
approved by the NMC, again falls within the remit of local providers to
devise appropriate programmes in response to need and demand. While no
longer to be regulated by the NMC, there are responsibilities to ensure that
preparation includes development around the assessment process, effective
interpersonal communication skills, the provision of constructive feedback
and the undertaking of objective and evidence-based assessments.
Systems are required to provide ongoing support and continued profes-
sional development for the supervisor and assessor roles. Such roles could
be similar to the link tutor or practice educator role currently in place.

Knowledge and understanding of practice assessment documents will there-
fore be essential for all members involved in the student’s assessment in order
to assure public safety, as well as the student’s demonstration of values,
leadership, confidence and proficiency.
Academic assessor roles and responsibilities

The academic assessor should be a suitably prepared academic able to col-
late and confirm student performance and their achievement of proficiencies
and programme outcomes. To achieve this, they must work in partnership
with the nominated practice assessor to confirm that the student may pro
gress to the next part of the programme. Effective communication channels
between practice and education must therefore be developed to discuss stu-
dent progression for theory and practice. With regard to the management of
failing students, they must raise and respond to concerns regarding student
conduct, competence and achievement. Like their practice colleagues, the
academic assessor must also be effectively prepared and supported in this
role, holding relevant qualifications, while possessing appropriate knowledge
of the proficiencies and programme outcome, demonstrating effective inter-
personal communication skills and the ability to conduct objective assess-
ments with the provision of constructive feedback (Figure 1.1).
Comment
Most of the SLAiP (NMC 2008) mentor standards remain very relevant to
effective student learning and achievement. For example, ‘Establishing effec-
tive working relationships’; ‘Creating an environment for learning’; ‘Context
of practice’ and ‘Leadership’. It is important to retain those aspects which
Assuming three placements that year with several practice supervisors in each:
Practice supervisor 1
Placement 1 Practice supervisor 2 Practice assessor 1
Placement 2 Practice supervisor 5 Practice assessor 2 Academic assessor
Placement 3 Practice supervisor 8 Practice assessor 3
Practice assessor 9
NB: the student may have the same practice assessor for a series of placements.
Figure 1.1 How it might look!

added value to facilitating students and in which student nurses felt valued
and invested in, leading to increased recruitment and retention (McCabe and
Sambrook 2013). There is a new opportunity for the development of lead
roles in practice to actively support the student experience and encourage
feedback, self-reflection and evaluation, as well as placement evaluation.
Academics should therefore still form effective links to the practice area,
address and discuss concerns, and support the management of challenging
or failing students within the role of academic assessor in order to confirm
achievement with the student’s nominated practice assessor.
Summary
This chapter has:
• Examined the history and politics of nurse mentorship
• Outlined the new roles of practice supervisor and assessor
• Stressed the increasing importance of having robust links between
placement areas and the approved education institutions providing
the nurse education
Further reading
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2004) Standards for the Preparation of
Teachers of Nurses, Midwives and Specialist Community Public Health
Nurses. London: NMC.
www.practicebasedlearning.org
This website ‘aims to enhance the quality of student experiences whilst on prac-
tice, i.e. work-based placement. It covers much ground and has a very useful
resource section. It has sections which will be useful to all aspects of mentor-
ship and supervision and which relate to many chapters in this book.
References
Association of Operating Department Practitioners (AODP) (2006) Qualifications
Framework for Mentors Supporting Learners in Practice: Standards and guidance
for mentors and practice placements in support of pre-registration diploma of
higher education in operating department practice provision. Wilmslow: Associa-
tion of Operating Department Practitioners.
Benner, P. (2001) From Novice to Expert: Excellence and power in clinical nursing
practice, commemorative edn. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall Health.
College of Occupational Therapists (2005). Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct.
London: College of Occupational Therapists.
Department of Health (DoH) (1999) Making a Difference. London: Department of
Health.
Duffy, K. (2003) Failing Students: A qualitative study of the factors that influence the
decisions regarding assessment of students’ competence in practice. Glasgow:
Caledonian Nursing and Midwifery Research Centre. Available at: http://science.
ulster.ac.uk/nursing/mentorship/docs/nursing/oct11/failingstudents.pdf [accessed 2
March 2014].
ENB/Department of Health (ENB/DoH) (2001) Placements in Focus: Guidance for
education in practice for health care professions. London: English National Board
for Nursing, Midwifery and Health Visiting/Department of Health.
Hand, H. (2006) Promoting effective teaching and learning in the practice setting,
Nursing Standard, 20(39): 55–63.
Longley, M., Shaw, C. and Dolan, G. (2007) Nursing: Towards 2015. Pontypridd:
Welsh Institute of Health and Social Care.
McCabe, T. and Sambrook, S. (2013) Psychological contracts and commitment
amongst nurses and nurse managers: a discourse, International Journal of Nur
sing Studies, 50(7): 954–67.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2004) Standards for the Preparation of
Teachers of Nurses, Midwives and Specialist Community Public Health Nurses.
London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2006) Standards to Support Learning and
Assessment in Practice: NMC standards for mentors, practice teachers and teach-
ers. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2008) Standards to Support Learning and
Assessment in Practice: NMC standards for mentors, practice teachers and teach-
ers, 2nd edn. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2010) Standards for Pre-registration Nursing
Education. London: NMC. Available at: http://standards.nmc-uk.org/PublishedDoc-
uments/Standards%20for%20pre-registration%20nursing%20education%2016082010.
pdf [accessed 20 December 2019].
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018a) Future Nurse: Standards of profi-
ciency for registered nurses. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018b) Realising Professionalism: Part 1:
Standards Framework for Nursing and Midwifery Education. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018c) Realising Professionalism: Part 2:
Standards for Student Supervision and Assessment. London: NMC.
Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) (2018d) Realising Professionalism: Part 3:
Standards for Pre-registration Nursing Programmes. London: NMC.
Pulsford, D., Boit, K. and Owen, S. (2002) Are mentors ready to make a difference? A
survey of mentors’ attitudes towards nurse education, Nurse Education Today,
22(6): 439–46.
Robinson, S., Cornish, J., Driscoll, C., Knutton, S., Corben, V. and Stevenson, T. (2012)
Sustaining and Managing the Delivery of Student Nurse Mentorship: Roles,
resources, standards and debates – short report, an NHS London ‘Readiness for
Work’ project. London: National Nursing Research Unit, King’s College London.
UKCC (1999) Fitness for Practice. London: UK Central Council for Nursing, Midwifery
and Health Visiting.
Effective practice
2 supervision
Key points
• A good practice supervisor is a motivator
• There are many aspects to the role of the practice supervisor
• An effective working relationship is the backbone of good practice
supervision
• A student’s welcome and induction are crucial in setting the tone for the
placement
• Active listening is a key skill in forming effective working relationships
• Leadership and managerial skills are key aspects of practice supervision
Motivation, Maslow, and practice supervisors
The motivational theory of Abraham Maslow (1987) is described later in

relation to learning and teaching theory. However, it is useful here to look at
it from the practical point of view of a student on placement. In identifying
an order in which we usually meet basic human needs, Maslow gives us a
clue as to how to appreciate and account for the needs of our students.
According to Maslow, some higher-order needs cannot be met until certain
lower-order needs have been met. Physiological needs must be met first fol-
lowed by the needs for security and safety, belonging, self-esteem, and finally
self-actualisation. Because of this, we also need to see students as people
who have lives, and therefore other needs, outside of nursing.
Physiological needs
At a basic level, students will not be able to get the best out of their place-
ment if they are not eating enough and it should be recognised that some
students live within limited means. Most universities will have student hard-
ship funds and support mechanisms for financial needs, and the practice
supervisor can involve the link tutor to help the student explore these. The
student may also have problems with accommodation, or lack of sleep due to
life stress and/or the pressure of study; indeed, many students balance their
Effective practice supervision 23
full-time nursing course with paid work elsewhere. Add to this mix a ‘healthy!’
social life and it is easy to see why a student might be too tired to get the
most out of the experiences the placement provides. A number of students
will, of course, invert Maslow’s hierarchy, with the need to ‘belong’ and
‘party’ taking precedence over the basics such as eating. That’s life, but prac-
tice supervisors may occasionally need to remind students about their pro-
fessional responsibilities. Similarly, many students are mature and have
family responsibilities. Ward teams need to take account of these human
stresses and strains and be realistic in their expectations and supportive, but
also be assertive and offer guidance where a student is consistently falling
short of expectations. An open and frank discussion should ensue and a way
forward agreed. The student can be pointed in the direction of other support
mechanisms if appropriate, and the practice supervisor may also involve the
university link tutor should it become necessary.
Security and belonging needs
The need to feel secure on placement can be met by reducing anxieties,

especially early on in a placement. A good orientation programme will do
this with the student being met and seen early on by their supervisors and
inducted and introduced to others within the team. It is also important for
students to feel well supported when they are asked to perform tasks with
which they are unfamiliar or which are particularly demanding. By being
aware of the student’s level and ability, the practice supervisor will ensure
the student is adequately supported and their anxieties addressed. It also
helps if students are not alone on placement but have peers they can chat to
and work with. Sometimes on short placements it can be difficult to achieve
a real sense of belonging, but a good practice supervisor can help to make a
student feel they are valued and can make a useful contribution, by giving
them time, seeking their opinion, and making sure they are involved.
Self-esteem
This need will likely only be met if the above ones have been met first. The
practice supervisor can help the student here to gain a sense of being involved,
valued, wanted, and of making a positive contribution. Being given frequent
positive feedback and being included in the social as well as the working life
of the clinical team will foster this even more.
Self-actualisation
Self-actualisation is a vague concept and often ill defined. It has been

described as the achievement of ambitions and goals in professional or per-
sonal life. Others describe it as fulfilling one’s potential. It is difficult for a
practice supervisor to promise this, but for many students the road to this
goal can be via the personal and professional achievements made on the
journey through a successful placement and nurse training.
The characteristics and roles of the supervisor/mentor
According to Homer’s Odyssey (circa 800 bc), Mentor was the name of the
person Odysseus asked to look after his son while he was away. The word
‘mentor’ now means a guardian, advisor, teacher.
According to the NMC (2006), the responsibilities of nursing mentors included:
• Organising and coordinating student learning activities in practice

• Supervising students in learning situations
• Providing constructive feedback
• Setting and monitoring objectives
• Assessing students’ skills, attitudes, and behaviours
• Providing evidence of student achievement
• Liaising with others about student performance
• Identifying concerns
• Agreeing action about concerns
Gopee (2008), among others, cites the work of Darling (1984) and others
who together have suggested the following roles and characteristics of a
mentor – these now equally apply to the practice supervisor:
• Role model Always under scrutiny and always upholding

high standards and professionalism. Well
respected by their peers and someone who the
student ‘looks up to’ and holds in high regard.
This is a powerful position of influence.
• Energiser
Motivating, inspiring, and enthusiastic. Seeks
to use every situation as an opportunity to
teach.
• Envisioner
Keen to embrace change and improve care,
and to encourage the student to see beyond
the present and seek improvements in care.
• Investor
Gives freely of their time, knowledge, and
experience. Delegates responsibility to the stu-
dent.
• Supporter
Available and willing to listen; encouraging.
Humanistic and empathic in approach. Takes
account of the student’s anxieties and needs.
Effective practice supervision 25
• Standard prodder Questioning, seeking to improve standards.

Demonstrates up-to-date knowledge. Matches
student tasks to their level.
• Teacher–coach
Passes on skills and competence, guides, sets
up learning experiences, allows time for prac-
tice. Encourages personal and professional
development. Provides and organises a range
of learning opportunities. Willing to share
knowledge.
• Feedback giver Gives constructive feedback, identifies future
learning. Skilled questioner and facilitator of
reflection. Assessor.
• Eye-opener
Shows student the wider picture beyond the
team – e.g. politics, management, research.
• Door-opener
Points out and brokers other learning opportu-
nities and resources, such as the wider multi-
disciplinary team.
• Ideas bouncer Helps student reflect and generate new
ideas, open to discussion and exploration of
the literature.
• Problem solver Helps student develop problem-solving skills.
Supportive when a student is struggling.
• Career counsellor Gives guidance upon future directions and
possibilities.
• Challenger
Helps student develop critically and encour-
ages them to question and challenge views and
prevailing norms.
Other desirable qualities of a practice supervisor include:
Assertive Knowledgeable
Confident Competent
Approachable Honest
Empathic A good listener
Experienced Trustworthy
Patient Accessible
Creative Kind
Consistent Fair
Non-judgemental Respected by peers
The list of qualities is endless and a good supervisor is many different things
to many different people, but from the above list it is clear that they are a
dedicated professional with a real desire to further the profession of nursing
by giving their time and energy to passing on their knowledge, skills, attitude,
and intuition to others.
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Apostle saith: That no Prophecie of Scripture is of any private
interpretation: Which ought to be rendered as learned Beza and Dr.
Hammond give it: “No Prophecie of Scripture is propriæ
incitationis, of a Mans own or proper incitation, motion, or loosing
forth;” for so the Greek is, ἰδίας ἐπιλύσεως οὐ γίνεται. Of which Beza
gives this learned note. “The Prophets truly are to be read, but so that
the gift of interpretation be begged of God, that the same God may be
the Author and Interpreter of the Prophetical writings.” For though a
Man have by nature never so great endowments, of understanding,
judgment and reason, or have never so large and ample
acquirements, or presume never so highly to be assisted with the
Spirit; yet his own single judgment ought not to be relyed upon in the
exposition of the Scriptures; but he ought to call in to his aid, and to
consider the sentiment and opinion of others. For it is obvious into
what dangerous errors the Arrians, Pelagians and Antitrinitarians
of old, and the Socinians and Arminians of later years have faln, by
making their innate notions and the strength of natural reason to be
the chief and principal rules for interpreting of the Scriptures by.
And there is hardly any one thing that the Scriptures are more
against, or do more condemn, than the too much extolling and
idolizing of Humane and Carnal reason. Because the carnal mind
τὸ φρόνημα τῆς σαρκὸς, is enmity against God, and is not subject
to the law of God, neither indeed can be; of which Beza saith:
Probatio cur intelligentia carnis sit mors, quia, inquit, Dei est
hostis. And again, the Text saith: For it is written, I will destroy the
wisdom of the wise, τὴν σοφίαν τών σοφῶν, and will bring to
nothing the understanding of the prudent; τὴν σύνεσιν των
συνετων. And again, Hath not God made foolish the wisdom of this
world? σοφίαν τοῦ κόσμου τούτου. And the words of the Hebrew in
that place of Isaiah do signifie all that height of wisdom or
understanding, that Men either have by Nature, or acquire by Art
and Industry. Neither is it safe for a Man to rely upon his own single
acquired parts, be they never so vast or great; because in the most
ages, the most pestilent Errors and damnable Heresies have been
vented and maintained by Men that were of the greatest acquired
endowments. And that it is often as vain to presume upon having the
guidance of the Spirit, as are the other two, is manifest in the late
times of Rebellion and Confusion; where every Man pretending the
Spirit, made such wild and extravagant expositions of the Scriptures,
as few ages have known before; and is still kept up by the giddy troop
of Fanatical Quakers, and the like.
There is another rule which the learned do use, in expounding of
the Scriptures, which is often either too far extended, or not rightly
limited and applied, which is this; That Men in interpreting of the
Scriptures should keep close to the literal sense, if it include not an
absolute absurdity. Whereby Allegorical, Metaphorical, Mystical and
Parabolical Expositions are not only cried down, but by some even
abhorred and detested, which thing ought not absolutely and simply
to be approved of; and therefore we shall make it plain in some few
particulars.
1. In Historical relations of matters of John 9. 6, 7.
fact, we ought to keep close to the literal
meaning, and not to deviate a jot from it, otherwise we should
overthrow the best part of the Christian Faith, and destroy the chief
foundation of Scripture truths. But notwithstanding this, though we
ought to hold to the literal sense in respect of the matter of fact, yet
we are not always to be bound to the bare letter in the mood, means
or manner of the performance. As may be plain in these examples. 1.
It is apparent that our Saviour Christ cured the Man that was born
blind, and the means and manner is described: He spat on the
ground and made clay of the spittle, and he anointed the eyes of the
blind man with the clay. And said unto him, Go wash in the pool of
Siloam (which is by interpretation, Sent.) He went his way
therefore and washed, and came seeing. Now as to the matter of
fact, that the Man born blind was cured and had his sight restored, is
a truth according to the sense of the letter; and that the manner,
which was by spittle and earth made into Clay, and his eyes covered
or anointed with it, and washing in the pool of Siloam, was also
literally true, is manifest. But it were absurd so far to stick to the
letter, as to believe that clay, and spittle, and washing in the poole
Siloam, were true and real natural means to produce that effect; no,
that were absurd, and therein the literal sense is not to be followed.
2. Again Jerem. 23. 24. 1 Kings 22. 19, 20,
concerning Ahab, 1 Kings 8. 27. 21, 22, 23.
thus much is Rom. 16. 27.
literally true in matter of fact that he was
perswaded to go up to Ramoth Gilead by his false Prophets in whose
mouths there was a lying Spirit. But the manner there declared of
sending the lying Spirit into their Mouths, cannot rationally be
presumed to be true in a literal sense, but in a Metaphorical; for that
the Lord was set on his Throne, and all the Host of Heaven standing
by him, on the right hand and on the left, must needs be a Metaphor
taken from an Emperour or a King that sits on his Throne, and all his
Counsellors, Princes, Estates and Officers about him, to deliberate
and consult what is to be done. And this is the highest and most apt
Metaphor that the supream Majesty of Heaven and Earth can be
represented by; not that in the literal sense it must be believed to be
acted just in that mood and manner, but as the most apposite
Metaphor that can be found to express the proceedings of the
Heavenly Majesty by, and that for these reasons. 1. God is Infinite
and is every where by his Power, Essence and Presence, and
therefore cannot literally be said to be comprehended in any locality,
but after a Metaphorical sense and expression. For the Prophet saith:
Do not I fill Heaven and Earth, saith the Lord? And as Solomon
confesseth: But will God indeed dwell upon the earth? Behold, the
heaven, and heaven of heavens cannot contain thee: how much less
this house that I have builded? 2. God who is only wise, and before
whose eyes all things lie open, and naked, cannot litterally be said to
consult or deliberate, or to ask his creatures how a thing shall be
done or brought to pass, because his wisdom is, like himself, Infinite,
and need ask counsel of none, and therefore must the manner of the
performance of the deceiving of Ahabs Prophets needs be
Metaphorically understood, and not literally, which is the thing that
we would demonstrate.
3. Further 1 Tim. 6. 16. 1 John 1. 5.
concerning Satans
afflicting of Job in his Goods, Cattels, Children, Servants, and in his
own Body, is a real truth literally so taken as to the matter of fact; but
the manner of Satans appearing before God, with the Sons of God,
cannot without manifest absurdity be understood in a literal sense
but in a Metaphorical, that God who is Omnipotent, did command,
order, send and limit him, what and how far he was to act. For
otherwise God is light in whom there is no darkness at all, dwelling
in the light which no Man can approach unto; but Satan is bound in
chains of everlasting darkness, and therefore cannot be said literally
to appear in person before God, but by way of a Metaphor. So when
the Angel telleth the Virgin Mary, that the should conceive in her
womb, and she not understanding how that should come to pass,
because she had not known Man, the Angel answered, the Holy
Ghost shall come upon thee, and the power of the highest shall
overshadow thee. Though the matter of fact be an undoubted truth,
and an Article of faith, literally so taken; yet the manner of the Holy
Ghosts coming upon her, and the power of the highest
overshadowing her, cannot be understood in a literal sense, as
though it were by that natural and humane way that Men and
Women do beget and conceive Children by, for that were horrid and
absurd (as some late prophane, wretched and debauched Atheists
have spattered forth) but after a Metaphorical sense, and a most
mystical meaning. So that it is plain that where a matter of fact may
be literally and Historically true, yet the manner how that matter of
fact is brought to pass may be, nay must be Metaphorical, or else an
absurdity will follow, which was the thing undertaken to be proved.
4. There is nothing more common and usual in Scripture than
Metaphors, as when Christ saith, I am a vine, I am the door of the
sheep, I am the living bread that came down from heaven: Though
they be Metaphors, yet the things signified and intended by them are
as really and certainly true, as are the Metaphors themselves, and
sometimes more true; because sometime the Metaphor is not used
for the verity of its existence, but according to the common use and
opinion, as O foolish Galatians who hath bewitched you? doth
intend no more but an allusion to vulgar opinion, that held that men
might be bewitched and inchanted. And so Christ in the true mystical
and spiritual meaning is as really a spiritual vine, door and bread, as
there are any of such things in nature, or being. But as that which is
Literally and Historically true in matter of fact, or meaning, is not to
be deceeded from; so that which is a Metaphor ought not to be
turned into a literal thing, nor on the contrary, the literal sense ought
not to be made Metaphorical.
5. Parables are Similitudes taken from Matth. 7. 24, 25, 26,
things that may have been done, or that are 27.
supposed to have been done, and so the thing to which the
comparison is made, or from whence the Similitude is taken, need
not always be a thing that hath been performed in all the
circumstances and manner thereof; it is sufficient that the thing was
possible, or rationally probable to have been acted, or at least
supposed so to have been. As for instance in that Parable, where our
Saviour saith: That those that hear his words and do them are like a
wise man that built his house upon a rock; and he that heareth
them, and doth them not, is like a foolish man, that built his house
upon the sand: now it is not necessary that there should be two such
men, that in matter of fact did after that manner (though there might
have been many men before the time of our Saviour that might have
done so) but it was sufficient that the thing from which the
comparison was made, was possible, rational and probable. But the
thing intended by the Parable or Similitude, is alwayes a spiritual
truth and certainty. Concerning which learned Beza upon the
Parable of the Rich Man and Lazarus doth give us this remarkable
Marginal note: “Although Christ doth relate an History,
notwithstanding he writeth spiritual things under Figures, which he
knew were suitable to our sense. For neither are Souls endowed with
Fingers and Eyes, neither do they suffer thirst, neither have they
mutual conference one with another. Therefore the sum is, that
faithful Souls after they be departed from their Bodies, do lead a
pleasant and blessed life without the World: And that most horrible
torments are prepared for the reprobates, which can no more be
conceived by our minds, than the immense Glory of Heaven.”
6. As for an Ut supra l. 15. c. 27. De Civitat. Dei lib.
Allegory, which is p. 475. 13. c. 21. p. 404.
a continuation of a Metaphor, and properly signifies a figure
expressing one thing by another, from ἄλλος, and ἀγορέω, enuntio,
and this is very frequently used in the Scriptures, as when the
Apostle speaking of the two Sons of Abraham, the one from Hagar a
bond-woman, the other from Sarah a free woman, saith: These
things are an Allegorie, ἅτενα ἀλληγορόυμενα, which things do
express one thing by another; From whence we may note, 1. That
Allegories that tend to edification, keeping the Analogie of Faith, and
not perverting or overthrowing the literal sense, ought not to be so
much cried down nor condemned, as some have done both against
Origen and others. “For the Apostle here, as Beza hath noted, made
it manifest, that he had followed the footsteps of the Prophet Isaiah,
who did foretel that the Church was to be constituted of the Children
of Sarah that was barren, that is to say of those who meerly and
spiritually were by Faith to be made the Sons of Abraham, rather
than of Hagar that was fruitful, even then foretelling the rejection of
the Jews, and the vocation of the Gentiles.” 2. Allegories may be
used, and the literal sense nevertheless preserved also for the History
is literally true that Sarah and Hagar were two living Women, the
one Abrahams Wife a free Woman, the other his Servant, and a
bond-woman, and yet this did not hinder but that thereby an
Allegory might be used, and they might, and did signifie and express
another thing than what was meerly contained in the letter. 3. We
cannot here but add the grave and learned opinion of S. Augustin
upon this very point, who rejecting the tenent of some that made
Paradise and the things therein contained, meerly corporal, and of
some that made it only spiritual and intelligible, doth run a middle
course betwixt these two extreams, saying thus: “As though Paradise
could not be corporal, because also it might be understood to be
spiritual: As though therefore there were not two Women Agar and
Sarah, and of them two Sons of Abraham, one of the bond-woman,
the other of the free woman, because the Apostle saith that the two
Testaments were prefigured in them; or therefore that water had
flowed from no rock Moses smiting, because there by a figurative
signification Christ also may be understood, the Apostle saying, and
the rock was Christ.” And after concludeth thus: “These and some
others may be spoken of understanding Paradise spiritually, and may
be spoken without contradiction, while notwithstanding the most
faithful verity of that History may be believed in the commendable
narration of the things done or performed.” This same opinion this
learned Father doth maintain in another place, where he is speaking
of the Ark of Noah.
Having premised these rules for the right expounding of the
Scriptures, we shall now come to the main things that we purpose to
handle in this Chapter. And those that would uphold a kind of
omnipotency in Devils, and maintain their great power in
Elementary and Sublunary things, the better to defend the great
power of Witches, do alledge divers places of Scripture, and expound
them in favour of their gross tenents, which now we shall examine
and confute in order as they lie.
1. The first colourable argument that they produce, is from the
Devils or the Serpents tempting and seducing of Eve, where
labouring to prove the Devils power, and his visible apparition to
Witches, and making a compact with them, they pretend that in the
seducing of Eve he did visibly appear unto her and vocally discourse
with her, and to that purpose that he essentially entred into the Body
of the Serpent, and spoke through its Organs, or that he assumed the
visible and corporeal shape of a Serpent, and so discoursed, and had
collocution with her. To answer which (that we may proceed
methodically,) we shall lay down and labour to prove these two
positions. 1. That if it were granted that he did it either way, it would
be no advantage, thereby to prove the ordinary power of Devils or
Witches.
2. That that place of Scripture, if rightly weighed and considered,
will no way make it rationally appear, that the Devil performed that
temptation any other way but only mentally; and that the History
there in the manner and circumstances of it, is only to be
Allegorically and Metaphorically expounded. And as to the first, if it
were granted it proves nothing to the purpose, for the power of
Devils or Witches, as these two Arguments will sufficiently evince.
1. From no single instance or particular Argum. 1.
proposition, can ever a general conclusion
be rightly drawn by any known and certain rules of Reason or
Logick; for Syllogizari non est ex particulari, is known to any
Tyronist in that Art. But if Satan for that once should have entred
into the natural Serpent, or assumed his shape, it is a deceivable and
vitious way of arguing, that therefore he hath such a power over all
Bodies at all times when he pleaseth, or that he can assume what
shape he please, and therefore it certainly and rationally concludeth
nothing of validity.
2. In the 1 Cor. 10. 13. Argum. 2.
temptation of Eve,
there was something more extraordinary than can be assigned in any
other temptation whatsoever, except that of Christ. And therefore
was there a more peculiar and extraordinary dispensation from God
in that case than can be shewed in any others but that of Christ. For
now it pleaseth God in his merciful providence, so to order and
overrule the malice of his hellish will, and to restrain and bridle his
envious nature, that though his will be never so wicked, yet is he kept
in his chains of darkness, and God will not suffer his people to be
tempted, above what they are able, but will with the temptation
also make way to escape that they may be able to bear it. Now
Adam and Eve were in an extraordinary condition in respect of the
Saints of God in this life, or of any other persons, and there was a
more high and greater end in the providence of God in ordering and
permitting of that temptation than there is or can be in any others,
but that of Christ: And therefore from what the Lord permitted, and
ordered to do in that temptation, or the liberty that he might grant
him to exert his own power then, will no argument rationally follow
that he can commonly and at his pleasure perform as much, and so
maketh no firm conclusion.
And as concerning that place of Scripture Vid. Pererii
in the third of Genesis the great and learned Comment. in locum.
Jesuit Pererius doth undertake with tooth and nail to prove that it is
to be literally interpreted, and that Satan did really enter into the
Body of the natural Serpent, and spoke in him, or through his
Organs; and laboureth (though in vain) to enervate and overthrow
the strong arguments of his Brother in Religion, the most learned
Cardinal Cajetan, Where he rejecteth the opinion of those that hold
that the Devil did assume a Body in the shape of a Serpent; because
(he saith) that Satan presently after the temptation ended must have
deposited and put off the assumed body, but that the Serpent was
after in Paradise, and therefore that he did not act it in an assumed
Body. Therefore we shall also pass by that opinion of assuming of
Bodies, as being a meer groundless figment invented by the
dreaming Schoolmen, as we shall demonstrate hereafter. But to
proceed in order, We shall first shew that the place must of necessity
admit of an Allegory or Metaphor. And secondly, we shall lay down
positive Arguments to shew the absurdity and impossibility of the
Devils speaking in the Serpent, or by his Organs. And thirdly, we
shall answer all objections that are material, and that in these
particulars.
1. The thing that in that History is to be taken literally, is that Eve
was tempted and seduced; but the instrument by which it was done,
the manner and circumstances, must of necessity have an Allegorical
or Metaphorical interpretation, otherwise no sense rationally can be
made of the place at all.
2. “There can no blame of the action be Vid. Dialog.
imputed to Satan himself, if neither Discourses of
absolutely, nor properly, nor Historically, Spirits and Devils.
Dialog. 4. p. 110.
nor Allegorically, nor Metaphorically, nor
no ways else he be named in that very History of Evahs tentation,
wherein the action it self with the several circumstances is fully and
plainly expressed. For the action especially being so weighty a
matter, was necessary to be known in every point: And therefore it is
not to be doubted, but that the History concerning the same is so
exactly set forth, with every circumstance, as that any Man may be
able to judge of the principal Actors therein at the least. So then,
although the Devil in that History, be neither absolutely, nor
Historically, nor properly expressed by name; yet must we
acknowledge him to be therein Allegorically and Metaphorically set
forth at the least, or otherways impose no blame upon him at all
concerning the action.” And therefore must Pererius needs confess a
Metaphor in the place, or else the Devil cannot be made an actor in
the business.
3. It was no natural Serpent but the Devil himself Metaphorically
set forth by the name of a Serpent, who gave the onset upon Evah in
that tentation. For by Allegories and Metaphors there is evermore
some other thing meant than that which is literally expressed. And
that this is so, is thus proved. If in that action the Devil himself be
not Historically and properly, but Allegorically and Metaphorically,
called a Serpent, because he is most crafty and subtile; then
undoubtedly the objection of a natural Serpent to be used in that
action is very inconvenient: But the antecedent is true, and therefore
also the consequent.
4. The Id. 20. 2. Apoc. 12. 3, 4, 5.
antecedent to that
Hypothetical Argument foregoing is easily thus proved: It is an
accustomed thing in the Sacred Scriptures to use the names of other
creatures in setting forth to our sense the Intellectual Creatures
themselves. Hereupon it is that in the Apocalypse the Devil (by a
perpetual Allegory) is called a Dragon or Serpent: And therefore in
this History of Evahs tentation, by the like perpetual Allegory he is
also called a Serpent. For no Man can be so absurd and foolish to
think that the Devil literally and properly (in that of the Revelation)
can be called a Dragon or Serpent; but only in a Metaphorical and
Mystical sense, and therefore must in right reason be taken so in that
place of Genesis; for one part of Scripture is alwaies best interpreted
by another.
5. Again how can Revel. 5. 5. Gen. 49. 9.
Judah literally be Matth. 3. 7.
a lions whelp, or Christ called the lion of the
tribe of Judah? must it needs be understood that Christ either
assumed the shape of a natural Lion, or that he entred into the Body
of a natural Lion? Surely not, that were most absurd to think or
believe. Even so must it be accounted most absurd and abominable
for Pererius, or any other to fancy that the Devil may not properly
enough in an Allegory, or Mystical sense be called a Serpent in that
action of tempting of Evah, without either assuming the shape of a
Serpent, or entring into the Body of a natural one. I appeal to all
rational Men to judge if the absurdities of both be not alike, if barely
and literally taken. But this being one of Cajetans Arguments, was
too hard a morsel for the teeth of Pererius; and therefore he past it
over without an answer. Further when our Saviour called the
Pharisees, and Sadducees a generation of vipers, must any Man be
so extreamly mad as to believe that naturally and literally they were
generated by vipers? Must it not be understood that they were called
so from their poysonous and wicked minds, by way of Metaphor? Yes
surely: and so is the Devil called a Serpent by a Metaphor, or else
literally so taken, both appellations are equally absurd. And let
Pererius or any other unloose this knot.
6. How can the Devil be a very murtherer John 8. 44.
from the beginning, (which he is Mystically
so considered) if he had no hand in the destroying of Evah and
Adam both in Souls and Bodies? But if by the Serpent the Devil was
not understood, then he stands acquitted, and was not guilty of the
murdering Adam and Evah both in Souls and Bodies. But we must
affirm that all learned and rational Divines, whether antient, middle
or modern, that have expounded or commented upon that place, do
by the words of our Saviour calling Satan a murderer from the
beginning, understand the murdering of Adam and Evah both in
Souls and Bodies; And we dare referr all those that have taken, or
will take pains to examine them upon that piece of Scripture, that
they shall be found as we have averred.
7. Moses (in that action) doth purposely 2 Cor. 11. 3.
intitle the Devil by the name of a Serpent,
because (by his effectual creeping into the interiour senses, as also by
infecting Mens minds with venomous perswasions) he doth very
lively represent the nature, disposition and qualities of the venemous
Serpent. And in this same sense was the Apostle jealous over the
Corinthians, left as that Serpent ὁ ὄφις, (which must necessarily be
understood of Satan by a Metaphor of that Serpent) beguiled Evah
through his subtilty, so they might by the cunning of Satan in his
false Apostles have their minds corrupted from the simplicity that is
in Christ.
8. The Serpent that tempted Evah in Paradise, is there said to be
more subtile than every beast of the field, the which (if the writing of
such as have observed and described the nature of all sorts of
animals be true) cannot be avouched truly of the natural Serpent. For
there are many other creatures more subtil than the Serpent. And
therefore it must needs be understood of the spiritual Serpent, that
is, Satan who is (indeed) the old Serpent.
9. Moses doth therefore purposely Judg. 9. 7, 8, 9, 10,
attribute speech to the Serpent which &c.
tempted Evah, to the end we (knowing by experience that speech
cannot properly accord with a natural Serpent) might the rather be
induced to believe that the same must metaphorically be understood
of the spiritual Serpent. For we may with like absurdity imagine that
the olive, the fig, the Vine-trees and the Bramble did vocally and
articulately speak one to another; as to suppose that either the
Serpent, or the Devil in the Serpent did use an articulate voice and
discourse unto Evah; they are both alike credible, and both alike
absurd.
10. The punishment inflicted by God, hath no conveniency at all
with the natural, but with the spiritual and mystical Serpent, which is
the Devil. For neither can the going upon her belly, nor the eating of
dust be any punishment at all to the natural Serpent, because (before
the tentation) both those properties were peculiarly allotted unto
her, she taking her name from her creeping condition, for Serpens is
derived à serpendo, and in the Hebrew she is called ‫ ֶר ֶמ ׂש‬reptile à
‫ָר ַמ ׂש‬, reptavit, serpsit. Neither yet may we imagine that the said
Serpent being of some better form before the tentation, was then (by
the just judgment of God) transformed into a viler proportion,
property or shape, she being in the History of the Creation
accompted amongst the creeping Creatures.
11. Moses Aug. ad Gen. lib. 11. Exod. 4. 3.
maketh no cap. 1.
mention at all of Pet. Martyr in Gen. Greg. in Moràl.
the Serpents 3. 1.
coming to Evah about that business, nor of her departure after the
action, nor of any one special property whereby she might be
essentially discerned to be (indeed) a true natural Serpent, nor of any
manner of amaze, or suddain fear in Evah at her suddain approach
and extraordinary speech: whereas yet Moses himself was afterwards
horribly afraid at the only sight of a Serpent. And where it is said,
Thou art cursed above all the beasts in the field; there the very bruit
beasts (to the horrible confusion of Satan) are preferred before him;
not in absolute power, but in an especial regard of that happy
continuance and timely conservation of their original nature. For, the
beasts of the field, they do not forgo any heavenly happiness, which
they never yet had: But they continue forth their course in that self
same primary estate they took at the first. But Satan is accursed
because he kept not his first estate, but fell from it, and therefore is
worse than the beasts of the field. Neither is this way of expounding
the Scriptures metaphorically, where the literal sense includeth an
apparent absurdity, either singular or novel, for both Antients and
Moderns have allowed the same course, for S. Augustine saith:
“When any thing is found in the Scriptures which cannot (without an
absurdity) be possibly interpreted literally, That thing without doubt
is spoken figuratively, and must receive some other signification,
than the bare letter doth seem to import.” And Gregory saith: “When
the order of the History becometh defective of it self in the literal
sense, then some mystical sense as it were with wide open doors doth
offer it self: yea and that mystical sense must be received instead of
the literal sense it self.” And therefore (saith Peter Martyr) “that
malediction or curse which the Lord did cast on the Serpent, must be
Allegorically understood of the Devil, and those things which seem
properly to accord to the Serpent indeed, must metaphorically be
transferred to Satan understood in the Serpent.” So then, by all the
premises it is very apparent, that it was the Devil himself, and no
natural Serpent, who set upon Evah in that tentation, he being only
metaphorically set forth by the name of a Serpent: And therefore had
no need in that action essentially to assume to himself the Body of a
natural Serpent, for the better accomplishment of the intended
business.
The next is to lay down positive Arguments to prove that the Devil
did not essentially enter into the body of the Serpent and if he did,
that yet neither he by himself, nor the Serpent, and he joyned, could
thereby make any articulate sound or discourse. Which if the Devil in
the Serpent be supposed (as it is) to perform any such matter, it must
be either by considering him as an incorporeal or as a corporeal
creature, but we affirm he could perform neither way, and that for
these reasons.
1. If the Devil be considered as an Reas. 1.
incorporeal creature simply and absolutely,
then it will follow, that he cannot act upon any corporeal matter,
because an incorporeal substance can make no contact upon a body,
unless it were it self corporeal; for, quicquid agit, agit per
contactum, vel mediatum, vel immediatum. But both those are
caused by the touch of one body upon another, as when ones hand by
touching a straw doth immediately move it forth of its place, or else
by blowing doth remove it, which is by the mediation of the air; but
that which is meerly incorporeal can perform neither: Because that
which is meerly incorporeal hath no superficies, whereby to touch
the body to be removed; and therefore can make no motion of it at
all; and where there is no motion, there can be no alteration, and
consequently no speech nor articulation at all. And therefore the
Devil (if incorporeal) could not, move the Organs of the Serpent at
all, and so could not speak in the Serpent nor move his organs, if
they had been fit for articulate prolation, which they were not. Which
was the thing required to be proved.
2. The Serpent by the ordinance of God in Reas. 2.
the Creation was specificated to an
inarticulate sound, not to an articulate: but the Devil neither hath,
nor ever had any power to change and overturn the course of Gods
ordination in nature, and therefore hath not power, nor never had to
make the Serpent speak articulately; for that were to overthrow the
inviolable order of God set in the Creation, which no man of sound
judgment did ever aver that the Devil could do.
3. I take it to be one of the most firm Reas. 3.
maximes that ever the Schools had, that,
immateriale non agit in materiale, nisi eminenter ut Deus:
Therefore that the Devil being incorporeal and immaterial cannot act
upon that which is material, as was the body of the Serpent, unless
he had had a super-eminent and omnipotent power, which were
blasphemous to attribute unto him, therefore could he not
articulately speak in the Serpent unto Evah, because immaterial, and
had no omnipotent power.
4. And if he be conceived to be corporeal, Reas. 4.
then he could either of himself speak
articulately and audibly, or else not. And if he could do so of himself,
then to enter into the Serpent was needless and superfluous. And if
he could not, then the entring into the Serpent would not have
contributed that faculty unto him, and so neither way he could have
performed it; For a Frog creeping into the body of a Man, will not
cause the Frog to speak, though it may make some noise or croaking.
5. Though the Devil being corporeal Reas. 5.
should have entred into the body of the
Serpent, yet by no motion that could be made with or upon her
organs, could they have been framed to have uttered an articulate
sound, because they were not fitted for that purpose, but only to have
made a sibilation or hissing. For in Instruments that are artificial,
the several sounds and tunes made by them, are but agreeable to the
diversity of their parts and their several compactions; so an Harp
cannot (when made) be ordered to give forth a sound like a Trumpet,
nor the noise of a pair of Organs; nor on the contrary: and if any of
their parts be wanting, defective or broken, then the orderly sound
and Musick is spoyled. And though a Parret or Paraquet may by
vocal and external teaching be brought to learn and speak some
words; yet it is not by the teachers entring into her belly, but by his
outward, vocal teaching, whereby her senses and phantasie are
audibly wrought upon, and not otherwise. But in this action ascribed
unto Satan, he is not supposed to be able to speak articulately, nor to
have taught the Serpent vocally and audibly, which if he could have
done, yet were not her organs capable of any such matter; and
therefore it had been more subtilty in the Devil rather to have chosen
a Parret than a serpent.
The only objection worth taking notice of that Pererius bringeth
against the sound and reasonable opinion of learned Cajetan, is this:
That Adam and Evah being in the state of innocency could not be
wrought upon by an interiour tentation, because that neither the
sensitive appetite nor the phantasie were corrupted; and therefore
Satan could not internally work upon them, and therefore that the
whole tentation must be extrinsecal. To which we return this
sufficient reply.
1. It is but a bare assertion without any Reas. 1.
proof at all, and he doth but only shelter it
under the authority of S. Austin and Gregory, whose authority in
many other matters he doth often reject when they agree not with his
humour, end and interest. But however they are but testimonia
humana; and we are not to regard what the Men are that do speak,
so much as to consider the weight and reason of what they do speak.
2. He proceeds upon false supposition, Reas. 2.
that the sensitive appetite and consequently
the Phantasie could not be wrought upon nor drawn, but by a
sensible and exteriour object, when it is manifest that the sight of the
Serpent alone could not have stirred the sensitive appetite; for it is
rationally to be supposed as a certainty that Evah had seen the
Serpent before that time. Neither could it be the discourse with the
Serpent, barely considered as discourse, that could have moved it;
for it is certain she had heard, and had had audible, vocal and
articulate discourse with her Husband before this time of the
temptation. Neither could it be the beholding of the tree of
knowledge of good and evil, for by the discourse it appeareth that she
had before seen it, and it is probable that the tentation was in the
view of it, and its species that appeared to her eye of the said tree was
the same that it was before. So that it will be as most manifest that
the tentation took effect from the strong lie that Satan told her, that
their eyes should be opened and they should be as Gods knowing
good and evil, and so her deception was first made in her mind and
understanding, and thereby the will was drawn, and the sensitive
appetite moved, whereupon she took of the fruit of the tree, and did
eat. And this may far more reasonably be thought to be brought to
pass by a mental discourse and internal motions, than by external
collocution, which must first work upon the mind, before that the
Phantasie or sensitive appetite could at all be moved or drawn.
3. If the Vid. Is. Piscar. in Reas. 3.
tentation had been locum.
this way that Pererius supposeth it, our first parents could not have
been seduced; for Satans argument lay not to perswade Evah, that it
was pleasant for the taste or good for the Stomach thereby to have
drawn the sensitive appetite and the Phantasie, but that it was good
and profitable to make them wise, and to be like Gods, whereby he
insnared her understanding with a fallacious and lying argument,
thus framed, as learned Piscator lays it down: “That thing which will
bring you Divine Wisdom and Felicity, that thing ye ought to make
use of. But the eating of this fruit can bring you Divine Wisdom and
Felicity: Therefore the eating of the fruit of this tree, ye ought to
make use of.” And so the seduction was not at all by the sensitive
appetite (that could receive no more benefit by it than by the other
fruits in the Garden) but by her understanding being blinded with a
specious shew of an apparent (not a real) benefit, and thereby her
will drawn and led to put forth her hand, and to eat. And therefore
consequently there was no need at all of an extrinsecal tentation,
which might and was brought to pass by an intrinsick discourse,
working upon her understanding.
4. Surely if Tom. 3. l. 3. c. 19. p. Reas. 4.
Pererius had been 156.
aware of the many Tom. 7. p. 187. Hieronym. in Job.
inconveniences 2 Cor. 2. 11. c. 24.
that this opinion of
his doth hurry along with it, he would never have plunged himself
into a Labyrinth of such perplexities; some of which we shall here
enumerate and so conclude. 1. If this opinion were true, that Evah by
reason of her perfection in the state of innocency could not be
tempted nor seduced, but only by an external way and means: Then
how could it come to pass that the Angels in their Primitive Estate,
which was as perfect (if not more) than that of Evahs, were without a
tempter or any external means drawn unto that defection, who left
their estate and station, and abode not in the truth? 2. How could the
defection have been so general (for multitudes of them fell) if they
had not had some way or means to have communicated their
cogitations and intentions one to another? For though we are not
able to apprehend the manner how they discourse or commune one
with another, yet it must be taken for a truth that they have a way
and means to manifest their cogitations one to another, which is
some way Analogous to that which we call speech or discourse.
Therefore concerning this point doth learned and judicious Zanchy
thus conclude. “Therefore (he saith) that which we do by a sensible
voice, the same thing the Angels and blessed Souls in Heaven, yea
the Devils in the infernal pit, and in the air, do perform, but without
voice, in a spiritual manner.” 3. If this opinion were true, then the
blessed Souls, being divested from their Bodies, should not have a
communion one with another, nor should jointly praise and glorifie
God together, which were false and absurd; and therefore the learned
Father said well: “It is to be holden stedfastly that the offices of the
Heavenly Hoast are by no means performed in silence; seeing, we
may read that the Angelical powers before the Throne of the Lord, do
sound forth his praise with unwearied voices.” 4. The sleights and
subtil machinations (for he hath his Νοήματα or devices) of Satans
Kingdom could not be carried on, if he had not a way and means to
communicate them to the rest of the Crew of his inferiour Fiends,
and therefore doth plainly prove that there is a way of hidden,
Mystical and Spiritual discourse, which the Devil might, and did
represent to the mind and understanding of Evah, whereby she was
seduced, and that there was no need of a vocal and audible
interlocution; and so much in answer to his objection.
The next place of Scripture that is commonly brought and urged
thereby to prove the great power of Devils and Witches, is that of
Pharaohs Magicians, from whence they argue thus: If the Magicians
of Pharaoh were able by the power and assistance of the Devil to
change their Rods into Serpents, the Water into Blood, and to
produce Frogs; Why may not Witches, by the power and assistance of
the Devil, change themselves and other things into strange and
several shapes, and do the rest of the feats that are ascribed unto
them?
But though this be but petitio principii, a begging of the question,
that by the assistance of the Devil they did these things, which is
neither supposed nor granted, but ought first to have been proved;
And though in the case of hardening Pharaohs heart, there might be
(and was) a peculiar dispensation from God at that time: yet it will
not follow that God doth always dispense with, and give the Devil
leave to operate the like things; and so nothing firmly can be
concluded from hence. Yet (I say) though these be so, we shall
pretermit them, and come to the full opening and discussion of the
matter; and that in these two particulars. 1. How far the Devils power
and assistance did concurr with the actions and performances. 2.
And wherein he did not concurr nor act at all.
1. We shall grant 2 Tim. 3. 8. Ephes. 2. 2.
that Pharaoh and
the Magicians being Idolaters, and worshippers of false gods, their
ends were principally to magnifie the power of their Idols, and to
manifest that their supposed gods could work, and bring to pass as
strange miracles or wonders as Moses and Aaron could perform by
the assistance of the God of the Hebrews; and in respect of this end
they had all the assistance that Satan and his dark kingdom of Angels
could afford them in a spiritual and hellish way; for he is the Prince
of the power of the air that worketh in the children of disobedience,
for such were both Pharaoh and his Magicians. And to this purpose
doth the Apostle tell us, speaking of false and seducing teachers:
That they were like Jannes, and Jambres that withstood Moses, in
their resisting of the truth: so that the Magicians of Pharaoh were
condemned for resisting the truth of that message that Moses and
Aaron brought, and of those real miracles that they performed; and
so in respect of the wicked end they aimed at, they were assisted with
the power and concurrence of the Devil, and in that respect only
were his servants and instruments.
But as for the second particular, namely, the efficient causes and
means of the producing of those things that the Magicians did, we
affirm they were performed by the power of nature and art, and that
the Devil was no efficient cause of their production, and that by these
irrefragable arguments.
1. Those that affirm that the Devil did or Argum. 1.
can produce such strange effects, do also
acknowledge, that what he performeth in natural and elementary
Bodies, is done by applying natural agents to natural and fit patients,
which do truly bring to pass such strange effects, and that he doth no
more, but only make the local application of them. From whence it
must necessarily follow that the effects flow from natural agents, and
so no causality at all can be ascribed unto him, except that fictitious
one of being causa sine qua non, which is as much as no cause. And
besides that, there is no proof that he maketh this local application;
for if he be incorporeal, then it is simply impossible that he should
perform any such matter; and however, a man by natural power and
means, if he know the fit and apt actives and passives, may perform
them himself, and so his assistance is needless; and we have never
yet met with any argument that bore any convincing force that might
induce us to believe that he is so great a Naturalist.
2. There are De secret. oper. Art. Argum. 2.
many persons that & natur. c. 5.
think themselves no mean sharers in the Gen. 30. 37, 38, 39.
most sorts of learning, and others that are &c.
very strait laced in their pretended zeal for godliness, and in
detesting the works of Satan, that even startle and shew an
abhorrency at the word Magick, if it be but once named, as though
there were no Magick but what is diabolical, or that which they call
diabolical were any other way evil but only in the end and use: for
there are many plants and minerals, that though poysonous, are yet
notwithstanding good in respect of their Creation, and the good uses
that may be made of them, as to kill noxious animals that are hurtful
unto man. But if any force of malice and wickedness should use them
to poyson and destroy Men and Women, it were wicked and
diabolical in the end and use, yet were the means lawful and natural.
So whatsoever the Devil may do by wicked Men, his instruments, in
leading and drawing them to make use of the great magnalia
naturæ, to work strange wonders by, thereby to confirm Idolatry and
Superstition, or to resist the truth and such devilish ends, though the
end and use may be wicked and diabolical, yet the efficient cause is
natural and lawful. And therefore we can find no other ground or
reason of dividing Magick into natural and Diabolical, but only that
they differ in the end and use: for otherwise they both work by a
natural agency and means, seeing the Devil can do nothing above or
contrary to that course that God hath set in nature. Therefore may
men do without the aid of Devils whatsoever they can do, seeing they
have no advantage over us, but operate only by applying active things
to passive, like as Men do: And therefore said that most learned
Philosopher, Chymist and Mathematician, our Countreyman Roger
Bacon, excellent well in these words: non igitur oportet nos uti
magicis illusionibus cum potestas Philosophiæ doceat operari quod
sufficit. Therefore are those men that came from the East to worship
Christ called Magicians, not because that great knowledge they had
in the secrets of Nature was Diabolical or unlawful; for the name of a
Magician was honourable and laudable, until Knaves and Impostors
made use of it to cheat and couzen withal, and for wicked and
ungodly ends; but because they had made use of it for the glory of
God, and the good of mankind, therefore were they Magicians in the
genuine, and best sense, as working by lawful and natural means,
and to a good end: when the Magicians of Pharaoh may be called
Cacomagicians, because they used the good and excellent causes and
agents of nature to a wicked and Diabolical end, namely to resist the
truth: and so the only difference of Magick is from the end and uses,
and not from the causes or agents, that are both natural. So what
these Magicians of Pharaoh did, though it were strange and
wonderful, yet was it meerly by natural means and causes; and yet
being for a wicked end was therefore Diabolical. So Jacob when he
set the pilled rods with white streakes in them, before the flocks in
the gutters in the watering troughs, that when the Rams and the
Sheep came up to drink, and coupled together, they might conceive
and bring forth ring-streaked, speckled and spotted young ones; It
came so to pass, and is confessed by Pererius himself, and the most
of learned Expositors upon that place, to be from natural causes, and
was a strange feat of natural Magick; but not evil because not
directed to a wicked end: but that of Pharaohs though wrought
likewise by a natural causes (for so it was whether ascribed to the
Devil, that can but work by natural means, or not) was wicked and
Diabolical; because they did it to resist Moses and Aaron the
messengers of the Lord Jehovah.
3. The most or all the learned Expositors Argum. 3.
that have Commented upon this place of
Exodus (as may be seen in Dr. Willets Hexapla and divers other
learned Authors) though they attribute these things done by the
Magicians to the power and assistance of Satan, yet in the manner
they do acknowledge them not to be done really and in truth, but
only in shew and appearance. But what they mean by shew and
appearance is not so easie to find out and determine; for if by it they

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