Unit 11
Unit 11
Unit 11
11.0 Objectives
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Pre-Modern Civilization of Korea
11.2.1 The Form of Government
11.2.2 The Socio-Political Decline of Korea
11.3 The Rise of the Modernisatio~iQuest ill Korea
11.4 The Disilitegration of the Confucianized Monarchy
11.4.1 Western Encroachments
11.4.2 The Kanghwa Treaty
11.4.3 The Tonghak Rebellion
11.4.4 The Annexation of Korea by Japan
11.5 Evolution of the Modernisi~igProcess in Korea
11.5.1 The Reform Movement of the Progressive Party
11.5.2 The Enlightenment Movement of the independence Club
11 .5.3 The bevelopment of the Modern Ecnnomic Infrastructure in Korea
11.5.4 The Growth of Modem Education
11.5.5 The Social and Political Transformation during the Independence Struggle of
Korea
11.6 Let Us Su~llUp
11.7 Key Words
11.8 Sollie Useful Books
11.9 A~&*ers to Check Your Progress Exercises
11.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit deals with evolution of lliodcni Korea. The unit discusses about the history,
geography, civilization and ~~iodernization process of an ancient land. After going
through the unit you will he able to :
ide~ilifythe geographical location and understand the geopolitical imporlance of Korea;
trace the history of Korea;
discuss the refor111liloveliie~itsfor niodernization of Korean peninsula;
asses the depth of Japanese colo~iialexploitation in Korea;
study the liberation struggle of the Korean people against the foreign rule.
11.1 INTRODUCTION
the USA and Russia. The occupation culniinated in the partition of the ancient land
into two independent states South Korea and North Korea.
South Korea which is officially known now as the Republic of Korea (ROK),
occupies the southern region of the peninsula. To the north of the RDK lies the North
Korea, to the south is the East China Sea, to the east is the sea of Japan and to the
west of the RDK lies the Yellow Sea. Total land area of the RDK is 99.091 sq.km
where niore than 43 ~liillionpeople (as per the esti~ilateof 1991) live. Korean is the
language of the state. Buddhism a ~ Christianity
~ d are the principal religions. There are
also a few iiii~iorreligions'like Daoisln Confucianisni etc.
North Korea which has been named as the Deniocratic People's Republic of Kprea
(DPRK), is foniied with the northern part of the peninsula. To the north of the DPRK
is the People's Republic of China. Total land area of the DPRK is 122,400 sq.km.,
and its population as per the esti~iiateof 1990 is iiiore than 20 million. The language
of the DPRK is Korean. Here also like the ROK, Buddhis~iiand Christianity are the
main religions.
During the reign of Yi dy~iastyin Korca, a herediti~ryking ruled ovcr the cou~ltry
with the help of an advisory Council of State consisting of a Chief Minister and
Evolution of Modem Korea
some other minisferi.-The executive work was carried out by six Ministries or Boards
of Peisoonel, Revenue, Rites, War, Justice and Public Works. Thrke other orgalls of
t k Governn~ent(i) the Board of Censors, (ii) the Board of Inspectors, and (iii) the
Office of the Royal Lecturers also played a vital role. There was also a Royal
Secretariat to perforni the administrative functions. The country was divided into eight
pmvinces ruled by governors appointed by the central government annually. Each
province was divided into administrative units of prefectures, countries and districts.
The recruitment of government officials was done through a national civil service
examination. But only the members of the Yangban class were eligible for taking
examination for high government posts.
Although, as a matter of principle, all powers of the governn~entbelonged to the
n~onarch,but in actual practice, these were exercised by the feudal nobles who
occupied all the government posts. As these officials belonging to the nobility were
greedy and cruel, they often misused their powers in exploiting and oppressing the
common masses. Similarly, although the Confucian ethics expected the kings to be
bel~cvolentrulers, most of them played in the hands af the feudal lords and acted in
a tyrannicd manner. Thus for all practical purposes, the Korean n~onarchywas turned
gnto an oligarchy during the rule of the Yi dynasty. However, some of the Yi
monarchs like king Sejong etc. were enlightened and benevolent who cared for the'
public welfare.
Taking advantage of the laxity of their rulers, the feudal lords and aristocrates of
Korea expanded their private estates and powers,. These estates became virtually
independent Kingdollis within the Kingdom. In order to strengthen their position
against the growing influence of the landed aristocracy, the Yi dynasty rulers of
Korea took sotne inlportant steps which affected the entire structure of the country.
First of all, they adopted the neo-Confucianis~n(Propodnded by Chu Hsi, the disciple
of Confucius) as the state creed which enlphasised hierarchical relationship between
rulers and subjects. It caused a rigid stratification of the Korean society dividing it
into four classes of aristocrats, middle-class, comlnonen and the low-born. At the
highest level were the aristocrats known as 'Yangban' who dominated the political as
well as econonuc life of the society and treated the coinmoners and low-borns as
their slaves. The commoners who carried the burdens of the state, supplied food,
labour and troops, and paid taxes, also the people who were exploited by the
aristocrats and middle-class. The most oppressed and i~~~poverished anlong the111 were
the farmers who were not the owners of land. They had to till the land only as
tenants. They had to pay high rents to their landlords and also the taxes illiposed by
the government. Secondly, the Yi rulers in order to enhance their esteem in the eyes
of the local nobility (and perhaps also to pass on the responsibility of defending the
country from foreign invasions) sought the diplomatic favour of the paranlou~~t power
of the Chinese empire. For this purpose, they accepted the Chinese suzerainty over
Korea in accordance with the Confucian precept of 'sadae' (subservience to the elder/
bidgreat). But this unden~unedthe sovereign status of Korea and opened the way for
outside interventions in her domestic affairs. Thirdly, as Co~lfucianismlooked down
upon those who engiged thenlselves in trade and business, there was no
encouragement to the economic and industrial developnlent of the country up to the
nud-dneteenth century or so. Fourthly, the Korean rulers also followed a policy of
isolation from the outside world except China for about three hundred years. They
wanted to renuin aloof from the international co~nplicationsbecause of their past
experience of recumng foreign invasions. Through this policy, they tried to appease
China with a show of respect and pacify Japan with linuted trade benefits while
cutting off completely from the rest of the world. But it did not help them in
safeguarding the nation. It obstructed the flow of new ideas into the Korean society.
Consequent upon the above reasons, the gulf between the ruling class and the conunon
people widened in the Yi dynasty of Korea. The oppression and impoverishment of the
nlasses reached its extreme. The society as a whole became immobile and the age-old Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
socio-economic and political institutions of Korea became obsolete and decadent.
Cmvermenl and Polltla In
k t and south-~prtAda 113 THE RISE OF THE MODERNISATI-ONQUEST IN
KOREA
The creative era in ancient Korea came to an end around the middle of the 15th
century (i.e. after the death of King Scjong who was the most enlightened and.
benevolent ruler of Korea). In the Meantime, scientific and technological advances in
Europe had given tre~nendouseconomic and military powers to the Western nations.
Tbey were utilizing these powers for establishing their vast enlpires around the globe
and the wave of western expansionism threatened t%e whole of Asia. But Korea was
still shut in its own shell oblivious of what was happening beyond its frontiers.
However, beneath the seeming tranquillity at the surface, there were pressures of change
building up slowly. The abuses of the rigid social stratification and orthodox custo~uswere
bringing a gradual respoase in the people who were beginning to question the legitimacy
of the whole of the unjust order. The nmin stimulation to this trend of distrust and criticism
of the prevailing system came from some of the members of the Yangban class which was
itself responsible for the misuse of the existing set-up. How it happened is yet another
interesting story of Korea.
Although confucian precepts helped Yangban to maintain t k i r privileges, impose
social stratification and extract loyalty and obedience fro111 the conlnlon people, their
own condition becanle miserable with the passage of time. Every Yangban thougbt
tbat the o~llypossible role for hi111 in the society was to serve the king so tbat he
might acquire the privileges attached to a govenl~ucntposition. Any other profession
except the royal service was considered a disgrace on hi~llselfand his family.
Therefore, those Yangban who failed to obtain government posts remained idle and
became poor.
Moreover, there were two bases of selection for the government posts: social status
and success in a national examination requiring mastery of Confucian classics. As a
result, a new class of Confucian literati, belonging to Yangban and aspiring for royal
service, eilierged in Korea. Those Confucian literati who were unable to achicve their
goal also joined the ranks of inlpoverished aristocracy. This gave them a chance to
identify their own nliserable conditions with the suffering of the collllllon nmsses.
Gradually, they became aware of the necessity of changing and refonlling the old
structure of the Korean kingdom. And for this purpose, they began to propagate the
ideas of hu~lmndignity, equality, freedom, public welfare and econonuc ndva~ice~llent
by adopting the western science and techology.
This led to the origin of a new school of thought known as 'Sirhak' or 'Pragiluitic
Learning' which becanrc the nleinstream of progressive thinking in Korea.
Check Your Progress 1
Ncite : i). Use the space providcd below each question to give your aIL5wer.
ii) Check your answer with the arlswcr give11at the erid of thc usit.
1) What werc the 1iui11fcaturcs of the Yi dy~iastygovenlmcnt i n Korea:'
2) Mention ally two of the inlportiirt political stcps taken by thc Yi dys;isty rulets ol'
Korea and their effects.
3) Read the followiilg exerciscs carefully and mark thc corrcct arlswcrs or state~iie~its.
i) Which one of the lbllowing causcd the rigid social str;~tificationi n Korea during the
Yi dynasty rulc?
a) Buddhism.
b) Confucianism. Evolution of Modem Korea
c) Neo-Confucianism.
d) Western Imperialism.
li) Which one of the following statements is true? During the Yi dynasty reign in Korea
a) conlmon people could obtain the high government posts through success in a
national civil examination.
b) a meniber of the Yangban class could obtain the high government post without
taking the national civil exanunation.
c) a Confucian Scholar could obtain the high governnient post without taking the
national civil examination.
d) a niember of the Yangban class could obtain the high government post through
success in a national civil exanunation.
Now you know how the centuries old social, political and economic structures of
Korea became obsolete and oppressive during the Yi dynasty rule, and how the desire
for change arose in the Korean people who were suffering under the unjust and
autocratic systein of government. This growing desire for change stimulated a two-
fold process of modernisation in Korea. On the one hand, trend to break away from
the past and throw away the Chinese shackles emerged among the Korean people. On
the other, they began an effort to reform and renovate the existing political, social
and econonuc structures by adopting the new ideas and institutions. The result was a
gradual disintegration of the Co~ifucianized~no~iarchyas well as the eniergence of a
dynamic and progressive nation. However, there were some significant events and
circunlstances of that time which accelerated the pace of both trends.
The major events and upheavals which caused the down fall of the traditional systems
as well as the rise of the new brces in Korea during the later half of the nineteenth
century are western encroachments, the Kanghwa treaty, the Tonghak rebellion and
the an~iexationof Korea by Japan.
I 11.4.1 Western*Encroachments
You might be aware how the western powers of France, Great Britain, the United
States of America, etc., con~pelledChina and Japan to open their ports for trade
during the middle of the nineteenth century. The nlcans employed by these powers
I1 for their expa~isio~i in East Asia is known as gun-boat Diplo~nacy.After their success
in China and Japan they turned their atlention towards Korea and began to pressurise
it to provide them econo~nicconcessions. Sonie of them also occupied certain
portions of its territoiy. Although Koreans resisted these pressures with remarkable
deternlination, they becan~eaware of the idernal weaknesses of their country and the
! need to strengthen it.
I
11.4.2 The Kanghwa Treaty
When the western powers found it difficult to establish direct relations with Korea
due to Chinese suzerainty over her, they e~icouragcdJapan to break the centuries old
isolation of Korea. By that time, Japan had become a mighty power of Asia. She
and trade in 1876 which is k11ow11as
forced Korea. to sign a treaty of frie~~dship
Ka~ighwaTreaty. Taking advantage of the Japanese success, a l ~ ~ ~allo s the
t inlperialist
powers of the West conipelled Korea to sign the sinlilar treaties and open her ports
for international trade. This was the beginning of the enslavenient of Korea by
i~nperialistpowers. Thus the Kanghwa Treaty struck a severe blow to the power and Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
prestige of the ruling hierarchy of Korea.
Government and ~ o l i t i c sin 11.4.3 The Tonghak Rebellion
East and South-East Asia
As pointed out above the condition of the common people of Korea had beco~ne
extremely nuserable under the oligarchic rule of the Yi dynasty. The most wretched
among them were the farmers. The foreign intervention and exploitation after the
Kanghwa Treaty added to the woes of the Korean masses. Yet the government of
Korea reniairied callous to the increasing hardship of its people. Consequently, a
deepseated resent~l~ent against the corrupt and oppressive order arose and exploded in
the f o m ~of a peasant's revolt in 1894 which is known as the Tanghak Rebellion. The
ideological base to this revolt was provided by a new socio-religious thought 'Ch'
ondogyo' ~ i i e a ~ nthe
g religion of the heavenly way and coiiuilonly known as
'Tonghak' or 'Eastern Learning'. It was propounded by an impoverished Yangban
scholar Choe Che-u who called upon his countrymen to sweep away the traditional
Korean society in its entirety and to create a new era of freedom and equality.
Though the rebellion was crushed by the Korean governinent with the help of the
Chinese and Japanese troops, its message had a volutio~laryeffect on the Korean
society. It broke down the barriers between Yangban and the common people and
struck a severe blow to the feudal system of goveinment. It paved the way for the
evolution of an egalitarian society in Korea.
Japan was not satisfied with the partial control of Korean economy provided by the
Kanghwa Treaty. It was anxious to establish l~lonopolisticand absolute control over
the Korean peni~lsulaso as to use it as a stepping-stone for further expansion on the
Asian coatinent. It eliniinated China and Russia from the Korean scene by defeating
them in the sino-Japanese War of 1894 and the Russo-Japanese War of 1904. Britain
and the United States of America favoured the Japanese policy in Korea as a
countenlleasure to the Russian ambitions in the Far East. Taking advantage of the
favourable international situation as well as the weakness of the Korean government;
Japan annexed Korea in 1910. This was the end of the Yi dynasty reign and the
Chinese suzerainty over Korea. It brought the Korean people into direct confrontation
with the modern forces of imperialism, capitalisnl and militarism resulting in a new
deter~ninationin them to meet the challenges of the modern age.
All these incidents and upheavals changed the way of thinking of the Korean people
and made theill eager to rebuild their nation by adopting new ideas and institutions.
This set the pace for the modernising process in Korea.
In this last section of the unit, you will study soine of the progtessive movements of ,
Korea which paved the way for the transformation of the country into a riiodern
nation. It will help you to understand how the modernising process emerged in Korea.
When Korea was colnpelled to sign the Kangliwa Treaty in 1876, sollle Korean
iiltellecturls were greatly impressed and inspired by the technological, economic and
~ililitaryadvaiice~~ieiitof Japan. Led by a pioneer reformer of Korea, Kiln Ok-kyun,
they decided to traiisfor~liKorea on the Japanese lines and launched a new
programme of niodenlisation under the banner of a 'Progressive Party'. They
advocated for the independence of Korea from the Chinese suzerainty and closer
association with Japan. They proposed abolitioil of the inequality of land-holding,
improvement'of agricultural technology, development of natural resources,
co~lstructio~l of better roads, industrial and commercial advanceiiient and reform of the
govern~lientalstructure. They advised the king to establish new educational ..
institutions, hospitals and other public utility services such as streetlights and post
otxces. The king accepted soine of the proposals he also became interested in the
modernisation of the country by thtt time. But the conservative faction of the
govenunent became suspicious of the motives of the Progressives and opposed their Evolution of Modem Korea
proposals. Kim Ok-kyun and his associates attempted to usurp the government power
by assassinating some of the conservative ministers on the occasion of the inaugural
ceremony of the first Post office of Korea. Such kind of rashness on the part of the
Progressives and the occasion chosen by then for coup d'etat caused a serious set-
back to the modernisation movement. Yet this movement set in motion an irreversible
process of modernisation in Korea.
(Read the following exercise carefully and Illark the correct answer.)
g) During their independence struggle, the Korean people decided to restore the
Korean Monarchy.
h) The struggle for freedom from the Japanese rule weakened the feudal syste111of
the Korean society.
In this unit you have been introduced to a unique civilizatio~land told about its
c florts at modernization. In ancient time, an accomplished and prospe_rous kingdom Evolution of Modern Korea
was established in the Korean peninsula. But during the Yi dynasty reign, its
government became autocratic and the society was divided into upper and lower
classes resulting in the intolerable exploitation and oppression of the common masses.
People's resentment against the oppressive regime set in motion two kinds of trends
there : (i) the downfall of the decayed nlonarchy and the feudal system, and (ii) the
progressive transfonnation of the Korean society. The outcollie of both was the
evolution of an irreversible process of nlodernisation in Korea from the beginning of
k
the last quarter of the nineteenth century.
'1
AJ. Grajdanzev :1944 :Modern Korea :John Day, New York.
B.S. Agrawa I :1992 :A Study of tlie Korean National Movement : Loyal Book Depot,
'%wa lio'r.
Chong-sik Lee, : 1965.: The Politics of Korean Natwnalkm : University of California Content Digitized by eGyanKosh, IGNOU
Press, Berkeky.
13
Government and Politics in F.A. Mcke~lzie: 1920 :Korea ' sFiglrl for Freedon : Revell, New York.
, East and South-East Asia
. %I H.S. Harold : 1970 :Korea :A Political Hislory in Modern Times : Longfellow,
New York.
R.R. Krish~iarl: 1991 :Indo-Korean Relations : Yonsei University, Seoul.