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Microbial
Biotechnology
An Interdisciplinary Approach
Microbial
Biotechnology
An Interdisciplinary Approach
Pratyoosh Shukla
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
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Contents
Foreword, vii
Preface, ix
Contributors, xi
v
vi ◾ Contents
INDEX349
Foreword
Francisco Plou
Research Scientist at Spanish CSIC
Honorary Professor at Autonomous University of Madrid
Madrid, April 4, 2016
vii
Preface
ix
x ◾ Preface
Puneet Pathak
Gulshan Singh
Avantha Centre for Industrial
Institute for Water and Wastewater
Research & Development
Technology (IWWT)
Yamuna Nagar, Haryana, India
Durban University of
Kugenthiren Permaul Technology
Department of Biotechnology and Durban, South Africa
Food Technology
Durban University of Technology Puneet Kumar Singh
Durban, South Africa Department of Microbiology
Maharshi Dayanand University
Raju Poddar Rohtak, Haryana, India
Department of Bioengineering
Birla Institute of Technology
Ranchi, India Suren Singh
Department of Biotechnology and
Vishal Prasad Food Technology
Institute of Environment and Durban University of
Sustainable Development Technology
Banaras Hindu University Durban, South Africa
Varanasi, India
Pradeep Venkatesh
Ajay Shankar
Dr. Rajendra Prasad Centre for
Institute of Environment and
Ophthalmic Sciences
Sustainable Development
A.I.I.M.S.
Banaras Hindu University
New Delhi, India
Varanasi, India
Bacterial
Exopolysaccharides
Major Types and Future Prospects
CONTENTS
Abstract.................................................................................................................2
Introduction.........................................................................................................2
EPS Producing Bacteria: Major Types..............................................................4
Soil Inhabitants...............................................................................................4
Lactic Acid Bacteria.......................................................................................4
Halophiles........................................................................................................4
Thermophiles..................................................................................................8
Psychrophiles..................................................................................................8
EPS from Pathogenic Bacteria.................................................................8
Regulation of EPS Production...........................................................................9
Present Studies on Bacterial EPS.....................................................................10
Heteropolysaccharides.................................................................................10
Homopolysaccharides..................................................................................12
Future Prospects of Bacterial EPSs.................................................................13
Food Industry................................................................................................13
Pharmaceutical Industry.............................................................................13
Biomedical Application...............................................................................14
Bioremediation and Wastewater Treatment..............................................14
Patenting in the Field of Bacterial EPS...........................................................14
Conclusion.........................................................................................................16
Acknowledgment...............................................................................................17
References...........................................................................................................17
1
2 ◾ Microbial Biotechnology
ABSTRACT
Exopolysaccharide (EPS) is secreted by bacteria for their survival in harsh
environmental conditions as a protective mechanism. Repeating sugar
units, attached with proteins, lipids, organic and inorganic compounds,
metal ions, and DNA are found in EPS. Bacterial EPSs have possible com-
mercial applications in pharmaceutical industry, food processing, drug
detoxification, bioremediation, and in many more. The most used and
patented bacterial EPSs are xanthan, cellulose, gellan, alginate, etc. Varied
applications of microbial EPSs are somewhat unexplored and their study
is persistently enhancing toward isolation and characterization of novel
EPSs as renewable capital. Downstream processing for purification and
genetic engineering for increased EPS biosynthesis require more attention.
INTRODUCTION
Polysaccharides is an important content of microbial cell walls, either as
storage capsular polysaccharides or as biofilm called as exopolysaccharides
(EPSs) secreted by microbes in its surrounding. Presently, isolation and
characterization (Figure 1.1) of new microbial EPS is of key scientific inter-
est, because EPS has shown promising application as texture enhancers,
gelling agents, emulsifiers, viscosifiers, and also as the newest nanovector
for drug delivery, resulting in sustained release of drugs. Bacterial EPS own
a varied range of property which is not found in traditional plant polymers.
Although it competes for algal (alginates, carrageenans, and ulvan), crus-
tacean (chitin) or plant polysaccharides, its production level is less due to
green house effect, global warming, marine pollution, sea level increment,
loss of key stone species, crop failure, and overall climate change impacts.
Microorganisms provide a controlled production in bioreactors, with-
out any variation due to the physiological states encountered for higher
organisms (1). But downstream processing of bacterial polysaccharides has
cost-intensive steps, as the expenses needed for substrates requirement for
microbial growth and bioreactors are too high (2). Moreover, cultivation
of microorganisms in a fermenter allows growth optimization and pro-
duction yield either by physiological study or by genetic modification. For
high-value pharmaceutical industry, bacterial polysaccharides can be pro-
duced at a feasible economic cost. Research in the field of bacterial EPS pro-
duction is till now done on most available EPSs such as cellulose, xanthan
gum, levan, glucan, cellulose, sphigan, hyaluronan, and succinoglycan, of
which xanthan gum from Xanthomonas sp., gellan from Sphingomonas
Bacterial Exopolysaccharides ◾ 3
Isolation of supernatant
FIGURE 1.1 Flowchart elucidating the main steps of isolation and characteriza-
tion of bacterial EPS.
and slimy colony appearance, so that they can be further chosen for mass
production (4).
Soil Inhabitants
The most famous EPS producers are soil inhabiting rhizobia. It forms
large amounts of polysaccharides when grown in pure cultures and also
into the rhizosphere. Rhizobium meliloti, Rhizobium leguminosarum, and
Rhizobium tropici are the three most studied EPS producing soil inhab-
iting bacteria (5,6). Regulation of motility related genes and presence of
quorum sensing proteins in rhizobia resulted into a complex EPS bio-
synthesis pathway. EPS production by bacteria and biofilm formation
enhances soil fertility and improved plant growth (7). Pantoea (formerly
Enterobacter) agglomerans isolated from mangrove forest had very high
ultraviolet radiation tolerance. The water-soluble EPS was extracted and
was further tested for its ultraviolet radiation protection and free radical
scavenging activities (8). Micrococcus luteus isolated from Egyptian soil,
produced a maximum of 13 g/L EPS and the EPS showed high antioxidant
activity (9).
Halophiles
The diversity of halophilic bacteria so far isolated and characterized can be
categorized into four different classes according to its salt requirement for
their growth, which include slight halophiles, moderate halophiles, extreme
TABLE 1.1 Recent Studies on Bacterial Exopolysaccharides, Its Chemical Composition, and Probable Function
Bacterial Type Bacterial Strain Maximum EPS Constituents of EPS Function of EPS References
Production
Soil inhabitant Pseudomonas 4.5 g/L Fructose:glucose:mannose = 4:1:0.6. NMR indicated Phosphate solubilizing Taguett et al.
fluorescens EPS produced was levan with β-(2 → 6)-linked activity (32)
fructose units
Rhizobium tropici 4.08 g/L Mannose (0.86%, 1.49%, and 2.68%), rhamnose Shear-resistant nature, Lemos et al.
(2.58%, 2.49%, and 0.60%), glucuronic acid (8.6%, soil stabilizing agent (5)
5.97%, and 3.57%) and trace of galacturonic acid
Micrococcus luteus 13 g/L Mannose:arabinose:glucose:glucuronic In vitro DPPH Asker et al.
acid = 3.6:2.7:2.1:1.0 radical-scavenging (33)
Main backbone consists of mannose units linked activity, with an EC50
with (1 → 6) glycosidic bonds and arabinose units value of 180 µg/mL
linked with (1 → 5) glycosidic bonds. There is a side
chain consisting of mannose units linked with
(1 → 6) glycosidic bonds at C3, when all glucose and
Thermophiles
Thermophiles are currently classified as: moderate thermophiles (50–
70°C) and extremothermophiles (>70°C) based on its optimal growth
temperatures; extremothermophiles grow optimally above 80°C and are
also termed as “hyperthermophiles.” They inhabit a wide range of habitats
from geothermal springs and solfataric (sulfur) fields, shallow submarine
hydrothermal systems, geothermally heated oil reservoirs to abyssal hot-
vent environments or hot coal-refuse piles (19).
Different hyperthermophilic microorganisms such as Thermotoga
maritima, Archaeoglobus fulgidus, and Thermococcus litoralis produce EPS
significantly (20–22). Works has also been done on EPS producing Bacillus
licheniformis from marine hot springs (23), glucan producing Geobacillus
tepidamans from Bulgarian hot springs (24), Brevibacillus thermoruber
from geothermal springs of Turkey and Bulgaria (25).
Psychrophiles
A large portion of reduced carbon reserve of the ocean is EPS and it
enhances the survival rate of psychrophilic marine bacteria by modify-
ing the physicochemical environment around the bacterial cell. Antarctic
marine environments are rich in bacterial EPSs which help the micro-
bial communities to survive under extreme cold temperature and salin-
ity with least nutrient availability. EPS produced by a new genus of
Pseudoalteromonas, isolated from Antarctic sea ice at −2°C and 10°C
showed higher uronic acid content than EPS produced at 20°C (26).
Heteropolysaccharides
1. Xanthan gum: It is the first industrially produced biopolymer,
which is extensively studied and widely accepted commercially.
Xanthomonas genus of bacteria secretes this heteropolysaccharide
Bacterial Exopolysaccharides ◾ 11
(a)
ADP + Pi Substrate
ATP Glycerol
Glucose
Fructose
Man-6-P Glucose-6-P
Fructose-6-P
(c) ADP + Pi NAD+
Glycolysis
(b)
Man-1-P Glc-1-P ATP NADH + H+
Acetyl CoA
TDP-Glc Pyruvate
UDP-Glc CO2
GDP-Man
FADH2 TCA NAD+
cycle
FAD NADH + H+
GDP-Fuc TDP-Rha UDP-Gal UDP-GlcA
ATP ADP + Pi
NDP-sugars
NDPs
NMP
NDPs ADP + Pi
(d) NMP
NDP-sugars
Cytoplasm
Inner membrane
PCP
P P
P P
Peptidoglycan
OPX
OPX
Outer membrane
Homopolysaccharides
1. Glucans: Glucans are glucose homopolysaccharides differing
in glycosidic bond, degree and type of branching, chain length,
molecular mass, and polymer conformations. Glucans are of two
types—α-glucans (reuteran, dextran, mutan, and alternan) and
β-glucans (e.g., cellulose and curdlan). Bacterial genera, such as
Gluconacetobacter, Agrobacterium, Aerobacter, Achromobacter,
Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Sarcina, and Salmonella are able to pro-
duce cellulose. Extracellular enzyme dextransucrase that form
α-glucans are produced from sucrose in several bacterial genera
Bacterial Exopolysaccharides ◾ 13
Food Industry
First industrially marketed EPS dextran is produced by LAB and is used
in confectionary to improve moisture retention, maintenance of viscos-
ity, and to inhibit sugar crystallization. It acts as gelling agents in jelly
and gum. It inhibits water crystal formation in ice cream and also gives
the desired body and mouth feel in pudding. Due to the growing demand
in natural and minimally processed foods, the use of antimicrobial com-
pounds produced by LAB is of huge scientific and commercial interest as
a safe and natural food preservative. Nisin produced by Lactococcus lactis
and Reuterin produced by Lactococcus reuteri are widely used as natural
antibacterial food preservatives.
Pharmaceutical Industry
Recently there is a huge growing demand for LAB as probiotics. The
characteristic features of LAB strains as probiotics are its acid and bile
tolerance, producing antimicrobial compounds against pathogens and
adherence, and colonization in human intestinal mucosa.
14 ◾ Microbial Biotechnology
Biomedical Application
Polysaccharides of marine Vibrio, Pseudomonas, and Bacillus lichenifor-
mis showed to have antitumor, antiviral, and immune stimulant activity.
Alteromonas infernus isolated from deep-sea hydrothermal vent, pro-
duced a low-molecular weight heparin-like EPS with good anticoagulant
property. An l-fucose containing polysaccharide Clavan showed prom-
ising roles in tumor cell colonization prevention in lung, regulation of
white blood-cell formation, rheumatoid arthritis treatment, antigen syn-
thesis for antibody production, and in cosmeceuticals as a skin mois-
turizing agent. Water-soluble EPS from Pantoea agglomerans showed
protective activity against UV radiation by its free radical scavenging
activity (8).