South African Journal of Education, Volume 43, Number 4, November 2023 1

Art. #2297, 9 pages, https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v43n4a2297

Single parenting and students’ academic performance

Magdaline Agbu Abe Hiko , Ayhan Cakici Es and Engin Baysen

Institute of Educational Sciences, Ataturk Education Faculty, Near East University, North Cyprus, Mersin 10, Turkey
hikomag1960@gmail.com

The need for strength-based research that highlights the way forward on the phenomenon of single parenting and its
antecedent effect on students’ academic performance was the motivation for this study. With this study we addressed the
direct effect of single parenting on students’ academic performance, while also accounting for the indirect effect of personal
achievement motivation and the moderating role of perceived community support. A sample of 379 secondary students from
12 schools in 6 states in Nigeria participated in the survey. The partial least square structural equation model was used for
the analysis of the study data through the aid of SmartPLS. We found that single parenting does not have a significant
negative effect on students’ academic performance. We also found that personal achievement motivation mediates the
relation between single parenting and students’ academic performance; community support was also found to moderate this
relationship. When compared to 2-parent homes, single parenting has the greatest effect on students’ academic performance.
We support the Self-determination Theory as a contribution to knowledge.

Keywords: academic performance; community support; single parenting; students

Introduction
Scholars have linked the family as the first point of call for understanding students’ academic performance
because the family provides the avenue for learning, communication and growth for a child (Laura & Saracostti,
2019; Lyu, Li & Xie, 2019). This explains increased research focusing on the role of family structure in
improving students’ academic performance (Lin, Washington-Nortey, Hill & Serpell, 2019; Sun & Li, 2011).
However, the phenomenon of single parenting has attracted scholars’ attention with most of the studies
comparing two biological parent homes, single-parent homes and step/relative homes (Cheung & Park, 2016;
Tartari, 2015), with most of the studies concluding that single parenting has a negative effect on students’
academic performance (Anyakoha, 2016; Azuka-Obieke, 2013).
However, with the growing trend of single parents in society, there is no gainsaying this trend has come to
stay. As such, emphasis should shift towards identifying factors that could help reduce the negative effect
thereof or strengthen the capacity of parents to drive increased student performance. This has become necessary
because the increased generalisation has rather led to stereotyping students from single-parent homes and
moralising parents for having children out of wedlock, which has not helped the situation or society.
Hence, taking a distinct approach from extant literature, we assessed the role of single-parent homes on
students’ academic performance not necessarily with the aim of comparing them with two-parent homes, as
comparison takes us back to stereotyping, but to provide a forward-driven approach to the role of single
parenting on students’ academic performance. Besides, studies on single-parent families and students’ academic
performance have focused more on the role of the parent, school and social ties (Marschall & Shah, 2020; Sota
& Agi, 2020) with limited studies assessing the role of the student in their academic performance. This has
become necessary since an individual can be self-motivated either intrinsically or extrinsically to pursue
whatever they hold valuable. Therefore, our approach of a more nuanced examination of the link between
personal achievement motivation and students’ academic performance and its mediating role in single-parent
students’ academic performance relation is justified.
The mechanisms that underlie the influence of family structures on specific outcomes have remained
unclear and lack new insight (Kroese, Bernasco, Liefbroer & Rouwendal, 2021). Prior studies that assessed the
relation between single-family structure and students’ academic performance have been limited in that they
typically sampled completely or predominately developed societies (Kroese et al., 2021), which is a gap that we
attempted to close with this study by presenting a developing society perspective. In a limited number of studies
an attempt was made to examine factors that could strengthen or weaken the relationship between single
parenting and students’ academic performance. In this article we propose perceived community support based
on the premise that single parents need some level of support, as it could reduce the negative consequences of
residing with single parents and alleviate the effect of lower levels of parental support (Taylor, 2010).
The role of perceived community support in students’ academic performance has remained under-
researched and inconclusive as difficulty in measuring perceived community support has led to varying
perspectives, thus, leading to limited empirical knowledge on the construct and its influence on students’
academic performance. It is on this premise that we explored the link between single parenting, personal
achievement motivation, and students’ academic performance and the moderating roles of perceived community
support.
2 Hiko, Cakici Es, Baysen

Literature Review single parents and is attributed to students’ poor

Theoretical development and hypotheses academic performance. Meanwhile, academic
development performance is usually linked to calculated test
The Self-determination Theory was used to results corresponding to the student’s degree of
underpin this study. The theory connects attitude, intelligence, excluding other subjective features.
drive, and optimal functioning as major A number of arguments exist on the roles of
assumptions. Its assumption presupposes that educational establishments in ensuring academic
motivation is inherent (intrinsic) or propelled by performance. While some believe that schools
external events (extrinsic) and is potent in should concentrate on students’ academic
moulding individuals and their behaviour (Ryan & preparation (Ogboro & Nwadiani, 2017), others
Deci, 2019). Intrinsic motivation includes basic believe that the efforts of the school should be
ethics, interests, and individual standards that combined with those of other social establishments
propel us to act in a pre-defined way. Intrinsic like the family and the community (Boyes-Watson,
motivation arises from an innate quest for one’s 2005). Ojo (2019) argues that single parenting has
own self-achievement (Ryan & Deci, 2019). It a negative effect on children’s performance and
happens when an individual connects with that it can lead to children being denied their right
something of interest to them and supports it since to education and increase criminality.
it is in line with their sense of worth and identity Based on the Self-determination Theory, we
(Ryan & Deci, 2019). argue that single parenting as a family structure
Extrinsic motivation arises from outward does not affect student’s academic performance, as
controls or guidelines, rising from the need to meet the attention given to the academic performance of
expectations or fear of punishment. Extrinsic a child is not a function of the family structure.
motivation can be in the form of ranking style, When parents can properly communicate affection
appraisals, prizes, compliments, and the esteem and and discipline and pay attention to their children, it
approval of others. The external can regulate helps in building self-esteem and confidence and
behaviour by making an individual conform to the helps positioning such a child on the way to
rules of others for fear, accept them even when success, but when they fail in their roles, it may
they disagree with them, show understanding to likely endanger the future of such a child –
them and integrate them into one’s values known irrespective of the family composition. Anyakoha
as integrated regulation (Ten Cate, Kusurkar & (2016) found that single parents who were
Williams, 2011). The theory supports the need for well-read helped their children with academic
separating intrinsic from extrinsic motivation while activities. Nwachukwu (2011) found that children
upholding the intrinsic as a better form of from single-parent families performed well
motivation, even though one can also be self- academically when their parents helped them.
determined and extrinsically motivated (Ryan & Hence, we propose the following:
Deci, 2019). H1: Single parenting affects students’ academic
In relating this theory to our study we propose performance
that promoting behaviour that supports students’
higher academic performance starts with first The mediating role of personal achievement
identifying the relevance of higher academic motivation on single parenting and academic
performance (change in behaviour), which allows performance
for building competence and self-efficacy to handle Individuals can be self-motivated and driven to
their academics on their own and feel a connection perform academically, even when they are from
with their single parent and the community. So, single-parent families (Leung & Shek, 2018).
when such students fail, they do not blame others Students are affected by their desire to succeed and
for their failure; instead, they set the course in it pushes them to succeed at whatever challenge
motion for adjustments where needed to achieve a they take on. The desire to achieve supersedes
much desired outcome and they put in all the work other limiting elements that may botch their
needed to have the desired results. ambition. Atkinson (1999) revealed that students
put effort into activities in which they do not desire
Single parenting and academic performance to sustain a high-class rank, which shows a
Presently there is a fast and radical surge in the student’s attitude towards success. Hence, students
number of single-parent families in the world, even who are naturally inclined towards academic
in Nigeria, where it was initially considered foreign success exert more effort – irrespective of the
to our culture. The new reality is the existence of requirements (Accordino, Accordino & Slaney,
single-mother homes and single-father homes. 2000). Therefore, if we embrace the idea of innate
Single-parent families are gradually gaining motivation, that means that we all have a
acceptance in developing societies, unlike in the commanding prospect for self-actualisation,
past when the phenomenon was an anomaly and irrespective of family background. Self-motivated
believed to be a sign of the collapse and failure of students engage in academic undertakings for their
the family unit. This has led to the stigmatisation of
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 43, Number 4, November 2023 3

own sake and contend with the fact that the success. The community plays a major role in
knowledge gathered will be useful in the future. stimulating academic success, as communities
Students with personal achievement provide a nurturing environment for students,
motivation are ambitious and driven with fostering a sense of belonging and emotional
tendencies to set objectives (Singh, 2018). well-being (Tondeur, Kershaw, Vanderlinde & Van
Ambition makes students pursue academic success Braak, 2013). When students feel supported by
(Rayner & Papakonstantinou, 2018). Meanwhile, their community, they are more likely to be
students who set goals are more inclined to take up emotionally resilient, motivated, and engaged in
tasks and they possess a sense of purpose. Personal their academic pursuits. Also, communities often
ambition is essential, as it has the capability of contribute resources and funding to schools, which
affecting choices and academic accomplishment can enhance the overall quality of education. This
(Goodman & Gregg, 2010). Students with support may include books, learning aids,
increased academic ambition possess higher technology, funded scholarships, and infrastructure
motivation and academic accomplishment, improvements. These resources can positively
irrespective of their family background (Desforges affect students’ learning experiences and academic
& Abouchaar, 2003). Based on the Self- achievement.
determination Theory, ambition can be the Furthermore, there is a general belief that
determinant and resultant factor of academic many single parents may not be financially stable
accomplishment that accounts for the link between to provide the best form of education for their
family structure and students’ academic children, which may affect their children’s
performance. performance (Carlson & Corcoran, 2001; Kalil &
Since children from single-parent homes are Ryan, 2010; Martin-West, 2019). Studies have
not likely to always get the required attention from shown that single parents often rely on help from
their parents (Carlson & Corcoran, 2001), it is most social ties although literature acknowledges and
likely that they will develop some level of describes this kind of support as social support
independence that will allow them to make some (Martin-West, 2019; Sota & Agi, 2020). However,
personal academic decisions, and over time, this scholars have stated that it is reciprocal and can be
will build confidence and resilience in them to take used up, meaning that it may not be available
on greater challenges that would be beneficial to forever (Desmond, 2012). We align with the
them. When this happens, the child makes choices scholarly position of Herrero and Gracia (2007) on
and exerts efforts in academic activities, with perceived community support, which has a broader
achievement as their primary focus and motivation. perspective on social support than just close and
Parents are observational models that guide intimate relationships.
behavioural change; a child from a single-parent Peer groups are part of the community where
home is most likely to develop some level of students receive help. By becoming a member of a
personal belief to undertake tasks independently, group they can share ideas, counsels, and views
and this could lead to stimulating desires to about decisions to be taken as well as strategies to
succeed at an early stage, which will be helpful to be used. Friedlander, Reid, Shupak and Cribbie
shape the child/children towards personal (2007) assert that peer support fosters motivation
achievement motivation and success in their and active engagement in academic endeavours.
academic pursuit. Hence, we also propose: Also, academic institutions establish structures that
H2: Personal achievement motivation has a facilitate and enhance learning activities within the
significant influence on students’ academic institution, thereby directly influencing the
performance. academic performance of their students (Furrer &
H3: Personal achievement motivation mediates the Skinner, 2003). There are religious bodies and
relation between single parenting and students’ community agencies within the community that
academic performance. help parents and single-parent families cope with
stress and give financial assistance to help them
The moderating role of perceived community carry out their responsibilities (Redmond, Spoth &
support in single parenthood and academic Trudeau, 2002).
performance Community support is not just a useful system
Perceived community support is the collective of handling pressure; it also helps in accomplishing
structure of care that surrounds the family, ranging academic fulfilment, as perceived community
from extended family, friends, neighbours, social support enhances drive and subsequent
institutions offering services and care, comprising commitment to learning activities. Ballen and
official and social service providers and Moles (2013) revealed that the participation of
community-based organisations. Eccles and Wang parents and the community in the academic system
(2012) posit that when an individual is being enriches the value of students’ academic
supported, directed, and counselled, it makes such experiences and accomplishments, especially at the
an individual feel self-assured and determined to primary and secondary levels. When community
achieve while enjoying the process towards
4 Hiko, Cakici Es, Baysen

participation in the educational system is well H4: Perceived community support affects students’
defined and utilised, it will yield valuable results academic performance
for the academic system in that community and H5: Perceived community support moderates the
overall student performance. Hence, we propose: relation between single parents and students’
academic performance.

Personal achievement
motivation

Students academic
H1
Single parenting performance

H5
Perceived community
support

Figure 1 Theoretical model

Research Methodology homes). Single parenting was measured as a

We used a survey design in this study because it first-order construct. We transformed the data using
was the most suitable choice when effort is geared the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS),
towards gathering data from a large sample. A creating main effect dummies with a root name
sample of 379 secondary school students was “family structure”, thereby allowing us to have a
drawn from 12 schools in six states in Nigeria. We complete, equal and single dataset on each of the
ensured that at least two schools were selected variables (single-father families, single-mother
from each of the six geopolitical zones in the families and two-parent homes). To avoid the
country. Convenient and purposive sampling were single matrix problem, the two-parent family was
used for the study. The techniques were chosen as used as the reference variable, while the data from
not all students would take part in the study and not single-mother and single-father families were used
all students were from single-parent homes, which to form a composite scale in the model. This was
is the major interest of the study. A questionnaire done because the focus of the research was on
was used for data collection. Analysis of the data single parenting. We used the students’ test scores
was done with ANOVA and partial least square obtained from the school authorities for two
structural equation modelling with the aid of different subjects (mathematics and English
SPSSv23 and SmartPLSv3.9 respectively. Ethical language) undertaken in three different terms in the
considerations were taken into account as written 2019/2020 academic session. The choice of three
approval was obtained from the schools, parents, terms was to avoid bias in scores and the two
and the State Ministry of Education for the study to subjects were chosen because they are compulsory
be conducted. After having obtained approval and subjects that students need to pass before they are
permission from the State Ministry of Education, promoted. The scale for personal achievement
we informed the students and their parents on the motivation was adapted from the Mehrabian
purpose of the study. Afterwards, we provided a 4 Achievement Motivation Scale (Mehrabian, 1993)
week window for them to re-evaluate their decision with 12 items. The Perceived Community Support
before allowing them to take part in the survey. Questionnaire (PCSQ) designed by Herrero and
Gracia (2007) was adapted with 14 items, all
Measures designed on a 5-point Likert scale (see Figure 1 for
A categorical question that required students to theoretical Model).
respond to the family structure in their home was
used. The items were worded clearly for the Research Result
students to select between single-father families The preliminary analysis of the data showed that
(where the student lives alone with the father), 290 of the 379 survey questionnaires were suitable
single-mother families (where the student lives for further analysis, which is about 77% of the
alone with the mother), and others (two-parent distributed instruments. The remaining survey
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 43, Number 4, November 2023 5

instruments were dropped because of issues such as including the surveys for further analysis (see
mutilation and incomplete responses. Hence, the Table 1 for demographic distribution of
high response rate provided justification for respondents).

Table 1 Demographic distribution of respondents

Variable Single-father Single-mother Two-parent Total p
Family structure 120(41%) 150(52%) 20(7%) 290 .001
Gender
Male 59(49%) 65(43%) 6(30%) 130 NS
Female 61(51%) 85(57%) 14(70%) 160 NS
Class
SSS 1 35(29%) 33(22%) 8(40%) 76 NS
SSS 2 39(33%) 50(33%) 6(30%) 95 NS
SSS 3 46(38%) 67(45%) 6(30%) 119 NS
Parent education
SSCE 15(13%) 46(31%) 5(25%) 66 NS
Diploma/NCE 41(34%) 68(45%) 5(25%) 114 NS
HND/BSC degree 36(30%) 29(19%) 6(30%) 71 NS
Postgraduate degree 28(23%) 7(5%) 4(20%) 39 NS
Occupation/Career
Full-time employment 26(22%) 32(21%) 6(30%) 64 0.00
Part-time employment 18(15%) 13(9%) 2(10%) 33 0.00
Self-employed 76(63%) 105(70%) 12(60%) 193 0.02
Note. SSS = Senior secondary school; NS = Not significant; SSCE = Senior Secondary Certificate Examination, NCE =
National Certificate of Education; HND = Higher National Diploma; BSC = Bachelor of Science degree.

The results show that 120 (41%) of the significant difference among the family structures
students were from single-father homes, while 150 p > 0.05. This implies that there is no economic
(52%) were from single-mother homes and 20 (7%) disadvantage for students from single-parent
were from two-parent homes. Furthermore, we homes, most especially single-mothers, as our
tested whether there was a significant difference in result confirms that they were more self-employed
student academic scores for students from single- compared to the others.
father, single-mother and two-parent homes using
one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA). The Measurement Model
results show that there was a significant difference, The questionnaire was divided into sections and we
as the p < .05 for the family structure groups conducted Harman’s single-factor test. This was
(F-value (290) = 4.2, p = .01) where F-value is the done to avoid the challenge of common method
F-value distribution. However, the difference in variance that is associated with questionnaire
mean score between the groups was quite small, as instruments. The factor analysis results show that
the effect size was 0.11. Next, the results show that none of the factors accounted for over 50% of the
59 (49%) male students were from single-father variance in the factors (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee
homes, 65 (43%) from single-mother homes while & Podsakoff, 2003); hence, it implies the absence
six (30%) were from two-parent homes. Sixty-one of bias. We assessed the factor loadings, and the
(51%) female students were from single-father results show that all items loaded sufficiently, as all
homes, 85 (57%) from single-mother homes while the items had a loading value above 0.70 and the
14 (70%) were from two-parent homes. Parent outer loadings were significant with t-values
education was also assessed for significant greater than 1.96 for all the loadings (Hair, Howard
differences among the family structures and the & Nitzl, 2020). Next, we assessed the reliability of
results show that there was no statistically the model. Hair et al. (2020) recommends that
significant as p > 0.05. Finally, we accounted for Cronbach’s alpha, composite reliability and ρ A
whether there was a significant difference in parent (rho A) should be >.70. Given the model results
occupation as a means of economic resource, presented in Table 2 it implies that the instruments
which has been found to affect students’ academic were reliable.
performance. Our results show that there was no

Table 2 Reliability result

Cronbach’s Average variance
alpha ρA Composite reliability extracted (AVE)
Perceived community support 0.898 0.906 0.915 0.644
Personal achievement motivation 0.842 0.855 0.875 0.516

Furthermore, AVE was used to determine the that the AVE should be > .50. The results from
convergent validity. Hair et al. (2020) recommend Table 2 show that this criterion has been satisfied.
6 Hiko, Cakici Es, Baysen

Criterion validity was determined using the academic performance (β = 0.512; p < 0.05).
Fornell-Larcker criterion. Hair et al. (2020) state Personal achievement motivation partially mediates
that this criteria is satisfied when the AVE is the relation between living in two-parent homes
greater than the correlation values. and the students’ academic performance, although
it was lower compared to the single-parent homes
Structural Model Result (β = 0.398; p < 0.05). Finally, the results show the
The significance of the path was assessed, and the moderating effect of perceived community support
p-value was used to accept or reject a hypothesis. on the academic performance of students living in
(see Table 3 for a summary of the outcome). The single-parent homes and two-parent homes, which
results show that there was a positive relationship was found to be positive (β = 0.416; p < 0.05) and
between single-parent homes and the students’ (β = 0.285; p < 0.05) respectively. Perceived
academic performance (β = 0.532; p < 0.05). The community support better strengthens the relation
results confirm that there was a positive between single-parent homes and students’
relationship between living in two-parent homes academic performance when compared to two-
and student’s academic performance (β = 0.421; p parent homes. Thus, it implies that higher levels of
< 0.05), although the coefficient was low. Hence, community support are required for students from
comparing the strength of the relation between single-parent homes.
single-parent and two-parent homes on students’ The model in sample fit was determined using
academic performance, the results reveal that single the coefficient of determination. The results show
parenting has the most positive effect on students’ that the predictors explained the outcome variable.
academic performance. The outcome of the This is clear from the R-value (which is the
analysis shows that there was a positive multiple correlation) of the model at 0.673 (67.3%)
relationship between personal achievement changes in students’ academic performance, which
motivation and students’ academic performance, as is high. It is safe to conclude that the family
the beta value produced was (β = 0.157; p < 0.05). structure strongly predicts students’ academic
Furthermore, perceived community support linked performance in school. However, an R-value of
with students’ academic performance also showed 0.590 (59%) was obtained for personal
a positive relationship with a beta value of achievement motivation, which implies good
(β = 0.635; p < 0.05). predictive accuracy of the model when the variable
Personal achievement motivation partially is included in the model.
mediates the relation between single parenting and

Table 3 Summary of hypotheses results

t statistics p Decision
Single parent -> Academic performance 4.989 0.000 Accept H1
Personal achievement motivation -> Academic performance 3.362 0.012 Accept H2
Single parent -> Personal achievement motivation -> 3.144 0.021 Accept H3
Academic performance
Perceived community support -> Academic performance 2.181 0.000 Accept H4
Single parent*Perceived community support -> Academic 3.109 0.000 Accept H5
performance

The goodness of fit of the model was assessed homes, which is consistent with the studies of
and we relied on the standardised root-mean-square Ekpenyong and Lawrence (2016) and Wajim and
residual (SRMR). Hair et al. (2020) state that Shimfe (2020) who also highlight the growing
SRMR values less than 0.08 show a model fit. The trend of single-mother homes.
result shows that the model was fit, as an SRMR In addition, the results show that living with a
coefficient of 0.021 was obtained. We got a Q2 single parent does not negatively affect students’
value of 0.197, thus showing that the exogenous academic performance, as the relationship is
construct of single parenting had a moderate positive. This result is similar to the studies of
predictive relevance to students’ academic Adesokan and Makura (2020) and Chiu and Ho
performance (Shmueli, Sarstedt, Hair, Cheah, Ting, (2006). The results show that student achievement
Vaithilingam & Ringle, 2019). motivation has a significant effect on their
academic performance. This is consistent with the
Discussion of Findings findings of Steinmayr, Weidinger, Schwinger and
With this study we assessed the effect of single Spinath (2019).
parenting on students’ academic performance and It was found that personal achievement
attempted to link the relationship with personal motivation mediates the relationship between
achievement motivation and moderated the same single parenting and students’ academic
with perceived community support. The results performance. This agrees with the views of Sanders
confirm the growing number of single-mother (1996), who states that students have a role in their
 South African Journal of Education, Volume 43, Number 4, November 2023 7

academic success despite the family structure that stimulating factors that would motivate students to
they may be living in. Similarly, Alhassan (2000) take their academics seriously.
also states that personal achievement motivation Furthermore, since student from single-parent
mediates the link between single parenting and homes require higher community support and
academic performance relationship. We also found personal achievement motivation to achieve higher
that perceived community support affected academic performance when compared to students
students’ academic performance. This result is from two-parent homes, it is necessary that
consistent with the views of Furrer and Skinner teachers be supportive in their interactions with the
(2003). This result affirms the view that the children from single-parent households. However,
community provides the needed support, especially this process must begin with teachers engaging
when the parents are not around to monitor their professionally with every child, recognising them
children’s activities. as unique individuals, and addressing their
When used as a moderator, the results show individual needs. Teachers’ ability to do this could
that perceived community support strengthened the serve as a source for extrinsic motivation to the
relation associated with living with a single parent student, which would positively affect the student’s
and the students’ academic performance. This academic performance.
aligns directly with the position of Haxton and The societal implications of this study hinge
Harknett (2009) on the relevance of kinship support on the outcome that community support moderates
for students. The findings also agree with the views the relationship between single parenting and
of Debell (2007), who holds that the negative effect students’ academic performance. There is a need to
of single parenting could have less effect on support children from single-parent homes and not
students’ academic performance when certain stereotype them. There should be an effort to
factors are controlled. provide for them in areas where deficiencies are
immediately observed because an African adage
Conclusion and Implication of the Study says: “When a child performs well, the glory is
We conclude that single parenting does not both to the parents and the community.” In view of
negatively affect students’ academic performance. the growing economic and social challenges that
The academic performance of children from parents face in our society, there is a need for
two-parent households did not fare better when communities to rise to the occasion and be the
compared to children from single-parent homes, support mechanism that single-parent students need
thus changing the narrative that children from to improve their academic performance. Finally,
two-parent homes would perform better than we present an integrative model on single parenting
children from single-parent homes. Hence, the and students’ academic performance, capturing
family structure may not be the first point of call factors that are the students themselves and then
for poor student academic performance. It also their external environment, which is a clear
means that a single-parent home may not be bad departure from previous scholars’ approach to the
after all, as it now depends on the relationship relationship between the constructs.
fostered between the parent and the child in the
home. Social workers should thus focus more on Authors’ Contributions
strengths-based systems that allow for improving MAH and AC wrote the introduction; all authors
the parent-child relationship, as this will help in developed the literature review section and MAH
identifying key parental behaviour that would be and EB conducted all statistical analyses. All
beneficial to the child’s academic performance. authors reviewed the final manuscript.
Our study further supports scholars that
advocate that studying single-parent influence on Notes
students’ academic performance may not be as i. Published under a Creative Commons Attribution Licence.
ii. DATES: Received: 1 November 2021; Revised: 29 May
conclusive and direct as we have been made to 2023; Accepted: 22 September 2023; Published: 30
believe, as it is cogent to consider the student as a November 2023.
major factor in exploring this relationship. With
this study we provide a view that explains the References
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