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Quality Engineering
Techniques
Quality Engineering
Techniques
An Innovative and Creative
Process Model
Ramin Rostamkhani
Mahdi Karbasian
First edition published 2020
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher can-
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Rostamkhani, Ramin, author. | Karbasian, Mahdi, author.

Title: Quality engineering techniques : an innovative and creative process
model / Ramin Rostamkhani, Mahdi Karbasian.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2020. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020004495 (print) | LCCN 2020004496 (ebook) | ISBN
9780367903817 (hardback) | ISBN 9781003042037 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Quality control. | Industrial management. | Project
management.
Classification: LCC TS156 .R6725 2020 (print) | LCC TS156 (ebook) | DDC
658.4/013--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020004495
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020004496
ISBN: 978-0-367-90381-7 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-003-04203-7 (ebk)
Typeset in Times
by Deanta Global Publishing Services, Chennai, India
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
About the Authors......................................................................................................xi
Chapter 1 A Review of the Basic Concepts...........................................................1

1.1 Introduction................................................................................ 1
1.2 The History of Research in QET................................................ 2
1.2.1 The History of Research in Statistical Techniques.......2
1.2.1.1 Descriptive Statistics.....................................2
1.2.1.2 Design and Analysis of Experiments............5
1.2.1.3 Statistical Hypothesis Tests........................... 6
1.2.1.4 Process Capability Analysis..........................7
1.2.1.5 Regression Analysis.......................................8
1.2.1.6 Reliability Analysis.......................................9
1.2.1.7 Sampling...................................................... 11
1.2.1.8 Simulation.................................................... 12
1.2.1.9 Statistical Process Control Charts............... 12
1.2.1.10 Statistical Tolerances................................... 14
1.2.1.11 Time Series Analysis................................... 14
1.2.2 The History of Research in Non-Statistical
Techniques................................................................... 18
1.3 The History of Research in the Key Concepts of
Continuous Improvement......................................................... 19
1.3.1 The History of Research in Productivity for
Industrial Products Manufacturing.............................20
1.3.2 The History of Research in Sustainability for
Industrial Products Manufacturing............................. 21
1.3.3 The History of Research in Added Values for
Industrial Products Manufacturing............................. 21
1.4 A Summary of the Research History....................................... 22
1.4.1 Innovation and Creativity in This Research:
A Description.............................................................. 22
Exercises.............................................................................................. 23
Chapter 2 Applied Methodology..........................................................................25

2.1 Introduction..............................................................................25
2.2 Research Limitations................................................................25
2.3 Statistical Population of the Research......................................25
2.4 Data Collection Tools and Methods......................................... 27
2.5 Data Collection Validity........................................................... 27
v
vi Contents
2.6 Data Collection Reliability....................................................... 27

2.7 Information Analysis Method.................................................. 27
Exercise............................................................................................... 27
Chapter 3 Proposed Model in Triple Organizational Processes.......................... 29

3.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 29
3.2 Identification and Determination of Three Types of
Processes in Industrial Factories.............................................. 29
3.3 Identification and Determination of the Desired QET in
Main Processes......................................................................... 30
3.3.1 A Numerical Application of QET in the
Determined Scope for Main Processes....................... 30
Leadership Processes............................................................... 50
3.4.1 Numerical Application of QET in the
Determined Scope for Leadership Processes.............. 51
Support Processes..................................................................... 56
3.5.1 Numerical Application of QET in the
Determined Scope for Support Processes................... 56
3.5.1.1 Exponential Distribution Function.............. 58
3.5.1.2 Ultra Exponential Distribution Function.......59
3.5.1.3 Gamma Distribution Function..................... 59
3.5.1.4 Weibull Distribution Function..................... 59
3.5.1.5 Normal Distribution Function.....................60
3.5.1.6 Log-Normal Distribution Function..............60
Exercises.............................................................................................. 63
Chapter 4 Results of Implementing the Model.................................................... 65

4.1 Introduction.............................................................................. 65
4.2 Z-MR Control Charts for Describing the Impacts of
Different Units on Productivity and Sustainability ................. 65
4.3 Total Score Calculation of Productivity and
Sustainability before and after Implementing QET................. 73
4.4 Demonstration of the Growth in Added Values for
Industrial Products Manufacturing.......................................... 75
4.5 Generalizing the Assessment Results of the Model to
Other Organizations................................................................. 77
4.6 Assessing the Model’s Risks and Opportunities in
Manufacturing Industries......................................................... 77
4.6.1 Risks and Opportunities Identification....................... 78
4.6.2 Risks and Opportunities Assessment.......................... 78
4.6.3 Responding to Risks and Opportunities .................... 78
Contents vii
4.7 Impacts of Implementing the Model in Industrial

Economics................................................................................ 81
Exercise............................................................................................... 82
Chapter 5 Quality Engineering Techniques from Past to Future........................ 83

5.1 A Discussion on Comparison of Previous Research with
the Proposed Model.................................................................. 83
5.2 Final Results of the Research in Manufacturing Industries....... 84
5.3 Suggestions for Future Research.............................................. 85
References................................................................................................................ 87
Appendix: Assessment Questionnaire for Generalizing the Proposed Model........ 89
Index....................................................................................................................... 107
Preface
No one can deny the incredible pace of change and progress in today’s industrial and
complex world. A large amount of information is exchanged and little time is avail-
able to deal with it. Many industries and firms of small, medium, or large sizes have
a profound desire to increase productivity and sustainability to gain a competitive
position in the global market. One of the best tools for achieving this goal is to apply
Quality Engineering Techniques (QET). Quality Engineering Techniques can be
established through process-oriented models applicable to all traditional processes
employed in companies or firms. The authors of this book, having had more than
20 years of intensive work in Quality Management Systems (QMS) and Integrated
Management Systems (IMS), have tried to share their applied knowledge and experi-
ence on the process-oriented model of quality engineering techniques with experts
and managers working at different companies or firms, particularly those in indus-
trial factories. The essential role of employing statistical techniques as the main tool
of quality engineering techniques in the growth and development of industries is
a well-known fact to the specialists in the field. In applying statistical techniques,
the most referenced books in the field are those by Professor Douglas Montgomery
from the Arizona State University (ASU) in the United States. In writing this current
book, however, we have been inspired by well-known and accomplished professors
in industrial engineering in Iran—Professor Rasoul Noorossana in particular—from
the Iranian University of Science and Technology. Indeed, the invaluable books
and articles he has published could improve knowledge of Quality Engineering
Techniques for the first time in Iran. Furthermore, we have benefited from the arti-
cles and books published by Professor Arash Shahin from the University of Isfahan;
in fact, the important progress and proliferation of quality engineering techniques
in Iran have given us enough motivation to write this book. To the above authori-
ties, we have to add the professors and researchers at the Malek Ashtar University
of Technology whose great contribution to developing different levels of design and
implementation of the process-oriented model are to be appreciated. Also, many
experts and managers within this academic organization have cooperated with us
in implementing the model presented in this book through applying it to defense
sectors. We are indebted to them for their sincere efforts. Special thanks are due to
internal and external participants in filling out the questionnaires. We are grateful to
our colleagues who played active roles in developing different stages of the model.
This model has been applied to a selected industrial factory. The obtained results,
however, can be generalized not only to other industries but also to general service
sectors. This book introduces, for the first time, an integrated and applicable model
for quality engineering techniques and numerical applications for its implementa-
tion. It is to be noted that the design of the proposed model is introduced as the
main core of the research project while its implementation is indicated in numerical
ix
x Preface
application parts. So, the main thrust of our research is to provide answers to the
important and essential questions listed below.
• How can we define the main specifications of a productive and sustainable

model of QET in industrial organizations?
• How can different levels of the proposed model be configured?
• Which units or individuals are responsible for implementing the intended
model of QET?
• How can the impacts of implementing the proposed model in question be
assessed?
• Can this model create or increase added values for industrial organizations/
firms?
The proposed model can prove useful to experts and managers who desire to achieve
optimum productivity and sustainability through applying quality engineering tech-
niques, whether statistical or non-statistical. The model presented can manage the
application of quality engineering techniques in an integrated format for organi-
zational processes. The most creative feature of the presented work is the idea of
introducing a process map within an organization, besides exploiting several qual-
ity engineering techniques including statistical and non-statistical tools for different
levels of the organization. The most innovative dimension of this book is executing
the proposed model in an effective format for the defense sectors of Iran that can be
generalized to other non-military sectors in each country as well as creating or aug-
menting added values for the manufacture of industrial products. We firmly believe
that our model can be further improved by accommodating constructive experts’
views from those authorities working in the manufacturing and general services sec-
tors of organizations/firms. Please, do not hesitate to contact us (see below) and share
your highly appreciated comments in regards to the content of the book.
Ramin Rostamkhani and Mahdi Karbasian

March 2019
About the Authors
Ramin Rostamkhani has an M.A. in Industrial Engineering.
He earned his master’s degree from the Malek Ashtar
University of Technology in Tehran, Iran. He has worked in
the Defense Industries Organization (DIO) in Iran. He has
more than 20 years of experience in QET. Moreover, he has
a lot of experience in QMS and IMS. He has written at least
four articles in Scopus and ISI journals. He has extensive
expertise and experience in the following areas:
• Reliability
• Productivity
• Sustainability
• Quality control
• Applied statistics
• Quality assurance
• Quality engineering
• Statistical and non-statistical techniques
Researchgate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Ramin_Rostamkhani/publications
LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/in/ramin-rostamkhani-80446910a/
Mahdi Karbasian has a Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering.

He earned a Ph.D. from the Tarbiat Modares University of
Tehran, Iran. He is an Associate Professor in the Faculty
of Industrial Engineering at the Malek Ashtar University
of Technology in Esfahan, Iran. He is a manager of
many quality projects in the Malek Ashtar University of
Technology. He has written many articles in Scopus and ISI
journals. He has extensive expertise and experience in the
following areas:
• Process safety
• Failure analysis
• Applied statistics
• Reliability analysis
• Quality engineering
Researchgate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Mahdi_karbasian/publications
LinkedIn https://www.linkedin.com/in/mahdi-karbassian-686ab235/
xi
1 A Review of the
Basic Concepts
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the present century, quality engineering techniques have turned into applicable
and effective tools for attaining advanced design and manufacturing technology as
well as mass-production processes. The rationale behind these techniques from the
very beginning was to help mass-production lines. It was only later that such meth-
ods were developed into useful instruments for other activities in the organization
(both for pre-production activities such as product design, and for subsequent activi-
ties like after-sales services. Appropriate techniques are developed depending on the
type of organization. The evolution path for quality engineering techniques (QET)
(passing from low to high quality) has occurred synchronously with development in
manufacturing lines. Various techniques have been developed and applied at each
stage of the formation of a product (depending on the organization). However, it is
important to note that most of the techniques are based on systematic processes,
i.e., fewer inputs for converting qualitative outputs into quantitative ones. The result
is that these techniques can establish a safe platform for decision making. That is
to say, although these techniques can be applied individually, the logical nature is
that when they are applied one after another, they act as reinforcements and exhibit
double effects. The importance of the functional role of statistical techniques as a
main core of QET for robust analysis of the data related to the indices of the strate-
gic issues of quality management systems cannot be easily overlooked. The World
Organization for Standardization, through one of its subcommittees, has shed light
on identifying statistical techniques. This informative manual appears in two edi-
tions, in 1999 and 2003, where it is officially designated as ISO10017 which applies
to all standards in the ISO9000 family, especially to those in ISO9001. This stan-
dard is a very useful tool in the identification of statistical techniques in the deploy-
ment, maintenance, improvement, and development of quality management systems.
Statistical techniques as a mathematical tool in quality engineering play a crucial
role in measuring, describing, analyzing, interpreting, and modeling system changes
even with limited data. Statistical analyses in data can help us understand the extent
and causes of changes. Hence, statistical techniques can prove beneficial in exploit-
ing available data to help with decision making and to continuously improve the
quality of products and processes, eventually improving customer satisfaction which
is the most important goal of the organization. These techniques can be applied to an
extensive range of activities such as market research, design, development, produc-
tion, verification, and servicing.
1
2 Quality Engineering Techniques
1.2 THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH IN QET

Statistical control charts were employed by Shewhart for the first time in 1920.
However, the relevant sciences flourished in the years between the two world wars.
Later years witnessed the use of statistical quality control techniques in manufac-
turing military equipment. In the years after the war, i.e., in the 1950s and 1960s,
the experiments, designs, and analysis techniques were also used. This time not
only the military industries, but also the major automobile companies and their part
makers turned to these sciences. Major companies like General Electric, General
Motors, and Motorola provided a new era for testing these statistical techniques and
even resorted to other engineering techniques that did not require strong statisti-
cal bases (non-statistical techniques) (Rezaei, 2001). In the field of statistical and
non-statistical techniques, a great number of studies have been carried out whose
implementation records can be seen in numerous references. It seems that a per-
fect application grounds for designing and implementing of QET can be realized
in the defense sector where widespread and consistent processes are observable at
three levels of processes: namely, main, leadership, and support procedures. One
particular study discusses the advantage of applying statistical and non-statistical
techniques related to quality engineering in the form of an integrated model for
creating productivity and sustainability in the main domains of industrial engineer-
ing associated with manufacturing factories. (Karimi Gavareshki et al., 2018). The
popular statistical techniques based on ISO10017 and non-statistical techniques are
presented in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.2 presents another categorization for QET.
1.2.1 The History of Research in Statistical Techniques

The family of statistical techniques that can help an organization achieve its objec-
tives is as follows: (ISO10017:2003)
A. Descriptive statistics
B. Design and analysis of experiments
C. Statistical hypothesis tests
D. Process capability analysis
E. Regression analysis
F. Reliability analysis
G. Sampling
H. Simulation
I. Statistical process control charts
J. Statistical tolerances
K. Time series analysis
1.2.1.1 Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics refers to the methods employed to summarize quantitative data
in such a way as to define the characteristics of data distribution. The characteristics
of data mostly taken into consideration are the central value of data (e.g., averages);
A Review of the Basic Concepts 3
Statistical Techniques Non-statistical Techniques
Descriptive Statistics Quality Function Deployment (QFD)
Design of Experiments (DOE) Value Engineering (VE)
Statistical Process Control (SPC) Value Stream Mapping (VSM)
Statistical Hypothesis Tests Work Flow Analysis (WFA)
Process Capability Analysis Cost of Quality (COQ)
Statistical Tolerances Failure Mode Effects Analysis (FMEA)
Time Series Analysis Designing Failure Mode Effects Analysis (DFMEA)
Regression Analysis Production Failure Mode Effects Analysis (PFMEA)
Reliability Analysis
Simulation
Sampling
FIGURE 1.1 QET; statistical and non-statistical techniques.
and the dispersion of data (e.g., domains or standard deviations). Another feature of
interest is the shape of the distribution of data (e.g., symmetries). The information
obtained from descriptive statistics can often be easily and effectively influenced by
resorting to various types of graphical methods including histogram charts, Pareto
graphs, dispersion charts, causation charts or trend graphs. These graphical methods
are useful since they are capable of discovering unusual aspects in the data that are
vague in quantitative analyses. These methods are widely used in data analysis when
the researcher decides to discover or verify the relationship among variables and
intend to estimate the parameters used to describe these relationships.
QUALITY ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES
LEAN TOOLS PLANNING TOOLS ANALYTHICAL TOOLS
Value Stream Mapping Matrix Diagrams SPC
5S Responsibility Matrix Pareto Diagrams
Poka Yoke Cause & Effect Diagrams
Take Time Histograms
Kaizen Scatter Diagrams
Work Flow Analysis Process Flow Charting
CREATIVITY AND DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT

MONITORING TOOLS
THINKING TOOLS TOOLS
Brain Storming Statistical Process Control FMEA
Nominal Group Trend Charts DFMEA
Practical Technique Histograms Design of Experiments
Affinity Diagram Gantt Charts / Time Lines Voice of the Customer
5 Whys
Force Field
FIGURE 1.2 QET.
1.2.1.1.1 Applications
In general, descriptive statistics are used to summarize and describe data attributes.
This method is normally the first step in analyzing quantitative data. Therefore, as
a first step and introduction to each analysis, these statistical methods are utilized.
Examples of such applications are as follows:
• Summarizing the key indices of product features (e.g., average and standard
deviations).
• Describing the function of some process parameters (e.g., temperature)
• Describing the delivery and response times (e.g., services)

• Summarizing the customer evaluation date (e.g., satisfaction or
dissatisfaction)
• Displaying the measuring data (e.g., equipment calibration data)
• Displaying the distribution of features related to a process through a
histogram
• Viewing the performance results of a given product over some time through
a trend graph
• Evaluating the relationship between independent variables (e.g., tempera-
ture) and the output of that process as a dependent variable
1.2.1.1.2 Advantages
Using descriptive statistics is a convenient and simple way to summarize and describe
data. It is also a good choice of procedure for providing information, especially by
supplying graphical means for data and transferring information. Furthermore, this
method is helpful in analyzing and interpreting data, which proves useful in making
decisions.
1.2.1.1.3 Disadvantages
Descriptive statistics provides characteristics of sample data (for instance, means
and standard deviations). However, these tools are contingent upon limitations such
as sample size, and sampling method. These quantitative tools are considered valid
when considered in relation to statistical assumptions.
1.2.1.2 Design and Analysis of Experiments

The design and analysis of experiments refer to all studies that are planned and car-
ried out based on statistical calculations related to the results at a specified level. This
technique involves making changes to the system under investigation and accordingly
evaluating the effect of these changes on the system. Verifying some features of a
system or examining the effect of one or more factors on these features can be defined
as another goal of this technique. The arrangement and the tests that are conducted
for this technique are extremely dependent on the purpose and the conditions of test-
ing. There are various supplementary tools for analyzing data from variance analysis
perspective such as checking the probability of points with having graphical natures.
Descriptive statistics can be used to evaluate the assessments of a product, process,
or a system for verifying a specified standard or evaluating the comparisons made of
several systems at a certain level. Confirmation of the effect of medical treatments
and agricultural products, and evaluation of various types of methods in industrial
productions are among the practical applications of this technique. The most practi-
cal aspect of this technique is its ability to examine complex systems whose outputs
may be affected by multiple potential factors. As such, the purpose of the design of
experiments under this condition is to optimize a feature or reduce its variability. In
this case, descriptive statistics is used to analyze the factors that have the greatest
impacts on the characteristics of the system. The results may be used to facilitate
the design and development of a product or process to control or improve an exist-

ing system. Examples of this may be to control or improve the average or reduce
the variability in certain process characteristics such as process efficiency, product
strength, or durability in factory products manufactured, for instance, by electronics,
automotive, or chemical industries.
One of the most striking advantages of designing and analyzing experiments is the
creation of high-efficiency, economical procedure to examine the effects of several
factors in a process, compared to the study of these factors. Also, the ability of this
technique to identify the interactions between certain factors can lead to a deeper
understanding of the process. Using the correct method of applying this technique,
the risk of error in finding a random relationship between two or more variables is
considerably reduced.
There are some levels of variability inherent in all systems, which in some cases
can prevent the attainment of accurate conclusions. While there may be misleading
effects of some unknown factors, as well as the interactive effects of various fac-
tors in a system, choosing the right sample size and including other considerations
might reduce the risk of errors in the final conclusions of the technique making it an
acceptable outcome, although they cannot be totally eliminated. And in such cases,
extending the generalization of the technique should always be limited to the inter-
nal workings of the selected scope.
1.2.1.3 Statistical Hypothesis Tests

This technique is a statistical method with a predetermined level of risk determin-
ing whether a set of data (typically from a sample) is compatible with a particular
hypothesis or not. The hypothesis in question may apply to a specific distribution
or statistical model and asks whether data is in the multiplicity of the parameters
related to a particular distribution (for example, a mean value). As such, the statisti-
cal hypothesis test involves evaluating evidence to decide whether the hypothesis
formed for a statistical model or parameter is to be accepted or rejected.
A hypothesis test generally decides whether a hypothesis on a parameter of a par-
ticular population (at a certain level estimated from a sample) is valid or not.
This testing technique is used to address the following questions/statements
(given as examples):
• Does the average (or standard deviation) of a community show a certain

amount?
• Does the meaning of two or more populations differ when comparisons are
made?
• Is the proportion of defective items in a community greater than a certain
amount?
• Does the distribution of a population show a normal curve?

• Are the samples taken from a community random?
• Testing the difference between the proportions of defective items against
two process outputs
• Determining the sample size required to accept or reject a hypothesis at a
specified level of certainty
This technique claims to assess some parameter of a community with a certain
level of certainty. Hence, it can be useful in making decisions contingent upon
that parameter. As well, the method can provide useful information on the nature
of the distribution of a community together with the characteristics of the sample
data.
Generally, to ensure the accuracy of the results related to the statistical assumptions,
the samples should be considered independently and randomly. Further, although
the level of assurance related to the results is obtained according to the sample, the
assurance of independent and random sampling is not possible.
1.2.1.4 Process Capability Analysis

This technique can assess changes and distribution of a process to estimate the
ability of outputs that are in conformity with the range of permissible changes.
If the data are measurable variables (from the product or process), the measure-
ments are to be determined through standard deviations of the process distribu-
tion, provided that they are under the control of the process's intrinsic variability.
If the process data follows a normal distribution, this will be 99.73% of the statis-
tical population. Generally, process capability is based on indices designated as
CP, CPK, PP, and PPK. The first and the second indices with differences in process
centering are used to measure the actual process variability, while the third and
the fourth indices with the same difference in process centeredness are used to
measure the overall process variability. Other indices for the process capability
are designed to calculate the long-term or short-term variability as well as the
variability around the intended target amount of the process. Moreover, if the
process data includes parameters such as the percentage of non-conformities or
the number of non-conforming items, the process capability is to be expressed in
terms of average non-conformance rate or the average ratio of non-conforming
items.
The technique can be used to create quality engineering specifications for manufac-
turing products that are compatible with the tolerance in the assembled parts. Also, it
is used to achieve high quality as well as optimum cumulative reliability in complex
systems. Hence, manufacturers of cars, aircraft, electrical and electronic equipment,
food, medicine, and medical supplies make use of this technique as an important
tool for evaluating the process of their production.
In general, this technique evaluates the inherent variability of a process and estimates
the percentage of the expected non-conforming items. Therefore, this assessment
enables the organization to estimate the costs of non-conformity and to orientate
decisions related to process improvement. As a result, the organization is informed
in choosing the processes and equipment that would produce an acceptable product.
Besides, it enables the manufacturer to apply minimal direct inspection of the pur-
chased products and materials.
Although this technique has great potential for evaluating the power of a process, the
concept of process capability relies on the following assumptions:
• The process should be under statistical control.

• The statistical population under study should be normal
• Processes that have systemic causes (e.g., instrumental depreciation) should
be avoided. Besides any of the above-mentioned problems, the effectiveness
of this technique has its own drawbacks which necessitate careful attention
to the use of compensatory methods.
1.2.1.5 Regression Analysis
The regression analysis determines the relationship between the behavior of a char-
acteristic cause (response variables), and a potential cause (descriptive variables).
Hence, the technique aims at understanding the potential causes of change in the
response while determining the contribution of each of these factors accomplished
through establishing a statistical relationship between the changes in the response
variables and changes in the descriptive variables. The analysis can indicate the
most effective method of minimizing the difference between the real and the ideal
answers.
Regression analysis has the following applications:
• Examination of the assumptions related to the effect of independent descrip-

tive variables on dependent variables (response) and predicting the value
of the dependent variables (response) for the values of these independent
descriptive variables. (Identifying the most important factors in processes
and assessing their contributions to the variability of the desired features as
well as forecasting the outputs of a test or study related to the past, present,
and future conditions of a specified production.)
• Estimation of the direction and degree of the relationship between a depen-
dent variable (response) and an independent descriptive variable. Of course,
this does not imply the existence of a cause-and-effect relationship. (For
example, determining the effect of changing a factor like temperature on
the output of the process while the other factors remain constant.)
• Modeling different characteristics of a process. (For example, efficiency,

output, performance, cycle time, probability of failure of the test, and vari-
ous stoppages in the process.)
• Verifying the replacement of a measurement method. (Such as replacing a
time-consuming method with a faster and more accurate one.)
• Non-linear applications. (For example, obtaining a production formula for
a product as a function of time and volume of demand or obtaining a for-
mula for a chemical interaction as a function of time, temperature, and
pressure.)
Regression analysis can provide the relationship between various factors and
the desired response, and thereby help in the making of a decision related to the
process under study, and can ultimately improve the process. The main capabil-
ity of this technique is to accurately describe the patterns of response data, to
compare differences and explain related sets of data, and to provide the accept-
able estimate of the impact of independent variables on a dependent variable (the
response). This type of information aids the realm of controlling or improving
the outputs of a process. The regression technique can also estimate the response
rate in a satisfactory manner as well as the source of the effects of factors that
are either not measured or eliminated in the analysis. In general, the analytical
capability of the technique, especially in predicting the effect of independent
variables on a given response, can prove useful, especially for processes requir-
ing time and cost.
The use of regression analysis for modeling linear, exponential, multivariate, and
other processes, in the absence of sufficient skill and experience in those working
with the model, can lead to measurement errors and other sources of changes that
can make the structured model too complicated. In some cases, as well, for creat-
ing a model, the accuracy of the available data may not be taken into consideration
while checking the accuracy of such data is essential. As such, adding or removing
this type of data from the analysis causes an incorrect estimation of the parameters
related to the model, consequently affecting the response. Another important point
is the existence of additional independent descriptive variables which can also pre-
vent the discovery of the real effect of other independent descriptive variables on the
dependent variable (response), whose elimination may seriously damage the validity
of the model's results.
1.2.1.6 Reliability Analysis
Reliability analysis makes use of analytical and engineering methods for evaluat-
ing, predicting, and ensuring the correct operation of a product or system under
study over time. The techniques used in reliability analyses often require the use
of statistical methods to resolve uncertainties, random attributes, or probabilities
of failure, etc. In this kind of analysis, parameters such as the time to failure or the
time between failures are dealt with. The technique includes other techniques like
analyzing the malfunctions and their effects which focus on the physical nature and
causes of failures.
Reliability analysis applies to:
• Validating key indices related to the reliability and predictability of the

performance of various components and systems (e.g., time to failure
or time between failures for a certain number of test units in a limited
time)
• Providing statistical data for design parameters for predicting the cost
of the product life cycle, as a consequence of which a new product is
introduced
• Identifying critical components or parts of a high-risk process accurately
to discover the causes of the product failure or weaknesses in the imple-
mentation of processes eventually providing the necessary background for
corrective and preventive measures
• Supplying guidance for making decisions on manufacturing or buying gen-
eral products
• Determining the major characteristics of product degradation to improve
the product design or scheduling appropriately for the maintenance and
repair
• Creating the ability to correctly predict the desired performance of a prod-
uct or process
• Achieving a plan on various parameters for designing a product
• Establishing objective criteria for the rejection or acceptance of conducting
conformity tests for a product or system
• Planning appropriately for optimal timing and preventive replacement
• Realizing an accurate estimate of the cost-effectiveness of a new product
design or system design
One of the basic assumptions of this technique is that the performance of the
product or system under study should be satisfactorily followed by a specific
statistical distribution. Due to a lack of attention to the precise determination
of this statistical distribution, the accuracy of the estimates will be challenged
when the accuracy of the product or system performance is concerned. Also, the
issue becomes much more complicated when several failures affecting the prod-
uct or system are involved. Also, if the number of the observed failures in a test
is suspiciously low, this might negatively affect the accuracy of reliability esti-
mates. The testing carried out under this condition would put the results of this
technique in doubt and the uncertainty about predictions make by the method
would increase.
1.2.1.7 Sampling
Sampling is defined as a systematic statistical method for obtaining information
about some of the characteristics of a community, by studying a part which repre-
sents the whole. Different methods are employed for sampling:
• Random sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Sampling successively
The way a method is chosen is determined by the purpose and conditions of the
research.
Sampling can be divided into two general categories:
• Sampling for acceptance (inspection)

• Sampling for review
In sampling to accept or reject a group of items based on the results of the sample(s),
the industry application is to provide certain levels of assurance and information
about whether the inputs of a product or process can meet the necessary require-
ments or not. In a sample for review, a numerical or analytic study is used to estimate
the values of one or more characteristics of a community. At this stage, we often deal
with surveys in which information is collected on a particular topic (e.g., measuring
customer satisfaction). Also, the method is used to determine the number of samples
needed to measure one or more characteristics of the statistical community. Other
aspects of the application of sampling through this method are
• Estimation of the proportion of a community that might purchase a particu-

lar product
• Estimation of the percentage of items that provide a measure for certain criteria
• Control of a production process involving operators, machines, and products
for monitoring variability and determining corrective and preventive measures
An appropriate sampling plan, compared to a census of the entire community or a
100% inspection, can certainly save time, cost, and labor. Additionally, sampling is
the only way to obtain the right information when the product inspection involves
destructive tests.
In designing a sampling process, the following should be considered:
• How to select the sample size

• Sampling time
• Sampling method
• Basis for sub-grouping
However, failure to pay attention to any of the above factors, which are mostly disre-
garded, gives rise to error rates.
1.2.1.8 Simulation
Simulation is an execution method through which a system (theoretical or empiri-
cal) is mathematically presented in the form of a computer program so that it can
solve a problem. If the method of presenting includes concepts of probability the-
ory, especially random variables, the designation Monte Carlo method simulation
is used.
In the field of theoretical sciences, this technique is used when no comprehensive
theory of problem solving is known, or if one is known, it cannot be applied to
strengthen this technique (space programs or advanced missile defense projects can
be cited as an example). In the field of empirical sciences, the technique is used when
a system or a process can be properly described with the help of a computer program.
The following are some of the more specific uses of the technique:
• Modeling oscillation in advanced mechanical parts

• Modeling oscillation of component profiles in complex assemblies
• Determining optimal timing for preventive maintenance
• Cost analysis and other analyses in design and production areas for resource
allocation
In the field of theoretical sciences, simulation (especially the Monte Carlo
method) provides an appropriate tool for solving problems, especially in cases
where direct and straightforward computations might be very difficult to accom-
plish. In the field of empirical science, simulations are used for a variety of tests
found to be experimentally impossible or very costly to conduct. Hence, simula-
tion has the advantage of offering the best solution at the shortest time and lowest
costs.
Note that in the field of theoretical sciences, evidence based on conceptual rea-
soning is more useful than simulation techniques since the technique often does
not show the reasons for the outcome result. In the field of empirical sciences,
there might exist some limitations where the simulated model does not fit. For
this reason, the method is not to be used as a suitable substitute for reviews and
evaluations.
1.2.1.9 Statistical Process Control Charts

Process control charts—a graphic representation of the data—are drawn from the
samples gathered periodically from a process and displayed on the graph in the time
order they were collected in. The control limits in these charts show the intrinsic
variability of a process in a stable state as the role of control charts is to help to

assess the stability of a process carried out by examining punctuated data relative
to the control limits. In the case of variable data, a control diagram is used to monitor
the changes of the process centre and a separate control diagram is used to monitor
the process fluctuations. For descriptive data, control charts typically represent the
number or ratio of non-conforming items or the number of observed non-confor-
mities in the samples taken from the process. The general pattern of these charts
is Shewhart model variables. There are other examples of control charts that have
specific features (such as moving average charts).
These charts are used to specify changes in a process where the recorded data is
compared with the control limits. In the simplest possible way, a point outside of
the control limits indicates a change in the process which might be attributed to
some specific causes. These causes need to be analyzed and determined for the
observation task outside of the control limits. Many organizations such as auto-
motive, electronic, and defense industries often use this technique to meet two
purposes:
• To prove the sustainability of a production process and its continuous

sustainability
• To determine the risk and the scope of corrective actions
This useful technique is exploited in the machining industry to reduce unnecessary

interferences in a process. Another aspect of this technique is the control of such
typical features as average response time, error rate, and the frequency of complaints
for measuring, complicating, and improving the performance in the service industry.
Besides showing the data, the process control charts have uses in helping to find the
right answer for the reason behind process fluctuations. The crucial point is to distin-
guish between randomized (inherent) fluctuations and fluctuations in certain cases.
The following can be mentioned as important benefits of these graphs:
• Process control
• Process capability analysis
• Measurement system analysis
• Cause and effect analysis
• Continuous improvement
The most important point in the useful application of these charts is the selection of
logical sub-groups that form the basis for the effective use of the charts. The inter-
pretation of these charts in identifying the sources of a process variability is also
very important an in some cases it is overlooked. Thus, the outcome results might
be misleading. Further, there are some short-term processes that have scant data for
determining appropriate control limits. Another setback is the existence of alpha and
beta errors that never approximate zero.
1.2.1.10 Statistical Tolerances
Statistical tolerance is a method of execution using certain statistical principles as a
basis, which is applied to determine tolerances form a two-sided viewpoint.
In cases where multiple individual parts or members are assembled in a single unit,
the final value, using this technique, occurs only when the dimensions of all the
individual sectors are located at the bottom or above the limits range. This technique
is most commonly used in mechanical, electronics, and chemical industries where
components or factors are assembled which increase the connection or involve struc-
tural subtraction. Also, this technique is used in computer simulation for determin-
ing optimal tolerances.
Calculation of the total statistical tolerances is based on a single tolerance set of a
total tolerance, which would be smaller than the overall estimate gained by arithme-
tic. Therefore, giving a general dimensional tolerance using wider tolerances is made
possible with simpler and less costly production methods for single dimensions; this
feature can be an important advantage in many cases.
In general, the following prerequisites are needed for applying this technique to be
feasible:
• Real single dimensions should be considered as non-correlated random

variables
• The dimensional chain must be linear and have at least four members
• Single tolerances should be given in order of magnitude
• The distribution of single chain dimensions must be clear
If any of the above prerequisites are ignored, the analytical value of the applica-
tion of this technique is lost. That is to say, the production of individual dimensions
should be controlled and continuously monitored.
1.2.1.11 Time Series Analysis

The analysis of time series incorporates a set of methods for studying a batch of
counting observations. This set includes:
• Punctuation of times series

• Finding delay patterns
• Finding periodic or seasonal patterns
• Forecasting future observations
Time series analysis is used to describe patterns of data in order to identify the set of
points that should be reviewed. This technique is also used to create adjustments and
to understand patterns of change besides specifying the points of change. The analy-
sis is a technique used to predict future values (performance patterns over time) with
the upper and lower limits defined as the prediction distance. As a result, the method
can be applied to a vast range of time-consuming processes. For example, the issue
of supplier assessment, the process of complaints by customers, the forecast of the
procurement or repair of parts and related costs, the estimation of future energy
consumption for production, and service collections are among the most important
uses of the technique in question. This technique is used to set the process toward
targets with the least variables. An example of the use of this method is in selecting
and working with the desired quality suppliers (of an appropriate assessment score)
so that the product’s quality is maintained and/or a certain level of product supply is
targeted to retain the market demand.
Analyzing time series is most useful in the following cases: Planning, controlling
engineering, identifying process changes, creating predictions, comparing planned
performances of a process with certain criteria, and measuring the effect of some
interventions or external operations. This technique provides an insight into caus-
ative patterns, and can be used further to distinguish systematic causes from specific
causes. Another application of this method is to aid understanding of how a process
would behave under certain conditions, and what settings would be needed for its
effective implementation.
Different techniques used to estimate time series, depending on the number of peri-
ods considered for the data, yield different responses. Add to this the nature of the
data, the purpose, and the characteristics of the analysis, and the related costs should
also be taken into account to achieve the desired result. Otherwise, the obtained
results would be misleading.
1.2.1.11.4 A Summary of the Direct Application of the Statistical
Techniques in Some Industries During the Last Decade
There are many examples of statistical techniques being used in industrial applica-
tions; they are described below.
In a comprehensive research study, design of experiments (DOE) was introduced
as a powerful statistical technique for collecting QET and statistical tools. The
authors of the study found that the desirable features in the integrity of processes are
indicated for organizations that invoke ISO9001 and concentrate on the character-
istics and trends of processes and products for attaining the measurement results. In
other words, the innovation of this research lay in the application of DOE to measure
the impacts of various factors on the process of a quality management system. In this
study, the authors investigated the history of applications and the benefits of DOE,
and the way the results are analyzed (Karbasian and Rostamkhani, 2017).
Innovative research revealed that the statistical process control (SPC) proves
very effective in relation to the productivity calculations of construction companies
(Espinosa-Garza et al., 2017).
In a valuable research project, the industrial production losses were fully assessed
through DOE, SPC, and process capability indices (PCI) (Bounazef et al., 2014).
Research at the Malek Ashtar University of Technology in Iran, introduced
statistical techniques as a tool for the mathematical branch of quality engi-
neering. The statistical techniques were considered and applied by executive
managers of quality management systems. Choosing these techniques and their
application were entirely determined by the level of the organization's perfor-
mance, where the requirements and recommendations of the quality manage-
ment system are taken into account. Certainly, using a statistical techniques
approach in quality engineering is a powerful, advantageous, and practical
tool as it utilizes both the scientific aspect and the modern framework leading
to organizational productivity. In the concluding part of their research, they
explained the crucial and major benefits of statistical techniques as follows
(Karimi Gavareshki et al., 2014):
• Finding the root cause of problems

• Quick solution to qualitative problems
• Augmenting customer satisfaction
• Attaining sustainability and capability in quality control processes
• A profitable tool for continuous improvement
• Creating awareness of qualitative situations, observation, and follow-up
• Creating data from quality management process
• Sustainable development of quality
• Supporting regular quality measurements and eliminating previous
problems
• Developing existing products or processes
• Standardization and verification of all processes
In the aforementioned research, for the strategic issues related to ISO9001, at least
ten key indices are defined, and for these ten indices, ten effective statistical tech-
niques are considered as input variables. This forms the main basis in statistical
analyses for both the working procedures of the Defense Industries Organization
(DIO) and the performance of the Maham Group (MG) in Iran. The detailed func-
tional model is presented as a final result of this study in Table 1.1.
In another research project, the generalized application of reliability concepts to
outsourced supply chain networks was investigated. The authors introduced a new
model in their research dealing with manufacturing lines with reworking and mul-
tiple parallel approaches, the results of which can be generalized to outsourced sup-
ply networks. Further, the results of this study, intending to ensure the optimized
arrangement of outsourced supply chain networks, show the technique can be used
to create a strong decision-making process for high-productivity manufacturing
(Abbasi and Rostamkhani, 2014).
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practised some new chants and anthems which my mother
had got in a parcel from London.
For my Uncle Charles and Aunt Jem still continued their

kindness toward us, though they were a little vexed that my
mother should have refused their offer, and only a few days
before we had received from them a great parcel containing
books, music, tea and coffee and chocolate, and I know not
what pretty trinkets and laces for me.
Then, when we were in rather a better frame, my

mother talked to us in her gentle, serious way of those
consolations which were so dear to her own heart, and of
that inward experience of the presence and the love of the
dear Lord which was able to support and console under all
trials. Rosamond drank in the discourse like water, but I
could see that Meg was impatient under it.
The truth was that her religion at that time was all
outward—a matter of forms and ceremonies, of fasts and
feasts. She made a merit of always using the right collect
on the right day, and never reading the Psalms but in their
appointed order; but to the spiritual treasures concealed in
those Psalms and collects, her eyes were not at that time
opened. This she has since told me herself.
That evening Andrew came down to our house and had

a long audience with my mother. I did not see him, but
maman told me the substance of the conversation. He
wished to renew the engagement, and have things placed
upon their former footing, but this my mother positively
refused. Andrew begged to see me, and my mother came to
tell me so, but I would not go down.
"I cannot see him now. Perhaps I may after a time, but
at present it is impossible. Tell him that I agree to all you
have said, but I cannot see him."
"I do not myself think it best," said my mother. "Let

matters rest for the present."
So Andrew went away and I did not see him.
Looking back at this time, I must say I think I behaved

pretty well. I was as nearly broken-hearted as any poor girl
ever was, but I strove against my sorrow, and tried in every
way to keep myself occupied that I need not have time to
brood. I had very bitter thoughts of Andrew, of his family,
and even of Providence itself, but I did strive against them.
I went to my school, and to Margaret's also twice in the
week, for she could not quite manage the knitting, though
she was improving. I read to poor Lois, and to an old blind
sailor who lived in one of the cottages, and in every way
strove to keep my thoughts occupied. My mother was all
judicious kindness, knowing just when to help and when to
let me alone; but with all my efforts and helps, I passed
many sad hours.
I used to go constantly to church, and found comfort

therein; but oh, how I wished for one of our old pastors, to
whom I might open any heart! Mr. Dobson made a
conscience of having daily prayers in the church, and of
reading one sermon of a Sunday; but aside from that, he
gave no more heed to his parish than he did to—the moon,
I was going to say; but indeed he took much more interest
in the moon than he did in his next door neighbors. He was
wrapped up in his studies—chemistry, or rather alchemy, as
I fancy, astronomy, and physics. He was looked upon with
the greatest awe by the country people, as one who had
powers over the unseen world, and I doubt not he himself
fully believed in these powers.
Before the wedding we had another guest—none other
than our cousin Lord Stanton, from Stanton Court, in
Devonshire. We had the first news of his approach from a
riding servant whom he sent on before him. My mother, of
course, at once sent up word to the great house, and
presently we were surprised by a visit from my aunt, who
came down to hear further particulars, and to ask advice as
to how she should receive the great man. She came in and
greeted any mother and me just as if nothing had
happened, for she was always one of those people who
forget their own hard words as soon as they are spoken,
and wonder that any one else should remember them.
"Well, and so my lord is really going to honor us with a

visit," said she, when she had praised my work and admired
the cosiness of the house. "'Tis an honor, no doubt, but one
I would dispense with just now that I have so much on my
hands."
"I believe my lord intends to lodge here," said my

mother. "I gathered as much from his letter."
"Here!" said my aunt, staring, as was her way. "Why,

how will you put him up or entertain him or his retinue?"
"As to putting him up, we have plenty of spare

chambers, and, thanks to your kindness, abundance of linen
and the like. As to entertainment, he will be content, I dare
say, to fare as we do. As to his retinue, he has with him but
two men servants, who will lodge in the cottage."
"Well, I don't envy you your trouble," said my aunt. "I

am sure you are welcome. Will he stay to the wedding,
think you?"
"I dare say he will, if he is asked," replied my another.

"He was always a well-natured gentleman."
"Now if you would only let Vevette be married at the
same time, what a fine wedding we should have! She is
young, to be sure, but—" and here she stopped, arrested by
something in my mother's face.
"Have you already forgotten, sister Corbet, how you

said before your whole family that it was an ill day when my
daughter darkened your doors—how you declared that she
would ruin your son as she had ruined your daughter?"
asked my mother.
"But I was angry then," answered my aunt. "I did not

mean half I said. Sure you won't break off with my poor son
on that account. Why, he loves Vevette as the apple of his
eye."
"He took a strange way to show it, I must needs say,"

returned my mother. "No, Amy, for the present any
engagement between them is at an end. Should he wish to
renew his suit when he returns, he can do so, but meantime
my daughter is quite at liberty."
My aunt remonstrated, and even cried, but my mother

was firm, and when my aunt appealed to me, I seconded
her.
"Well, well, I suppose there is no use in saying more,"

said my aunt, wiping her eyes. "Let us hope all will yet turn
out well. I only wish my Betty were half as docile as
Vevette, though I can't think it was right; however, we will
let bygones be bygones."
And she began asking my mother's advice about certain

details of the wedding—advice which she gave very readily,
for she had no mind to keep up a quarrel.
"And you won't tell my lord of all poor Betty's
misbehavior, will you?" said my aunt as she rose to go. "It
would be such a disadvantage to her."
"Certainly not; why should I?" returned my mother. "I

have no wish to injure Betty, and I am not given to
spreading tales of scandal, whether true or false."
"I am sure that is true, and I only wish my tongue were

as well governed as yours. And you won't mention the
matter to my lord?"
My mother promised again, and my aunt went away

content.
I may as well say that my lord had not been an hour in

our house before she had told him the whole story herself.
My lord came that evening and took up his abode with

us. He was a fine, courtly gentleman, with something about
him that reminded me of my father, though he was much
older, and was indeed an old man. He greeted my mother in
brotherly fashion, and kissed me on both cheeks, with a
compliment to my good looks, such as old gentlemen give
to young ladies as a matter of course. He expressed himself
as delighted with the house and his accommodations, and
we found him a most agreeable guest.
He had come mostly upon business with my mother,

concerning the estate I have mentioned. It seems this
estate lay like a wedge between two farms of his own, and
he wished to make some sort of exchange with my mother;
but as he would not have her act in the dark, he brought
my mother and myself an invitation, warmly seconded by a
most kind note from my lady, to make him a visit at
Stanton Court, which invitation my mother, after some
consideration, accepted.
She thought the change would be good for me, and I
believe also she wished to make friends for me in my lord's
family. My lord also brought us some three hundred pounds
in ready money, which was a very welcome supply.
Meg and Rosamond were in despair at our going away.

My aunt alternately rejoiced in our good fortune and
lamented my obstinacy in not accommodating matters with
Andrew—an obstinacy which both she and Betty laid to the
account of our increased riches, which had as much to do
with it as the flight of the birds. Betty was quite herself
again, demure and graceful, satisfied with herself and her
lover. She fished hard for an invitation to Stanton for herself
and Mr. Lovel, but without success.
"No, I will not have them," was my lord's comment to

my mother. "He is a fool, and she is, above all others, the
kind of girl I hate—so sly and silky. The others are nice
maids enough, but I will have none of Betty."
However, he made Betty a present, and was very

agreeable at the wedding, which we all attended. I would
have given a great deal to stay away, but my pride would
not let me: so I went.
All went off very well, only that Mr. Dobson, in his
absent-mindedness, said in the ceremony, "That which God
hath put asunder, let no man join together," which
methought was an ill omen. But, indeed, it was but an ill-
omened affair from first to last. Betty looked very
handsome I must say, and so did her bridegroom.
Rosamond was glum and Margaret ill at case, while Andrew
was cold, black, and stiff as one of the stone pillars out on
the moor. My aunt, on the contrary, was as easy and as
much pleased as if everything had come about in the best
manner possible. But for her and for my lord, who exerted
himself in the most amiable way, it would have been a sour
wedding-party.
The next day Andrew again came to see my mother,

and to beg a renewal of the engagement. He had talked
with Mr. Lovel, now that they were upon more friendly
terms, and Mr. Level had quite exculpated me from any
knowledge of or part in his affairs and Betty's, saying with
his easy laugh that he had only confirmed Betty's words
because he would not see the lady he loved put down.
Andrew was most earnest with my mother to overlook his
past conduct, which he now confessed to be faulty, and to
let him begin again.
"No, my fair son," said maman; "it would not be best. I

can never forget what we owe you and yours; but my
gratitude must be shown in some other way than by giving
you my child under present circumstances. She is not to be
thrown away and picked up again like a toy, to be cast down
again the moment you see or fancy a flaw in her. You say
this is your last voyage. When you return, if Vevette is still
free and you choose to make your addresses to her, well
and good, but for the present matters must remain as they
are."
Then Andrew begged my lord's intercession, but my

lord, when he heard the story, declared my mother was
right, and that he would do the same in her place.
"What! Would you see the lady you loved so accused,

and never so much as take her part—never say a word for
her? I vow and declare, I like Lovel's way the better of the
two. No, no, wait, and learn the worth of a fine young lady."
Then Andrew watched and met me on my way home

from the school, and pleaded his own cause. But maman
had laid her commands upon me, and I was bound to obey
them. I did not deny that I loved him, and he would have
drawn from me a promise not to marry any one else.
"I cannot give such a promise," said I. "It would be the

same as an engagement, which my mother has forbidden;
but I am quite sure I shall never wish to wed any one."
"So you say now; but how will it be when you are
among the gallants of Stanton Court?" said Andrew.
"Confess, now; has not the prospect of shining there some
share in your decision?"
"Why, there it is again!" I returned. "You beg my pardon

for one false suspicion, and the very next moment you
begin on another. You cannot trust me, and how should I
ever trust you? If we were to be married before you go
away, you would always be wondering whether I were not
somehow wronging you. No, no, Andrew. Let things be as
they are at present. It is the best way, though it is hard."
And with that I fell to weeping, and he to try to comfort

me alternately with accusing himself of all the meanness in
the world, and with having thrown away his happiness and
mine; so that at the last I was fain to turn comforter myself.
At last we agreed to abide by my mother's decision. We
exchanged gifts: Andrew gave me his seal ring which he
had had cut at Jerusalem with the Hebrew word Mitspah—
"For he said, 'The Lord watch between thee and me

when we are absent one from the other,'" said he solemnly;
and surely the prayer was heard.
I gave him a little gold locket I had always worn, with

the gold chain which sustained it, and he put it round his
neck, saying it should never leave him. Indeed he wears it
to this day.
For two or three days we were very busy arranging for
our departure. My mother had insisted on giving full value
for the house and land, which my lord approved as a good
investment, and—what I think made Andrew feel more than
ever what he had done—on paying for the horses and cows
he had provided for us. Dinah was to go with us as waiting-
woman. Jeanne and Simon were to live in the house, take
care of it and the garden, and have all in readiness for our
return. We looked forward at that time to living at the Well
House for many years, my mother's health being to all
appearance quite restored, and Aunt Amy very desirous of
having us for neighbors. She did truly love both my mother
and me in her way, and she had sense enough to value
what my mother was doing for Meg and Rosamond.
All was done at last, and we bade farewell with all the
kindness in the world. Betty was not there, having gone
with her husband to Allinstree. We set out in pleasant
weather, and arrived safely at our journey's end.
CHAPTER XV.
STANTON COURT.
STANTON COURT was and is a magnificent pile of

building. The oldest part, a great grim tower, was built
about the time of the Conqueror—or such, at least, is the
family tradition—but the main building, and that which gives
character to the whole, belongs to the early days of
Elizabeth. The fact that the same material—a warmly tinted
red stone—is used throughout gives a kind of unity to the
whole. The gardens have always been very fine, being
enriched, like ours at Tre Madoc, with all sorts of exotic
trees and plants, brought home from foreign parts by those
wandering Corbets. There is also an orangery and green-
house, which at that time had been but lately erected, and
was a special hobby of my lady's.
There was a good deal of company staying in the house,

for my lord was fond of society, and made his two step-
daughters an excuse for filling his house with young men.
Martha, the elder, was already engaged, and was to be
married before long. We were warmly welcomed by my
lady, a kind and motherly woman, and by Theo, her second
daughter. Mrs. Martha was just decently civil, and that was
all. She looked at every one as if she were mentally taking
their measure. I took a dislike to her from the first moment
I ever saw her, and I have never seen occasion to change
my mind.
We had a delightful apartment assigned to us—a large,

airy room, with an adjacent sitting-room, all prettily fitted
up, for my mother, and a turret-room near by for me. My
lady made an excuse for giving me so small a lodging,
saying that some of the bedrooms were being refitted in
preparation for her daughter's marriage.
"Pray make no excuses," said my mother. "I venture to

say this is just the sort of room my daughter would
choose."
"Yes, indeed," I added, as my lady turned to me; "I love

a turret-room above all things."
"Then we are all suited," said my lady kindly; "but you

are not looking quite well, sweetheart."
I assured her that I was well and only tired with my

journey, and so with more kind words, she left us to
ourselves.
We unpacked our mails and dressed ourselves, and then

at the summons of a waiting-gentlewoman, we descended
to the withdrawing-room, my mother having first
recommended Dinah to the attention of this same
gentlewoman, who said she would show her to the room of
Mrs. Carey, the housekeeper.
"And is Mrs. Carey still living?" asked my mother. "She

must be very old."
"She is so, madame," answered the waiting-damsel;

"but she is still hale and active, and does all the work my
lady will allow. This way, madame, if you please."
She conducted us to the open door of my lady's
withdrawing-room, which was very splendidly fitted up—
quite as fine as anything I had seen in London—and now
filled with company. We were led into the room by my lord
himself, who espied us in a moment, and placed in seats of
honor. Indeed, both he and my lady seemed to think they
could not show my mother too much respect.
A great many people were presented to us, among

them Mrs. Martha's servant Captain Bernard, a fine young
gentleman, with a good, serious, kindly face. The young
ladies presently made their appearance, to be chid by their
mother for their delay, to which Mrs. Theo returned a
smiling excuse, and Mrs. Martha none at all.
There were several ladies and gentlemen present from

the neighborhood, some of whom my mother had formerly
known, and we were for a while quite the centre of
attraction, a condition of things which did not seem to
please Mrs. Martha at all, to judge by her black looks. She
would hardly even give a civil answer to poor Captain
Bernard when he addressed her, and as I looked at her, I
wondered what he could have seen in her to wish to make
her his wife. But I found out long ago that there is no use in
trying to account for such matters.
Mrs. Theo was pleased with everything and everybody,

herself included. She was uncommonly pretty, and dressed
herself with great taste. She was not very deep, but what
there was of her was good and sweet, and she was always
kind, even to self-sacrifice when needful. She did not care
for study, and had no special tastes for anything but
embroidery, in which, indeed, she excelled any person I
ever saw. We were soon the best of friends, and have
always remained so.
The evening passed pleasantly enough, what with music
and conversation, cards and tables for the elders, and a
little dance among the young folks. I had never learned any
dances except those of the peasant folks in Normandy, and
at present I was in no spirits for any such amusement, but I
exerted myself to sing and play, and though a good deal
confused, I believe I acquitted myself fairly.
When we returned to our room, we found Mrs. Dinah

well pleased with the manner in which she had been treated
by Mrs. Carey, but full of righteous indignation at the light
conduct of the gentlemen's gentlemen, one of whom, it
seems, had actually offered to kiss her. My mother soothed
and comforted her, and told her she had better sit to our
room or else with Mrs. Carey, and then she would be out of
the way of the men servants.
"Oh, they are not all alike, madame," answered Dinah

quickly. "There is the steward, Mr. Matteson, who is as
sober and well conducted a man as any one would wish to
see."
"Well, well, I am glad there is one exception to the

rule," said my mother. "Now we will have our reading and
go quickly to rest, for I am very tired, and my head is quite
in a whirl. It is long since I have spent an evening."
For two or three days my mother was quite unwell, and

I was of course with her most of the time, though I went
out to walk two or three times with Mrs. Theo, who also
showed me the house and pictures, which were very fine.
As to Mrs. Martini, she never troubled herself about me in
any way, and that was all I asked of her.
"You must not mind Martha," said Theo to me one day,

when she had very shortly declined an invitation to walk
with us. "She goes on her own way for all any one else, and
she is always busy."
"What does she do?" I asked.
"Oh, she reads a great deal, especially in divinity, and

she sews for the poor and visits them very often. She does
twice as much for them as I do, and yet I don't know how it
is, they are always glad to see mother and me, and they do
not seem ever pleased to see her. I think sometimes they
do not like so much advice. Do you not think that may be
it?" she asked, raising her pretty eyebrows, and looking at
me reflectively.
"Perhaps so," said I, with a smile, for I was much

amused. "Then you do not give them advice?"
"I, Cousin Vevette?" with an air of great astonishment.

"How could I do that? I do not know half as much as they
do. Why, what advice could I give those poor women about
their households and their children, when I never brought
up a child or cooked a dinner in all my life? I do sometimes
just hint to them about washing a babe's face clean or
mending its hose, but just in a pleasant talking kind of way,
you know. And I must say they are usually ready to listen.
But I never could go into their houses when they are at
meals and remark upon their waste in eating fresh butter,
or anything like that. Why, I should not like it myself, would
you?"
"Decidedly not!" I answered. "But I think it is pleasant

to drop into cottages and talk with the women when they
are at leisure, and play with the babes, don't you?"
"Oh, yes, and to make christening frocks for them, and

the like. Come, we will go and see the old folks at the
almshouses."
We spent three or four weeks very pleasantly at Stanton
Court. My lord was fond of music, and took much pleasure
in our singing and playing. My mother excused herself from
returning visits, as her health was so delicate, but she was
always in the parlor of an evening, to help my lady in
entertaining her guests. I soon came to enjoy these
evenings very much, nor was I at all averse to the
attentions I received from my lord's young visitors. I had
one letter from Andrew, written from Plymouth before he
sailed. He told me he had hoped to bid me farewell in
person, but that had been made impossible. His ship was to
go up to Chatham, and he would write from thence so soon
as he knew his destination; but he believed that he should
go to the West and not to the East Indies after all.
I shed many tears over this letter, which was as kind

and tender as possible, and as my lord was sending post to
London, I answered it with my mother's permission, and
sent Andrew a watch-chain which I had learned to make
from gold cord. Long afterward I heard that he had written
again, but I never received the letter.
My mother concluded her business with my lord, greatly

to the satisfaction, and I believe to the advantage of both
parties, since the property she took in exchange was more
immediately productive, and more convenient for a woman
to hold. One morning after a long private conference with
our host and hostess, my mother told me that she had
made Lord Stanton my guardian in case of her dying before
I was settled in life.
"Dear maman, do not speak of dying," said I. "You are

looking so well."
"And I am well—better than I ever expected to be," she

answered me; "but no one knows what may happen, and I
shall not die the sooner for having settled my affairs. My
lord and lady are good people, and will do well by you."
I was well content with the arrangement, for I liked

both my lord and my lady. The latter was one of the most
evenly good women I ever saw. She was not one who ever
made great demonstrations of affection even to her own
children, but she was almost always the same. As Dinah
said, one always knew where to have her.
My lord was somewhat choleric, and had a knack of

exasperating himself over trifles which sometimes made
one ashamed for him; but still he was a fine, good-natured
gentleman, who would have died before he would do a
mean or cruel action, and his manners were perfect,
specially to women. I never saw him speak even to a maid
servant without lifting his hat. He was greatly annoyed by
the freedom taken by some of his young gentlemen visitors
with the village maids and the servants; and when one of
these fine sparks came to complain of a ducking in the sea
which he got from one of the Lees "down to Cove" for
making too free with his young wife, my lord said bluntly it
served him right, and he would have done the same if he
had been there. The youth blustered, and I believe would
have challenged my lord, but thought better of it and took
himself away.
But a great sorrow was hanging over my head, though I

never suspected it. My mother's health had wonderfully
improved of late, and there seemed no reason why she
should not live out the usual term of years. She told me one
evening that she had not felt so well in all respects since
she was a young girl.
"It is not only in bodily health," said she, "but I am

sensible of a great improvement in my spirits—not elation
exactly, but a kind of joyfulness as if I were in certain
expectation of good news, and I constantly dream of your
father and of our old home in France which I have never
done before."
I saw Mrs. Dinah shake her head and look grave upon
this, but I knew she had her full share of Cornish
superstitions. I myself thought the improvement in my
mother's health and spirits arose from the change of air and
scene, and from the enjoyment of cheerful company. I little
thought what was that joyful news she was soon to hear—
joyful to her, but sad beyond conception to me.
The very next morning, as I was finishing dressing,

Dinah came to me, quite calm as usual, but pale as ashes.
"Will you come to your mother at once?" said she. "She

is very ill."
I did not need a second summons. My mother lay in her

bed, her eyes closed, breathing in soft sighs, and only at
long intervals. My lady was already with her, applying salts
to her nose and strong essences to her forehead, while old
Mrs. Carey was rubbing the soles of her feet. They made
way for me with looks of solemn compassion. Even then I
was not alarmed.
"It is a fainting fit," said I. "She used to have them in

France."
I bent over and kissed her, calling upon her name. She
opened her eyes with a look of unutterable tenderness, and
her lips moved. Then she drew one more sigh and all was
still.
"Come away, my dear child," said my lady, disengaging

my hand from my mother's and taking it in her own. "Your
dear mother is at rest."
Even then I could not believe it, and I would have them
try again and again to revive her, but soon the deathly chill
of the hand and brow and the white lips convinced even me,
and I suffered my lady to lead me away.
They were all very kind. My lady took me to her

dressing-room, and strove to win me to tears, for I was at
first like one stunned. At last Theo's tearful caresses opened
the flood-gates, and I wept myself into quietness. My lady
left me to myself as much as was good for me, and no
more.
Mr. Penrose, the rector, came and prayed with me, and
as I was able to bear it, he talked with me in a gentle and
consoling way, which did me all the good in the world. He
was a dry-looking, quiet elderly man, a native of Cornwall,
and had remained in his parish through all the troubles and
changes of the civil wars. My lord was greatly attached to
him, though he thought him needlessly strict in some
matters. He was a fine scholar, and the best preacher I had
heard since I left France.
My mother was buried in the churchyard of the old

priory church among our ancestors for many generations. It
was a lovely place, all green and fair with grass and great
trees, and luxuriant ivy mantling the old ruins. Oh, how I
wept as I thought of my father's dishonored grave. How I
wished they could have slept together! But it was an idle
wish. What signifies what distance divides our worn-out
bodies, if only our better part—our real selves—are resting
together in the Paradise of God?
Of course word was sent to the friends at Tre Madoc,

and I received a most kind letter from my aunt, asking me
to make her house my home. The invitation was warmly
seconded by the girls, but my lord and lady would have me
stay with them for the present, and indeed it was my own
desire. I did not feel that I could return to Tre Madoc where
all was so changed, nor, knowing my aunt as I did, could I
wish to reside in her family, specially as matters were so
altered between Andrew and me. I wrote as kindly as I
could, specially recommending to my aunt's care our old
friends Jeanne and Simon. One good reason is as good as a
hundred, and I gave no other for remaining where I was
than the wish of my guardian.
I spent the autumn and winter quietly enough at

Stanton Court. At first, of course, I kept myself quite in
retirement, but by degrees I began once more to mix with
the rest of the family, and to take my share in what was
going on. My aunt would have me take music lessons of a
gentleman in Biddeford, who came to our house every week
for that purpose, and at last took up his residence there
altogether. He improved me very much in music, both
singing and playing, and I also learned some arithmetic of
him, especially such as relates to the keeping of accounts—
a knowledge I have since found very useful.
There was a school at Stanton Court, known as Lady

Rosamond's school, which had been endowed by some
former Lady Stanton out of the revenues of the suppressed
priory. This school had been closed for some time, and the
house had fallen into disrepair, but Mr. Penrose was very
desirous of having it opened again, and he had at last
persuaded my lord to put the house in order and to settle a
school-mistress once more. This last was more easily said
than done, since no one could be found who came up to Mr.
Penrose's ideas of what was desirable. At last I was the
means of supplying the need, though at a considerable
sacrifice to myself. My lady was one day admiring some
work of Dinah's, and saying what a treasure she was.
"Oh, my lady, why would she not make a good mistress

for the new school?" I exclaimed, struck with a sudden
thought.
My lady looked surprised, but by no means displeased.
"I believe that is a bright thought," said she. "But hath

Dinah the needful knowledge?"
"She can read and write beautifully," said I, "and she

hath some knowledge of figures. There is no sort of work
she does not understand, and she is very apt to teach."
"But can you spare her?" asked my lady.
"I shall not like to spare her, that is the truth, my lady;
but if it is for the good of the school, I will not be selfish," I
replied. "I think the place is as well fitted for her as she is
for it, and I believe it will please her well to have a home of
her own."
"Well, I will mention the matter to my lord, and do you

talk it over with Mr. Penrose, and we will see what is to be
done," said my lady. "I shall have to depend upon you a
good deal in this business of the school, Vevette. You know
I am no great walker. Theo has no turn for such work, and I
know not how it is—" and she sighed—"Martha does
manage so to set every one against her."
"I am sure I shall like the work," I said. "Suppose I go

down directly and consult with Mr. and Mrs. Penrose?"
"Do so if you will, and ask them to come to supper to-

night."

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Quality Engineering Techniques-An

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Robust Quality: Powerful Integration of Data Science

Phenomenology and the Creative Process 1st Edition

The Creative Process Stories from the Arts and Sciences

Quality in Business Process Modeling 1st Edition John

Strategies and Techniques for Quality and Flexibility

Advanced Machining Processes: Innovative Modeling

Continuous Improvement, Probability, and Statistics:

Innovative Food Processing Technologies Extraction

and by CRC Press

© 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Rostamkhani, Ramin, author. | Karbasian, Mahdi, author.

ISBN: 978-0-367-90381-7 (hbk)

Chapter 1 A Review of the Basic Concepts...........................................................1

Chapter 2 Applied Methodology..........................................................................25

2.6 Data Collection Reliability....................................................... 27

Chapter 3 Proposed Model in Triple Organizational Processes.......................... 29

Chapter 4 Results of Implementing the Model.................................................... 65

4.7 Impacts of Implementing the Model in Industrial

Chapter 5 Quality Engineering Techniques from Past to Future........................ 83

• How can we define the main specifications of a productive and sustainable

Ramin Rostamkhani and Mahdi Karbasian

Mahdi Karbasian has a Ph.D. in Industrial Engineering.

1.2 THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH IN QET

1.2.1 The History of Research in Statistical Techniques

Statistical Techniques Non-statistical Techniques

Descriptive Statistics Quality Function Deployment (QFD)

Design of Experiments (DOE) Value Engineering (VE)

Statistical Process Control (SPC) Value Stream Mapping (VSM)

Statistical Hypothesis Tests Work Flow Analysis (WFA)

Process Capability Analysis Cost of Quality (COQ)

Statistical Tolerances Failure Mode Effects Analysis (FMEA)

Time Series Analysis Designing Failure Mode Effects Analysis (DFMEA)

Regression Analysis Production Failure Mode Effects Analysis (PFMEA)

FIGURE 1.1 QET; statistical and non-statistical techniques.

QUALITY ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES

LEAN TOOLS PLANNING TOOLS ANALYTHICAL TOOLS

Value Stream Mapping Matrix Diagrams SPC

5S Responsibility Matrix Pareto Diagrams

Poka Yoke Cause & Effect Diagrams

Take Time Histograms

Kaizen Scatter Diagrams

Work Flow Analysis Process Flow Charting

CREATIVITY AND DESIGN & DEVELOPMENT

Brain Storming Statistical Process Control FMEA

Nominal Group Trend Charts DFMEA

Practical Technique Histograms Design of Experiments

Affinity Diagram Gantt Charts / Time Lines Voice of the Customer

FIGURE 1.2 QET.

• Describing the delivery and response times (e.g., services)

1.2.1.2 Design and Analysis of Experiments

the design and development of a product or process to control or improve an exist-

1.2.1.3 Statistical Hypothesis Tests

• Does the average (or standard deviation) of a community show a certain

• Does the distribution of a population show a normal curve?

1.2 THE HISTORY OF RESEARCH IN QET

1.2.1 The History of Research in Statistical Techniques

1.2.1.2 Design and Analysis of Experiments

1.2.1.3 Statistical Hypothesis Tests

1.2.1.4 Process Capability Analysis

1.2.1.9 Statistical Process Control Charts

1.2.1.11 Time Series Analysis