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Cyber-Physical Systems
for Next-Generation
Networks
Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues
National Institute of Telecommunications (Inatel), Brazil & Instituto de
Telecomunicações, Portugal & University of Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Brazil
Amjad Gawanmeh
Khalifa University, UAE
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Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1
DSM for Energy Optimization and Communications Within Smart Grid CPSs: Investigation and
Analysis.................................................................................................................................................... 1
Sa’ed Abed, Kuwait University, Kuwait
Areej Abdelaal, Kuwait University, Kuwait
Amjad Gawanmeh, Khalifa University, UAE
Chapter 2
Wireless Sensor Network as Enabling Technology for Cyber-Physical System.................................... 26
Jiwa Abdullah, University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia
Nayef Abdulwahab Alduais, Hodeidah University, Yemen
Chapter 3
Safety-Critical, Dependable, and Fault-Tolerant Cyber-Physical Systems............................................ 54
Guru Prasad Bhandari, Banaras Hindu University, India
Ratneshwer Gupta, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India
Chapter 4
Securing SDN-Enabled Smart Power Grids: SDN-Enabled Smart Grid Security................................ 79
Uttam Ghosh, Tennessee State University, USA
Pushpita Chatterjee, Old Dominion University, USA
Sachin Shetty, Old Dominion University, USA
Chapter 5
Protecting Big Data Through Microaggregation Technique for Secured Cyber-Physical Systems....... 99
Shakila Mahjabin Tonni, East West University, Bangladesh
Sazia Parvin, Melbourne Polytechnic, Australia
Joanna Jackson, Melbourne Polytechnic, Australia

Chapter 6
High-Level Design and Implementation of a Home Autonomous System Based on CPS
Modeling.............................................................................................................................................. 121
Basman M. Alhafidh, Florida Institute of Technology, USA
William H. Allen, Florida Institute of Technology, USA
Chapter 7
Autonomous Hexapod Robot With Artificial Vision and Remote Control by Myo-Electric
Gestures: The Innovative Implementation Tale of gAItano................................................................. 143
Valentina Franzoni, La Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
Chapter 8
The NovaGenesis Smart Cities Model................................................................................................. 163
Antonio Marcos Alberti, Inatel, Brazil
Chapter 9
Advances in Steam Quality Monitoring Systems in Power Plants...................................................... 183
Mahmoud Meribout, Khalifa University, UAE
Imran Saied, University of Edinburgh, UK
Esra Al Hosani, Adco Corporation, UAE
Chapter 10
Secure Embedded Systems: Concepts and Issues................................................................................ 207
Ali Ahmadinia, California State University – San Marcos, USA
Ahmed Saeed, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
Chapter 11
Preferences, Machine Learning, and Decision Support With Cyber-Physical Systems...................... 222
Yuri P. Pavlov, Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Bulgarian
Academy of Sciences, Bulgaria
Evgeniy Ivanov Marinov, Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 254
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 285
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 291
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................................................................... xii
Chapter 1
DSM for Energy Optimization and Communications Within Smart Grid CPSs: Investigation and
Analysis.................................................................................................................................................... 1
Sa’ed Abed, Kuwait University, Kuwait
Areej Abdelaal, Kuwait University, Kuwait
Energy demand has increased significantly in the recent years due to the emerging of new technologies
and industries, in particular in the developing countries. This increase requires much more developed
power grid system than the existing traditional ones. Smart grid (SG) offers a potential solution to this
problem. Being one of the most needed and complex cyber-physical systems (CPS), SG has been addressed
exhaustively by researchers, from different views and aspects. However, energy optimization yet needs
much more studying and examination. Therefore, this chapter presents a comprehensive investigation
and analysis of the state-of-the-art developments in SG as a CPS with emphasis on energy optimization
techniques and challenges. It also surveys the main challenges facing the SG considering CPS factors
and the remarkable accomplishments and techniques in addressing these challenges. In addition, the
document contrasts between different techniques according to their efficiency, usage, and feasibility.
Moreover, this work explores the most effective applications of the SG as a CPS.
Chapter 2
Wireless Sensor Network as Enabling Technology for Cyber-Physical System.................................... 26
Jiwa Abdullah, University of Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia
Nayef Abdulwahab Alduais, Hodeidah University, Yemen
Within the last 20 years, wireless communication and network has been one of the fastest-growing research
areas. Significant progress has been made in the fields of mobile ad hoc network (MANET) and wireless
sensor networks (WSN). Very recently, the cyber-physical system (CPS) has emerged as a promising
direction to enrich human-to-human, human to-object, and object-to-object interactions in the physical
world as well as in the virtual world. The possibilities are enormous, such that CPS would adopt, and even
nurture, the areas of MANET and WSN because more sensor inputs and richer network connectivity are
required. The chapter reviews what has been developed in these fields, outlines the projection of what
may happen in the field of CPS, and identifies further works. The authors identify the unique features of
WSN, raising some CPS critical examples, and then directing the future challenges of CPS. In order to
fully comprehend the connection of WSN to CPS, the authors provide some preliminaries of WSN and
establish their necessary connections.

Chapter 3
Safety-Critical, Dependable, and Fault-Tolerant Cyber-Physical Systems............................................ 54
Guru Prasad Bhandari, Banaras Hindu University, India
Ratneshwer Gupta, Jawaharlal Nehru University, India
Cyber-physical systems (CPSs) are co-engineered integrating with physical and computational components
networks. Additionally, a CPS is a mechanism controlled or monitored by computer-based algorithms,
tightly interacting with the internet and its users. This chapter presents the definitions relating to
dependability, safety-critical and fault-tolerance of CPSs. These definitions are supplemented by other
definitions like reliability, availability, safety, maintainability, integrity. Threats to dependability and
security like faults, errors, failures are also discussed. Taxonomy of different faults and attacks in CPSs
are also presented in this chapter. The main objective of this chapter is to give the general information
about secure CPS to the learners for the further enhancement in the field of CPSs.
Chapter 4
Securing SDN-Enabled Smart Power Grids: SDN-Enabled Smart Grid Security................................ 79
Uttam Ghosh, Tennessee State University, USA
Pushpita Chatterjee, Old Dominion University, USA
Sachin Shetty, Old Dominion University, USA
Software-defined networking (SDN) provides flexibility in controlling, managing, and dynamically

reconfiguring the distributed heterogeneous smart grid networks. Considerably less attention has been
received to provide security in SDN-enabled smart grids. Centralized SDN controller protects smart grid
networks against outside attacks only. Furthermore, centralized SDN controller suffers from a single
point of compromise and failure which is detrimental to security and reliability. This chapter presents
a framework with multiple SDN controllers and security controllers that provides a secure and robust
smart grid architecture. The proposed framework deploys a local IDS to provide security in a substation.
Whereas a global IDS is deployed to provide security in control center and overall smart grid network,
it further verifies the consequences of control-commands issued by SDN controller and SCADA master.
Performance comparison and simulation result show that the proposed framework is efficient as compared
to existing security frameworks for SDN-enabled smart grids.
Chapter 5
Protecting Big Data Through Microaggregation Technique for Secured Cyber-Physical Systems....... 99
Shakila Mahjabin Tonni, East West University, Bangladesh
Sazia Parvin, Melbourne Polytechnic, Australia
Joanna Jackson, Melbourne Polytechnic, Australia
Secured cyber-physical systems (CPS) requires reliable handling of a high volume of sensitive data, which
is in many cases integrated from several distributed sources. This data can usually be interconnected with
physical applications, such as power grids or SCADA systems. As most of these datasets store records
using numerical values, many of the microaggregation techniques are developed and tested on numerical
data. These algorithms are not suitable when the data is stored as it is containing both numerical and
categorical data are stored. In this chapter, the available microaggregation techniques are explored and
assessed with a new microaggregation technique which can provide data anonymity regardless of its
type. In this method, records are clustered into several groups using an evolutionary attribute grouping
algorithm and groups are aggregated using a new operator.

Chapter 6
High-Level Design and Implementation of a Home Autonomous System Based on CPS
Modeling.............................................................................................................................................. 121
Basman M. Alhafidh, Florida Institute of Technology, USA
William H. Allen, Florida Institute of Technology, USA
The process used to build an autonomous smart home system based on cyber-physical systems (CPS)
principles has recently received increased attention from researchers and developers. However, there are
many challenges to be resolved before designing and implementing such a system. In this chapter, the
authors present a high-level design approach that simulates a smart home system by implementing three
levels of the 5C architecture used in CPS modeling and uses well-known machine learning algorithms
to predict future user actions. The simulation demonstrates how users will interact with the smart home
system to make more efficient use of resources. The authors also present results from analyzing real-world
user data to validate the accuracy of prediction of user actions. This research illustrates the benefits of
considering CPS principles when designing a home autonomous system that reliably predicts a user’s
needs.
Chapter 7
Autonomous Hexapod Robot With Artificial Vision and Remote Control by Myo-Electric
Gestures: The Innovative Implementation Tale of gAItano................................................................. 143
Valentina Franzoni, La Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
The robot gAItano is an intelligent hexapod robot, able to move in an environment of unknown size
and perform some autonomous actions. It uses the RoboRealm software in order to filter and recognize
color blobs in its artificial vision stream, activate a script (VBScript in our case, or C or Python scripts)
to compute decisions based on perception, and send the output to actuators using the PIP protocol.
gAItano is thus a rational computerized agent: autonomous, or semi-autonomous when remote controlled;
reactive; based on model (e.g., the line). gAItano moves in an environment which is partially observable,
stochastic, semi-episodic, static, or semi-dynamic in case of human intervention, continuous both on
perceptions and actions, multi-agent, because of human intervention that can have collaborative nature
(e.g., when the human moves a block or the robot to increase his performance), or competitive (e.g.,
when the human moves a block or the robot to inhibit his performance).
Chapter 8
The NovaGenesis Smart Cities Model................................................................................................. 163
Antonio Marcos Alberti, Inatel, Brazil
Smart cities encompass a complex, diverse, and rich ecosystem with the potential to address humanity’s
biggest challenges. To fully support society demands, many emerging technologies should be gracefully
integrated. Current architectures and platforms frequently address specific topics, requiring intricate
coordination of partial solutions. In this context, interoperability of technological solutions is mandatory.
Examples include interoperability of IETF standards (e.g., 6LowPAN, RPL, CoAP to other IEEE
standards, such as 802.15.4, and Bluetooth). Designs based on these protocols are being largely employed
worldwide. However, they have some limitations that deserve our attention. Recent examples, such as
ramsomware and DDoS attacks, are concerning many people on the suitability of our current stacks.
NovaGenesis (NG) is an alternative architecture for TCP/IP that has been already proofed. In this chapter,
the NG model for smart cities is explored, presenting its benefits. Recent results in NG are summarized
and discussed on the proposed scope.

Chapter 9
Advances in Steam Quality Monitoring Systems in Power Plants...................................................... 183
Mahmoud Meribout, Khalifa University, UAE
Imran Saied, University of Edinburgh, UK
Esra Al Hosani, Adco Corporation, UAE
Online and reliable monitoring of steam quality in power plants is of great importance in smart
grids today since it can mitigate eventual erosions and buildups which may occur in associated metal
equipment such as pipes and steam turbine. This in turn causes a substantial reduction in the amount of
energy produced by the steam generator. This chapter presents state of the art online and offline sensing
techniques used for steam quality monitoring in power plants. This includes optical, orifice, swirling,
vortex, conductive, and PH meters. While offline monitoring techniques, such as isokinetic sampling
technique are still widely deployed for steam monitoring mainly because of the relative simplicity, online
monitoring techniques offer the possible to identify transient steam purity conditions. It also allows the
prediction of future states of either the steam turbine or the steam quality and hence offers the possibility
of effective preventive actions.
Chapter 10
Secure Embedded Systems: Concepts and Issues................................................................................ 207
Ali Ahmadinia, California State University – San Marcos, USA
Ahmed Saeed, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Pakistan
As computing devices have become an almost integral part of our lives, security of systems and protection
of the sensitive data are emerging as very important issues. This is particularly evident for embedded
systems which are often deployed in unprotected environments and at the same time being constrained
by limited resources. Security and trust have also become important considerations in the design of
virtually all modern embedded systems as they are utilized in critical and sensitive applications such
as in transportation, national infrastructure, military equipment, banking systems, and medical devices.
The increase in software content and network connectivity has made them vulnerable to fast spreading
software-based attacks such as viruses and worms, which were hitherto primarily the concern of personal
computers, servers, and the internet. This chapter discusses the basic concepts, security attacks types,
and existing preventive measures in the field of embedded systems and multi-core systems.
Chapter 11
Preferences, Machine Learning, and Decision Support With Cyber-Physical Systems...................... 222
Yuri P. Pavlov, Institute of Information and Communication Technologies, Bulgarian
Evgeniy Ivanov Marinov, Institute of Biophysics and Biomedical Engineering, Bulgarian
Modeling of complex processes with human participations causes difficulties due to the lack of precise
measurement coming from the qualitative nature of the human notions. This provokes the need of
utilization of empirical knowledge expressed cardinally. An approach for solution of these problems
is utility theory. As cyber-physical systems are integrations of computation, networking, and physical
processes in interaction with the user is needed feedback loops, the aim of the chapter is to demonstrate

the possibility to describe quantitatively complex processes with human participation. This approach
permits analytical representations of the users’ preferences as objective utility functions and modeling
of the complex system “human-process.” The mathematical technique allows CPS users dialog and is
demonstrated by two case studies, portfolio allocation, and modeling of a competitive trade by a finite
game and utility preference representation of the trader. The presented formulations could serve as
foundation of development of decision support tools and decision control.
Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 254
About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 285
Index.................................................................................................................................................... 291
xii
Preface
Cyber-physical systems (CPS) integrate real world applications with new computing, communication
and networking technologies. This resulted in several advancement in the deployment and usage of such
systems. Examples include the Smart Grid, SCADA, UAV, and several others. This book will introduce
several state of the art on challenges in the techniques pertaining all aspects of CPS. It will provides a deep
analyzes for different techniques and methodologies in the design and analysis of various types of CPS.
The new paradigms and tremendous advances in computing, communications and control have
provided and supported wide range of applications in all domains of live, in particular, bridging the
physical components and the cyber space leading to the Cyber Physical Systems (CPS). The notion of
CPS is to use recent computing, communication, and control methods to design and operate intelligent
and autonomous systems that can provide using cutting edge technologies. This require the use of com-
puting resources for sensing, processing, analysis, predicting, understanding of data, and then commu-
nication resources for interaction, intervene, and interface management, and finally provide control for
systems so that they can inter-operate, evolve, and run in a stable evidence-based environment. CPS has
extraordinary significance for the future of several industrial domains and hence, it is expected that the
complexity in CPS will continue to increase due to the integration of cyber components with physical
and industrial systems.
Chapter 1 presents a comprehensive investigation and analysis of the state-of-the-art developments
in the Smart Grid as a CPS with emphasis on the energy optimization techniques and challenges. It
also surveys the main challenges facing the Smart Grid considering CPS factors and the remarkable
accomplishments and techniques in addressing these challenges. In addition, the document analyzes
and contrasts between different techniques and methodologies according to their efficiency, usage, al-
gorithms and feasibility. Moreover, this work explores the most effective applications of the Smart Grid
as a CPS; hopefully, this work contributes in energy optimization within the smart grid and encourages
research efforts in this area.
Chapter 2 will address several applications of WSN in the area of CPS. The chapter addresses ap-
plications in CPS where wireless networks can be efficiently deployed, in particular, issues in mobile
ad hoc networks (MANET) and WSN. The authors then identifies how wireless networks can help in
enabling applications and platforms for Cyber Physical Sensor Networks.
Chapter 3 provides a brief introduction about safety-critical CPSs, dependable CPSs and fault-tolerant
CPS. The chapter highlights current challenges in system safety, dependable and fault-tolerant. The
authors identifies on state-of-the-art solutions that make CPS reliable.

Preface
Next, Chapter 4 tackles security issues in Software defined networking (SDN), an emerging para-
digm that provides flexibility in controlling, managing, and dynamically reconfiguring the distributed
heterogeneous smart grid networks. The chapter presents a framework with multiple SDN controllers
and security controllers that provides a secure and robust smart grid architecture. The proposed frame-
work deploys a local intrusion detection systems to provide security in a substation. Whereas a global
intrusion detection systems is deployed to provide security in control center and overall smart grid net-
work. It further verifies the consequences of control-commands issued by SDN controller and SCADA
master. Performance comparison and simulation result show that the proposed framework is efficient
as compared to existing security frameworks for SDN-enabled smart grids
Secured Cyber-Physical Systems is also addressed in Chapter 5, in particular, when dealing with a
high volume of sensitive data, which is in many cases, integrated from several distributed sources. This
data can usually be interconnected with physical applications, such as power grids or SCADA systems.
The chapter proposed to extend microaggregation methods that are originally developed and tested on
numerical data and apply it on CPS. The available microaggregation techniques are first explored and
assessed, and then extended so that it can provide data anonymity regardless of its type. The technique
is based on clustering records into several groups using an evolutionary attribute grouping algorithm
and groups are aggregated using a new operator.
Chapter 6 presents a high-level design approach that simulates a smart home system by implement-
ing three levels of the 5C architecture used in CPS modeling. The authors propose to use a well-known
machine learning algorithms to predict future user actions. The simulation demonstrates how users will
interact with the smart home system to make more efficient use of resources. The authors also present
results from analyzing real-world user data to validate the accuracy of prediction of user actions. This
research illustrates the benefits of considering CPS principles when designing a home autonomous
system that reliably predicts a users’ needs.
A CPS projected called gAItano is presented in Chapter 7, which is robot with real-time implementa-
tion of basic concepts for visual recognition of colored objects. The system is a combination of hardware
and software components. The hardware includes a robot as well as other supporting equipment such
as camera and sensors. On the other hand, the software part includes the design and implementation of
an autonomous system that supports the artificial vision, color and camera management, colored-object
recognition, object relocation, motion control, providing pros and cons considerations on the proposed
solution.
Chapter 8 presents a novel smart city architecture based on the Nova Genesis project. It starts with
an overview of the NovaGenesis proposal, its main concepts and current implementation. NovaGenesis
concept that is presented in this chapter is an alternative architecture for the current TCP/IP architecture,
applied in the context of smart cities. It is a project with continues development. Scalability and perfor-
mance tests are being done at ICT Lab, Inatel, Brazil. A scenario closer to a real one is being deployed
at Inatel smart campus (ISCampus) project.
Chapter 9 presents state of the art online and offline sensing techniques used for steam quality
monitoring in power plants. This includes optical, orifice, swirling, vortex, conductive, and PH meters.
While offline monitoring techniques, such as isokinetic sampling technique are still widely deployed
for steam monitoring mainly because of the relative simplicity, online monitoring techniques offer the
xiii
Preface
possible to identify transient steam purity conditions. It also allows the prediction of future states of
either the steam turbine or the steam quality and hence offers the possibility of effective preventive ac-
tions. The chapter also presents a recent hybrid imaging system that uses both NIR (i.e. Near-infared)
sensor to determine the type of contaminants and a THz imaging camera which measures the amount
of contaminants as well as its flow rate.
Chapter 10 discusses the basic concepts, security attacks types and existing preventive measures in
the field of embedded systems and multi-core systems. The issue of security and trust has become im-
portant in the design of embedded systems as they are utilized in critical and sensitive applications such
as in transportation, national infrastructure, military equipment, banking systems and medical devices.
The increase in software content and network connectivity has made them vulnerable to fast-spreading
software-based attacks such as viruses and worms, which were hitherto primarily the concern of personal
computers, servers, and the Internet. This chapter tackles embedded systems security.
Finally, Chapter 11 in this book demonstrates an analytical mathematical technique and the possibility
to describe quantitatively complex social, ecological, biological and other processes. Such an approach
provides analytical representations of the user’s preferences as objective utility functions and mathemati-
cal description of the complex system „human-process”. The suggested approach can be regarded as a
realization of the prescriptive decision making and allows practitioners to take advantage of individual
application of the achievements of decision making theory in various fields of human activities and CPS
users dialog integrated in different networks and even with the internet. The approach is demonstrated
by two case studies. The first one is portfolio allocation with Wiener process and portfolio allocation in
the case of financial process with colored noise both modeled by Black-Scholes stochastic differential
equation. The second case study is modeling of a competitive trade of small store by a finite game and
minmax determination of the „saddle-point” as equilibrium of the trade. The presented formulations
could serve as foundation of development of decision support tools for design of management/control in
Cyber-Physical Systems. This value-oriented modeling leads to the development of preferences-based
decision support in machine learning environment and control/management value based design.
This book highlights several challenging aspects in modern cyber physical systems. The contributors
of this chapter come from various backgrounds with several real life applications. We hope this book
will shed a light recent advancements in Cyber-Physical Systems for next generation networks.
Joel J. P. C. Rodrigues
National Institute of Telecommunications (Inatel), Brazil & Instituto de Telecomunicações, Portugal
& University of Fortaleza (UNIFOR), Brazil
Amjad Gawanmeh
xiv
1
Chapter 1
DSM for Energy Optimization
and Communications
Within Smart Grid CPSs:
Investigation and Analysis
Sa’ed Abed
Kuwait University, Kuwait
Areej Abdelaal
Kuwait University, Kuwait
Amjad Gawanmeh
ABSTRACT
Energy demand has increased significantly in the recent years due to the emerging of new technologies
and industries, in particular in the developing countries. This increase requires much more developed
power grid system than the existing traditional ones. Smart grid (SG) offers a potential solution to this
problem. Being one of the most needed and complex cyber-physical systems (CPS), SG has been addressed
exhaustively by researchers, from different views and aspects. However, energy optimization yet needs
much more studying and examination. Therefore, this chapter presents a comprehensive investigation
and analysis of the state-of-the-art developments in SG as a CPS with emphasis on energy optimization
techniques and challenges. It also surveys the main challenges facing the SG considering CPS factors
and the remarkable accomplishments and techniques in addressing these challenges. In addition, the
document contrasts between different techniques according to their efficiency, usage, and feasibility.
Moreover, this work explores the most effective applications of the SG as a CPS.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-5510-0.ch001
Copyright © 2018, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.

DSM for Energy Optimization and Communications Within Smart Grid CPSs
INTRODUCTION
Since electricity was discovered and utilized in the 19th century, impressive developments in the field
of energy generation and transmission have occurred. Electric grids became a part of the infrastructure.
These grids are essentially massive, interconnected physical networks. In addition, Renewable Energy
(RE) resources like wind, geothermal, hydro and others are receiving more attention from the energy
industry day by day. This is because energy demands are increasing as populations are increasing world-
wide. The 2014 world energy outlook report (Energy Agency, n.d.) says that energy demand will raise
by 37% by 2040 so the energy efficiency is required to utilize the energy supplies with the least envi-
ronmental damage. As a result, the need for revolutionary improvements to the electric energy supply
chain has increased dramatically. This need has led to the smart grid as an intelligent electric generation,
transmission and distribution grid that integrates all the involved stakeholders in the process.
The smart grid can be viewed as the seamless integration of the physical power network infrastruc-
ture and the cyber systems of sensing, processing, communication and control. Adopting the emerging
technologies of Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) is vital for this integration to be properly deployed and
utilized. This chapter provides an overview of the smart grid as a cyber-physical system and investigates
the architecture of the grid accordingly.
Moreover, we focus on operation and transmission through the grid since this topic varies greatly
from the traditional electric power grid. We also review the customer’s side and how their role is dif-
ferent in this new envisioned future smart grid as “prosumers”, producers and consumers of energy. In
addition, the Demand-Side Management (DSM) part of this chapter is meant to provide the reader with
clear, comprehensive view of the DSM concept and the different methods by which it is applied. These
methods typically follow well-known approaches, such as heuristics and multi-agent systems. Consecu-
tively, the widely used approaches are covered in the context of DSM.
An important difference between the traditional and smart grid is the later adopting two-way com-
munication model instead of the typical one-way model, from the utility to the customer. This adds
significant complexity to the communications through the smart grid, which communicates data, mea-
surements and control information continuously and accurately in all the networks it includes. We find
it is essential to examine the smart grid communications in detail. We support this part with security
overview, security challenges and techniques.
The remainder of this chapter is organized as follows. Section 2 provides an overview of smart grid
and Cyber-Physical System (CPS) concepts. Demand-Side Management (DSM) surveyed the various
applicable methods such as heuristics and multi-agent systems is presented in Section 3. Furthermore,
the smart grid communications is discussed in detail in Section 4 supported by comparisons. Section
5 presents important trends on smart grid CPS and provides an open discussion on the research areas.
Finally, conclusions are presented in Section 6 with some future trends.
SMART GRID AS A CYBER-PHYSICAL SYSTEM
Smart Grid (SG) refers to a two-way flows of both electricity and information that creates an advanced,
automated energy distribution network (Fang, Misra, Xue, & Yang, 2012). The smart grid is meant to
solve many issues that face the traditional electric grid which has been almost unchanged for the last
century (Karnouskos, 2011). Some of these issues are the delivery constraints due to limited transmis-
2

sion, limited control, centralized generation and manual restoration upon failures and blackouts (Fang
et al., 2012). In order for the smart grid to replace the traditional one, it has to obtain specific features,
documented by the National Energy Technology Laboratory for the U.S. Department of Energy as the
seven principle characteristics for the grid; including self-healing, accommodation for all generation
and storage options and optimization for assets and efficient operation (The NETL Modern Grid Initia-
tive, 2007).
According to the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) smart grid conceptual
model (Nist, Publication, & National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2010), the smart grid has
main seven domains, customers, markets, service providers, operations, bulk generation, transmission
and distribution as shown in Figure 1. We use this architecture of different, interacting domains from
(NIST) as a basis for the smart grid discussion. Customers in the smart grid architecture are not only
consumers of energy; they have control on their energy usages and distribution. In addition, customers
may generate energy as the Renewable Energy Systems (RESs) are improving, i.e., using solar, wind
and hydro generators for micro generation of energy makes the customer a producer of energy, which
makes the smart grid’s two-way flows more efficient. Hence, the term “prosumers” has been introduced
(Karnouskos, 2011).
Regarding the operation domain, the Energy Management Systems (EMSs) are used within the
transmission operations to analyze and operate the transmission power system efficiently. In addition,
Distribution Management Systems (DMSs) are used for operations of the distribution system. The op-
eration domain focuses on managing and controlling the network, this control may be in monitoring and
fault-management frames (Nist et al., 2010).
It is critical to view the generation and transmission domains within the smart grid. Generation is
getting electricity from other energy forms. This includes bulk generation, managing its resources and
measurements of the power flow. The generation domain communicates performance information with
the transmission domain that links generation to distribution domain. The distribution domain has the
Figure 1. NIST smart grid framework

Source: Nist et al., 2010
3

Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) and the distributed generation points as well as energy storage, control
and measurements operations.
Looking more into the operation of the smart grid, the EMSs, from the operation domain, are placed
in control centers to monitor and manage the transmission of electricity from generation domain to cus-
tomers in the distribution domain. This is performed through Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
(SCADA) systems. These SCADA systems consist of networked sensors which obtain energy measure-
ments, e.g. voltage and currents. This data is then dent to the control systems through RTUs within the
SCADA system. Transmission lines and substations connect the physical generation, transmission and
distribution systems (He & Yan, 2016).
Cyber-Physical Systems (SPSs) refer to physical systems with computational power, which are con-
nected to web and may access specific services on the web (Thakur, Chaudhary, Tilokani, & Machado,
2017). CPSs are essential in the smart grid, especially the smart meters which manage the measurement
of the energy consumption, transmit diagnosis to the service provider and receive signals from it (Zip-
perer et al., 1743).
Smart Grid is certainly an evolving technology in many ways. With various possibilities and con-
siderations, including the demand-side management and renewable energy sources optimization, smart
grid receives great attention in the research field. Even the vehicle-to-grid capability is addressed with
algorithm designs and optimization approaches (Lopez, De La Torre, Martin, & Aguado, 2015).
DEMAND-SIDE MANAGEMENT
Demand-Side Management (DSM) is an important function of the smart grid as it aims to reduce the
peak load demands for electricity with balance between utility and customers’ needs. DSM methods are
designed to schedule and shape the load profile which effectively increases the smart grid’s viability
and reduces costs of operation.
There are 6 main categories for DSM techniques: peak clipping and valley filling which are direct
load-control methods, load shifting – from peak load to off-peak load using the time factor, strategic con-
servation, strategic load growth, and flexible load shape (Gellings & Chamberlin, 1987), (MAHARJAN,
2010). Most DSM strategies are developed using Dynamic Programming (DP) and Linear Programming
(LP) (Logenthiran, Srinivasan, & Shun, 2012).
Categorizing the appliances of the consumers greatly affects the problem formulation and algorithm
results in game algorithms. In this respect, we see researchers assuming whether the appliances are
shifable or non-shiftable and interruptible or non-interruptible. A shiftable appliance is one whose task
can be delayed as long as it is achieved before a specific deadline, i.e., washing machines or dryers,
while the non-shifable appliances are like air conditioners whose job cannot be delayed. This is a basic
consideration for formulating the utility maximization problem in DSM. Similarly, interruptible devices
can be deactivated at some point after their task is started then activated again and successfully resume
that task. This is unlike the non-interruptible appliances which clearly increase the difficulty of the load
shifting and job scheduling.
In (Wu, Mohsenian-Rad, Huang, & Wang, 2011), a dynamic potential game theory approach was used
propose a scheme with renewable energy utilization and DSM that was proven to save 38% generation
cost compared with the case without DSM by simulation.
4

Heuristic-Based Methods
In Logenthiran et al., (2012), the authors proposed an Evolutionary Algorithm (EA) following the
“load-shifting” technique, treating the scheduling issue as a minimization problem by a heuristics-based
EA. The algorithm is generalized so it is independent from the load criteria which the given load curve
represents, it shifts is to the desired load scheme. Clearly, this does not give a clear feedback on the ef-
fects the shifting produces on the other properties of the load. They raised some issues for most DSM
strategies like system specific, which is not applicable to practical systems that have large controllable
loads of a wide variety of independent devices because of the DP and LP used for developing them.
The authors in Ansar et al., (2017) and Javaid et al., (2017) implemented and compared different
meta-heuristic techniques for load scheduling of House Energy Management System (HEMS). In Ansar
et al., (2017), the techniques used are the Enhanced Differential Evolution (EDE), Harmony Search
Algorithm (HSA), Bacterial Foraging Algorithm (BFA), and Genetic Algorithm (GA). EDE performed
best considering the total cost, Peak-to-Average Ratio (PAR) and waiting time which reflects the user’s
comfort. However, it is important to note that meta-heuristic techniques do not reach optimization (Javaid
et al., 2017). Furthermore, (Javaid et al., 2017) proposed a Genetic Wind-Driven (GWD) algorithm which
outperformed GA and the other techniques in terms of electricity cost. The user comfort, represented by
the waiting time was not considered in GWD. It is notable that heuristic-based solutions demonstrated
a greater performance compared to exact solutions in (Goudarzi, Hatami, & Pedram, 2011) which ad-
dressed the problem of minimizing the electricity bills for the a single user by scheduling policies.
Authors in H. N. Khan et al., (2017) developed two heuristic algorithms, one is a BFA and the other
is a StrawBerry Algorithm (SBA) with the goal of minimizing energy costs and PAR. BFA achieved bet-
ter results in minimizing energy costs while SBA outperformed BF in terms of PAR minimization. The
user comfort was traded-off for achieving the goal. The Binary Particle Swarm Optimization (BPSO),
Ant Colony Optimization (ACO), two heuristic algorithms, along with GA, were used in (Rahim et
al., 2016) to design a DSM system focused on PAR and electricity bill reduction and maximization of
user-comfort. GA outperformed both BPSO and ACO in this regard. The work in (Meng & Zeng, 2016)
used GA-based approach to develop an optimal pricing model for Demand Response (DR) consider-
ing shiftable and non-shiftable appliances. In Zhuang Zhao, Won Cheol Lee, Yoan Shin, & Kyung-Bin
Song, (2013), GA was used to reduces electricity cost and PAR through the proposed architecture. It
combined Real-Time Pricing (RTP) and Inclined Block Rate (IBR) pricing model to achieve the desired
cost and PAR reduction.
Multi-Agents Methods
Multi-agents technology, MAS, has been taking an active role in power engineering applications as ex-
amined in (Kulasekera, Gopura, Hemapala, & Perera, 2011). We will focus here on MAS in microgrids
which consists of distributed small power facilities.
Authors in Logenthiran, Srinivasan, & Shun, (2011) proposed a MAS approach for DSM which uses
energy market for resource allocation. The system contains load agents, generator agents along with a
DSM agent. An electronic auction platform is available through the DSM agent. The bidding behavior
is managed by an intelligent system that dynamically reacts to market changes. Though not highly real-
istic, the system simulations demonstrate sustainable cost savings with reduction of peak load demand
through load shifting.
5

MAS has been used extensively in market model analysis, i.e., electricity trading within microgrids,
as we see in the literature. Maximizing revenue from the microgrid was addressed in (Funabashi, Tanabe,
Nagata, & Yokoyama, 2008), where an approach of a single microgrid control agent and several load
and generation agents was proposed. The simulation shows it is a promising method, by applying it to a
model system. In H.-M. Kim & Kinoshita, (2009), a power market model is presented for the effective
operation of the microgrid. This work considered the particular characteristics of microgrids as being
eco-friendly and commercialization in a complex environment where ownership of each participant is
different. The work in Basu et al., (2007) proposed a pricing mechanism for the microgrid energy using
a case study where bidding strategies depend on demand and supply side.
Power restoration is another objective of MAS in microgrids. An interesting load restoration algorithm
was proposed in Yinliang Xu & Liu, (2011) that consists of agents which learn information from their
direct neighbors to make decisions of synchronized load restoration. Global information is also realized
through Average-Consensus Theorem. This information is then modeled constructing a 0-1 knapsack
problem and solved accordingly using existing algorithms. Through simulation studies, authors have
demonstrated that this proposed algorithm can be applied effectively to systems of any structure or size.
Figure 2 illustrates a conceptual, single-layered architecture of MAS that includes a distributed gen-
eration agent, a control agent and a user agent. It also has a secondary database agent. These individual
agents are important to allow distributed control for the microgrid system. However, it is noteworthy
to point-out the importance of multi-layer architecture to achieve a robust distributed control model.
Figure 2. Conceptual architecture for MAS

Source: Kulasekera et al., (2011)
6

Along with MAS systems, game theory is effectively invested in DSM. In the following section, we
examine it and see many approaches that used it to model different systems and effectively achieve high
performance.
Game Theory in DSM
Game theory is an important mathematical modelling tool of situations in which multiple participants, i.e.,
players, affect each other’s outcomes, with or without communication between these participants (Noam
Nisan, Tim Roughgarden, ´ C Eva Tardos, 2007). For the games in which participants are independent
and do not perform communication or coordination of strategic decisions, the term “noncooperative game
theory” is used in literature (Başar, Olsder, & Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics., 1999).
The other class of game theory, “cooperative game theory” implies the coordination between the players
over the decisions they make to reach the outcomes. Researchers have addressed various applications
of both classes in the smart grid over the recent years and we will go over their work in this section.
Another area of games that have major applications in smart grids is the “learning algorithms”. A
learning scheme has basically three steps each participant applies in order: observing the current state
of the game, estimating the forthcoming utility and updating the strategy accordingly (Fudenberg &
Levine, 1998).
It is fundamental to realize that game approaches in DSM aim to shape the load to achieve util-
ity maximization for the players, i.e., minimizing electricity expenses for consumers and shifting the
load from on-peak hours to off-peak hours for the utility or the electricity provider. Communication is
typically available between a user and the utility through the smart meter, however, multiple users are
assumed not to communicate over the consumption decisions. That is why most game algorithms that
we will mention shortly are considered non-cooperative approaches (Saad, Han, Poor, & Basar, 2012).
Looking into work done under the assumption of interruptible appliances, the authors in Mohsenian-
Rad, Wong, Jatskevich, Schober, & Leon-Garcia, (2010) proposed an algorithmic game approach.
The method minimizes the PAR of the total energy demand and cost as well as individual’s electricity
expenses. This optimization is carried out in the scenario of a single utility serving the end users in an
autonomous distributed DSM system taking the advantage of the two-way communication property
in the envisioned smart grid to exchange information between the users and between the users and the
utility company. The work in (Mohsenian-Rad et al., 2010) achieved the global optimal equilibrium of
minimizing energy costs in the common scenario of a single utility company. To benefit from the storage
possibility, (Nguyen, Song, & Han, 2012) proposed a theoretical game approach in which users can store
energy during low-demand, and thus low-cost, periods and use that stored energy at the high-demand
time slots. This minimizes the energy costs further and reduces PAR as well. The utility in such scenarios
change the energy costs during the day according to users’ profiles and load status. Continuing with the
work done under the assumption of interruptible appliances with consideration of energy storage abil-
ity of users, Thanh Dang et al. in (Thanh Dang & Ringland, 2012) expanded to include the active users
who can sell the energy they have back to the grid. By formulating a linear optimization problem with
efficient solution, they show through simulation that the proposed approach can reduce the energy cost
by 20% with comparison to other approaches mentioned in Thanh Dang & Ringland, (2012).
Moving to the more realistic, non-interruptible appliances assumption, an approximation algorithm
was proposed and proven more effective than greedy and randomized algorithms in Tang, Huang, Li, &
Wu, (2013) for reducing the peak demand or delay by a set of schedules. The main two factors consid-
7

ered in Tang et al., (2013) were the peak demand under fixed delay and the opposite, delay under fixed
peak constraint, forming two problems solved effectively by their approximation methods. The authors
in Goudarzi et al., (2011) also went for the non-interruptible appliances in their branch-and-bound ap-
proach to minimizing energy expenses from the single user perspective.
The assumption of both interruptible and non-interruptible appliances is heavily considered in the
research work as well. For instance, Samadi et al. in (Samadi, Mohsenian-Rad, Wong, & Schober, 2014)
addressed the problem of the utility’s uncertainty of the energy prices effect on the users’ profiles un-
der the aforementioned assumption. The two designed two real-time pricing algorithms are based on
simultaneous perturbation and finite-difference methods. The authors in R.-S. Liu & Ren-Shiou, (2016)
addressed a more complex scenario in which the non-interruptible appliances can be delayed, meaning
that they can be scheduled to be set active in later slots after the earliest slot in which they are allowed
to. Considering the emerging use of renewable energy, the authors assume all users are equipped with
solar-plus-battery system which reduces the overall system load. In N. Li, Chen, & Low, (2011), the
authors considered the cases of the working times of some non-interruptible appliances were given while
others considered shiftable appliances, like the hybrid electric vehicles.
COMMUNICATION IN THE SMART GRID
As we mentioned earlier, a main characteristic of the Smart Grid over the traditional grid is its bidirec-
tional flow of energy and information. This flow occurs through transmission and distribution (T&D)
systems. T&D include measurement and management technologies, which require specific communication
requirements. These requirements are the quality of service (QoS), sustainability, reliability, coverage
and security (Kabalci, 2016). Note that smart control and intelligent, adaptive communication within
the smart grid is essential in providing these requirements (Fangxing (Fran) Li et al., 2010). We will
investigate the different communication technologies in smart grid, their advantages and disadvantages
and their security aspect as well.
Communication Overview
The traditional grid has the automated meter reading (AMR) and the automatic meter management
(AMM) systems were used for metering and management, but in the smart grid, these two are subsystems
of the advanced metering infrastructure (AMI). The AMI is a system that measures, saves and analyzes
energy usage, upon request or a pre-defined schedule. AMI performs its tasks by receiving information
from related devices, like smart meters (Hadi Safari Farmad & Saeedeh Biglar, 2012). Components
of AMI include the AMR, AMM, smart meters, meter data management systems (MDMS), home and
wide area networks (HAN & WAN), neighborhood area networks (NAN) and operational gateways and
systems for data integration into software application platforms (Siano, 2014). Looking into MDMS
as viewed by NELT in (NETL Modern Grid Strategy, 2008) gives an insight to the importance of AMI
in the envisioned smart grid. MDMS is a database that performs validation, editing and estimation on
the AMI data to ensure its accuracy regardless of the disruptions in the communications network or at
customer premises. MDMS enables interaction between different information systems such as consumer
information system, outage management system, geographic information system and the transformer
load management. Figure 3 illustrates the communication networks in the smart grid.
8

Figure 3. Smart grid communications networks
IEEE 2030-2011 standard defines the communication architecture of the smart grid (“IEEE SA -2030-
2011- IEEE Guide for Smart Grid Interoperability of Energy Technology and Information Technology
Operation with the Electric Power System (EPS), End-Use Applications, and Loads,” n.d.). It defines a
logical structure of three sub-networks. These are the core network for the utility, the distribution layer
network and the private networks. Starting with the core network, it consists of broadband communica-
tion architectures, e.g., local area network (LAN), virtual private network (VPN) and voice over internet
protocol (VoIP) (Ancillotti, Bruno, & Conti, 2013)(W. Li & Zhang, 2014)(Khalifa, Naik, & Nayak, 2011)
(Fan et al., 2013). Moving to the network located at the distribution layer, a wide area network (WAN),
we see it is constructed of the neighborhood area network (NAN) and field area network (FAN). Be-
ing at the distribution layer, NAN and FAN include various control and monitoring blocks like AMIs
and remote terminal units (Kuzlu, Pipattanasomporn, & Rahman, 2014). The last network is related to
customer side and it is made up of the home area network (HAN), building area network (BAN) and
the industrial area network (IAN).
Figure 4 illustrates the main components of the structure (R. H. Khan & Khan, 2013). Communication
within WAN network requires wide coverage range, low latency, high data throughputs and capacity.
For customer premises network, low cost, low power consumption, simplicity and security are the main
requirements (Kuzlu & Pipattanasomporn, 2013). Communication in smart grid networks utilizes both
wired and wireless technologies. In the following section, we examine these technologies and discuss
their fit within the communication requirements.
Wired Communication Technologies in the Smart Grid
The wireline technologies are basically the power-line communication (PLC), digital subscriber line
(DSL) and the fiber optic. PLC is already constructed and widely used, this is a great advantage for sup-
pliers who consider the low maintenance cost as basic decision criteria. There are two types of PLC, the
narrowband PLC (NB-PLC) and the more recent broadband PLC (BB-PLC). PLC provides means for
carrying signals over the existing power lines with consideration of its low data rates compared to DSL
or fiber optic. NB-PLC operating range is between 3 to 500 kHz with data rates beyond 1 Mbps. There
9

Figure 4. Main components of the communication networks structure of the smart grid
are low-frequency NB-PLC signals and high-frequency NB-PLC signals and each is more suitable for
specific applications. On the other hand, BB-PLC has data rates of hundreds of Mpbs and an operating
range of 2 – 250 MHz. the main drawback of BB-PLC is the short distance it covers compared to NB-PLC.
Power line communication technology has key applications in the smart grid, including the automation
of medium voltage grids and substations which require low data rates with focus on location and fault
restoration as heavily examined in (Cataliotti, Cosentino, Di Cara, Russotto, & Tine, 2012). Another
application of PLC in the smart grid is the PLC-based smart meters. AMI is another application for
NB-PLC, especially the low frequency NB-PLC signals as they pass easily through the MV transformers
(Galli, Scaglione, & Wang, 2010). Generally, NB-PLC technology has an effective role in sensing and
communication tasks in the smart grid while BB-PLC is more suitable for end-user internet applications
and smart grid applications (Usman & Shami, 2013). However, PLC has its limitations including its
high signal losses, electromagnetic interference issues and complex routing. Also, PLC is not suitable
for communication in areas involving switches and reclosers as in (Gungor & Lambert, 2006). Consid-
ering their characteristics, NB-PLC is used for communications within the NAN, FAN and WAN while
BB-PLC is fit for HAN, BAN, IAN and small scale AMI as discussed in (R. H. Khan & Khan, 2013).
Another wireline communication technology used in the smart grid is the DSL. It is a digital data
transmission technology, using the typical telephone lines. Since the DSL infrastructure is already
established and provided at many customer premises, it is a cost-effective communication technology
for smart grid applications. However, DSL efficiency degrades over distance, making it unreliable for
customers far away from energy provider. There are three types of DSL, asymmetric DSL (ADSL) that
provides 8 Mbps downstream of data, ADSL2+ that reaches downstream of 24 Mbps, and Very-high
bit rate DSL (VDSL) transmitting up to 52 Mbps downstream data transmission over the copper wires.
10

It is noteworthy that communication operators may charge utilities for using their DSL infrastructure,
decreasing the financial advantage of this communication technology. DSL finds fit for use in the AMI,
NAN and FAN considering the distance it covers.
The last wireline technology used for communication within the smart grid that we discuss in this
chapter is the fiber optic. Optical networks provide ultra-high bandwidth, long distance communication
and robustness against electromagnetic interference which are the requirements for communication within
WAN considering that WAN applications efficiency correlates with the most stringent communication
network characteristics in terms of bandwidth, latency, and reliability (Kuzlu et al., 2014). Although fiber
optic may appear suitable for all networks in the smart grid, it is not. Optic fiber networks require high
installation cost and are not efficient for upgrading nor metering applications (Kabalci, 2016). Table 1
summarizes our discussion of wired communication technologies of the smart grid.
Wireless Communication Technologies in the Smart Grid
Wireless technologies utilization in the smart grid has been researched heavily, since these technologies
offer advantageous installation and coverage features. However, they have limited bandwidth and are
sensitive to interference (Yi Xu & Wang, 2013). LAN networks like NAN and FAN are thus the most
suitable areas for wireless technologies deployment, communicating with the smart grid devices. Start-
ing with the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, named WPAN, we find it has low deployment cost and very low
power consumption. It also follows the ZigBee and ZigBee Pro standards which reach up to 100 m and
1600 m, respectively. IEEE 802.15.4 has data rate of 256 kbps, so WPAN has low bandwidth. On the
other hand, WPAN is fully compatible with IPv6-based networks, making it a good choice for HAN,
NAN, FAN, IAN and AMI. Wi-Fi is another technology, following standards IEEE 802.11 e/s/n and p
Table 1. Wireline technologies for smart grid communication
Characteristics (Distance
Technology Advantages Disadvantages Network(s)
and Data Rates)
NP-BLC: 150 Km or more,
High signal losses. NP-PLC: NAN,
1-10 kbps for low data • Low operation and
Considerable disruptive FAN, WAN.
rate, 10-500 kbps for high maintenance cost.
PLC effects by electromagnetic BB-PLC: HAN,
data rate. • Already constructed
interference. BAN, IAN, small
BB-PLC: 1.5 Km, 1-10 infrastructure.
Complex routing. scale AMI.
Mpbs typically.
ADSL: 5 Km, 8 Mbps d/
1.3 Mbps u
ADSL2: 7 Km, 12 Mbps d/
3.5 Mbps u Already constructed Possible high cost for
ADSL2+: 7 Km, 24 Mbps infrastructure using the infrastructure.
DSL AMI, NAN, FAN.
d / 3.3 Mbps u Widely distributed Unsuitable for long
VDSL: 1.2 Km, 52-85 broadband distances
Mbps d/ 16-85 Mbps u
VDSL2: 300- 1.5 Km, 200
Mbps d/ 200 Mbps u
AON: 10 Km, 100 Mbps u/ Ultra-high data rates
High installation cost
100 Mbps d Long-distance coverage
Not efficient for upgrading
Fiber Optic BPON: 20-60 Km, 155 – Robustness against WAN
High cost for terminal
622 Mbps electromagnetic
equipment
EPON: 20 Km, 1 Gbps interference.
11

(WAVE), provides much higher bandwidth, reaching up to 600 Mbps for IEEE 802.11n and a distance
of 1 Km for IEEE 802.11 p. Although Wi-Fi has higher power consumption and a higher interference
spectrum, it is more flexible and suitable for various use cases unlike WPAN which face limitation with
building large networks (Ziming Zhu, Lambotharan, Woon Hau Chin, & Zhong Fan, 2012).
Cellular technologies that are based on global system for mobile communications (GSM) provide high
coverage compared to other wireless technologies. For example, UMTS, a widely-used 3G technology
provides a coverage distance up to 5 Km and uplink data rate of 22 Mbps in its HSPA+ standard. The
(4G) technology, which follows LTE and LTE Advanced standards, is even a more improved choice
with coverage up to 30 Km, 1 Gbps downlink, 500 Mbps uplink data rates and wider spectrum (R. H.
Khan & Khan, 2013). However, higher cost comes with the more licensed spectrum. Utilities may be
obligated to pay expensively for communication service providers as well. Concluding GSM, we point-
out its flexibility and support of millions of devices, a major advantage.
Out of cellular coverage, comes the satellite technology fit. It provides high reliability even for long
distance communication. Satellites are located at orbits named Low Earth Orbits (LEO), Medium Earth
Orbits (MEO) and Geostationary Earth Orbits (GEO), each has its characteristics. LEO provides 2.4-28
kbps data rate, while GEO reaches 1 Mbps, with BGAN technology. Clearly, these are low transmission
rates compared to cellular technologies, but satellite covers up to 6000 Km which is its notable advantage.
With the expected lower costs of smaller satellite stations, there is a chance to integrate this technology
into smart grid applications and AMI networks (Ancillotti et al., 2013). Table 2 lists the aforementioned
wireless technologies along with others.
A topic that is extensively addressed by researchers regarding the smart grid is its security, with
focus on traffic management and data accuracy. In the following section, we discuss the security aspect
of smart grid communication as studied in the literature.
Table 2. Wireless technologies for smart grid communication
Characteristics (distance,
Technology Advantages Disadvantages Network(s)
data rates)
Very low power
consumption Low bandwidth
ZigBee Pro: 1600 m HAN, BAN, IAN, FAN,
WPAN Low deployment cost Limitations to building
IEEE 802.15.4: 256 kbps NAN, AMI
Fully-compatible with large networks
IPv6-based networks
High power consumption
Low deployment cost
IEEE 802.11n: 300 m, 600 High interference HAN, BAN, IAN, FAN,
Wi-Fi Cheap equipment
Mbps spectrum NAN, AMI
Flexibility
Simple QoS support
Supports millions of
3G (HSPA+): 5 Km, 84
devices.
Mbps d/ 22 Mbps u High use charges (to
Low terminal-
4G (LTE Advanced): service providers) HAN, BAN, IAN, FAN,
GSM equipment power
30 Km (acceptable High cost for the licensed NAN, AMI
consumption
performance), 1 Gbps d/ spectrum
High flexibility
500 Mbps u
Open-industry standards
100 – 6000 Km. High latency
High reliability
Satellite LEO: 2.4 – 28 Kbps High Cost (terminal WAN, AMI
Long distance
GEO: to 1 Mbps equipment)
Source: R. H. Khan & Khan, 2013
12

Communication Security of the Smart Grid
As the envisioned smart grid will be connecting millions of devices through communication networks,
critical security issues arise. These issues include the software-level security, i.e., privacy and protection
of the communication systems and the collected and processed information throughout the grid. Also,
physical security requirements are studied for the physical components of the grid, e.g., smart meters,
devices and power systems (Wang & Lu, 2013). Security requirements of the smart grid are discussed
extensively in (Yan, Qian, Sharif, & Tipper, 2012). In short, these requirements include privacy, integrity,
availability, authentication, authorization, auditability, non-repudiability, third-party protection and trust.
Privacy is concerned with the power consumption data of the customers. This behavioral informa-
tion becomes especially worthy when financial or political motivations align (McDaniel & McLaughlin,
2009). Data integrity attacks attempt to illegitimately, deliberately modify the information in the smart
grid system by unauthorized persons or systems. The main target for such attacks is the critical infor-
mation exchanged through the grid’s communication system including the customer’s pricing details or
utility’s voltage readings. In (Y. Liu, Reiter, & Ning, 2009), the authors presented a false data injection
attack (FDIA), and proved it can be used by attackers to bypass the existing bad-measurements detec-
tion techniques.
A survey was conducted in Liang, Zhao, Luo, Weller, & Dong, (2017) covering FDIA in power systems.
Multiple FDIA schemes have been developed, mainly fulfilling the objective of finding the least-effort
attack, the least-information attack or the specific-target attack. Each objective of the aforementioned three
objective has been addressed by developing schemes for achieving it. For instance, the first objective, i.e.,
finding the least-effort attack, schemes have been developed to identify it, based on heuristic (Y. Liu et
al., 2009), sparse (L. Liu, Esmalifalak, Ding, Emesih, & Han, 2014), greedy (Hao, Piechocki, Kaleshi,
Chin, & Fan, 2015; T. T. Kim & Poor, 2011) and graph theoretic optimization (Kosut, Jia, Thomas, &
Tong, 2011). For the least-information FDIA, graph method has been used to develop effective schemes
as (Rahman & Mohsenian-Rad, 2012). An even more complicated scenario, with basically no knowledge
of the system topology, was studied (Esmalifalak, Nguyen, Zheng, & Zhu Han, 2011; Yu & Chin, 2015)
and FDIA schemes were developed depending on historic measurements. Regarding the third objective,
we find in the literature that target-specific FDIA techniques were developed. An interesting utilization
of such FDIA schemes causes load re-distribution in the transmission systems and induces transmission
congestion in power markets to increase operational costs and financial issues (He & Yan, 2016).
When intruders attempt to deny, delay or even corrupt the information transmission through the system
between authorized users and nodes, this attempt is an availability attack, or a Denial-of-Service (DoS)
attack. Since most part of the smart grid will be IP-based components (Sidhu & Yin, 2007) that follow
IP/TCP protocols which are vulnerable to DoS attacks (Schuba et al., n.d.; Yaar, Perrig, & Song, n.d.),
research work has been conducted heavily in this regard as in (Shichao Liu, Liu, & El Saddik, 2013) in
which a careful study was conducted and proved that the existence of DoS attacks make the dynamics
of a power system unstable. In wireless-based communication networks, launching DoS attacks can be
very easy for intruders, since these networks are prone to jamming attacks (Y. Liu, Ning, Dai, & Liu,
2010; Strasser, Popper, Capkun, & Cagalj, 2008).
Authentication is the ability to correctly determine the identity of a communication system participa-
tor and matches this identity with the corresponding system-defined user account. Authorization usually
utilizes the authentication result to control the access of each user, or system, to other systems. Another
significant security requirement of the smart grid is the ability to reconstruct all the relevant system
13

actions from its historic records, after a malfunction or an attack. This is auditability, which is needed
to determine the malfunction reasons and the attack consequences. This is essential for the effective
operation of a large-scale system, such as the envisioned smart grid. Non-repudability means providing
an irrefutable proof of specific actions taken by a third party within the system, even when that party
is refusing to take responsibility for these actions. This is related to legal issues and regulations. The
third-party protection is concerned with the ability to protect and compensate a harmed third party for
any damages that resulted from security attacks on the grid. Finally, the security architecture of the
future grid is not a completely new system; it is rather an expansion to existing technologies, in many
aspects. Only some of this architecture is newly and specifically developed for the grid. Both the old and
new layers of the architecture must be compatible with all the software applications and protocols used
within the grid and acquire the flexibility of securely updating or interchanging parts of the system later,
according to new laws and requirements (Kuntze, Rudolph, Cupelli, Liu, & Monti, 2010).
After we looked into the main security concerns of the future smart grid, we move on to examine
some possibilities and determine their suitability in the scope of the aforementioned requirements. The
first choice one may have is to isolate the communication networks from the public, i.e., do not use
existing internet and keep the grid network private within the utility access. This certainly limits the
threats that typically use the internet to reach to victims, including worm attacks. We find more sense in
such isolation by recalling a distributed DoS attack that disrupted the directory name servers (DNSs).
That attack blocked users from accessing all resources through these DNSs (Carl, Kesidis, Brooks, &
Suresh Rai, 2006). However, making a completely separate network in the highly-connected world of
today, is not feasible nor reasonable from a business point of view (Yan et al., 2012). Instead, investing
the effort and technology in securing all network connections with focus on Internet connections is ef-
ficient and more convenient for customers and utilities. One of the solutions proposed in the literature
is the compressed reading for smart metering in the smart grid communication (H. Li, Mao, Lai, & Qiu,
2010). As the smart meters are required to wirelessly transmit their readings to an access point (AP) and
these meters are numerous, a simultaneous access is needed to avoid the large delay that would arise
if carrier sensing multiple access (CSMA) were used. The proposed compressed reading allows this
simultaneous transmission and the AP is able to distinguish the information from different smart meters.
This is meant to protect the privacy of customers’ data. Another solution serving the same purpose, i.e.,
ensuring privacy, was proposed in (Efthymiou & Kalogridis, 2010) where authors presented an ano-
nymization process for the frequent electrical metering data transmitted by a smart meter. This method
provides authenticated anonymous metering data to the utility that is difficult to associate with a specific
meter or consumer, but attributable to a specific location within the electricity distribution network.
Authors in (Kalogridis, Efthymiou, Denic, Lewis, & Cepeda, 2010) suggested that routing scheme for
home electrical power can be used to protect the consumer’s privacy by moderating the home’s load
signature. This hides appliance load information. This work proposed a power-mixing algorithm with a
power management model with a rechargeable battery. The authors then evaluated the protection level
according to three different privacy metrics: information theoretic privacy matrix, correlation/regression
matrix and a clustering classification matrix.
14
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motion, exists another invisible physiology, whose principles, effects,
and laws are of the greatest importance to know.”
It may be esteemed reprehensible to “seek communion with the
dead;” but to know ourselves, to fathom this invisible physiology,
whose principles, effects, and laws are of such importance to
understand, I hold to be not only legitimate but perfectly laudable.
How can we serve God, whom we have not seen, if we do not
understand ourselves, whom we think we have seen, or the laws
which govern our being, as created by him? To know ourselves as
we should, we ought not to neglect the search for “the spirit within
us.”
THE REJECTION OF THE PSYCHIC.
Many persons—scientific, theological, learned, and illiterate—

reject the psychic, and refrain from investigating, either from
constitutional bias or from crass ignorance; and such have played
the part of learned Sadducees or low fellows of the baser sort before
anything having the remotest flavour of spirit. The man of science is
rendered purblind by “my hypothesis,” the theologian by “my belief,”
the man of the world by “my business” or “my position.” The
respectable church-goer—who vaccinates his children, as he has
them baptised, because it is the proper thing to do—has neither
head nor heart, apparently, to understand anything beyond the
common ideas of the hour. He would crucify all new thought, or new
spiritualism for that matter, as the Jews did Jesus, because the new
doctrines promulgated and the new wonders performed tend to
subvert the present respectable order of things.
The worship of Diana is not confined to ancient Ephesus. The
great Diana of old was the type of that “Respectable Custom” which
the majority of mankind worship and obey to-day, because, as of
yore, it conserves their vested interests, official connections, and
brings them “much gain.” As for the man in the street—the multitude
having no shepherd—he is always more or less hypnotised by the
well-clad and well-fed, smug-faced worshippers of the aforesaid
“Respectable Custom;” hence he is ever ready to shout “Crucify,” or
“Hurrah,” or aught else he is influenced to do, especially if such
exercises give him pleasure and excitement for the time being. He
accepts or rejects as he sees “his betters” think best, and so,
unfortunately, is unfitted to a large degree, for the intelligent
investigation of his own nature. These form the largest group of
rejectors of the phenomenal evidences of soul.
The psychic, however, has suffered less from such rejectors than
from those who claim to be recognised and known as converts and
exponents of the same, who at best have only shown themselves to
be “seekers after a sign.” They may have run into the wilderness and
have had a bit of miraculous bread, and yet not be a pennyworth the
better of it in either soul or body—i.e., life or conduct. These, by their
foolishness, have prevented many well-meaning and otherwise able
persons investigating the psychic, for the latter saw nothing in the
lives of professed spiritualists to make them desire to have anything
to do with spiritualism. Moreover, coming in contact with the
iconoclastic in spiritualism, they have become disgusted with the
crude and the coarse therein, as they have with the revelations,
inspirations, and fads, advocated by certain mediums, and hence
have rejected the wheat because of the apparent great quantity of
tares.
THE FRAUDULENT IN SPIRITUALISM.
I am afraid the trend of modern civilisation, which leads men from

the beauties and quietude of hill and dale, of valley and river side,
into crowded city life, has tended to make men exoteric. They run
after signs and wonders without, and too little to the spirit within. The
broader view of being, and that self-culture and purity which arises
from the exercise of man’s innate powers, and makes for true
regeneration and spiritual progress, here and hereafter, have been
more or less sacrificed to the external and the phenomenal.
The love of the phenomenal, in and out of Spiritualism, has
created a crowd of harpies, impostors, or fraudulent mediums—male
and female—who trade on human credulity, some to earn a pittance,
and others to gratify vanity. Men and women have been known to
risk reputation for both. In this way Spiritualism has its quota of
deceivers and deceived.
There are some people who must have phenomena, just as there
are other people who will have sermons. If they don’t get exactly
what they want, they withdraw “their patronage”—the finances. So, if
the patronage is to be retained, phenomena and sermons have to be
supplied—if the first are fraudulent or the latter stolen.
Seeing how fugitive real psychological phenomena are—natural or
induced—one must necessarily hesitate to accept “trance
addresses,” “inspirational orations,” “medical controls,” clairvoyant,
and second-sight exhibitions, which are supplied to order, to gratify
patrons, at so much per hour. It is human to err, but the manufacturer
of spurious phenomena, the impostor who trades on the ties, and the
dearest of human affections, is a devil. There is no iniquity too low—
earthly or devilish—to which he will not as readily descend to gratify
his vampirish nature.
I am not disposed to accept the infallibility of spirits for that of
Popes—large or small—or professional media, in place of
professional priests and ministers, and there is by far too much of
this in Spiritualism.
In the foregoing connection, I must refer to another source of error
—this time, however, more related to physical rather than psychic
phenomena—viz., the credulity of those who are disposed to believe
that certain conjurors are aided in their performances by spirit
agency. Personally, I would sooner believe that mediums for
“Physical Phenomena” resorted to conjuring to aid “spirits,” than
believe that “spirits” resorted to “hanky-panky” to aid conjurors. No
wonder “frauds” smile. Years ago I had to protest against this
absurdity, when people—who ought to know better—talked this kind
of nonsense about conjurors, as they do about certain fraudulent
mediums now—viz., “they are aided by spirits.” Owing to this lack of
discrimination and want of trained discernment in Spiritualists and
the general public, mediumistic frauds have fooled, to their utmost
bent, fresh groups of dupes at home and abroad.
I am none the less disposed to accept the genuine, because we
recognise sources of error connected therewith, and are determined
to set our faces against palpable frauds.
SPIRITUALISM WITHOUT SPIRITS.
We may now turn from the wretched arena of imposture, duplicity,

and credulity, to genuine, but little understood, phenomena in
Spiritualism. We have seen that much which has been attributed to
the agency of disembodied spirits is due, in many instances, to the
action of man’s own psychic states, “the double, who is wiser than
we,” and to the fact that, as often as not, trance states, automatic
and planchette writing, are self-induced conditions. Equally so,
clairvoyance, thought-transference, and psychometry do not require
the “agency of spirit” to account for their existence as “gifts,” qualities
or powers. It will be time enough to admit such agency—that of
disembodied spirit—when the evidence in each particular case is
reasonably conclusive. I think this is the only wise and safe course to
pursue.
Clairvoyance may be native or induced, self-cultivated or
cultivated by aid of a mesmerist. As it has been exercised naturally,
and without any such aid, the exhibition of clairvoyance—in itself—is
no evidence of disembodied spirit-presence or control. Equally, the
seeing of, and the describing of, spirits by a clairvoyant—even if the
descriptions are apparently accurate—may present no evidence of
the real presence of such spirits. I do not deny that clairvoyants can
see spirits, but the mere fact of being able to see and describe
spirits, is not sufficient evidence—the seer is controlled by spirit-
power to see, or that the spirits described are actually bona-fide
spirits. Frequently, so-called spirits have no other existence than the
image of them possessed by some positive-minded individual. A
clairvoyant, perceiving these images, might naturally enough
conclude she was actually seeing the spirits which she described.
If Mr. Stead, for instance, is convinced that “Sister Dora,” “Cardinal
Manning,” or “Lord Tennyson,” are at his side, in his rooms,
influencing and directing his mind, or at other times actually
controlling his arm and hand to write, a clairvoyant in sympathy with
him may describe this or that other spirit he is thinking about. But
that does not prove the spirit or spirits are actually present.
A lady (Mrs. Davis), whose name has come prominently before the
public as Mr. Stead’s clairvoyante, being questioned as to Mr.
Stead’s automatic writing and her own gift, said:—“I know probably
more about that than anyone. I was in his office some time in the
beginning of December last regarding the forthcoming publication of
a book of mine concerning spiritualism. The conversation turned
upon spiritualistic automatic handwriting. I did not know the
deceased lady who was writing through him, but I saw her behind his
chair as distinctly as if she had been in the flesh. I described her
position as she stood and her appearance. She at once wrote
through Mr. Stead’s hand confirming all I had stated concerning her
in my description. Mr. Stead’s hand continued to write. I knew
afterwards it wrote out a message stating that another spirit was in
the room. Mr. Stead asked me if I could describe that spirit. I had to
wait some little time before I detected it, and there I recognised as in
the flesh a very famous personage recently dead, whose loss was
mourned all the world over in prose and verse. I carefully described
the spirit as he appeared to me, and then Mr. Stead said I was right.
But, I answered, I see another male spirit. Ask the deceased lady
who is writing through you to write the name of the last spirit. Mr.
Stead’s hand automatically moved, and he wrote the name of a son
of the famous personage already alluded to.” Mrs. Davis says she
has been strongly impressed with the fact that Mr. Stead has been
selected by the spirits as their champion from the peculiar and
unique position he occupies in the journalistic world, and he will be
the agent who will break through the solid walls of bigotry and
prejudice. Mr. Stead may or may not have written under spirit
influence, and this lady may or may not have seen spirits as
described. We must not conclude in the latter case that Mr. Stead
and his “trustworthy clairvoyante” are stating anything they do not
believe to be true. I believe she saw, as described or thought of by
Mr. Stead, a “deceased lady;” and that she also saw, as equally
thought by him, “a very famous personage recently dead;” also
“another male spirit,” whose name she did not know until Mr. Stead
wrote the name. This narrative, however interesting as to automatic
writing and spirit agency in the opinions of those concerned, conveys
no tangible evidence of either the one or the other. To us it is
interesting in the fact that Mrs. Davis saw the spirits thought of by Mr.
Stead. We must think twice before we can accept this as evidence of
spirits and spirit-presence. Although it is possible those concerned
have evidence, we have not. We have, however, evidence here of
thought-transmission and psychic impressionability.
When we read of persons who have been raised up, as mediums
of St. Peter, St. Paul, or St. John, or a publishing company being run
by Shakespeare through a special medium, and worked by a
syndicate of Spiritualists, I think we are entitled to doubt these
claims, even though a dozen clairvoyants vouched for the existence
and presence of the aforesaid spirits.
Psychometry furnishes evidence that many so-called spirits are
not spirits “at all, at all”—only visions of the originals; and the fact
that such and such an individual has been accurately described—
actions and manners carefully indicated—and this has been and is
accurately done in health and disease daily—is no evidence, in itself,
that psychometers have seen spirits. Thus, when a psychometer
places a geological specimen to his forehead, and describes an
“antediluvian monster,” roaring and walking about, no one but a very
shallow individual would imagine for a second the psychometer was
actually seeing the original. So many of the spirits and spectres seen
do not proceed from our own brains, but from objects, relics, and old
houses, which had been in times past impinged by the living
presence and magnetism of the originals. Then we must take into
consideration those spectres which proceed from our own brains,
such as the realistic images which are sometimes projected from the
background of consciousness to our eyes and ears. Many so-called
spirits are simply the product of diseased neurological conditions, in
short, hallucinations, which arise from some derangement of the
optic and auditory centres. The spectres seen by Nicolai gradually
disappeared as he lost blood, as the prescribed leeches tranquilised
his system. We have no reason to believe the spectres he saw,
visions and what not, were actually either spirits or produced by
spirits.
MIND-READING IN SPIRITUALISM
is the commonest of most common experiences. I have known

mediums to graphically describe scenes, persons, and incidents with
such vividness as to impress one they must be controlled by spirits
intimately acquainted with the whole circumstances which were
revealed. Closer examination indicates that all the information so
given by these mediums was based on the thought-read phase. That
is, the information was culled from the minds of spirits in the flesh,
and did not come from disembodied sources.
Some years ago I attended a series of seances in Liverpool.
Nearly all the family were mediums of some sort. I was at this time
very enthusiastic in my investigations. Consequently, the following
incident was not lost upon me. One evening the circle met, with the
usual members. Shortly after the circle was formed, the daughter of
the house went into the trance state. There were several controls,
one of whom professed to be a man who, the day before, had been
injured on board one of Lambert & Holt’s steamers, which lay in the
Bramley Moore Dock. The “spirit” described the accident, how he
was injured, and that he was carried to the hospital, and had “passed
away.” Owing to the suddenness of his death, he wished us to
communicate with his family, and desired the circle to pray for him,
etc. As near as I can recollect, when asked for further particulars,
name, family, there was no definite reply. The medium quivered, and
a new control had taken possession of her. I, however, neither
doubted the bona-fides of the spirit nor the medium. I was especially
interested in this control. I thought this time I had obtained a test of
spirit identity. But alas for the imperfection of human hopes, I was
doomed to disappointment. I clung to the idea the spirit would come
back again, and when he got “more power,” we would get the
particulars he wanted to give us. He did not come back—and no
wonder. Four months subsequently, I met the real Simon Pure in the
flesh.
To explain more fully: On the day previous to the seance
mentioned, I was on board the newly-arrived steamer in question.
The lumpers were getting out the cargo. This man had been working
on the top of the cargo in the main hold “hooking on.” I paid no
particular attention at the time to him, but an hour after I heard a
great outcry, and saw a rush of men to the main hold. When I turned
back and got there, I found this man senseless and bleeding.
The hooks had slipped off a bale while easing out some cargo.
One of them had caught the poor fellow in the mouth, and had torn
up his cheek almost to the right ear. He was to all appearance dying.
I temporarily dressed his face, and the stevedore had him put on a
stretcher and sent to the hospital. I did not know his name or the
hospital to which he was removed. That day and the next the whole
scene was vividly impressed on my mind. Hence that night the
circumstances at the seance seem to me to be quite natural.
Everything advanced was wonderfully apposite and convincing. It
was not till I saw the man, and conversed with him, that my so-called
test of spirit identity resolved itself into so much thought or mind
reading, so that, even presuming the medium or sensitive was
controlled by “a spirit,” there can be no doubt the source of the
spirit’s information was purely mundane.
AUTOMATIC AND PLANCHETTE WRITING,
upon which so much reliance is placed, as furnishing evidence of

“disembodied spirit control,” presents similar difficulties. The
recording of forgotten incidents, and predicting possibilities in the
future, are not beyond the powers of the innate human spirit—wholly
and utterly unaided by spirit agency. Therefore automatic writing—
when genuine—does not necessarily furnish evidence of spirit
control, not even when the person who writes believes, and honestly
believes too, he is so controlled to write.
CHAPTER VIII.
Spiritualism.—Continued.
Automatic writing is a phase of phenomenal Spiritualism most
difficult to prove. In the majority of cases we are reduced to the
awkward position of accepting or rejecting the assertions of the
persons who declare that the writing done by them is automatic—
that is, written without thought and volition on their part. A close
examination of this claim may lead to the conclusion that automatic
writing is not impossible. Whether the controlling agent is “the spirit
within us,” or a disembodied spirit, or both, is not a matter of much
importance, if it is established, the writing is automatic. When
messages are written without volition, in the handwriting of deceased
persons, signed by their names, such messages must be treated on
their merits. I have seen messages written in this way. I have seen
messages written, not only automatically, but direct. Some were
written the reverse way, and could only be read by holding up to the
light or to a mirror. The direct writing was done in an exceedingly
short time, two or three hundred words in less time than an expert
phonographer could write the same by the most expeditious efforts.
The evidence in favour of telepathic writing is not very strong, but of
direct writing there appears to be abundant proof.
Dr. Nichols, in his fascinating work, “Forty Years of American Life,”
writes:—“I knew a Methodist sailor in New York, a simple, illiterate,
earnest man, who became what is called a test medium. He came to
see me in Cincinnati, and one evening we had also as visitors two
distinguished lawyers: one of them a brother of Major Anderson, “the
hero of Fort Sumter;” the other, a gentleman from Michigan, and one
of the ablest lawyers practising in the Supreme Court of the United
States. I had brought into the drawing-room a heavy walnut table,
and placed it in the centre of the room. The medium sat down on one
side of it, and the sharp Michigan lawyer, who was a stranger to us
and the medium, on the other. The medium placed his fingers lightly
upon the table. It tilted up under them, the two legs nearest him
rising several inches. The lawyer examined the table, and tried to
give it a similar movement, but without success. There was a force
and a consequent movement he could not account for. There was no
other person near the table, there was no perceptible muscular
movement, and in no way in which it could be applied to produce the
effect.
“When there was no doubt on this point, the lawyer, at the
suggestion of the medium, wrote with careful secrecy on five bits of
paper—rolling each up like a pea as he wrote—the names of five
deceased persons whom he had known. Then he rolled them about
until he felt sure that no one could tell one pellet from the other.
Then, pointing to them successively, the tipping table selected one,
which the gentleman, without opening, put in his waistcoat pocket,
and threw the rest into the fire.
“The next step was to write the ages of these five persons at their
death, on as many bits of paper, which were folded with the same
care. One of these was selected, and again, without being opened,
deposited in the lawyer’s pocket, which now contained a name and a
number indicating age.
“With the same precautions the lawyer then wrote, in the same
way, on bits of paper, the places where these persons died, the
diseases of which they died, and the dates of their decease, going
through the same process with each. He had then in his pocket five
little balls of paper, each selected by a movement of the table, for
which no one could account.
“At this moment the hand of the medium seized a pencil, and with
singular rapidity dashed off a few lines, addressed to the lawyer as
from a near relative, and signed with a name which the medium very
certainly had never heard.
“The lawyer, very much astonished, took from his pocket the five
paper balls, unrolled them, spread them before him on the table, and
read the same name as the one on the written message, with the
person’s age, the place and time of death, and the disease of which
he died. They all corresponded with each other and the message.
No person had approached the table, and neither lawyer nor medium
had moved. It was in my own house, under a full gas light, and, so
far as I could see, or can see now, no deception was possible.
“The written communication, which purported to come from a
deceased relative of the gentleman only expressed, in affectionate
terms, happiness at being able to give him this evidence of
immortality.”
This incident is introduced here in illustration of one out of many
phases of mediumship known to spiritualists. We see here both
psychic and physical powers-exercised, not generally recognised as
possible. A massive table moved without physical leverage or
exertion, and “thoughts read,” which formed the basis of the
message. Trickery and collusion in this instance are absolutely out of
the question. The only questions which remain to answer are: “Did
this medium possess in himself the powers referred to? or did he
possess them in consequence of being controlled by a disembodied
spirit, as claimed by the message?” Although the message in itself
did not contain evidence of any other source of information than that
emanating from the lawyer’s own mind, we are forced to the
conclusion that either the medium or the spirit controlling the medium
had power to read his mind, and of exerting what Professor Crookes
and Sergeant Cox would call Psychic Force to move the table, and
indicate what pellets to select. We have here evidence of an
intelligence capable of exercising an unknown force and of reading
thoughts—that intelligence claimed to be a human spirit.
TRANCE ADDRESSES.
Trance and inspirational addresses, however, do not, in my

opinion, furnish much evidence of the reality of spirit control. We are
interested in the phenomena—taking for granted that these trance
and inspirational states are genuine—although the evidence of
external spirit control presented is often nil. The controls may or may
not be veritable realities to their own mediums—professional or
otherwise—but this is of little value, as evidence, to the public. I have
known mediumistic and otherwise sensitive persons to be controlled
—i.e., taken possession of by their reading. One gentleman
swallowed large doses of Theodore Parker. In time he thought of
Parker, talked of Parker, and finally believed he was “inspired” by
Theodore Parker. This gentleman had been a Unitarian before being
a Spiritualist, and doubtless his mind had been broadened and
brightened by his course of Theodore Parker; but beyond his own
belief and the evident state of excitability he exhibited when
speaking under this supposed control, there was actually no
evidence of “spirit control” worthy of notice.
Mrs. Cora L. V. Tappan-Richmond, an inspirational medium, from
America, delivered a series of remarkable addresses in this country
about twenty years ago. These were published by J. Burns, of
Southampton Row, Holborn, W.C. A young gentleman from Brighton
heard and read the lectures, and finally budded forth as “an
inspirational speaker.” For a long time the public got nothing but the
Tappan lectures diluted. We had the same marvellous, even flow,
similar processes of reasoning, fertility of illustration, and unbounded
capacity for assertion. No one dare say this person was not inspired
by the spirits. It might have been a way the spirits had of breaking in
their instrument, but I had a shrewd suspicion the young orator was
controlled by his reading. I don’t know how many others have been
influenced in this way. I have noticed when a noted medium “came to
town,” delivered a number of addresses in public, or gave seances in
private, immediately thereafter a number of imitators professed—
correctly or otherwise—principally otherwise—to have been
controlled by the guides, who were supposed to control the medium
aforesaid, and that they would soon be able to give addresses and
manifestations, and what not. On the other hand, the noted mediums
averred “their guides never controlled any other than themselves,”
etc. The conscientious investigator is left to wonder how much
imitation, vanity, and self-deception have to do with such statements.
Some of the most perfect oratory, and some of the ablest and
most cogent lectures and addresses I have ever listened to have
been given by trance and inspirational mediums. It was stated, as
evidence of spirit control, by those who professed to know, “that
these mediums could not reason and speak that way in their normal
condition.” All of which is worthy of consideration. At the same time I
saw nothing inherently impossible—judging from a physiological or
cerebral-physiognomic standpoint—to prevent these persons
delivering, unaided by spirit agency, the addresses referred to. That
a person speaks with greater ability, intelligence, or fluency in the
trance state compared with his known powers in the waking state,
cannot, alone, be accepted as proof of spirit control. We have seen
hypnotised subjects do the same. But the reality, or otherwise, of
spirit agency, cannot be estimated by the superiority, or otherwise, of
the addresses and messages given.
In all public meetings and in seances where a medium is expected
to give trance and inspirational addresses the platform is “supported”
or the chair surrounded by sympathisers, whose presence is
esteemed favourable to “good conditions”—a “nebulous term” better
understood by Spiritualists than the public. When the address is, as
is often the case, a miserable jumble of things inconsequential, old,
experienced Spiritualists say it is owing “to bad conditions,” i.e., the
influence of the audience on the speaker being conflicting and bad,
hence the inconclusive rambling of the spirit’s oration. Whether this
is the true explanation or not, whether the medium was really
controlled or not, or the addresses successful or not, the fact
remains that Spiritualists admit that the “message” is not only
“seriously modified,” according to the channel (or medium) through
whom it is given, but that it may be deflected and distorted by the
influences of the audience to whom it is given. Whatever the real
cause of the imperfect oratory, what is this but admitting the thoughts
transferred from the audience to the sensitive either make or mar the
utterance? If spirit utterance is thus influenced, it becomes a difficult
matter to decide how much of the original message has reached us
as intended, and how unwise it is for some to have their lives
directed by such uncertain counsel.
There are many persons so organised, that when they come in
contact with Spiritualism, (not knowing anything about clairvoyance,
psychometry, thought-transference, thought-reading, etc.) are so
convinced by what they hear and see for the first time—so much out
of the ordinary run of their experience—the only way they can
account for the phenomena is, “that they must be the work of spirits,
for no human being could tell what they knew, or what they wanted,
save a spirit who could read their thoughts.” This is just where, I
think, the error creeps in. Those very revelations which they in
ignorance so readily attribute as only possible coming from
disembodied spirits, may be and are in some instances quite
possible to man, unaided by any such agency.
Many years ago I sat with Mr. David Duguid, the Glasgow painting
medium. I had a “direct spirit painting” done. It was a correct—as far
as I can recollect—painting of a small farm-house and stead, in the
North of Ireland, where I as a child had been sent for my health.
Neither Mr. Duguid nor the control claimed to possess any actual
knowledge of me, or of the circumstances of my childhood. When I
had an opportunity of attending the seance in question, I wondered if
such a scene could be painted, and my wonder was greater when it
was done.
Here again, we have evidence of thought-transference. Whether
Mr. Duguid, by some occult power, caused the direct painting to be
done—his own spirit doing it while his body was in the trance state—
or the painting was produced by one of his controls, I am not
prepared to state. I am willing to state my belief that the painting was
not done by Duguid, the medium, or any other person present in the
room. One of the controls of the medium claimed to have painted the
little sketch, and, truth to tell, it is not more difficult to accept this
hypothesis than “the spirit of the medium did it.” In our ordinary
experience of human nature, we do not find it usual for men to give
credit to others—men or spirits—for what they are capable of doing
and saying themselves.
REFLECTIONS.
It is quite possible, seeing that out of this life into the next, through
the portals of death, pass all sorts and conditions of human beings,
that in the next stage of existence—most closely allied to that in
which we now live—mankind are not essentially different in character
from what we find now. It is not, therefore, necessary to call in the
agency of demons, as distinct from human spirits, to account for the
phenomena of Spiritualism. If in artificial somnambulism and the
phenomena of the psychic state the operating agent is an embodied
human spirit, it is possible the same human spirit, albeit
disembodied, may still retain power to control or influence other
human beings.
There is another and more serious matter for consideration,
concerning which our investigations of Spiritualism have thrown little
or no light—Spirit Identity. Not only do our friends depart and never
return, and many have promised to do so. How far are we certain
when spirits have returned? We may have been deceived by our
own impulsiveness, anxiety, and desire to feel and to know that “they
are not lost but gone before.” Again, admitting the genuineness of
physical phenomena, and conceding that all the communications are
really made by disembodied spirits or intelligent beings like unto
ourselves, what proof do we possess that they are really what they
represent themselves to be, or what they appear to be in spirit
circles? “A bad or mischievous spirit,” says Dr. Nichols, “may, for
aught we know, personate our friends, penetrate our secrets, and
deceive us with false representations.” This is certainly worth
thinking about. My object in writing is not to turn my readers against
Spiritualism, but to get them to bring into the investigation judgment,
not only to analyse evidence, but the capacity to “judge not
according to appearance, but judge righteous judgment.” It is no part
of my purpose to deal with the history, ethics, or even the
phenomena of Spiritualism. That has been well done by others. I
merely write to show that Spiritualism “has something in it,” and is of
such importance that it is neither to be lightly rejected on the one
hand, nor are its phenomena at all times to be attributed to agency of
disembodied spirits.
Spiritualism is a many-sided subject, and too vast in its proportions
to be dealt with here, and while I have no doubt that its public
mediumistic exponents are no more perfect than the rest of humanity
—much is laid at their door which may have a basis on fact—yet I do
think they often suffer unjustly. Firstly, from the cries of the ignorant
—educated or otherwise, matters little—who charge them with fraud,
simply because such people are ignorant of the psychic possibilities
of man; and, secondly, from the admiring and thoughtless many who
are prepared to accept the commonest of psychic phases instanter
as evidence of “disembodied spirit” presence and power. I have no
doubt many phenomena are quite explicable on natural grounds.
Setting aside the possibilities of self-deception in untrained
observers, and of fraud in dishonest mediums, and of genuine
phenomena traceable to the powers of the “spirit which is within
each of us,” there remains, to my mind, abundant evidence of the
existence of “discarnate spirit,” possessing all the attributes of the
human spirit, as we know ourselves from the study of man as a
psychological subject. Unfortunately, the very best evidence in
favour of both “embodied” and “disembodied spirit” is not of that kind
which is available for publicity. Still, I hold, if there is evidence
(psychological and physical) for disembodied spirit in Spiritualism, I
am also satisfied there is abundant evidence for embodied spirit in
the psychological experiences of life, apart from what we know of
Spiritualism.
I may fitly close these reflections by quoting the testimony of that
keen scientific observer anent phenomenal Spiritualism—namely,
Cromwell F. Varley, Esq., F.R.S:—“Twenty-five years ago I was a
hard-headed unbeliever.... Spiritual phenomena, however, suddenly
and quite unexpectedly was soon after developed in my own
family.... This led me to inquire, and to try numerous experiments in
such a way as to preclude, as much as circumstances would permit,
the possibility of trickery and self-deception.”... He then details
various phases of the phenomena which had come within the range
of his personal experience, and continues:—“Other and curious
phenomena had occurred, proving the existence (a) of forces
unknown to science; (b) the power of instantly reading my thoughts;
(c) the presence of some intelligence or intelligences controlling
those powers.... That the phenomena occur there is overwhelming
evidence, and it is too late to deny their existence.”
The Bibliography of Spiritualism is somewhat extensive. What
books are best to recommend to beginners is not an easy matter to
decide. “The Use of Spiritualism,” by the late S. C. Hall, F.S.A.,[G]
however, will repay perusal, and from the intellectual fitness, high
moral tone, and spotless reputation of the author, this book may be
safely recommended to all readers.
THEOSOPHY.[H]
I have been frequently asked, What is Theosophy? A question

more easily asked than answered, and in answering I may do even
less justice to it than to Spiritualism. Theosophy is an intellectual
speculation, having for its main object the supplanting of Christianity,
by a Revised Version of Hindoo Metempsychosis. An attempt to foist
upon our western ideas and exoteric habits of thought, the
mysticisms and esoteric speculations of the mystics of India and
Japan. Modern Spiritualism is not a religion. Theosophy not only
claims to be a religion, but to be “the essential basis of all religions.”
Modern Spiritualism may have its faults, and be as imperfect as
human souls are here or hereafter. But we at least understand its
faults and defects. The triple-crowned spiritual monarch—sitting on
the seven hills of Rome—is not more infallible than the principles
which underlie Theosophy—with its demi-gods, its Mahatmas, its
adepts, miracle workers and wonders. To not understand and be
able to accept these principles at once, is to proclaim oneself an
ignoramus. Theosophy is a strangely fascinating religion for
intellectual æsthetics.
Spiritualism is at least susceptible of being observed and
investigated, and the hypothesis of Spiritualism is naturally a
reasonable deduction from the facts. Not so Theosophy, which is
merely a theory, an a priori assumption pleasing to those with more
reflective and imaginative powers than capacity for practical
observation. Spiritualism has given facts to be examined and tested,
Theosophy nothing save gigantic and baseless assertions. Its astral
shells and elementals are like its Mahatmas, flimsy phantasies, less
tangible than the ghost seen and described by Dr. Jessop, or visions
of the shade of shades, seen by psychometers. For these latter we
have at least a basis in psychic phenomena.
Re-incarnation is the back bone of Theosophy, and Karma its
necessary adjunct. The Kismet of Mahomet and the doctrines of
election of Calvinism are not more inexorable than the Karma of
Theosophy. Karma is a combination of earthly experiences and
expiations of the soul of man in time, during its everlasting process
of incarnating and re-incarnating in search of Wisdom, the Eternal
Reality, and the final extinction of all individuality in the Nirvana.
Devachan is the intermediate state of oblivion, in which personality is
blotted out, and into which the spiritual soul, etc., enters between the
periods of incarnation.
Theosophy—the Wisdom of God religion—attempts to explain all
the inequalities of life, the intellectual and moral differences in men,
of sin and suffering, by its working theory, Re-incarnation, which
doubtless has many attractive features.
The phenomena Theosophists place so much reliance upon are
the property of mankind—somnambulism, psychic consciousness,
clairvoyance, psychometry, thought-transference, etc. The
“Theosophic miracles of communication with persons in other parts
of the world” are explicable by thought-transference, and in time may
be no more inherently impossible than telegraphy without wires and
poles. The physical wonders of Theosophy, akin to those of
Spiritualism, are attributed to shells, the astral carcases of once
embodied but now rapidly dissolving personality of man, and
elementals, fragmentary spirit imps or sprites, who up to the present
have not been as yet incorporated in some incarnated human soul.
As to the ethics of Theosophy, brotherly kindness, charity, and
self-sacrifice—most desirable virtues and divine attainments—are
neither new nor the special property of Theosophy. Such divine
qualities and virtues are common to all religions and religious
teaching, and if they ever reached their climax in human form, they
did in the person of Jesus, the Lord’s Christ. He was the
embodiment of these, and a living example for all time, long, long
before unthinkable and “ungetatable” Mahatmas were announced by
Madame Blavatsky, or believed in by Mrs. Besant.
Theosophists recognise seven distinct parts in man, i.e., four
transitory and three eternal. The transitory elements are—the
physical body, the vital principle, the astral body, and the animal
soul. These four comprise man’s personality, and being transitory
are perishable. Hence the personality of man is annihilated at death.
The three eternal elements are—the spirit, the spiritual soul, and the
mind. These being imperishable form man’s individuality, and
constitute the immortal part of man. This immortal part incarnates
and re-incarnates throughout innumerable personalities on this
globe, and the rest of the planets, beside having alternate periods of
“rosy slumber” and of activity. Our individuality has no sex,
consequently we may be a little negro wench in one incarnation, an
Egyptian monarch in another, a Nero in another, a John Knox in
another, and so on. Others may not progress, but sink from
incarnation to incarnation, from a mother in Israel, to a Deeming in
Australia, and, finally, to utter annihilation. Those good souls who live
the life, and perfect their souls through much suffering, will become
as one with “the Eternal Reality, the Rootless Root of all that was, or
is, or ever shall be.” The higher and ever advancing Theosophist
may, however, stop short before he reaches the Nirvana, and elect to
become a Mahatma, or great soul, and reside on this or some other
planet to exercise power and precipitate wisdom, by letters and
otherwise, to the world, through chosen adepts. The good
Theosophist in this world and the next is surrounded by “thought-
forms,” which influence him in his upward career. The Spiritualist has
his departed friends for guides, and the Christian (Spiritualist) is
comforted by “messengers sent forth to minister to them that are
heirs of salvation.” I don’t know that “thought-forms” administering
counsel to a spirit having no personality is an improvement on the
old ideas.
It is impossible to do justice to this Wisdom-Religion with its
orders, grades, and bewildering phraseology. It is a fancy religion for
the intellectual, without a personal God or a personal soul. Its circles
are masonic lodges for the rich. In no sense is it a religion to meet
the wants of man as man, like that founded on the life and death of
Jesus Christ. I do not pretend to explain Theosophy, for the task is
beyond me. It is a religion intended for those who realise they are
divine sparks of the Rootless Root, and not for the common people,
who are incapable of understanding a system of morals thus veiled
in allegory, and illustrated by signs and symbols. Amid the
perplexities of many words, we learn that Theosophy teaches what
St. Paul indicates as the divine order of morals by the words:
“Whatsoever a man soweth, that shall he also reap.” To work out
one’s own salvation is as old as the race. We may all be
Theosophists without knowing it, as we don’t know who we are, what
we were, or who we are going to be, such is Karma. Spiritualism and
Theosophy are only referred to here seeing how largely the
phenomena on which they are based, is explained by “How to
Thought-Read.”
FOOTNOTES:
[A] In this way evil habits, such as erotic mania, opium eating,
dipsomania, etc., may be cured. When the strength of the vice
and the deterioration of the brain and body are such as to
undermine the will of the patient, hypnotism, properly employed,
may be used and recognised as a powerful and legitimate
curative agent.
[B] “Phrenological Annual,” 1892. Extract from article by Dr.
Samuel Eadon, M.D., M.A., LL.D. and Ph.D., etc., Aberdeen and
Edinburgh Universities.
[C] “Spirits Before our Eyes,” page 215. By W. H. Harrison,
1879.
[D] Dr. Joseph Rhodes Buchanan has been Dean and
Professor in several American universities. As far back as 1830
he was Professor of Medicine in Transylvania University. In the
year 1841 he made several important discoveries in cerebral
psychology, which he communicated to the American and to the
Edinburgh Phrenological Journals. These discoveries are
elaborated in his unique system of Anthropology, and are
published in his works—“Therapeutic Sarcognomy,”
“Psychometry,” “The Dawn of a New Civilisation,” “System of
Anthropology,” and “The New Education—which can be obtained
through my publishers, or direct from myself.”

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Cyber Physical Systems for Next

Security and Privacy for Next-Generation Wireless

Cyber Security for Cyber Physical Systems 1st Edition

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Game Theory for Next Generation Wireless and

Security and Privacy in Cyber-Physical Systems First

Metaheuristics and Optimization in Computer and

Big Data Privacy Preservation for Cyber Physical

IPTV Delivery Networks Next Generation Architectures

A volume in the Advances in Computer and

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Handbook of Research on Power and Energy System Optimization

Modeling and Simulations for Metamaterials Emerging Research and Opportunities

Electromagnetic Compatibility for Space Systems Design

Soft-Computing-Based Nonlinear Control Systems Design

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Compilation of References................................................................................................................ 254

About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 285

Software-defined networking (SDN) provides flexibility in controlling, managing, and dynamically

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About the Contributors..................................................................................................................... 285

SMART GRID AS A CYBER-PHYSICAL SYSTEM

Figure 1. NIST smart grid framework

Figure 2. Conceptual architecture for MAS

Game Theory in DSM

COMMUNICATION IN THE SMART GRID

Figure 3. Smart grid communications networks

Wired Communication Technologies in the Smart Grid

Wireless Communication Technologies in the Smart Grid

Table 1. Wireline technologies for smart grid communication

Table 2. Wireless technologies for smart grid communication

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THE REJECTION OF THE PSYCHIC.

Many persons—scientific, theological, learned, and illiterate—

THE FRAUDULENT IN SPIRITUALISM.

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We may now turn from the wretched arena of imposture, duplicity,

is the commonest of most common experiences. I have known

AUTOMATIC AND PLANCHETTE WRITING,

upon which so much reliance is placed, as furnishing evidence of

Trance and inspirational addresses, however, do not, in my

I have been frequently asked, What is Theosophy? A question

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