Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

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Engineering Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/engstruct

A novel fiber-reinforced polymer rope: Concept design and

experimental evaluation
Jingyang Zhou a, b, Xin Wang a, b, *, Jiazhan Xie a, b, Rundong Wu a, b, Huang Huang c,
Weiyan He a, b, Zhishen Wu a, b, *
a
Key Laboratory of C & PC Structures Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
b
National and Local Unified Engineering Research Center for Basalt Fiber Production and Application Technology, International Institute for Urban Systems Engineering,
Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China
c
Nanjing Research Institute for Intelligent Infrastructure, Nanjing 210012, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The present study proposes using a twisted rope with flexible fiber-reinforced polymers (FRPs) instead of wire
Fiber-reinforced polymer rope and synthetic rope in environments requiring high load-bearing capacity and corrosion resistance. Resin
Rope toughening modification was conducted to manufacture flexible FRPs, and experimental evaluations were per­
Resin modification
formed to assess the tensile and flexural properties of the impregnated fiber bundles (IFBs), as well as the tensile
Impregnated fiber bundle
Tensile
behaviors of the seven-IFB strands and the seven-strand ropes. The results demonstrated that the modified epoxy
Flexural resin exhibited a decrease in both strength and elastic modulus, while its ductility was enhanced. Tensile and
bending experiments confirmed that incorporating an additional 10% of Qishi toughener (QS-VA-3) was the
optimal choice for producing low-modulus and high-toughness resins. Although the tensile properties of resin
modified IFBs may show a slight reduction, their repeated bending behavior can be significantly improved. The
tensile load-displacement curves of the FRP strand and rope displayed a linear increasing trend and experienced
intermediate fracture failure, resembling that observed in IFBs. Furthermore, it was found that the tensile
strength and elastic modulus of the strand decreased with an increase in lay length. The secondary twisting can
enhance the tensile behavior of ropes compared to strands with equivalent lay lengths.

1. Introduction ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), polyester, and

aramid fibers [10,11].
The two most widely used ropes at present are steel wire rope and The tensile strength of fiber ropes is closely related to the type of
synthetic fiber rope, both of which have their unique advantages. Wire fiber, structure form, and preparation method. The flexural strength of
rope is known for its easy coiling, exceptional wear resistance, well- fiber ropes is significantly affected by internal fiber bending, uneven
established production technology, and minimal tensile deformation force distribution, as well as internal and external wear [12]. Ning et al.
[1,2]. It serves as a crucial component in various fields such as mining, [13] revealed that the friction and deformation between double-braided
elevators, cranes, and aerospace [3,4]. However, wire ropes are prone to polyester strands led to heat accumulation, increasing rope temperature.
rust and rupture during usage, particularly when exposed to salt spray, Davies et al. [14] found that local melting, extrusion, internal wear, and
seawater, moisture, and acid rain. These factors accelerate corrosion and fiber fracture contributed to the degradation of braided high modulus
wire fracture in wire ropes, significantly reducing their service life. polyethylene (HMPE) fiber rope strength. Lian et al. [15] discovered that
Synthetic fiber rope possesses numerous advantages such as being the dynamic stiffness of the 12-strand HMPE rope exhibited an increase
lightweight, high strength, corrosion resistance, and excellent flexibility with increasing average load, while it decreased with escalating load
[5–7]. Particularly in highly humid and saline marine environments [8, amplitude. Vlasbom et al. [16] found that the creep rate of the HMPE
9], it outperforms heavy wire ropes by avoiding easy corrosion. There­ rope increased by a factor of 10 when the temperature rose by 20 ℃.
fore, synthetic fiber rope exhibits a promising range of applications. The fiber rope still has inherent drawbacks, including significant
High-performance fiber ropes are predominantly manufactured using tensile deformation, susceptibility to wear and tear, low utilization rate

* Corresponding authors at: Key Laboratory of C & PC Structures Ministry of Education, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China.
E-mail addresses: xinwang@seu.edu.cn (X. Wang), zswu@seu.edu.cn (Z. Wu).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2024.117775
Received 10 November 2023; Received in revised form 2 February 2024; Accepted 26 February 2024
Available online 2 March 2024
0141-0296/© 2024 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

of fiber strength, and inadequate synchronous mechanical performance challenge of ensuring uniform dispersion. It is necessary to incorporate a
of the fibers. The key issue lies in the lack of resin matrix protection for dispersant beforehand for effective dispersion treatment.
the stressed fibers. The combination of fiber and resin matrix to create a In this study, basalt fiber, known for its cost-effectiveness, was
fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) [17–20] is an optimal approach for selected as the fiber material for the FRP rope. The resin matrix was
maximizing the mechanical properties of the fiber. The utilization effi­ modified using rubber elastomer and PPGDGE diluent, with the optimal
ciency of small-diameter FRP tendons as the fundamental components of modification method and dosage determined through resin casting body
the rope can be enhanced while addressing issues such as low strength (RCB) tests. Modified resin and basalt fiber were used to prepare small-
utilization, internal fiber wear, and fiber asynchronism force. To meet diameter BFRP tendons, which were further utilized to create BFRP
application requirements for high bearing capacity and corrosion strands and BFRP ropes based on their structural characteristics. The
resistance, FRP ropes are an ideal alternative to wire ropes and synthetic mechanical properties of the novel flexible FRP rope were evaluated
fiber ropes [21,22]. through tensile and flexural experiments, expanding its application
The engineering application of FRP ropes requires addressing chal­ scope in demanding high load-bearing requirements and corrosive
lenges in structural form design, cost-effectiveness, and bending fatigue. environments.
To tackle these issues effectively, firstly, the rope structure can be
optimized based on the stress characteristics of small-diameter FRP 2. Structural design and application prospect of the twisted FRP
tendons by leveraging existing structural forms of wire rope and fiber rope
rope. Secondly, the price of FRPs primarily depends on the fiber used;
therefore, selecting a cost-effective fiber contributes to reducing the 2.1. Design concept
overall cost of FRP rope. The basalt fiber possesses the characteristics of
high specific strength, corrosion resistance, and excellent cost perfor­ As shown in Fig. 1, the twisted FRP rope is formed by twisting FRP
mance [23,24]. It serves as a crucial choice for achieving optimal cost strands. The advantage of combining these strands lies in the rope’s
performance. The bending fatigue properties of small-diameter FRP ability to withstand high loads while maintaining flexibility. The FRP
tendons are influenced by the brittleness of the resin matrix, so using a strands can be arranged in either a circular or hexagonal configuration,
low-modulus and high-toughness resin matrix can improve their with the twisting direction of the strands being opposite to that of the
bending fatigue properties. internal small-diameter FRP tendons (the diameter should range from 1
The method of elastomer toughening is a well-established and to 2 mm). The strands of the rope are reinforced with interwoven fiber
extensively researched technique [25], with the silver-shear band theory sheaths on the outer surface to alleviate extrusion stress, minimize
being widely recognized [26–28]. This theory posits that elastic particles external wear, and provide restraint and protection for the internal
serve as stress concentration points, inducing the formation of silver and tendons and strands. The use of lubricants, particularly powder lubri­
shear bands to effectively absorb fracture energy [29]. Additionally, the cants with a significant specific surface area such as graphite and
debonding of elastomer particles from epoxy resin creates voids that tungsten disulfide, is essential for filling the gaps between and within
further promote shear deformation within the epoxy resin matrix, FRP strands in order to minimize wear and prolong the service life.
thereby facilitating energy dissipation and toughening. By incorporating
various forms of rubber particles, the toughness of the epoxy resin can be
enhanced by 48–82% [30]. Qishi rubber toughener (model number is 2.2. Application prospect
QS-BE) is a cost-effective liquid rubber that effectively enhances the
fracture toughness and crack resistance of epoxy resins [31]. The rubber Theoretically, FRP ropes can be utilized in various fields including
elastomer toughening method offers advantages in terms of improving marine engineering, civil engineering, mine engineering, aerospace, and
impact strength, bond strength, and fracture toughness of the resin; more. However, due to current limitations in preparation technology
however, it also has limitations as it reduces heat resistance and stiffness and design methods, as well as the absence of relevant application
to some extent. standards, the application of FRP ropes still encounters numerous
The utilization of thermoplastic resin offers remarkable advantages challenges. Currently FRP ropes show promise as mooring ropes or
in terms of superior toughness, strength, and heat resistance [32–34]. seabed mining ropes for the following reasons: Firstly, FRP materials are
This integration can effectively enhance the toughness and fatigue highly suitable for marine environments due to their corrosion resis­
resistance of the epoxy resin matrix without significantly altering its tance properties. Therefore, they can serve as an ideal alternative to
modulus or heat resistance. The polymer, when mixed with epoxy resin traditional steel materials. Secondly, mooring or seabed mining
and thermoplastic resin, is prone to cracking and deformation under
external loads. However, the propagation of cracks can be effectively
inhibited through crack-bridging mechanisms. Liu et al. [35]. intro­
duced polypropylene glycol diglycidyl ether (PPGDGE) into the epoxy
resin system and observed a significant enhancement in the flexibility of
the cured material. The optimal toughening effect was achieved when
the molecular weight of PPGDGE was 1000 [36]. Due to the poor sol­
ubility of thermoplastic resin, its addition resulted in a substantial in­
crease in viscosity for the epoxy resin system, posing challenges for
further processing.
Inorganic nanoparticles are a type of rigid particles that enhance the
toughness and strength of resin systems without compromising their
stiffness, thereby offering extensive prospects for application. Currently,
common types of inorganic nanoparticles include graphene oxide, car­
bon nanotubes, nano-silica, and so on. The addition of silica nano­
particles can increase the fracture toughness of epoxy resin and vinyl
resin by 18% and 24% respectively, which significantly improves the
strength of resin, and is an ideal toughener for FRP materials [37,38].
The drawbacks of the rigid particle toughening method lie in the small
size of nanoparticle particles, their propensity to agglomerate, and the Fig. 1. Structural form of the twisted FRP rope.

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

scenarios require FRP ropes with excellent flexibility to withstand specimens. T-E (F-E) served as the control group, consisting of epoxy
repeated bending for rolling or torsion purposes. Unlike rigid FRP cables resin without any modified materials, with T and F denoting tensile and
used in bridge, flexible FRP ropes can effectively meet these bending flexural loading forms respectively. T-V (F-E) represents vinyl resin
requirements while maintaining high strength retention. Thirdly, FPR without any modified materials. The epoxy resin was then modified
ropes also possess other outstanding properties such as high tensile using three types of Qishi tougheners, with an added mass fraction of
strength, fatigue and creep resistance, and high creep rupture stress. 10% based on the optimal dosage determined in previous research [36].
These performance advantages mentioned above may contribute PPGDGE-modified epoxy resin was employed to investigate its tough­
significantly to the application of FPR ropes. ening effect at added mass fractions of 10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%
respectively.
3. Toughening modification of the resin matrix Vinyl resin MFE-9 was combined with promoter cobalt iso-octoate
P001 and curing agent methyl ethyl ketone peroxide V388 in a mass
3.1. Experimental program for resin modification ratio of 2:3:100, followed by thorough stirring for uniformity. The initial
mixing of vinyl resin MFE-9 will result in the formation of numerous
3.1.1. Matrix materials small bubbles. It was recommended to stir slowly during this stage, and
The resin matrix was a middle and high-temperature epoxy resin only pour the resin into the mold when the reaction became stable and
consisted of epoxy resin ER7121 and curing agent EH7121. The rubber most of the bubbles had disappeared. The gel time for vinyl resin MFE-9
elastomer-modified vinyl resin comprised vinyl resin, a room tempera­ ranged from 15 to 25 min, with basic curing achieved after 2 h and
ture curing agent, and an accelerator. The responding types used were complete curing within 24 h. Epoxy resin ER7121 and curing agent
MFE-9, methyl ethyl ketone peroxide V388, and cobalt iso-octanoate EH7121 should be mixed in a 1:1 wt ratio and cured at temperatures of
P001. Notably, the vinyl resin MFE-9 has been pre-modified with rub­ 90 ℃ and 130 ℃ for durations of 3 h and 4 h respectively. For the
ber elastomer by the manufacturer. According to the manufacturers’ modified epoxy resin, the modifier material needs to be pre-mixed with
specifications, the epoxy resin exhibits a tensile strength of over 50 MPa, epoxy resin first, thoroughly stirred, then combined with curing agent
compressive strength of over 60 MPa, and elastic modulus of over before being evenly stirred again before pouring into the mold for
2.5 GPa. Similarly, the vinyl resin boasts a tensile strength of more than curing. The curing conditions remain unchanged from those used for
30 MPa, compressive strength exceeding 50 MPa, and an elastic pure epoxy resin.
modulus greater than 3.0 GPa.
3.1.4. Test procedure for the RCBs
3.1.2. Toughening materials The tensile and flexural tests of the RCBs are conducted by the Chi­
The epoxy resin-modified materials were PPGDGE diluent with a nese standard outlined in GB/T 2567-2021 [39]. The tensile equipment
molecular weight of 1000 and Qishi rubber toughener respectively. was an AG-X plus universal testing machine produced by Shimadzu Co.,
Three types of Qishi tougheners were selected, namely QS-N, QS-VA-3, LTD., Japan, as depicted in Fig. 2. It had a maximum load capacity of
and QS-V40B. The toughening mechanisms of the two toughening 10 kN and an accuracy of 0.1 N. The machine automatically recorded
agents differ. In the case of PPGDGE diluent, it can form a mixture with the tensile load and chuck displacement at a set rate of 2 mm/min. Two
the resin matrix and achieve co-deformation, thereby enhancing the strain measurement methods were employed. Firstly, a strain gauge was
toughness of the modified material through crack bridging. However, affixed on each side of the specimen, and the strain data was collected
Qishi toughening agents are employed to induce shear deformation in using the Donghua DH3818Y data acquisition instrument at a sampling
the resin matrix, facilitating energy dissipation and promoting frequency of 1 Hz. Secondly, reflective stickers with a marker length of
toughening. 50 mm were applied on the surface of the sample, and TRViewX optical
extensometer was utilized to track and record changes in marker length.
3.1.3. RCB specimens The bending specimen had dimensions of 80 mm in length, 15 mm in
As shown in Table 1, four types of test conditions were designed for width, and 4 mm in thickness. The loading speed was maintained at a
both tensile and flexural tests, with each condition testing 5 valid rate of 2 mm/min. The termination for the bending test was either
specimen fracture or when the mid-span deflection reached a value
equal to or greater than 1.5 times specimen thickness.
Table 1
Experimental schemes for the tensile and flexural properties of the RCBs. 3.1.5. Data processing for the RCBs
Number Loading Matrix Modified Mass Specimen Eqs. (3) and (4) are utilized to calculate the tensile and flexural
form material material fraction/ quantity strength of the RCBs, where σt represents the tensile strength in MPa.
% The maximum load is denoted by P in newtons (N), while L, b, and h
T-E Tensile Epoxy / / 5 refer to the span, width, and thickness of the specimen respectively,
resin
T-V Tensile Vinyl / / 5
resin
T-E-N/ Tensile Epoxy QS-N/QS- 10/10/10 5/5/5
VA/VB resin VA3/QS-
V40B
T-E-PP- Tensile Epoxy PPGDGE 10/20/ 5/5/5/5
10/20/ resin 30/40
30/40
F-E Flexural Epoxy / / 5
resin
F-V Flexural Vinyl / / 5
resin
F-E-N/ Flexural Epoxy QS-N/QS- 10/10/10 5/5/5
VA/VB resin VA3/QS-
V40B
F-E-PP- Flexural Epoxy PPGDGE 10/20/ 5/5/5/5
10/20/ resin 30/40
30/40
Fig. 2. Loading procedures of the RCBs.

3
J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

measured in mm. The tensile (flexural) elastic modulus of the RCBs can
be calculated according to Eq. (5). The tensile (flexural) elastic modulus,
denoted as E2 measured in MPa, represents the resistance of the RCBs to
deformation under tensile or flexural forces. The corresponding tensile
(flexural) stress σ 2 at a strain ε2 = 0.0025 is expressed in MPa, while the
stress σ 1 at a strain ε2 = 0.0005 is also expressed in MPa.
P
σt = (3)
b⋅h

3P⋅L
σf = (4)
2b⋅h2
σ2 − σ1
E21 = (5)
ε2 − ε1
Eqs. (6) and (7) are utilized to calculate the tensile elongation at
rupture and flexural strain rate of the RCBs respectively. The equations
include εt and εf, which represent the elongation at rupture and flexural
strain rate of the specimens respectively, measured in %. L0 refers to the
measuring scale distance, ΔLb represents the elongation within this scale Fig. 4. Tensile stress strain curves of the RCBs.
distance when the tensile specimen is broken, and S denotes the mid-
span deflection of the flexural specimen, measured in mm. noteworthy that T-E-PP-40 exhibited the highest tensile strain value,
ΔL resembling the stress drop and plateau sections of thermoplastic resin.
εt = b × 100 (6) The objective of resin matrix modification is to significantly enhance
L0
the toughness and elongation properties while achieving a reduction
6S⋅h rate in tensile strength that is lower than the reduction rate in elastic
εf = × 100 (7)
L2 modulus. As depicted in Fig. 5(a), all modified specimens exhibited
simultaneous decreases in both tensile strength and elastic modulus
compared to T-E, except for T-V. The T-V exhibited the highest elastic
3.2. Experimental results and discussions modulus (74 MPa), but its tensile strength decreased by 31% compared
to T-E due to variations in curing conditions. The tensile strength of T-E-
3.2.1. Tensile behavior of the RCBs N, T-E-VA, and T-E-VB decreased by 36%, 23%, and 18% respectively,
As illustrated in Fig. 3, compared with the unmodified resin, the accompanied by corresponding reductions in elastic modulus of 16%,
color of T-E-N and T-E-VA was milky, the surface was smoother, the 30%, and 4%. Notably, the decrease in tensile strength for T-E-VA was
hardness was higher, and the roughness was lower. Because the end slip lower than that of the elastic modulus, meeting the requirements for
will occur when the specimen is directly gripped, a layer of sandpaper modification. On the other hand, with increasing dosage, both the ten­
was wrapped on the outer surface of the specimen’s grip zone to increase sile strength and elastic modulus of T-E-PP declined. The decline rates
the friction. The brittle fracture occurred in all specimens in the test for tensile strength were observed as follows: 15%, 28%, 45%, and a
section, and the fracture was not preceded by any discernible indications significant drop of 77%. Similarly, there were declines in elastic
through direct visual observation. The fracture process can be effectively modulus at rates of 20%, 26%, 41%, and an even more substantial
captured if optical instruments, such as a high-speed camera, are utilized reduction rate of 78%. These results successfully achieved the modifi­
for recording. The fracture direction was almost perpendicular to the cation goal where the decline rate in strength was lower than that of
tensile direction, which indicated that the tensile stress distribution of elastic modulus.
the specimen section was uniform. A higher elongation indicates a stronger ability of the resin to
The curves representing the highest tensile strengths under each withstand stretching, making it more suitable as a matrix material for
condition were illustrated in Fig. 4. All the curves exhibited a linear ropes. As shown in Fig. 5(b), only T-V exhibited lower elongation
increase in tensile stress and strain. Upon reaching the maximum load, compared with T-E’s elongation (2.7%), while other modified resins
an abrupt decline in the curves was observed, indicating that the tensile demonstrated greater elongations than T-E, with corresponding in­
failure of the RCBs exhibited brittle behavior. The slopes of T-V and T-E- creases of 11%, 30%, 7%, 26%, 52%, 85% and astonishing 881%.
VB curves closely resembled that of T-E, while the slopes of T-E-N and T- Experimental findings indicated that the critical content range for
E-VA curves were similar to or smaller than that of T-E. The slope of the PPGDGE was between 30% to 40%.
stress-strain curve for T-E-PP specimens decreased as the content of
modified material increased, and was smaller than that of T-E. It was 3.2.2. Flexural behavior of the RCBs
In comparison to the single failure mode observed in the tensile
specimens, the bending specimens exhibited primarily three modes of
failure: three-segment fracture, two-segment fracture, and non-fracture,
as shown in Fig. 6. According to Eq. (7), when the maximum mid-span
deflection S exceeded 1.5 times the thickness of the specimen h, it can
be considered that the flexural deformation ability of the specimen was
satisfactory; otherwise, it is not. The F-V and F-E specimens both expe­
rienced sudden brittle fracture failure, with random fracture occurring
in two or three segments. The ratio of S to h was less than 1.5, indicating
insufficient flexural deformation ability for both F-V and F-E. The epoxy
resin modified by the Qishi toughener exhibited a relatively rough
fracture surface, indicating that the deformation ability of F-E-VA,
among the three Qishi tougheners, was superior as its S value exceeded
Fig. 3. Tensile failure modes of the RCBs.

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

Fig. 5. Experimental and calculated tensile properties of the RCBs.

F-E-PP specimens decreased with an increase in modified material

content, which was consistent with the results observed in tensile tests.
It was worth noting that the reduction in the flexural capacity of the
modified resin will be significant due to a greater decrease in flexural
strength compared to elastic modulus. In summary, only F-E-VA meets
the requirements for modification based on its bending properties.

3.2.3. Selection of the modified materials

The premise that the common FRP materials have good repetitive
coil performance is that the resin matrix does not crack during the
process of bending, so the flexural stress of the resin should not exceed
Fig. 6. Flexural failure modes of the RCBs. the tensile strength of the resin. When the ratio of the tensile strength of
the resin to the flexural stress is larger, the stress richness of the resin
1.5 times h. When the PPGDGE content was 10% and 20%, F-E-PP-10/20 during repeated bending is larger, and the bending fatigue resistance of
exhibited a two-segment fracture mode characterized by a relatively the resin is better. Therefore, the ratio of the tensile strength and flexural
rough fracture surface and generation of small fragments, with the S stress of the resin is taken as a measurement index. The greater the ratio,
value exceeding 1.5 times h. When the content of PPGDGE increased to the better the bending fatigue resistance of the resin, and the closer to
30% and 40%, F-E-PP-30/40 demonstrated enhanced flexural defor­ the modification requirements of low-modulus and high-toughness
mation ability, without experiencing any fractures when the S value resin. Only the resin matrix was considered in the force calculation to
exceeded 4 times h. highlight the role of the resin matrix in bending. The bending stress of
As illustrated in Fig. 7, F-E in the control group exhibited higher the resin matrix under a certain bending curvature can be calculated by
values for both flexural strength (103 MPa) and flexural elastic modulus simplifying the resin into a rectangular beam in a pure bending state.
(2747 MPa). Compared to F-E, the flexural elastic modulus of F-V only Bending section coefficient is represented by Eq. (8). The maximum
decreased by 2%, while the flexural strength decreased by 23%, failing bending stress can be calculated by Eq. (9), where D denotes the bending
to achieve a toughening effect. The flexural elastic modulus of F-E-VA diameter.
significantly decreased by 21%, whereas the strength only decreased by
I
10%. This modification proved to be the most effective among the three W= (8)
h/2
types of Qishi tougheners. The flexural strength and elastic modulus of
M Eh
σw = = (9)
W D
By considering a bending diameter ratio (D/h) of 50, it was found
that the epoxy resin modified with QS-VA3 exhibited a rupture elon­
gation of 3.48%, surpassing that of basalt fiber (2.5–3.2%) [40], as
depicted in Table 2. Furthermore, there modified resins demonstrated
the highest ratio of σt to σw while significantly reducing its flexural
modulus and achieving a smoother surface. In summary, QS-VA-3 was
chosen with an additional amount of 10%. It was employed in the
preparation of IFBs, FRP strands, and FRP ropes.

4. Static behavior evaluation of IFBs, strands, and ropes

4.1. Experimental program

4.1.1. Preparation of IFBs

Fig. 7. Flexural strength and elastic modulus of the RCBs. The fiber specification of IFBs was 1200 tex untwisted roving of

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

Table 2 the positioning plates at both ends were rotated to induce twisting in the
The ratio of σt to σ w in a flexural state. strands. Once achieving the predetermined number of turns, slate was
Matrix Modified Mass σt Et σw Ratio of applied to secure the positioning plates and prevent untwisting from
materials materials ratio/ % (MPa) (MPa) (MPa) σt to σw occurring. Finally, a layer of low-elastic epoxy resin was applied to
MFE-9 Rubber 10 51.28 3569 71.39 0.72 ensure the intended twist on the surface of the twisted strand. Moreover,
particle seven strands were joined and twisted together to form ropes. The
ER7121 / / 74.40 3229 64.58 1.15 preparation of the rope required the collaboration of two people, and the
ER7121 QS-N 10 47.43 2719 54.37 0.87 whole process usually taken five hours.
ER7121 QS-VA3 10 56.98 2252 45.04 1.27
ER7121 QS-V40B 10 60.58 3110 62.20 0.97
ER7121 PPGDGE 10 63.28 2571 51.42 1.23 4.1.3. Test procedure and data processing
ER7121 PPGDGE 20 53.09 2404 48.08 1.10 The test schemes for the IFBs, strands, and ropes is presented in
ER7121 PPGDGE 30 41.03 1909 38.19 1.07 Table 3. Static tensile and repeated bending tests were conducted on
ER7121 PPGDGE 40 17.30 807 16.14 1.07
unmodified and modified IFBs, with each test consisting of 6 valid
specimens. The strand comprised 7 modified IFBs with lay lengths of 36,
continuous basalt fiber, with tensile strength and elastic modulus of 48, and 60 mm respectively. There was a total of three valid tensile
2500 MPa and 83 GPa respectively. The preparation process of the IFBs specimens under each condition. Lay length refers to the linear distance
with modified epoxy resin is shown in Fig. 8. First, the modified epoxy between the starting and ending points of the IFBs after rotating it by
resin was poured into the dip tank with holes at both ends, and the basalt 360◦ around the strand/rope core. A larger lay length resulted in fewer
fiber roving was pierced through one end of the hole after the modified turns of the strand (rope). The rope consisted of 7 BFRP strands with a
epoxy resin was fully impregnated, it was pierced through the other end lay length of 36 mm. Three valid specimens were prepared for the
of the hole. To ensure consistent diameter stability of the final IFBs, a strands and ropes under each condition.
silicone sheet was placed at the outlet of the fiber roving to remove The BFRP strands and ropes were anchored at both ends using hollow
excess resin. The IFBs were securely fastened in a suspended cage using steel tubes filled with Sanyu epoxy resin, as depicted in Fig. 10. The total
spring hooks at both ends, ensuring the tension and shape of the IFBs length of the BFRP strand was 900 mm, with a test section of 300 mm.
were maintained. Finally, the hanging cage was placed in an oven for The outer diameter and inner diameter of the steel tube were 16 mm and
curing. 10 mm respectively. Similarly, the BFRP rope had a total length of
The tensile specimens were fabricated by the Chinese standard GB/T 1200 mm, with a test section of 400 mm. The challenge of the epoxy
25045-2010 [41]. The overall length of the specimens measured resin-filled steel pipe anchoring method lay in ensuring a slip-free
300 mm, with a central test section spanning 200 mm. Aluminum sheets interface between the resin and the inner wall of the steel tube. To
were employed to reinforce the anchoring zone of the IFBs. Following address this issue, a steel wire pipe brush was employed to eliminate rust
surface roughening of the aluminum sheets, they were coated with and scoring on the inner wall, followed by alcohol cleaning to enhance
room-temperature curing epoxy resin for bonding purposes with the bonding effectiveness. Medical tape was wrapped around both ends of
IFBs. Subsequently, the specimens underwent curing at a temperature of the strand or rope anchoring area beforehand to prevent resin leakage,
40 ℃ for 7 days. For repeated bending tests, a length of 200 mm from with its diameter slightly exceeding that of the steel tube’s inner
the IFBs sufficed without necessitating any additional anchoring mea­ diameter.
sures at either end. The tensile test of the IFBs was conducted by the Chinese standard
GB/T 20310-2006 [42]. As illustrated in Fig. 11, the universal testing
4.1.2. Preparation of BFRP strands and ropes machine used for the tensile test of the IFBs was Shimadzu AG-X plus
As depicted in Fig. 9., seven IFBs with a nominal diameter of 1 mm from Japan, with a loading speed of 2 mm/min. The TRViewX optical
were initially positioned using a polyvinyl chloride positioning plate extensometer was employed to measure the tensile strain of the IFBs.
with open holes, where the opening margin of the positioning plate After attaching a distance sticker to the middle zone of the specimen’s
measured 1.2 mm. Strong fiber tape and metal clamps were utilized to test section, it is crucial to ensure that there is a 100 mm gap between
firmly hold both ends. Additionally, a low-elastic epoxy resin coating two consecutive distance stickers before measurement. Before formal
was applied to the surface of the IFBs to prevent untwisting of the strand. loading, pre-tension was applied to the IFB to maintain its flatness and
The modified material used for this low-elastic epoxy resin was ensure accurate measurement of tensile load and strain during formal
PPGDGE, which constituted 30% by mass of the resin composition. The loading. As there was no specific standard for repeated bending tests on
basic epoxy resin was used with L-500A as its model number for resin IFBs, reference was made to the Chinese wire standard GB/T 238-2013
and L-500B as curing agent. The elastic modulus of the low-modulus [43]. However, it should be noted that this specification primarily
epoxy resin was significantly lower than that of the FRP strand, thus measured the plastic deformation ability of metal wire under repeated
exerting a negligible impact on the free staggering of IFBs. Subsequently, bending, whereas the IFB was an anisotropic material with minimal

Fig. 8. Fabrication process of the IFBs and specimens.

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

Fig. 9. Fabrication of the BFRP strand and rope.

Table 3
Experimental schemes for the IFBs, strands, and ropes.
Number Loading form Modified material Specimen type IFB diameter/ mm Lay length/ mm Quantity

T-I Tensile / IFB 1 / 6

T-I-M Tensile QS-VA3 IFB 1 / 6
F-I Flexural / IFB 1 / 6
F-I-M Flexural QS-VA3 IFB 1 / 6
T-S-M-36/48/60 Tensile QS-VA3 Strand 1 36/48/60 3/3/3
T-R-M-36 Tensile QS-VA3 Rope 1 36 3

advisable to remove the extensometer beforehand to prevent any po­

tential damage caused by specimen fracture.
The tensile properties of specimens can be determined by the Chinese
Standards GB/T 30022-2013 [44], utilizing Eqs. (10)–(12), where σ u
represents the tensile strength (MPa), Fu denotes the ultimate tensile
load (kN), Ast stands for the IFB cross-sectional area (mm2), EL represents
the elastic modulus (GPa), and εu signifies the ultimate tensile strain
(με). ε1 and ε2 refer to the tensile strains under F1 and F2 loads,
respectively. Herein, F1 and F2 are equal to 20% and 50% of Fu,
correspondingly.
Fu
σu = (10)
Ast

F1 − F2
EL = (11)
(ε1 − ε2 )Ast

Fu
εu = (12)
Fig. 10. Anchoring method for the BFRP strands and ropes (unit: mm). EL Ast

plastic deformation and susceptibility to clipping due to small clamping 4.2. Experimental results and discussions
distances at the gripper end. After numerous attempts, the test was
conducted with a clamping distance of 50 mm, and a weight of 1.8 kg 4.2.1. Tensile and flexural behaviors of the IFBs
was positioned below to apply pre-tension. The IFBs underwent repeated As depicted in Fig. 12, some fibers fractured at the weakest point of
bending loading through continuous rotation of the upper chuck. The the IFBs upon reaching the ultimate load, while the remaining fibers
machine automatically recorded the number of repetitions until continued to bear the load, but eventually all fractured within a short
damage. period. The failure modes observed in both unmodified and modified
The tensile test of the strands and ropes was conducted by the Chi­ IFBs were similar due to the significantly higher fiber strength and
nese standard GB/T 30022-2013 [44], with a test loading rate of elastic modulus compared to resin. In the tensile process of the IFBs,
2 mm/min. The universal testing machine used has a maximum load fibers played a decisive role as they primarily bore the tensile load, while
capacity of 2000 kN and an accuracy of 0.01 kN. Tensile strain mea­ the resin matrix acted as a bonding agent that integrated and enhanced
surements were obtained using an extensometer with a range and ac­ fiber synchronization performance.
curacy of 100 mm and 0.001 mm, respectively. When the tensile load on The contribution of the resin matrix to the tensile properties of the
FRP strands (ropes) exceeds 50% of their ultimate tensile load, it was IFB can be disregarded, as mentioned earlier. Therefore, to characterize

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

Fig. 11. Loading and measuring setups for the IFBs, strands, and ropes.

decrease in tensile properties of the IFBs can be attributed to the fact that
the high-strength and high-modulus fibers bore most of the tensile load,
while the contribution from the low-strength and low-modulus resin was
minimal. The calculated tensile strength and elastic modulus based on
the cross-sectional area of the IFBs were only 58% of those based on the
fiber’s cross-sectional area. This highlights how different calculation
methods significantly impacted the performance characterization of the
IFBs. The data showed variations below 5% for all parameters except for
a CV greater than 5% in modified resin elongation, suggesting that the
dispersion of modified resin in the tensile deformation of the IFBs was
enhanced. This enhancement could be attributed to its uneven distri­
bution within the epoxy resin matrix.

4.2.2. Flexural behavior of the IFBs

The Chinese standard GB/T 20118-2017 [45], namely general
technical conditions for steel wire rope, stipulates that the minimum
number of bending cycles for each wire within the wire rope should not
Fig. 12. Tensile failure modes of the IFBs.
be less than 11 to 16 times. Additionally, FRP is a linear elastic material
renowned for its exceptional fatigue resistance. During the trial phase, it
the tensile strength and elastic modulus of the fiber accurately, it was was observed that the IFBs endured bending cycles up to the machine’s
reasonable to calculate these properties based on the cross-sectional area upper limit of 9999 times without rupture, with only varying degrees of
of the fibers. However, this study aimed to focus on evaluating the damage occurring solely during the bending process. Thus, this study
overall properties of the IFBs rather than solely testing fiber properties. aimed to investigate the damage progression of the IFBs during repeated
Hence, it was more appropriate to calculate the tensile strength and bending by conducting 10,000 cycles of bending tests.
modulus of the IFBs based on their cross-sectional area. The damage progression and morphology of unmodified and modi­
The calculation results in Table 4 are presented, taking into account fied IFBs after 10,000 cycles of repeated bending are illustrated in
both the cross-sectional area of the fibers and the cross-sectional area of Table 5 and Fig. 13. In the case of F-I, individual fibers within each
the IFBs. The data enclosed in brackets indicate the coefficient of vari­ bundle fractured while the IFB remained intact after 10,000 cycles.
ation (CV). In comparison to unmodified IFBs, modified IFBs exhibited a Compared to F-I-M, surface white damage caused by bending and fric­
decrease in ultimate load, tensile strength, elastic modulus, and elon­ tion was observed after 1200 cycles of repeated bending. The surface
gation by 4.2%, 4.2%, 1.8%, and 2.2% respectively. The decrease in monofilament fiber peeling phenomenon appeared after approximately
tensile properties of the modified IFBs can be attributed to the lower 6300 cycles of repeated bending. When the number of bends reached
elastic modulus of the modified resin matrix compared to that of the 10,000, only a few fiber monofilaments were stripped on the surface of
unmodified resin. This reduction weakened the ability of the resin ma­ F-I-M, with no significant damage evident. F-I-M exhibited significantly
trix to transfer stress between adjacent fibers, resulting in uneven stress improved performance in terms of repeated bending compared to F-I.
intensification and premature fiber fracture within the IFBs. The limited This discrepancy can be attributed to the resin matrix, which primarily

Table 4
Tensile properties of the IFBs.
Calculation basis Cross-sectional area (mm2) T-I T-I-M

Ff (N) σf (MPa) Ef (GPa) εf Ff σf (MPa) Ef (GPa) εf

(%) (N) (%)

Fiber area 0.4528 1032 (3.84) 2279 (3.84) 84.0 2.71 (2.75) 989 (2.90) 2183 (2.90) 82.5 2.65 (5.63)
(1.83) (2.69)
Fiber and resin area 0.785 1032 (3.84) 1315 (3.84) 48.4 2.71 (2.75) 989 (2.90) 1260 (2.90) 47.6 2.65 (5.63)
(1.83) (2.69)

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

Table 5 In comparison with the strand, these fluctuations in the rope can be
Damage progression of F-I and F-I-M. attributed primarily to two factors. Firstly, due to a higher number of
Damage progression Cycle IFBs inside the rope, there was a deterioration in synchronous me­
chanical performance among multiple IFBs. Secondly, since the rope
Stage Mode F-I F-I-M
1 Spot damage 600 1200 consisted of two layers of strands and resin anchoring at one end
2 Monofilament peeling emergence / 6300 transmitted force from outside to inside continuously, it resulted in
3 Monofilament peeling at several zones / 10,000 greater force exerted on outer strands compared to inner strands
4 Partial monofilament peeling and warping 950 / consistently throughout the operation. These combined factors resulted
5 Fiber bundle peeling and warping 2570 /
6 Rough fiber emergence 3300 /
in uneven stress within IFBs inside the rope and premature rupture
7 All fiber bundle peeling 6000 / under high loads.
8 Flat section shape emergence 7000 / As presented in Fig. 16, the tensile strength of three strands and one
9 Individual fiber fracture 10,000 / rope was 1060, 1100, 1156, and 1166 MPa respectively according to the
cross-sectional area of the IFBs. The tensile strength of the strands
increased with an increase in lay length, resulting in corresponding
strength retention rates of 84%, 87%, and 92% compared to T-I-M. This
is because the greater the lay length, the fewer twists in the strand,
resulting in a closer approximation to pure tensile stressed state.
Consequently, there is an increased retention rate of tensile strength for
the IBFs and a higher overall tensile strength for the strand. When the lay
length of the rope matched that of the strand (T-S-M-36), the strength
reduction of the rope was merely 7%, which was less than 16%. This
phenomenon can be attributed to the improved synchronous perfor­
mance of the IFBs achieved through secondary twisting.
The elastic moduli of three strands and one rope were 43.9, 45.2,
45.6, and 45.0 GPa, respectively, exhibiting a reduction of 8%, 5%, 4%,
Fig. 13. Surface damage of the IFBs after 10,000 cycles. and 5% compared to T-I-M. By comparing both strength and modulus
values, it can be observed that increasing lay length contributed posi­
determined the repeated bending properties of the IFB. A low-modulus tively to enhancing both elastic modulus and tensile strength in strands.
and high-toughness resin matrix effectively reduced contact and fric­ Furthermore, double-twist ropes exhibited superior force performance
tion between fibers and rough surfaces, thereby minimizing fiber stress when compared to strands with equal lay lengths.
and providing internal fiber protection.
5. Conclusions
4.2.3. Tensile behaviors of the BFRP strands and ropes
As shown in Fig. 14, the failure process of both BFRP strands and Experimental evaluations were performed on the resin matrix, IFBs,
ropes presented a progressive fracture mode, that was, the initial tensile BFRP strands, and BFRP ropes to verify the feasibility of twisted BFRP
damage started from the fracture of a single IFB, and then the number of ropes. The key findings are presented below.
fractures increased with the increase of the load until the overall fracture
occurred. The fracture process had obvious warning, and this progres­ (1) The modified epoxy resin exhibited a reduction in both strength
sive fracture failure mode can provide sufficient safety guarantee for the and elastic modulus, while its ductility was enhanced. An addi­
safe use of the rope. tional 10% of QS-VA-3 is the optimal choice for producing low-
As depicted in Fig. 15, when the lay length was 36, 48, and 60 mm, modulus and high-toughness resins. The content of PPGDGE
respectively, the tensile load of the BFRP strands increased linearly with should be limited to between 30% and 40%.
the displacement, which was consistent with the elastic characteristics (2) The tensile properties of the IFBs modified by QS-VA-3 exhibit a
of the IFBs. When the strand reached the maximum load, the curve slight reduction and a CV below 5%, while their repeated bending
immediately appeared a fluctuating downward trend, which was caused behavior can be significantly enhanced. The calculation method
by the rupture of the IFBs. The ascending section of the load- significantly influences the tensile properties of the IFBs.
displacement curve of the rope exhibited a similar linear growth (3) The tensile load-displacement curves of the FRP strands and ropes
pattern to that of the strand, which was considered an ideal behavior. As exhibited a linear increasing trend and experienced intermediate
the rope approached its maximum load, fluctuations began to occur in fracture failure, which resembled that of the IFBs. The tensile
the curve. These fluctuations continued until the maximum load was properties of the strand were found to decrease with an increase
reached and eventually led to a rupture. in lay length. The secondary twisting can enhance the tensile
behavior of ropes in comparison to strands with equivalent lay
lengths.
(4) Further investigation is required to elucidate the impact of in­
ternal friction between adjacent IBFs on the repeated bending
behavior of the rope. Consequently, additional bending tests will
be incorporated into future research endeavors.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Jiazhan Xie: Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis. Xin

Wang: Writing – review & editing, Project administration, Funding
acquisition, Conceptualization. Jingyang Zhou: Writing – review &
editing, Writing – original draft, Methodology, Investigation, Funding
acquisition, Formal analysis, Data curation. Zhishen Wu: Supervision.
Fig. 14. Tensile failures of the BFRP strands and ropes. Weiyan He: Investigation, Data curation. Huang Huang: Writing –

9
J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

Fig. 15. Load-displacement curves of the BFRP strands and ropes.

Fig. 16. Tensile strength and elastic modulus of the strands and ropes.

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J. Zhou et al. Engineering Structures 305 (2024) 117775

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