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SUPPLY
CHAIN CASES
Leading Authors,
Research Themes
and Future Direction
Olli-Pekka Hilmola
Supply Chain Cases
Olli-Pekka Hilmola
The material and research process of this book dates back many years, to
2002–2003, when I was involved in arranging the Course in Case Study
Research in Logistics—Ph.D. Workshop: this took place in Turku, Finland,
and there were over forty participants from all over Scandinavia and the
Baltic States. I give sincere thanks to my MSc students for preparing the
material (article analysis) as well as doctorate students for analysing
the articles further. The number of articles was much smaller then than in
the analysis of this book reaching to the year 2015, with only fifty or so to
study (which illustrates clearly happened growth of supply chain case stud-
ies). Metrics used in the analysis were more or less the same as those that
this book uses (with the exception of citations, which were not used much
as few were available). However, the idea of following up this research was
left in my mind, although for a while I didn’t have the inclination to start
the process.
As supervision tasks, projects, research visits, reviews and evaluations
continued over the years, I began to understand how important a book
based on supply chain case studies could be. Northern Europe was one of
the first places where the use of case studies in empirical data gathering
was initiated, and I knew that there was a lot of material to share (readers
may note that many influential authors referred to here represent institu-
tions in Sweden, Finland and Denmark).
By the time 2016 arrived, I was convinced that this study could become
a book. However, even just looking at the early era data was a major task,
with a total of 468 articles to consider. Without the encouragement and
support of Palgrave Macmillan, reviewers and colleagues, this work would
v
vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
not have been completed. Analysing 1699 articles is not a negligible task.
Thank you for your time, patience and support.
Finally, I should like to offer sincere thanks to my family for their sup-
port, and their understanding of the long hours I have spent on this project.
Family obligations as work progressed delayed my research, but they gave
me valuable time to think about the next steps I needed to take. There is
always more to life than research.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
2 Data-Gathering Methods 7
3 Descriptive Analysis 13
vii
viii Contents
10 Conclusions 97
Index 101
List of Figures
Fig. 2.1 Most cited works (fifty) in this research work sample based on
Publish or Perish (x-axis; retrieved 22 November 2016) and
their corresponding Scopus citations (y-axis; retrieved 2 January
2017). These articles were published in 1995–2008 10
Fig. 3.1 Annual number of published supply chain research manuscripts
using the case study approach in the period 1995–2015 14
Fig. 3.2 Annual average number of cases in supply chain studies during
1995–201515
Fig. 3.3 Average number of references in supply chain manuscripts
during 1995–2015 (data excludes Elsevier journals from 2009
onwards)16
Fig. 3.4 Split between qualitative, quantitative and both research
approaches in supply chain manuscripts during 1995–2015
(data excludes Elsevier journals from 2009 onwards) 17
Fig. 4.1 Average number of citations (Publish or Perish, 22 November
2016) per published manuscript during different years 24
Fig. 5.1 Average number of citations per published manuscript during
different years in the entire sample period 1995–2015 44
Fig. 9.1 Tag cloud presenting the most popular words in the titles of
all supply chain case study articles in 1995–2015 86
Fig. 9.2 Tag cloud presenting the most popular words in the titles of
all supply chain case study articles in the early era period of
1995–200886
Fig. 9.3 Tag cloud presenting the most popular words in the titles of
all supply chain case study articles in the after the crisis period
of 2009–2015 87
ix
x List of Figures
Fig. 9.4 Tag cloud presenting the most popular author names of all
supply chain case study articles in in the early era period of
1995–200890
Fig. 9.5 Tag cloud presenting the most popular author names of all
supply chain case study articles in the after the crisis period of
2009–2015 (Word frequency amount in parentheses) 90
Fig. 9.6 Tag cloud presenting the 100 most popular words used in
abstracts within supply chain case study articles in 1995–2008 93
Fig. 9.7 Tag cloud presenting the 100 most popular words used in
abstracts within supply chain case study articles in 2009–2015 94
List of Tables
xi
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
It was during the 1980s that supply chain management was introduced as
a research field and became a vital source of competitiveness, mostly thanks
to increasing large global markets and manufacturing globalization (Oliver
and Webber 1982; Houlihan 1985; Jones and Riley 1985; Stevens 1989).
Supply chains are large strategic entities, and it was argued early on that
they have a significant effect on corporate financial performance; this
concentrated (e.g. Burgess et al. 2006). These key case studies have already
played a far-reaching role in the discipline’s development, and will con-
tinue to do so in the future. Together with the important themes and
approaches taken, this is useful information not only for students and
researchers, but also for industries and governmental or public develop-
ment organizations, allowing them to understand who the leading authors
of supply chain case studies are, and how their themes and topics have
evolved over the years. We should also remember that supply chain man-
agement as a research discipline has started to mature, and its further
development depends on how its roots are understood and utilized
(Giannakis 2012). In recent years green and environmental as well as sus-
tainability issues have taken a leading role within supply chain case studies.
Green issues have even been argued to be an extension and continuum of
the well-known and widely applied lean management approach (Dües
et al. 2013). Typically, companies and other organizations (governments,
associations or universities) react slowly to pending problems, but this is
not necessarily the case when it comes to supply chain management. In
addition, these leading manuscripts and authors help us to learn about
research methods, research procedures, reporting and overall approaches.
A high number of citations is an indicator of a work’s quality, because
authors carefully consider the research publications that they should cite
and the value these earlier publications have for their own research.
In earlier decades, it would have been impossible to complete this book.
It was in the 1990s that scientific journals moved online and publishing
houses established their own services that helped researchers to track down
particular authors from a wide array of publications. Before this, it was
common for researchers to spend time in libraries, reading published jour-
nals in order to learn how a particular discipline was developing. After
online content became commonplace, single journals became less impor-
tant and a branch of study could be followed through the use of keywords
and searches, which allowed researchers to access a large number of jour-
nals almost simultaneously. Online content was one thing, but citation
tracking services were a vital next stage. Early citation studies typically con-
sidered a very limited number of journals and on a limited timescale (e.g.
Kumar and Kwon 2004; Burgess et al. 2006; Ellinger and Chapman 2011).
Nowadays, the impact (in terms of citations) of any study can be evaluated
within a very short space of time. Therefore, in recent years authors such as
Shiau (2011), Giannakis (2012), Deng and Lin (2012) as well as Kubler
et al. (2016) have completed this sort of longitudinal citation analysis
4 O.-P. HILMOLA
either from specific journals (Shiau 2011) or from fields of interest (Deng
and Lin 2012; Giannakis 2012; Kubler et al. 2016). This sort of cross-
journals and publication houses citation analysis is a natural new avenue for
expert systems development.
In the light of these technological changes, the following research
questions are addressed in this work. What research works are seminal, and
high impact, from supply chain case studies? Do there exist leading authors
with a proven track record of in-depth supply chain case studies? How
have leading authors continued to publish in the field and attract citations
over a sustained period? What are the popular themes of the most highly
cited research work? In order to answer these questions, 1699 manuscripts
from two leading publishing houses in the field for the time period
1995–2015 have been collected. Citations of these manuscripts are
matched with publication data. Research reported in this book is seminal
as it examines the field through a two-decade perspective, and analyses
how supply chain research has changed. Examination of only research
work that uses case studies makes the book valuable, as it is practically
oriented and concerns companies within supply chains. This practical per-
spective sustains results and arguments, as decisions and actions imple-
mented by companies have a gradual effect, and new directions are taken
because of business needs, not because of short-term trends.
The research is structured as follows. In Chap. 2 data-gathering meth-
ods of supply chain case study articles in the period 1995–2015 are intro-
duced. In this chapter, the use of a citation tracking service is also justified.
Chapter 3 illustrates the research environment through descriptive analysis
(using key attributes of analysed articles as well as journals). Empirical data
analysis of citations in the early period and of highly cited single manu-
scripts and scholars follows in Chap. 4. It also includes discussion about
leading scholars in supply chain case studies. After the crisis era is analysed
in Chap. 5, leading authors are discussed. As the average number of cases
used in studies has remained stable, in Chap. 6 the most case-rich studies
are elaborated upon. During the research and analysis process, it was
found that supply chain risk management research is sustained well over
time, and gathers a significant number of citations. Therefore, leading risk
management studies are further analysed in Chap. 7. Research methodol-
ogy used in case studies is dealt with in Chap. 8, where key methodologi-
cal references are also introduced. Chapter 9 analyses the content of titles,
authors and abstracts using word clouds. Chapter 10 concludes the study,
and provides avenues for further research in this ever-changing area.
INTRODUCTION 5
References
Banbury, J. G. (1975). Distribution – The final link in electricity-supply chain.
Electronics and Power, 21(13), 773–775.
Burgess, K., Singh, P. J., & Koroglu, S. R. (2006). Supply chain management: A
structured literature review and implications for future research. International
Journal of Operations & Production Management, 26(7), 703–729.
Deng, G.-F., & Lin, W.-T. (2012). Citation analysis and bibliometric approach for
ant colony optimization from 1996 to 2010. Expert Systems with Applications,
39(6), 6229–6237.
Dües, C. M., Tan, K. H., & Lim, M. (2013). Green as the new lean: How to use
lean practices as a catalyst to greening your supply chain. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 40, 93–100.
Ellinger, A. E., & Chapman, K. (2011). Benchmarking leading supply chain man-
agement and logistics strategy journals. International Journal of Logistics
Management, 22(3), 403–419.
Ellram, L. M. (1996). The use of case study method in logistics research. Journal
of Business Logistics, 17(2), 93–138.
Forrester, J. W. (1958). Industrial dynamics – A major breakthrough for decision
makers. Harvard Business Review, 36(4), 37–66.
Giannakis, M. (2012). The intellectual structure of the supply chain management
discipline – A citation and social network analysis. Journal of Enterprise
Information Management, 25(2), 136–169.
Hilmola, O.-P., Hejazi, A., & Ojala, L. (2005). Supply chain management research
using case studies – A literature analysis. International Journal of Integrated
Supply Management, 1(3), 294–311.
Hochrein, S., Muther, M., & Glock, C. H. (2017). Strategy alignment in purchas-
ing and supply management: A systematic literature review and research frame-
work on the performance impact. International Journal of Integrated Supply
Management, 11(1), 44–86.
Houlihan, J. B. (1985). International supply chain management. International
Journal of Physical Distribution and Materials Management, 15(1), 22–38.
Jones, T. C., & Riley, D. W. (1985). Using inventory for competitive advantage
through supply chain management. International Journal of Physical
Distribution and Materials Management, 15(5), 16–26.
Kubler, S., Robert, J., Derigent, W., Voisin, A., & Traon, Y. L. (2016). A state-of
the-art & testbed of fuzzy AHP (FAHP) applications. Expert Systems with
Applications, 65, 398–422.
Kumar, V., & Kwon, I.-W. G. (2004). A pilot study on normalized weighted
approach to citation study. International Journal of Physical Distribution &
Logistics Management, 34(10), 811–826.
6 O.-P. HILMOLA
Data-Gathering Methods
For the sample of 1699 articles concerning supply chain case studies,
research works from two publishers, Emerald Group Publishing and
Elsevier, were searched. These two publishing houses were the main
choices for supply chain research publications during the late 1990s and
early 2000s. Things changed in the mid-2000s, as more publishers rushed
into the market and open access journals became more popular. However,
it should be noted that even today journals from these two publishing
house publish most important work relating to supply chain case studies.
Because of these reasons, this research uses the Publish or Perish service,
which uses the entire web to gather citations through Google Scholar. This
citation approach includes all publications citing the journal article in ques-
tion (e.g. BSc, MSc and PhD theses as well as technical publications of dif-
ferent companies and university working papers), and typically gives a very
rosy and inflated picture. However, for the purposes of this research work it
fits well as the articles are from 1995–2015. Owing to the long time-span
of this analysis, other alternatives rather than Publish or Perish (Google
Scholar) would not have served the study’s purposes, as the first decade is
greatly limited, or completely missing, if other citation services are used.
To give an impression of how accurate Publish or Perish is when com-
pared with Scopus, the fifty most cited research works were also searched
with Scopus. As Fig. 2.1 illustrates, Publish or Perish citation numbers
should be multiplied by 0.386 in order to properly forecast the Scopus
citations of any article in question. The explanation power of Publish and
Perish citation is relatively high, 51.24 %, and the regression model with-
out fixed component in Fig. 2.1 is clearly statistically significant. Of course,
there remain some five research works analysed by Publish and Perish that
are very low valued in Scopus citations (bottom of Fig. 2.1). Three out of
five of these articles were published during 2000, 2001 and 2003, while
two were published in 2006. These most recent articles were published in
a journal that received its Thomson Reuters ISI rank in 2011, and has
probably not been properly included either in this database or in Scopus.
The earlier manuscript citations are easy to understand, as citation systems
started to get their foothold back then.
Ellinger and Chapman (2011) have analysed this citation situation with
data from 2007 and 2008, when a number of important supply chain and
logistics management journals were included in Thomson Reuters
ISI. They concluded that authors receive many more citations in the
Publish or Perish (Google Scholar) service when compared with other
benchmarks, if these citations are scaled to Thomson Reuters ISI database
citations. The situation is similar for editors and editorial board members,
who had more published in non-Thomson Reuters ISI database journals.
So the discipline is getting more mature and identified, but in its early
years it was quite free from scientific metrics and standards.
From all articles a spreadsheet database was formed, consisting of infor-
mation regarding publishing authors, title of the work, journal, volume
and year of publication. Together with this information, the number of
references used in a particular article was stored, together with the number
of cases in each particular study. In addition, abstracts and keywords of all
10 O.-P. HILMOLA
400
350
y = 0.386x
300
R2 = 0.5124
Scopus Citaons
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Publish or Perish Citaons
Fig. 2.1 Most cited works (fifty) in this research work sample based on Publish
or Perish (x-axis; retrieved 22 November 2016) and their corresponding Scopus
citations (y-axis; retrieved 2 January 2017). These articles were published in
1995–2008
studies were included in the database. Each article abstract was read, as
were some vital parts of the main text (mostly concerning case study and
method used). In some cases the entire manuscript was examined. Data-
gathering work took a little over a year to complete, starting in the sum-
mer of 2016 and ending in early autumn 2017. However, it should be
noted that the work did not take months to complete, being undertaken
in available spare time. The analysis phase could not be rushed, as the large
dataset took three months to examine, and this included many tasks, as
well as automated data progressing steps with spreadsheet macros. Pulling
together author information, for example, is not a small task: in some
journals, authors are referred to only with given name initials, in some
with their full names, and sometimes the two styles are mixed. It should
also be noted that some journal names change over the years, and they
may be referred to differently.
DATA-GATHERING METHODS 11
Some faculty members gain more than 10,000 citations. This is rare
but possible in every university (even an ordinary one). Typically
these highly cited persons do not make much noise about their suc-
cess (although amateurs do). However, their citations are easily
greater in number than the rest of the department or even the faculty
combined.
Other more advanced, and also more picky (regarding citation
counts), citation databases can also be used, and sometimes for noth-
ing. Elsevier’s Scopus, for example, can be used to search for people
or institutions. As noted earlier, Scopus and Thomson Reuters ISI
are more restricted in the citations that are taken into account as
appropriate scientific citation, and therefore the number of citations
per person is much lower than in Publish or Perish/Google Scholar
searches. The analysis of results, however, is the same in all of the
citation databases: for example, you can alter results to see publica-
tion numbers by year as well as in terms of citations. In addition,
metrics such as citations per year or citations per paper are provided.
Typically in academia, staff follow an h-index, which reveals how
many of an author’s publications have that number or more cita-
tions. If the h-index is around 10, the author can be considered an
expert in the field (but not necessarily the leading expert). Please
note that Publish or Perish/Google Scholar yields an h-index of 10
rather easily. This means that an author has ten publications, each of
which has ten citations or more.
References
Ellinger, A. E., & Chapman, K. (2011). Benchmarking leading supply chain man-
agement and logistics strategy journals. International Journal of Logistics
Management, 22(3), 403–419.
Hilmola, O.-P., Hejazi, A., & Ojala, L. (2005). Supply chain management research
using case studies – A literature analysis. International Journal of Integrated
Supply Management, 1(3), 294–311.
Yee, C. L., Tan, K. H., & Platts, K. W. (2006). Managing ‘downstream’ supply
network: A process and tool. International Journal of Production Economics,
104, 722–735.
CHAPTER 3
Descriptive Analysis
300
Total
250
200
150
100
50
0
04
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
20
20
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Fig. 3.1 Annual number of published supply chain research manuscripts using
the case study approach in the period 1995–2015
management research have been taken seriously and have become part of
the mainstream research approach; this has taken place over roughly two
decades. Information about the roots of this change is needed, as is infor-
mation about research direction developments during this period. In
physical manufacturing and the supply chain world, emerging markets
have taken a greater role, but also green, environmental and economic
challenges have continued to create a demand in the developed world.
The analysed sample of this research consists of 1699 publications. Out
of these, more than half are single case studies (1066). However, if annual
averages of case studies used in publications are presented, it shows clearly
that at the beginning a single case study was average and the norm, but
this changed to between three and four after the first three years (see
Fig. 3.2). The result is ‘average’, being skewed by some very large-scale
case studies with more than ten companies involved. This is especially
apparent during 2001, when one article included sixty-eight cases.
Similarly, during 1997 and 1998 the averages are high owing to the low
number of articles published, and some of these containing nearly ten case
studies. It should be noted that today the median amount is still typically
one case study per research manuscript. If median amounts are examined
with an annual perspective, it may be noted that in 2006 and 2008 the
DESCRIPTIVE ANALYSIS 15
0
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
09
10
11
12
13
14
15
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Fig. 3.2 Annual average number of cases in supply chain studies during
1995–2015
median number of case studies per article was two, while it was one in
2007 as well as during the entire period of 2000–2005. Lately, the num-
ber of cases has reverted to the lower number found in earlier days: after
2009 the median has constantly remained at one. It is somewhat alarming
that the annual average has also started to decline as in 2011 the average
of more than three cases had declined in two years to around 2.5 cases.
However, some sort of recovery took place in 2015.
It may be concluded that the number of case studies has increased to
the level of 2.5–3.5, but this increase has not been particularly dramatic,
and took place immediately after the early years. Currently, the number of
cases shows maturity or even decline.
The scientific standard of manuscripts in supply chain case studies has
continuously increased, if the number of references used in the text is
some sort of measure of this (Fig. 3.3). As is well known, case studies are
practically oriented, and therefore the role of literature, at least in the early
years of the analysed sample, was really low. It was typical for articles only
to have fifteen to twenty references. However, this has changed. In the last
observation year, 2015, the average number of references was above sixty
(see Fig. 3.3). This is still not a very large number, but shows that research
16 O.-P. HILMOLA
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
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05
06
07
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19
19
19
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
20
Fig. 3.3 Average number of references in supply chain manuscripts during
1995–2015 (data excludes Elsevier journals from 2009 onwards)
Fig. 3.4 Split between qualitative, quantitative and both research approaches in
supply chain manuscripts during 1995–2015 (data excludes Elsevier journals from
2009 onwards)
are diverse, but at the same time they are concentrated in volume terms. It
should be highlighted here that some of the journals have changed their
names and/or have been integrated into other journals during the sample
time period of 1995–2015). For example, the European Journal of
Purchasing & Supply Management is now the Journal of Purchasing and
Supply Management, while Logistics Information Management is now
Journal of Enterprise Information Management. This is taken into account
in Table 3.1.
In order to observe the concentration of publication activity in more
detail, further examination of Table 3.1 is useful. The top twelve journals
have published roughly half of the supply chain case studies in the observa-
tion period (50.0 %). The top thirty-one journals listed in Table 3.1 (14.5 %
of the overall journal count) have published 72.2 % of the articles from
research works. The average number of citations in each published article
in each journal is not so straightforward to quantify, with volume automati-
cally bringing higher citations. Differences between journals exist, even in
the higher volume group, and interestingly the most productive publisher
in the field has not attracted particularly exceptional citation numbers (just
slightly higher than the average citation number in the journals listed in
Table 3.1). Some journals show a remarkable performance in the average
number of citations per manuscript, but these typically publish only a few
extremely popular articles. The best example is the Journal of Operations
Management, which has an average citation number of above 220, yet it is
extremely difficult to get supply chain case studies published by this maga-
zine: in the entire period under study only twelve articles were published.
An examination of the development of Thomson Reuters ISI impact
index of supply chain case study publishing journals is also worthwhile. In
the six most actively publishing journals, the impact factors are nowadays
typically between two and four. Either all top six publishing journals have
had a very low impact factor during the early years of the research sample
period, or alternatively their impact factor has increased after the mid-
2000s, or even later (for a similar interpretation, see Ellinger and Chapman
2011). This reveals that journals nowadays publish more mainstream sci-
ence than do insignificant alternative publishing forums. However, a
change in terms of higher impact has taken place gradually and is improv-
ing nearly annually. Current high impact articles in this study have also
played an important role, as the earlier two years are included in the impact
factor calculations (based on when the impact is finally granted), and the
preceding evaluation period is a few years before the actual impact is given.
Another random document with
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Ich habe den Beschreibungen J e n t i n k s (l. c. 201) wenig
hinzuzufügen. Der Stand und die Zahl der Haarwirbel variiren
ausserordentlich, nicht e i n Exemplar von den 6 des Museums
stimmt darin mit den Leidener überein, und keines gleicht dem
andern; es sind welche mit nur e i n e m Wirbel vorhanden. Der helle
Fleck unter dem Auge fehlt den Dresdner Weibchen nicht — es sind
auch manchmal 2 Flecke vorhanden —, ebensowenig wie die hellen
Binden an der Kehle und der Wamme. Der abgebildete Stier (grosse
stehende Figur Taf. VII) ist heller gefärbt als die Kühe. Dr.
S c h a d e n b e r g schrieb mir, dass die Tamaraos dieselbe Farbe
hätten wie die Carabaos. Das Exemplar des Berliner Museums ist
nach Dr. H e l l e r s Beobachtung länger (bis 4 cm lang) behaart. Das
abgebildete weibliche Kalb mit Hörneransatz (Taf. VII und Taf. VIII
Schädel) besitzt bereits die helle Zeichnung bis auf die Flecken unter
dem Auge.
2422 f e m . 2457 f e m .
Entfernung vom Vertex zum Anus 1.670 m 1.710 m
Kopflänge 0.395 0.420
Schulterhöhe 1.000 1.110
Hornlänge, in der Curve gemessen 0.320–350 0.320–345
Hornlänge, gerade gemessen 0.300–315 0.290–300
Abstand der Spitzen 0.175 0.110
Ohrlänge 0.160 0.170
Auf Tafel VII ist in c. 1⁄12 n. Gr. ein adulter, aber noch nicht alter Stier
(B 3198 stehend), eine alte Kuh (2422, liegend) und ein weibliches
Kalb (B 3089) dargestellt. Man vergleiche mit der Abbildung des
Stieres die der Anoa bei S c h l e g e l (Handleiding Dierk. 1857 Atlas
Pl. V Fig. 5 in 1⁄20 n. Gr.), um die Ähnlichkeit dieser beiden
Zwergbüffel zu erkennen; auch die weisse Zeichnung stimmt
überein, nur dass dem Tamarao der helle Längsstreif an den Beinen
fehlt. Auf Tafel VIII Figur 1 findet man das Skelet einer alten Kuh
(2457), als grösstes und ältestes von den vorhandenen 4 adulten, in
c. ⅛ n. Gr., genau so gross wie das Skelet des A n o a -Stieres, das
H e l l e r (Abh. Mus. Dresden 1890/1 Nr. 2 Taf. III) in 5⁄32n. Gr.
abbildete, also direct damit vergleichbar. Es ist ferner auf Tafel VIII
Figur 2 der Schädel des weiblichen Kalbes (B 3089) in ⅓ n. Gr.
dargestellt. Das Museum besitzt, ausser diesem und den 4 der
Skelette, noch 4 Schädel, davon 2 defect; im Ganzen 6 Häute, 4
Skelette und 5 Schädel (davon [15]einen durch S e m p e r ), aber Dr.
S c h a d e n b e r g beschaffte auch direct oder indirect das Material
für einige andere Museen (z. B. Leiden und Stuttgart).
Tafel IX
[Inhalt]
So viel ich weiss, ist der Babirusa, was C e l e b e s anlangt, nur aus
der Minahassa und dem Gorontaloschen nachgewiesen.
R o s e n b e r g (Mal. Arch. 1878, 269) sagt zwar: „Auf Selébes
kommt der Babi-russa allein auf der Nordhälfte der Insel vor, lebt
aber ausserdem noch auf den Sulla-Inseln und auf Buru“, was z. B.
B r e h m (Thierl. III, 529 1891) übernahm, allein da man unter
„Nordhälfte“ von Celebes zum Mindesten das ganze Gebiet des
Tominigolfes verstehen muss, so ist das zu viel gesagt. Wenn auch
nicht in Abrede gestellt werden soll, dass die Verbreitung des
Babirusa so weit gehen kann, so fehlt doch bis jetzt der Anhalt dafür.
Es ist auch nicht ganz wahrscheinlich, dass er hier überall [16]haust,
da man sonst wohl schon Schädel oder Zähne daher erhalten hätte,
denn die Eingeborenen bewahren diese, wie sich auch denken lässt,
mit Vorliebe, oder verwenden sie als Schmuck. Derartiges ist aber
von den Ufern des Tominigolfes jenseit des Gorontaloschen nicht
bekannt geworden. Immerhin lässt sich noch kein Urtheil fällen, da
diese Länder zu wenig durchforscht sind. Auf dem Südwestarme soll
er nach Erkundigungen der Herren S a r a s i n , wie sie die Güte
hatten mir mitzutheilen, n i c h t vorkommen.
Von der der Minahassa nahen Insel Lembeh kamen dem Museum 3
Exemplare unter der inländischen Bezeichnung pisokan 3 zu; die
Strasse zwischen Celebes und Lembeh ist schmal, und der Babirusa
wird daher unschwer vom Festland übersetzen können. H i c k s o n
(Nat. N. Cel. 1889, 82) erwähnt das Vorkommen an den Bergen
Klabat, Dua sudara, Kelekonde und Soputan.
Es beruhen alle diese Angaben auf dem Irrthume, dass es sich bei
den in Frage kommenden Stücken um den Babirusa handle.
Schädel in Museen mit solchen Bezeichnungen mag es geben, aber
diese sind eben verkehrt, von verlässlichen Reisenden stammen sie
nicht. Der Schädel im Museum Godeffroy hatte gewiss Nichts mit
dem Babirusa zu thun, sondern rührte von einem Schweine mit
abnorm gewachsenen u n t e r e n Hauern her, während der Babirusa
nur die oberen Hauer halbkreisförmig gebogen hat 10; die Ähnlichkeit
mit diesen kann daher auch nur eine sehr entfernte gewesen sein.
Da die Zahnformel von Babirusa 11 und Sus bekanntlich differirt (i 2/3
c 1/1 m 5/5 gegen i 3/3 c 1/1 m 7/7 bei Sus), so liesse sich leicht
darüber Gewissheit erlangen; der Schädel ist aber bis jetzt weder in
Hamburg noch in Leipzig, wo Theile des Godeffroy Museums sind,
auffindbar gewesen. Die „polirten Zähne des Hirschebers“ von Viti
sind abgeschliffene [18]Potwalzähne, wie jetzt allgemein bekannt ist.
Es bleibt somit nur noch J e n t i n k s Angabe, der ich indessen auch
nicht beipflichten kann, denn ein solcher Export von Celebes und
Buru nach Neu Guinea und weiter fand und findet nicht statt, es
liegen keine stichhaltigen Gründe dafür vor, und die betreffenden
gebogenen Zähne sind nur abnorm gewachsene untere
Schweinehauer.
Die Entstehung dieser Irrthümer ist sehr wohl erklärlich, wenn man in
Betracht zieht, dass es in gewissen Theilen Neu Guineas und der
östlichen Inselwelt Brauch ist, jungen zahmen Schweinen die oberen
Eckzähne auszuschlagen, damit die unteren sich unabgewetzt und
unbeschränkt entwickeln können. Lässt man das Thier nur lang
genug leben, so entsteht ein mehr oder weniger geschlossener Ring,
der dann als sehr geschätzter, werthvoller Schmuck benutzt wird.
Das Ethnographische Museum besitzt eine Reihe solcher Stücke.
Um Babirusa-Zähne handelt es sich aber dabei nicht. Da der
Querschnitt des o b e r e n Babirusa-Eckzahnes ein anderer ist, wie
der des u n t e r e n Schweine-Eckzahnes, so lassen sie sich leicht
unterscheiden; beim Babirusa ist er elliptisch, auch hat er eine
ebene und schmelzlose Oberfläche. Ebenso lassen sich die unteren
Eckzähne bei näherem Vergleiche sehr wohl unterscheiden. Beim
Schwein ist der Querschnitt mehr dreieckig, beim Babirusa eher
fünfeckig, und der Zahn selbst subpentaëdrisch; O w e n (Odontogr.
1840–1845, 548) nennt ihn „subtrihedral with rounded angles, except
the inner one towards the point“. Der untere Babirusa-Hauer hat
jedoch Email, wie der des Schweines, die Angabe von F l o w e r &
L y d e k k e r (Intr. Mamm. 1891, 287), dass auch er „entirely without
enamel covering“ sei, beruht auf einem Irrthume. Zwei neben und an
einander befestigte, abnorme, ganz kreisrunde untere Schweine-
Eckzähne, als Brustschmuck von Cap Arcona in Deutsch Neu
Guinea, einem im Kampfe getödteten Papúa abgenommen, sind
Tafel IX Fig. 1 dargestellt (Nr. 9175 der Ethnogr. Abth.). Es ist ein
linker (oben) und ein rechter (unten), und man erkennt, von wo an
sie in ihrer natürlichen Entwicklung gestört wurden; sie sind von da
an erheblich dünner und auch unregelmässig geformt, was durch
Abfeilen am Lebenden erzielt wird (s. unten).
„Im Leben des Papúa spielt das Schwein eine grosse Rolle und man
hütet die geliebten Borstenthiere wie den grössten Schatz. Fast Alles
dreht sich um Schweine und schon das eben geworfene wird für
Etwas bestimmt, meist für einen Festschmaus oder zum Erbstück,
aber der Eigenthümer kann nicht frei darüber verfügen, es ist
Dorfeigenthum. Manchmal wird das Schwein, das zu irgend einem
Festschmause bestimmt ist, verkauft oder vertauscht, und für den
Erlös ein anderes gekauft zum Schlachten. Wer das Schwein
aufgezogen hat, isst aus Mitleid nicht davon; die es tödten, müssen
sich viel Schimpfreden gefallen lassen, besonders von den Weibern,
welche nicht selten die dicksten Thränen dabei vergiessen. Einem
Weissen wird es in diesen Gegenden nie gelingen, ein Schwein zu
erstehen, wenn er auch noch so viele begehrenswerthe
Tauschwaaren vorlegt. Aber in den meisten Fällen erhält er von dem
geschlachteten ein Stück Fleisch. Stirbt eine Ehefrau, so fertigt sich
der Mann einen hohen Trauerhut von Baumbast, den er erst ablegen
darf, wenn das für den Trauerschmaus bestimmte Schwein
erwachsen ist; passirt dem Schwein ein Unglück, so dass der
Wittwer kein anständiges Mahl geben kann, so muss er den
Trauerhut so lange tragen, bis das nächste Schwein erwachsen ist.
Die jungen Schweinchen werden sehr häufig, ebenso wie junge
Hunde, von den Weibern gesäugt und, wie die Kinder, aufs Feld zur
Arbeit mitgenommen. Jedes erhält seinen Namen und ist seinen
Pflegern so anhänglich wie ein Hund. Kommt ein Schwein des
Nachts nicht ins Dorf zurück, so geht ein allgemeines Suchen los: in
den zärtlichsten Tönen wird fortwährend der Name des Lieblings
gerufen; hilft das Nichts, so geht Alt und Jung, mit Bambusfackeln
versehen, und sucht nach dem Verlorenen. Junge Wildschweine
werden manchmal eingefangen und gewöhnen sich ebenso an das
Dorf wie die zahmen 12. Selten verwildert ein zahmes Schwein so,
dass es nicht mehr [19]zurückkehrt, es wird dann von den Männern
aufgesucht und mit Speeren erlegt. U m r e c h t s c h ö n e r u n d e
Schweinezähne zu erhalten, werden dem jungen
Eber die beiden oberen Hauer ausgeschlagen,
damit die beiden unteren im Wachsen nicht
g e h i n d e r t s i n d . Die oft kreisrund gebogenen sind der
werthvollste Tauschartikel. Man kauft für solchen eine Frau oder ein
Segelboot, oder es ist ein Mordschilling“.
Hieraus geht hervor, und es lässt sich auch sonst erschliessen, dass
es dem Eingeborenen sehr schwer fällt, ein Schwein so viele Jahre
in Gefangenschaft zu halten bis der Hauer kreisrund gewachsen ist;
es treten an den Besitzer zu viele Anfechtungen und Nöthigungen
heran, die ihn zur Hergabe oder zur Tödtung des Thieres
veranlassen oder zwingen, so dass nur Reiche oder Charakterstarke
in seltenen Fällen das Schwein so lange aufsparen können, bis der
werthvolle Zahn fertig ist. Man trifft daher auch nur äusserst selten
Lebende mit diesen Zähnen an, während die fertigen Ringe von
Geschlecht zu Geschlecht vererbt werden und sich infolgedessen im
Laufe der Zeiten mehr anhäufen.
Wenn dieser abnorme Zahn nicht lateral ausladen würde, wie die
unteren Babirusa-Hauer es stets thun, sondern steiler stünde, so
würde man denken können, dass das Thier nicht im Stande
gewesen wäre, Gegenstände zwischen Zahn und Rüssel zum
Abwetzen zu bringen, weil der Zwischenraum zu gering war; allein
dies ist nicht der Fall, der Zahn steht gerade so schräg wie die
normalen Hauer, und hätte daher auch abgewetzt werden können,
wenn das Thier nicht anderweitig gehindert gewesen wäre.
Allerdings liegt die rechte Eckzahn-Alveole weiter zurück als die
linke, normale, und steigt auch steiler an, aber beides [21]ist die
Folge, und nicht die Ursache der Anomalie, indem der kreisrund
nach hinten wachsende Zahn die Alveole mit nach hinten zog. Durch
das Zurückweichen der Alveole steht sie nicht so weit vor derjenigen
des oberen Caninus, wie im normalen Fall, und es könnte daher
scheinen, dass es hierdurch dem Thier unmöglich gemacht worden
sei, Gegenstände zwischen Zahn und Rüssel zum Wetzen zu
bringen; allein ich habe auch andere Babirusa Schädel vor mir, bei
denen der Zwischenraum zwischen oberem und unterem Eckzahne
nicht grösser ist als hier, und wo doch die distal-mediale Abwetzung
erfolgte. Da der linke untere und die beiden oberen Hauer abhanden
gekommen sind, so lässt sich nicht beurtheilen, ob sie normal waren
oder nicht. Der linke untere war keinenfalls geschlossen kreisförmig
gewachsen, wie der rechte, denn der Kieferknochen ist ganz normal;
auch die Alveole dürfte es sein, und somit spricht die
Wahrscheinlichkeit nicht gerade dafür, dass der Hauer abnorm war.
Ebensowenig zeigen die Alveolen der oberen Hauer oder die
Knochen des Schädels die geringsten Zeichen einer Abweichung;
allein wenn der rechte so weit nach rechts ausgeladen hätte, dass er
das Thier verhinderte, die Spitze des unteren Hauers abzuwetzen,
so wäre damit die Anomalie des letzteren erklärt. Die einfachste
Erklärung wäre aber die, dass das Thier in der Gefangenschaft
gelebt habe, unter Umständen, die ein Abwetzen des Zahnes
unmöglich machten.
Hiernach könnte man obige Stelle, dem Sinne nach übersetzt, etwa
so wiedergeben: In Indien sind die Hauer gebogen und einen
Cubitus lang. Die beiden unteren gehen vom Rüssel aus, die beiden
oberen von der Stirn, wie die Hörner beim Kalbe. Auch F l o w e r &
L y d e k k e r (Intr. Mamm. 1891, 287) sagen, dass die oberen
Eckzähne „resemble horns rather than teeth“, und andere neue
Autoren drücken sich ähnlich aus, man kann daher kaum zweifeln,
dass P l i n i u s Kunde vom Babirusa gehabt habe. [22]
[Inhalt]
Zahnformel.