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Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. WCN 02-200-203
Chapter 3 Chemistry of Food Fatty Acid Structure 43
Composition 27 Fatty Acids in Foods 44
Fatty Acid Nomenclature 45
Basic Food Chemistry: The Six Key Phospholipids 45
Atoms (CHNOPS) 27 Food Industry Uses 45
Water 28 Sterols 45
Water Content in Foods 29 Plant Sterols 45
Composition of Water 29 Functions of Lipids in Foods 47
Measuring Heat Energy 30 Proteins 47
Specific Heat 30 Protein Quality in Foods 47
Freezing Point 30 Composition of Proteins 47
Melting Point 31 Amino Acids 48
Boiling Point 31 Functions of Proteins in Food 49
Elevation and Boiling Point 31 Hydration 49
Hard vs. Soft Water 31 Denaturation/Coagulation 49
Functions of Water in Food 31 Enzymatic Reactions 49
Heat Transfer: Moist-Heat Cooking Methods 32 Buffering 51
Solvent 32 Browning 51
Dispersions 32
Solutions 33 Vitamins and Minerals 52
Colloidal Dispersions 33 Foods High in Vitamins and Minerals 52
Coarse Dispersions (Suspensions) 34 Composition of Vitamins and Minerals 53
Dispersion Destabilization 34 Functions of Vitamins and Minerals in
Chemical Reactions 34 Food 53
Ionization 34 Enrichment and Fortification 53
Changes in pH—Acids and Bases 34 Antioxidants and Their Food Industry
Salt Formation 35 Uses 53
Hydrolysis 35 Sodium and Its Food Industry Uses 53
Carbon Dioxide Release 35 Nonnutritive Food Components 53
Food Preservation 35 Food Additives 54
Water Activity 35 Purposes of Food Additives 54
Osmosis and Osmotic Pressure 36 Additives that Improve Appeal 54
Additives that Extend Storage Life 56
Carbohydrates 36 Additives that Maximize Performance 56
Foods High in Carbohydrates 36 Additives that Protect Nutrient Value 57
Composition of Carbohydrates 36 Plant Compounds 57
Monosaccharides 37 Beneficial 57
Disaccharides 38 Harmful 57
Oligosaccharides 38 Caffeine 57
Polysaccharides 38
Functions of Carbohydrates in Foods 43
Lipids (Fats) 43 PART II FOOD SERVICE
Foods High in Lipids 43
Composition of Lipids 43
Chapter 4 Food Safety 61
Triglycerides 43 What is a Foodborne Illness? 62
Fatty Acids 43 What Causes Foodborne Illness? 62
Copyright 2019 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Biological Hazards—Living Labeling of Common Food Allergens 73
Culprits 62 Cross-Contamination 73
Bacteria: Number-One Cause of Foodborne
Preventing Foodborne Illness 74
Illness 63
Prevention Factors Overview 74
Food Infections 63
Personnel 74
Food Intoxication 64
Training 74
Toxin-Mediated Infection 64
Personal Hygiene Habits 74
Bacterial Food Infections 65 Food Flow 75
Salmonella 65 Purchasing: Written Specifications 75
Listeria monocytogenes 65 Inspection 76
Yersinia enterocolitica 65 Storage 76
Shigella 66 Temperature 76
Proper Refrigerator and Freezer Use 77
Bacterial Food Intoxications 66
Storage Times 77
Clostridium perfringens 66
Vulnerable Foods 78
Staphylococcus aureus 66
High-Risk Foods 78
Clostridium botulinum 66
Foods with High Water Activity 78
Bacterial Toxin-Mediated Infections 66 Foods with Low Acidity 78
Escherichia coli 67 Exceptions to the High-Protein/Water/pH
Campylobacter jejuni 68 Rules 79
Vibrio 68 Oxygen and Food 79
Hepatitis A Virus 68 Preparation 79
Molds 68 Pre-preparation 79
Viruses 68 Cooking (Heating) 80
Norovirus 69 Holding 80
Parasites 69
Proper Use of Thermometers 82
Roundworms 69
Types of Thermometers 82
Protozoa 69
Testing Temperatures 82
Prions—Mad Cow Disease 70
Care of Thermometers 83
New Virulent Biological Hazards 71
Calibration of Thermometers 83
Advanced Techniques for Detecting
Cooling 84
Contamination 71
Reheating 84
Chemical Hazards—Harmful Chemicals Serving 84
in Food 71 Sanitation 84
Seafood Toxins: Chemicals from Fish/ Dishes 84
Shellfish 72 Scheduling 85
Ciguatera Fish Poisoning 72 Euipment 85
Histamine Food Poisoning 73 Facilities 85
Puffer Fish Poisoning 73 Pest Control 86
Red Tide 73 Food Safety Monitoring 86
Health Department Inspections 86
Physical Hazards—Objects in Food 73
HACCP 87
Food Allergy, Intolerance, and HARPC 88
Sensitivity 73 Foodborne Illness Surveillance 88
Allergic Reaction Prevention 73 World Health Organization 88
vi
Chapter 5 Food Preparation Basics 91 Sugar 102
Flour 103
Heating Foods 91 Other Ingredients and Substitutions 103
Moist-Heat Preparation 92
Approximating Food Requirements 103
Types of Moist-Heat Preparation 92 Mixing Techniques 104
Scalding 92
Baked Products 104
Poaching 92
Simmering 92 Seasonings and Flavorings 104
Stewing 92 Types of Seasonings and Flavorings 104
Braising 92 Salt 104
Boiling 93 Salt Substitutes 106
Steaming 93 Pepper 106
Microwaving 93 Herbs and Spices 106
Dry-Heat Preparation 93 Flavor Enhancers 108
Oil Extracts 108
Types of Dry-Heat Preparation 94 Marinades 108
Baking 94
Rubs and Pastes 108
Rack Position 94
Breadings 109
Pan Color 94
Batters 109
Roasting 94
Condiments 110
Broiling 94
Adding Seasonings and Flavorings
Grilling 94
to Food 110
Barbecuing 94
How Much to Add? 110
Frying 95
When to Add? 110
Sautéing and Stir-Frying 95
Food Industry Uses 110
Pan-Broiling and Pan-Frying 95
Deep-Frying 95
Chapter 6 Meal Management 113
Types of Heat Transfer 95
Conduction 95 Food-Service Organization 113
Convection 96 Commercial Food-Service
Radiation 96 Organization 114
Induction 96 Escoffier’s System of Organization
Measuring Heat 96 via Stations 114
Administrative Positions 115
Cutlery Techniques 97 Hospital Food-Service Organization 115
Handling Knives 97
Cutting Styles 98 Types of Meal Planning 116
USDA Menu Patterns 116
Measuring Ingredients 101 Hospital Menu Patterns 117
Measuring Weight vs. Volume 101
Types of Menus 117
Using Scales 101
Cycle Menus 117
Metric vs. Nonmetric 101
Nutrition 118
Selecting the Right Measuring Utensil 101
Using an Accurate Measuring Purchasing 118
Technique 101 Buyers 121
Liquids 101 Food Stores and Vendors/Suppliers 121
Eggs 102 Supermarkets 122
Fat 102 Warehouse Stores 122
vii
Co-ops 122 Connective Tissue 133
Smaller Outlets 122 Adipose (Fatty) Tissue 133
Food-Service Vendors 122 Bone 134
Cost Control 122 Antibiotics and Hormones 134
Meats 122 Pigments 136
Fish 122 Effect of Oxygen on Color 136
Dairy 122 Effect of Heat on Color 137
Bread/Grains 122 Extractives 137
Fruits and Vegetables 122
Purchasing Meats 137
Price Comparisons 122
Inspection 137
Reading Label Product Codes 123
Grading 139
Reducing Waste Saves Costs 123
Quality 139
As Purchased vs. Edible Portion 123
Yield 140
Percentage Yield 123
Tenderness of Meats 141
Portion Control 123
Natural Tenderizing 141
Time Management 124 Artificial Tenderizing 143
Estimating Time 124 Cuts of Meat 144
Efficient Meal Preparation 124 Terminology of Retail Cuts 144
Recipes 124 Beef Retail Cuts 144
Veal Retail Cuts 146
Types of Meal Service 125
Pork Retail Cuts 146
Russian Service 125
Lamb Retail Cuts 147
French Service 127
Variety Meats 147
English Service 127
Kosher Meats 149
American Service 127
Halal Meats 149
Family Service 127
Organic Meats 149
Buffet Service 127
Processed Meats 149
Table Settings 127 Processing Methods 149
Cover and Linens 127 Food Additives in Processed Meats 150
Flatware/Dinnerware/Glassware 127 Types of Processed Meat 152
Accessories 127 Mechanically Deboned Meat 152
Centerpieces 128 Restructured Meat 153
Preparation Of Meats 153
Changes during Heating 153
PART III FOODS Tenderness and Juiciness 153
Searing 153
Chapter 7 Meat 131 Flavor Changes 154
Flavor Enhancements 154
Types Of Meats 131
Determining Doneness 154
Beef 131
Internal Temperature 154
Veal 132
Time/Weight Charts 155
Lamb and Mutton 132
Color Changes 155
Pork 132
Touch 156
Composition of Meats 132 Dry-Heat Preparation 156
Structure of Meat 132 Roasting 156
Muscle Tissue 132 Broiling and Grilling 156
viii
Pan-Broiling 157 Stewing 173
Frying 157 Poaching 173
Deep-Frying 158 Microwaving 173
Moist-Heat Preparation 158
Storage of Poultry 174
Braising 158
Refrigerated 174
Simmering or Stewing 158
Frozen 174
Steaming 159
Microwaving 159
Chapter 9 Fish and Shellfish 177
Carving 159
Classification of Fish and Shellfish 177
Storage of Meats 159 Vertebrate or Invertebrate 177
Refrigerated 159
Vertebrates 178
Wrapping Meat 159
Invertebrates 178
Refrigeration Times 159
Saltwater or Freshwater 178
Packaging 160
Lean or Fat 178
Frozen 160
Composition of Fish 178
Chapter 8 Poultry 163 Structure of Finfish 178
Collagen 179
Classification of Poultry 163
Amino Acid Content 179
Composition of Poultry 163 Muscle Structure 179
Pigments 179
Purchasing Poultry 163
Inspection 163 Purchasing Fish and Shellfish 180
Grading 165 Inspection/Grading 181
Types and Styles of Poultry 165 Shellfish Certification 181
Processed Poultry 165 Selection of Finfish 181
Labeling 166 Fresh and Frozen Fish 181
Standardized Poultry Buying 166 Canned Fish 184
How Much to Buy 167 Cured Fish 185
Fabricated Fish 185
Preparation of Poultry 168
Caviar 186
Preparation Safety Tips 168
Selection of Shellfish 186
Thawing Frozen Poultry 168
Purchasing Live Shellfish 186
Stuffing 168
Purchasing Processed Shellfish 187
Brining 168
Shucking Shellfish 187
Changes during Preparation 169
Oysters 187
Clams 188
Internal Temperature 170
Scallops 188
Color Change 170
Mussels 188
Touch 170
Abalone 188
Time/Weight Charts 170
Lobsters 188
Dry-Heat Preparation 170
Shrimp 189
Roasting or Baking 170
Crab 189
Broiling or Grilling 172
Crayfish 190
Frying 173
Moist-Heat Preparation 173 Preparation of Fish and Shellfish 190
Braising 173 Dry-Heat Preparation 190
ix
Baking 190 Reduced-Fat and Low-Fat Milks 204
Broiling 191 Fat-Free or Nonfat Milk 204
Grilling 191 Fresh Fluid Milks from Other Animals 204
Frying 191 Flavored Fluid Milks 204
Moist-Heat Preparation 191 Chocolate Milk 205
Poaching 191 Eggnog 205
Simmering 192 Ultrahigh-Temperature Milk (UHT) 205
Steaming 192 Nutritionally Altered Fluid Milks 205
Microwaving 192 Imitation Milk 206
Raw Fish Preparation 193 Filled Milk 206
Sashimi 193 Low-Sodium Milk 206
Sushi 193 Reduced-Lactose Milk 206
Ceviche 193 Plant-Based “Milks” 206
Food Safety Concerns 193 Soy Milk 206
Rice Milk 206
Storage of Fish and Shellfish 193
Almond Milk 206
Fresh Finfish 194
Nut Milks 207
Refrigerated 194
Hemp Milk 207
Spoilage Factors 194
Grain Milk 207
Storing Caviar 194
Coconut Milk 207
Fresh Shellfish 194
Canned Fluid Milks 207
Frozen 194
Whole Milk 207
Thawing 194
Evaporated Milk 207
Canned and Cured 194
Sweetened Condensed Milk 208
Dry Milk 208
Chapter 10 Milk 197
Nonfat Dry Milk 208
Functions of Milk in Foods 198 Instant Milk 208
Cultured Milk Products 208
Composition of Milk 198
Cultures Added to Milk 208
Nutrients 198
Buttermilk 209
Carbohydrate 198
Yogurt 210
Protein 199
Functional Foods—Probiotics 211
Fat 199
Acidophilus Milk 211
Vitamins 200
Kefir 211
Minerals 200
Sour Cream 211
Color Compounds 200
Creams and Substitutes 212
Food Additives 201
Cream 212
Purchasing Milk 202 Cream Substitutes 212
Grades 202
Milk Products in Food Preparation 212
Pasteurization 202
Flavor Changes 212
Ultrapasteurization 202
Coagulation and Precipitation 212
Ultrahigh-Temperature Processing 202
Heat 212
Homogenization 203
Acid 212
Types of Milk 204 Enzymes 213
Fresh Fluid Cow Milks 204 Salts 213
Whole Milk 204 Whipped Milk Products 213
Whipped Cream 213 Storage of Cheese 232
Whipped Evaporated Milk 214 Dry Storage 232
Whipped Reconstituted Nonfat Dry Refrigeration 232
Milk 215 Frozen 233
Storage of Milk Products 215 Chapter 12 Eggs 236
Refrigerated 215
Dry Storage 215 Composition of Eggs 236
Yolk 236
Chapter 11 Cheese 218 Albumen 237
Shell Membranes 237
Classification of Cheeses 218 Air Cell 237
Place of Origin 219 Shell 238
Moisture Content 219
Purchasing Eggs 238
Cheese Production 219 Inspection 238
Milk Selection 221 Eggs Failing USDA Inspection 238
Coagulation 221 Grading 238
Enzyme Coagulation 221 Grading Methods 238
Acid Coagulation 223 Sizing 240
Curd Treatment 223 Egg Substitutes 240
Curing and Ripening 224 Value-Added Eggs 240
Whey and Whey Products 226
Types of Eggs 241
Whey Cheeses 228
Dry Whey 228 Functions of Eggs in Foods 241
Modified Whey Products 228 Emulsifying 241
Process (Processed) Cheeses 228 Binding 241
Process Cheese 228 Foaming 241
Cold-Pack Cheese 228 Beating Technique 243
Process Cheese Food 229 Temperature 243
Process Cheese Spread 229 Bowl Selection 244
Imitation Cheese 229 Separation of Eggs 244
Tofu and Other Nondairy Cheeses 229 Additives 244
Food Additives in Cheese 229 Interfering 244
Clarifying 244
Purchasing Cheese 229 Color 244
Grading 229
Forms of Cheese 230 Preparation of Eggs 244
Changes in Prepared Eggs 245
Food Preparation with Cheese 230 Effects of Temperature and Time 245
Selecting a Cheese 230 Effects of Added Ingredients 245
Shreddability 230 Color Changes 245
Meltability 230 Dry-Heat Preparation 246
Oiling Off 231 Frying 246
Blistering 231 Baking 247
Browning 231 Moist-Heat Preparation 248
Stretchability 231 Hard or Soft “Boiling” 248
Temperatures 231 Coddling 249
Cutting Cheese 232 Poaching 249
xi
Custards 250 Corn 266
Microwaving 250 Cucumbers 266
Eggplant 267
Storage of Eggs 251
Exotic Vegetables 267
Refrigerator 251
Garlic 267
Whole Eggs 251
Ginger 268
Storage Eggs 251
Greens 268
Pasteurized Eggs 251
Leeks 268
Frozen 251
Lettuce 268
Dried 252
Mushrooms 268
Rehydrating Dried Eggs 252
Okra 269
Safety Tips 252
Onions 269
Purchase 253
Parsley 270
Preparation 253
Parsnips 270
Consumption 253
Peas 270
Storage 253
Peppers, Hot 270
Peppers, Sweet 270
Chapter 13 Vegetables and Potatoes 270
Legumes 256 Radishes 271
Classification of Vegetables 256 Rutabagas 271
Spinach 271
Composition of Vegetables 256 Sprouts 271
Structure of Plant Cells 256 Squash 272
Cell Wall 256 Sweet Potatoes 272
Storage Structures in Parenchyma Cells 257 Tomatoes 273
Intercellular Air Spaces 258 Turnips 273
Plant Pigments 258
Carotenoids 258 Legumes 273
Chlorophyll 258 Textured Vegetable Protein 274
Flavonoids 259 Meat Analogs 274
Plants as Functional Foods 259 Tofu 274
Additives 261 Fermented Soybean Foods 274
Purchasing Vegetables 263 Preparation of Vegetables 275

Grading Vegetables 263 General Guidelines 275
Selecting Vegetables 263 Changes During Heating 275
Artichoke 263 Texture 275
Asparagus 266 Flavor 275
Beans (Green Snap, Green, Wax, and Yellow Odor 276
Wax-Pod Beans) 266 Color 276
Beets 266 Nutrient Retention 277
Broccoli 266 Dry-Heat Preparation 277
Brussels Sprouts 266 Baking 277
Cabbage 266 Roasting 278
Carrots 266 Frying 278
Cauliflower 266 Moist-Heat Preparation 278
Celery 266 Simmering 278
xii
Steaming 278 Guavas 293
Braising 279 Kiwifruit 293
Microwaving 279 Kumquats 293
Preparing Legumes 279 Lemons 293
Preparing Sprouts 280 Limes 293
Growing Sprouts 280 Mandarins 293
Storing Sprouts 280 Mangoes 294
Melons 294
Storage of Vegetables 280
Nectarines 294
Refrigerated 281
Olives 295
Special Storage Requirements 281
Oranges 295
Maintaining Moisture 281
Papayas 296
Freezing 281
Peaches 296
Dry Storage 281
Pears 296
Storing Potatoes 281
Persimmons 296
Controlled-Atmosphere Storage 281
Pineapple 296
Plums 297
Chapter 14 Fruits 284
Pomegranates 298
Classification of Fruits 284 Rhubarb 298
Classification Exceptions 285 Tangerines—see Mandarins 298
Tropical Fruits 298
Composition of Fruits 285
Superfruits 298
Organic Acids 285
Processed Fruits 299
Acidity of Fruits 285
Canned 299
Pectic Substances 285
Frozen 300
Use of Pectin by the Food Industry 286
Dried 300
Pectin Formation in Ripening Fruit 286
Fruit Juices 300
Pectic Substances and Juice
Fruit/Vegetable Juice Processing 300
Cloudiness 286
Phenolic Compounds 286
Preparation of Fruits 302
Phenolic Compounds and Enzymatic
Limiting Enzymatic Browning 302
Browning 286
Denaturing Enzymes 302
Fruits as Functional Foods 287
Reducing pH 302
Food Additives in Fruits 288
Lowering Temperature 302
Purchasing Fruits 289 Coating Fruits with Sugar or Water 302
Grading Fruit 289 Adding Antioxidants 302
Selecting Fruits 290 Changes during Ripening and
Apples 290 Heating 302
Apricots 290 Color 302
Avocados 290 Texture 303
Bananas 291 Flavor 304
Berries 291 Dry-Heat Preparation 304
Cherries 292 Baking 304
Dates 292 Broiling 304
Figs 292 Frying/Sautéing 304
Grapefruit 293 Moist-Heat Preparation 304
Grapes 293 Stewing/Poaching 304
xiii
Applesauce Preparation 305 Gelatins 321
Preparing Dried Fruit 305 What Is Gelatin? 321
Fruit Spreads 305 Is Gelatin Nutritious? 321
Types of Fruit Spreads 305 Preparation of a Gel 321
Ingredients 305 Phases of Gel Formation 321
Preparing Fruit Spreads 306 Phase 1—Hydration 321
Phase 2—Dispersion 321
Storage of Fruits 307
Phase 3—Gelation 322
Storing Fresh Fruit 307
Unmolding a Mold 322
Storing Canned Fruit 307
Factors Influencing Gel Formation 322
Olives 307
Gelatin Concentration 322
Chapter 15 Soups, Salads, Temperature 322
Added Ingredients 323
and Gelatins 310
Whipping 323
Soups 310 Storage of Gelatin 323
Types of Soups 310
Stocks 311 Chapter 16 Cereal Grains and
White and Brown Stocks 311 Pastas 326
Water: The Main Ingredient 311
Flavoring Ingredients 312 Composition of Cereal Grains 327
Meat Stocks 312 Structure 327
Poultry Stocks 312 Husk 327
Fish Stocks 312 Bran 327
Vegetable Stocks 313 Endosperm 327
Storage of Soup Stocks 313 Germ 328
Clear and Thin Soups 313 Food Additives in Grain Products 328
Bouillon 313
Uses Of Cereal Grains 329
Consommé 313
Flour 329
Thin Soups 313
Pasta 329
Thickened Soups 313
Breakfast Cereal 329
Cream Soups 314
Alcoholic Beverages 329
Salads 315 Animal Feeds 329
Salad Ingredients 316 General Types of Cereal Grains 329
Garnishes 316
Toasting Nuts 316 Cereal Grains Containing
Principles of Salad Preparation 316 Gluten 330
Leafy Green Salads 316 Wheat 330
Vegetable Salads 318 Classification of Wheat 330
Fruit Salads 318 Forms of Wheat 331
Protein Salads 319 Ancient Wheat Grains 331
Pasta/Grain Salads 319 Barley 331
Salad Dressings 319 Forms of Barley 331
Oil and Vinegar Dressings 320 Oats 332
Emulsified Dressings 320 Forms of Oats 332
Other Dressings 320 Rye 332
Adding Dressings to Salads 321 Triticale 333
xiv
Gluten-Free Cereal Grains 334 Baker’s Asthma 350
Amaranth 334 Wheat Allergy 350
Buckwheat 334 Celiac Disease 350
Chia Seeds 334 Nonceliac Gluten Sensitivity (NCGS) 350
Corn 334 What Does “Gluten-Free” Mean? 350
Classification of Corn 334 Milling 350
Forms of Corn 335 Five Steps of Milling 351
Indian Rice Grass 336 Wet Milling 352
Millet 336 Wheat Flour Classifications 352
Quinoa 336 Percent Protein Content 352
Rice 336 Mineral Content 352
Classification of Rice 336 Types of Wheat Flour 352
Forms of Rice 337 Whole-Wheat Flour 352
Sorghum 337 Bread Flour 352
Teff 337 White Flour 353
Graham Flour 353
Preparation of Cereal Grains 338
Ancient Grain Flours 353
Moist-Heat Preparation: Boiling/
High-Gluten Flour 353
Simmering 338
Types of Nonwheat Grain Flours
Preparation 338
Containing Gluten 354
Cooking the Grain 338
Rye Flour 354
Triticale Flour 354
Standing Time 339
Types of Gluten-Free Grain Flours 354
Sautéing and Baking 339
Amaranth 354
Microwaving 339
Buckwheat Flour 354
Storage of Cereal Grains 339 Cornmeal Flour 354
Dry 339 Rice Flour 355
Refrigerated 340 Sorghum Flour 355
Frozen 340 Gluten-Free Flour 355
Pastas 340 Types of Nongrain, Gluten-Free
Types of Pasta 340 Flours 355
Tuber-Based: Potato Flour 355
Preparation of Pasta 341 Legume-Based 355
Moist-Heat Preparation 341 Nut-Based 355
Microwaving 342 Treated Wheat Flours 355
Storage of Pasta 342 Aged Flour 355
Bleached Flour 355
Chapter 17 Flours and Flour Phosphated Flour 355
Mixtures 346 Self-Rising Flour 356
Instant or Agglomerated Flour 356
FLOURS 347
Enriched Flour 356
Starch 347
Gluten 347 Flour Mixture Ingredients 356
Purpose of Gluten 347 Leavening Agents 356
Steps to Gluten Formation 348 Air and Steam 356
Dried Gluten 349 Yeast 356
Cereal-Grain Food Sensitivities 350 Bacteria 358
xv
Baking Soda 358 Edible Films 370
Potassium Bicarbonate 359 Dextrose 370
Baking Powder 359 Starch Syrups 371
Too Much/Too Little Leavening 360 Starch Structure 371
Too Much/Too Little Flour 360
Starch Transformations 372
Sugar 360
Gelatinization 372
Functions of Sugar 360
Factors Influencing Gelatinization 372
Types of Sugar 360
Gel Formation 373
Too Much/Too Little Sugar 360
Retrogradation 374
Salt 361
Dextrinization 374
Salt Controls Yeast Growth 361
Instant or Pregelatinized Starches 375
Too Much/Too Little Salt 361
Resistant Starches (RS) 375
Flavorings 361
RS4 Modified (Chemically) Starches 375
Liquid 361
Milk 361 Sauces 376
Too Much/Too Little Liquid 361 Functions of Sauces in Foods 376
Fat 361 Types of Sauces 376
Functions of Fat 362 Mother Sauces 376
Types of Fat Used in Baked Goods 362 Small Sauces 376
Temperature of Fat 363 Preparation of Thickened Sauces 377
Lower-Fat Alternatives 363 Ingredients of Thickened Sauces 377
Too Much/Too Little Fat 363 Preparing Thickeners 378
Eggs 363 Preparing a Sauce from a Roux 379
Too Much/Too Little Egg 363 Preventing Lumps 379
Commercial Additives 363 Preparation of Unthickened Sauces 380
Aging or Maturing Agents 363 Gravy 380
Dough Conditioners 363 Hollandaise Sauce 381
Food Additives in Flours 364 Barbecue Sauce 381
Butter Sauce 381
Preparation of Baked Goods 365
Fruit Sauce 381
Doughs and Batters 365
Tartar Sauce 381
Doughs 365
Tomato Sauce 382
Batters 365
Changes during Heating 365 Storage of Starches And Sauces 382
High-Altitude Adjustments 366
Chapter 19 Quick Breads 385
Storage of Flour And Flour
Mixtures 366 Preparation of Quick Breads 385
Dry Storage 366 The Muffin Method 386
Frozen 366 Additives Used in Quick Breads 386
Varieties of Quick Breads 386
Chapter 18 Starches and Sauces 369
Pour Batters 386
Starch Characteristics 369 Pancakes 386
Sources of Starch 369 Crêpes 386
Cornstarch 370 Waffles 387
Starch in Food Products 370 Popovers 387
Thickening Agent 370 Drop Batters 387
xvi
Muffins 388 English Muffins 407
Muffin Breads 389 Pizza Crust 408
Coffee Cakes 390 Pretzels and Bread Sticks 408
Dumplings 390 Raised Doughnuts 408
Doughs 390
Storage of Yeast Breads 408
Unleavened Breads 390
Fresh 408
Biscuits 391
Staling 408
Scones 392
Preventing Staling 408
Crackers 392
Fresh Bread Additives 408
Refrigerated 408
Chapter 20 Yeast Breads 395
Frozen 408
Preparation of Yeast Breads 395
Ingredients 395 Chapter 21 Sweeteners 411
Food Additives in Baked Products 396
Natural Sweeteners 412
Mixing Methods 397
Sugars 413
Straight Dough Method 398
Sucrose 413
Sponge Method 398
Lactose 414
Batter Method 398
Maltose 414
Rapid Mix 398
Glucose 415
Kneading 398
Fructose 415
Proofing: Fermentation Causes the Dough
Syrups 415
to Rise 399
Corn Syrup 415
Changes during Fermentation 400
High-Fructose Corn Syrup 416
Optimal Fermentation Conditions 400
Honey 416
Avoid Overfermentation 400
Molasses 417
Punching Down and Second Proofing 401
Maple Syrup 417
Shaping 401
Agave Syrup 418
Selecting a Baking Pan 402
Invert Sugar 418
Decorating 402
Sugar Alcohols 418
Baking 402
Sugar Alcohols in Foods 418
Changes during Baking 402
Problems with Sugar Alcohols 419
Crumb Development 403
Problems with Texture 403 Nonnutritive Sweeteners 419
Testing for Doneness 403 Use in Foods and Beverages 419
Microwave Preparation 404 Safety 419
High-Altitude Adjustments 405 Food Functions 421
Saccharin 421
Types of Yeast Breads 405
Aspartame 421
Loaf Breads 405
Acesulfame-K 421
Wheat (White) Bread 405
Sucralose 421
Whole-Wheat Bread 406
Neotame 422
Sourdough Bread 406
Stevia and Its Derivatives 422
Malt Breads 406
Luo Han Guo 422
Specialty Breads 406
Other Nonnutritive Sweeteners 423
Rolls 406
Pita Bread 406 Functions of Sugars In Foods 423
Bagels 407 Sweetness 423
xvii
Solubility 424 Carbohydrate-Based Fat Replacers 441
Crystallization 424 Protein-Based Fat Replacers 441
Browning Reactions 424 Lipid-Based Fat Replacers 441
Caramelization 425 Food Preparation with Fats 443
Moisture Absorption (Hygroscopicity) 425 Selection and Care of Frying Fats 443
Texture 425 Fats Suitable for Frying 443
Fermentation 425 Smoke Point 443
Preservation 425 Flash Point and Fire Point 443
Leavening 425 Controlling the Temperature of Frying Fats 444
Other Uses 425 Recommended Equipment 444
Optimal Frying Conditions 444
Chapter 22 Fats and Oils 428
Lower-Fat Preparation Techniques 445
Functions of Fats In Food 429 Fats Preferred for Health 445
Heat Transfer 429 Reducing Fat by Healthy Methods 445
Shortening Power 429 Modifying Recipes to Reduce Fat 445
Emulsions 430 Pretreatments to Reduce Absorbed Oil 446
Emulsifiers 430
Storage of Fats 446
Stability of Emulsions 431
Rancidity 447
Melting Point 431
Types of Rancidity 447
Degree of Saturation 431
Flavor Reversion 448
Length of the Fatty Acids 432
Preventing Rancidity 448
Cis–Trans Configuration 432
Crystalline Structure 433 Chapter 23 Cakes and Cookies 453
Plasticity 433
Solubility 433 Types of Cakes 453
Flavor 433 Shortened Cakes 453
Texture 433 Bundt Cake 454
Appearance 433 Butter Cake 454
Satiety or Feeling Full 434 Carrot Cake 454
Cheesecake 454
Types of Fats 434 Ciambellone 454
Butter 434 Coffee Cake 454
Margarine 434 Cupcake 454
Composition of Margarine 434 Devil’s Food Cake 454
Types of Margarine 435 Fruitcake 454
Shortenings 436 German Chocolate Cake 454
Oils 436 Ice Cream 455
Oil Production 437 Mooncake 455
Types of Oils 439 Muffin 455
Winterized Oils 440 Pound Cake 455
Hydrogenated Oils 440 Upside-Down Cake 455
Lard/Tallow/Suet 441 Unshortened Cakes 455
Interesterification 441 Angel Food Cake 455
Cocoa Butter 441 Boston Cream Pie 455
Fat Replacers 441 Dacquoise (da-kwoz) 455
Types of Fat Replacers 441 Génoise (zh-eh-nwoz) 455
Composition of Fat Replacers 441 Meringue (mer-rang) 455
xviii
Petit Four 455 Cialde (chee-al-day) 465
Roulade (roo-lahd) 455 Florentines 465
Tiramisu (teer-a-me-sue) 455 Fortune Cookies 465
Chiffon Cakes 456 Macarons 465
Macaroons 465
Preparation of Cakes 456 Madeleines 465
Ingredients 456 Meringues 465
Flour 456 Wafers 465
Sugar 456 Pressed Cookies 466
Fats 457 Ladyfingers 466
Eggs 457 Russian Tea Cookies (Mexican Wedding
Milk 457 Cakes) 466
Leavening Agent 457 Molded Cookies 466
Additional Ingredients 457 Almond Cookies 466
Other Factors 458 Biscotti di Prato 466
Preparing Shortened Cakes 458 Peanut Butter Cookies 466
Selection and Preparation of Pans 458 Rolled Cookies 466
Temperature/Timing 459 Butter Cookies 466
Changes during Baking 459 Cannoli Shell 466
Testing for Doneness 460 Gingerbread 466
Cooling 460 Linzer Cookies 466
High-Altitude Adjustments 461 Mandelbrot 466
Microwave Preparation 461 Shortbread 466
Preparing Unshortened and Chiffon Sugar 466
Cakes 461 Icebox/Refrigerator Cookies 466
Angel Food Cake 461 Cookies as Functional Foods 466
Sponge Cake 462
Chiffon Cake 462 Preparation of Cookies 467
Selection and Preparation of Pans 462 Ingredients and Mixing Methods 467
Temperature/Timing 463 Food Additives in Cookies 467
Testing for Doneness 463 Baking Cookies 467
Selection and Preparation of Pans 467
Frostings/Icings 463 Temperature/Timing 468
Flat Frostings 463 Testing for Doneness 468
Decorating Frosting 463 High-Altitude Adjustments 468
Cooked Frosting 463 Microwave Preparation 468
Whipped Cream Frosting 463
Ganache 463 Storage of Cookies 468
Garnishes 464
Chapter 24 Pastries and Pies 471
Storage of Cakes 464
Types of Pastry 471
Types of Cookies 464 Pastry Classification 471
Bar Cookies 465 Nonlaminated Pastries 471
Brownies 465 Plain Pastry 471
Lemon Bars 465 Brioche Pastry 472
Dropped Cookies 465 Choux Pastry 472
Chocolate Chip Cookies 465 Laminated Pastries 473
xix
Puff Pastry 473 Preparation of Candy 490
Quick (Blitz) Pastry 473 Confectionery Preparation Overview 490
Phyllo (Filo) Pastry 473 Crystalline Candies 491
Croissant Pastry 473 Candies Start with a Syrup Solution 491
Danish Pastry 473 Heating the Syrup 491
Cooling and Beating 493
Preparation of Pastry 474 Types of Crystalline Candies 494
Ingredients of Pastry 474
Noncrystalline Candies 495
Flour 475
Concentrating the Sugar Solution 495
Fat 475
Interfering Agents 495
Liquid 476
Types of Noncrystalline Candies 495
Eggs 477
Food Additives in Candy 496
Salt 477
Sugar 477 Chocolate 496
Flavorings 477 Cacao Tree 496
Thickeners (for Fillings) 477 History 496
Mixing Methods 478 Chocolate Production 497
Plain (Pie) Pastry 478 Cocoa Beans Produce Chocolate Liquor 497
Puff Pastry 478 Chocolate Liquor 498
Rolling 479 Conching 498
Chilling the Dough 479 Tempering 498
Rolling Surface 480 Factors Affecting Tempering 499
General Technique 480 Types of Chocolate Products 501
Rolling Plain Pastry 480 Baking Chocolate 501
Rolling Puff Pastry 481 Cocoa 501
Fillings 483 Semisweet or Sweet Chocolate 501
Fruit Fillings 483 Milk Chocolate 501
Cream Fillings 483 Imitation Chocolate 501
Custard Fillings 483 White Chocolate 501
Chiffon Pies 484 Functional Chocolate 501
Meringue Pies 484 Storage of Candy 502
Pastry Fillings 484 Shelf Life of Chocolate 502
Toppings 484
Glazes 484 Chapter 26 Frozen Desserts 505
Crumb Toppings 484
Types of Frozen Desserts 505
Baking 485
Ice Cream 506
Pan Selection and Preparation 485
Ice Cream Ingredients 506
Temperature and Timing 485
Low-Fat Ice Cream 507
Testing for Doneness 485
Ice Cream as a Functional Food 507
Storage of Pastry 485 Imitation Ice Cream 507
Gelato 507
Frozen Yogurt 507
Chapter 25 Candy 489 Sherbet 507
Classification of Candies 489 Sorbet 508
Syrup Phase versus Fat Phase 489 Water Ices 508
Crystalline versus Noncrystalline Popsicles 508
(Amorphous) 490 Granitas and Granités 508
xx
Frappés 508 Roasting 524
Still-Frozen Desserts 508 Grinding 524
Decaffeination 524
Preparation of Frozen Desserts 508
Instant Coffee 524
Factors Affecting Quality 508
Composition of Coffee 524
Flavor 508
Volatile Compounds 524
Texture 508
Bitter Substances 525
Body 510
Methylxanthines 525
Mixing and Freezing 511
Types of Coffee 525
Ice Cream 511
Types of Beans 525
Frozen Yogurt 513
Types of Processing 525
Sherbet 513
Types of Ingredients 526
Sorbet 513
Preparation of Coffee 526
Water Ices 514
Coffee Freshness 526
Still-Frozen Desserts 514
Water-to-Coffee Ratio 526
Food Additives in Frozen Desserts 514
Water Type 526
Storage of Frozen Desserts 514 Water Temperature 526
Texture Changes 514 Brewing Time 526
Scooping Frozen Desserts 515 Brewing Equipment 527
Holding Time 527
Chapter 27 Beverages 518 Storage of Coffee 527
Water 518 Tea 528
Bottled Water 518 Tea Processing 528
Sources of Water 519 Withering 528
Water Treatment Methods 519 Rolling 528
Purified Water 519 Oxidizing 528
Deionized Water 519 Firing 528
Distilled Water 519 Types of Tea 528
Reverse Osmosis Water 519 Black Tea 528
Soft Drinks Marketed as “Water” 519 Green Tea 528
Carbonated Soft Drinks 520 Oolong Tea 528
Early Soft Drinks 520 White Teas 529
Soft Drink Processing 520 Flavored Teas 529
Soft Drink Health Concerns 520 Herbal Teas 529
Diet Soft Drinks 521 Specialty Teas 529
Food Additives in Soft Drinks 521 Grades of Tea 529
Composition of Tea 529
Functional Beverages 521 Health Benefits of Tea 529
Nutraceutical Beverages 521 Preparation of Tea 529
Nutraceutical Trends 522 Brewing Tea 530
Sports Beverages 522 Iced Tea 530
Smart Beverages 522 Instant Tea 530
Energy Beverages and Shots 523 Microwaving 530
Storage of Tea 530
Coffee 523
Coffee Processing 524 Dairy Beverages 530
Removing the Hull 524 Cocoa Beverages 530
xxi
Alcoholic Beverages 530 Foods Suitable for Freezing 546
Beer 531 Freezer Storage Times 546
Beer Production 531 Four Problems with Frozen Food 547
Classifications of Beer 532
Heat Preservation 544
Specialty Beers 532
Boiling 548
Serving Beer 532
Pasteurization 548
Storing Beer 532
High-Temperature Pasteurization 548
Wine 532
Sous-vide 548
Wine Production 533
Ohmic Heating 548
Evaluating Wines 533
Selecting a Wine 534 Other Preservation Methods 548
Food Additives in Wines 537 Irradiation (Cold Pasteurization) 548
Spirits 537 The Irradiation Process 549
Proof 537 Effects of Irradiation on Foods 549
Common Spirits 537 Irradiation Pros and Cons 550
Radio Frequency 551
Pulsed Light 551
PART IV FOOD INDUSTRY High-Pressure Processing 551
Ozonation 551
Chapter 28 Food Preservation 540 Aseptic Packaging 552
Modified-Atmosphere Packaging (MAP) 552
Food Spoilage 540 Controlled-Atmosphere Packaging (CAP) 552
Biological Changes 540 Vacuum Packaging 552
Chemical Changes 541
Physical Changes 541 Nutrient Retention 552
Food Preservation Methods 542 Chapter 29 Government Food
Drying 542 Regulations 555
Sun-Drying 542
Commercial Drying 542 Federal Food Laws 555
Curing 543 Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) 556
Smoking Cured Meats 543 Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Fermentation 544 (1938) 556
Pickling 544 Numerous Government Agencies 556
Weak Organic Acids 544 Food And Drug Administration 557
Edible Coatings 545 Research/Education 557
Composition of Edible Coatings 545 The Code of Federal Regulations 557
Commonly Coated Foods 545 FDA Inspections 557
Micro-encapsulation 545 FDA Enforcement of Its Laws 557
Canning 545 Allowable Contaminants 558
Preparing Food for Canning 545 FDA Standards 558
Two Methods of Canning 546 Standards of Identity 558
Cold Preservation 546 Standards of Minimum Quality 558
Refrigeration 546 Standards of Fill 559
Refrigerating Food 546 Food Labeling 559
Refrigeration Temperatures and Times 546 Nutrition Facts Label 559
Freezing 546 Food Labeling Exemptions 560
xxii
Food Allergen Labeling 560 Types of Registered Dietitian
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) 561 Nutritionists 575
FDA-Allowed Claims on Labels 561 Dietetic Technician, Registered (DTR) 576
Dietary Supplements 562 Dietary Clerk or Dietary Aide 577
Food Additives 563
Food Science 577
Safety of Food Additives 563
Food Scientist 577
Ingredients Not Defined as Additives 563
Academic Requirements 577
The Delaney Clause 563
Types of Food Scientists 578
The Bioterrorism Preparedness Act 563
Food Science Technician 579
U.S. Department of Agriculture 564
Food Service 579
USDA Inspections 564
Academic Preparation for Culinary
USDA Grading 565
Arts 579
Quantity Grades or Yields 565
Types of Food-Service Positions 579
Quality Grades 565
Chef 580
Product Labeling 565
Food-Service Manager 580
Irradiated Foods 565
Sales and Marketing 580
Organic Foods 565
Dietary Manager 580
Country of Origin Labeling (COOL) 565
Food-Service Certifications 580
Environmental Protection Agency 566
Graduate School 580
Centers for Disease Control and Prerequisites 580
Prevention 566 Academic Requirements 581
Examination Requirements 581
Other Regulatory Agencies 567
Professional Schools 582
U.S. Department of Commerce 567
Graduate-Degree Jobs 582
Federal Trade Commission 567
Researcher 582
Department of the Treasury 567
Professor 582
State Agencies 567
Pharmaceutical and Nutraceutical
International Agencies 567 Industries 583
The Food and Agriculture
Organization 567 APPENDIXES
The World Health Organization 567
A Food Preparation Equipment A-1
European Regulation 567
B Food Yields B-1
Chapter 30 Careers in Food C Substitution of Ingredients C-1

and Nutrition 570 D Flavorings and Seasonings D-1
Three Major Food and Nutrition E Common Food Additives E-1

Areas 570 F Answers to Multiple-Choice
Nutrition Science and Dietetics 571 Questions F-1

Nutrition Science 572
Nutritionist 572 GLOSSARY G-1
Dietetics 572 INDEX I-1
Registered Dietitian Nutritionist (RDN) 572
xxiii
Preface
Comprehensive is the word that food industry, so students really get a essential vocabulary in each chap-
describes Understanding Food: hands-on understanding of various ter. A glossary at the end of the
Principles and Preparation, the best- career opportunities. Extensive appen- book assembles all of the key terms
selling textbook in its field. It brings dixes provide additional key infor- in one place.
together the most current informa- mation, including approximate food ●● Functions of ingredients are high-
tion in food science, nutrition, and measurements, weights and measures, lighted in the introduction to each
food service. Founded on research storage temperatures, ingredient sub- chapter to aid students in successful
from more than thirty-five journals stitutions, flavorings and seasonings, food product development and food
covering these disciplines, the text and more. preparation. They introduce a focus
incorporates the very latest infor- of the food industry that is often
mation on food—its science and its missing in other books.
application. Understanding Food: ●● Food additive information has been
Principles and Preparation, 6th FEATURES incorporated throughout the book.
edition, provides students with a The unique features of this text allow
●● Problems and causes tables sum-
broad foundation to launch a career f lexibility in teaching and create a marize the problems that may
in any of these food-related fields. dynamic learning environment for occur when preparing specific food
students. products and describe the possible
causes, providing students with a
●● Career Corner features provide handy reference tool for decipher-
ORGANIZATION interviews with people working in ing “what went wrong.”
OF CONTENT the food and nutrition arena to help
students on their career path.
●● Chapter review questions help
students prepare for both their
Understanding Food: Principles and ●● How & Why inserts answer the class exams and the Academy of
Preparation is organized according questions most frequently asked by Nutrition and Dietetics registration
to the various food disciplines. Part students, sparking natural curiosity examination.
I represents information related to and exercising the mind’s ability to
food science and nutrition, such as answer. The dynamic world of food changes
food selection, sensory and physi- ●● Chemist’s Corner features provide rapidly as new research constantly adds
cal evaluation, and food chemistry. more advanced information on to its ever-expanding knowledge base.
Part II covers aspects of food service food chemistry for students and Understanding Food: Principles and
from food safety to food preparation instructors who want to explore Preparation, 6th edition, is designed
basics to meal management. Part III this topic further, allowing flex- to meet the needs of this evolving and
covers all of the standard food items ibility in the level of food chemistry expanding discipline and to provide
arranged into proteins (meat, poultry, presented within the individual students with a strong foundation in
fish, dairy, and eggs); phytochemicals course. any food-related discipline that they
(vegetables, fruits, soups, salads, and ●● Calorie Control teaches students select.
gelatins); complex carbohydrates (cere- how to identify food sources of
als, flour, and breads); refined carbo- kcalories, how many daily kcalo-
hydrates and fat (sweeteners, fats and ries are recommended, and how to NEW TO THIS EDITION
oils, cakes and cookies, pies and pas- practice portion control.
tries, candy, and frozen desserts); and ●● Nutrient Content boxes provide an Each chapter of Understanding Food
water (beverages) groupings. Part IV overview of the nutritional compo- has been revised to reflect updates in
relates to the food industry in terms sition of the foods. research, government guidelines, con-
of food preservation, government food ●● Pictorial Summaries are a proven sumer preferences, and food-service
regulations, and food careers. The last favorite with readers. These picto- practices since the publication of the
chapter, on food careers, is an invalu- rial chapter summaries use a com- prior edition. Specific additions and
able advisement session introducing bination of art and narrative text other enhancements for the sixth edi-
students to the many careers in food to encapsulate the key concepts in tion follow:
and nutrition. In addition, the Career each chapter for student review. ●● COLOR. This is the first time
Corner feature found in many chap- ●● Key terms, boldfaced in the text, Understanding Food: Principles and
ters spotlights individuals working are defined on the same page Preparation is published in color as
in various areas of the nutrition and to allow for quick review of the requested by many students.
xxiv
●● MINDTAP. Another first-time ●● Chapter 8 Poultry. The poultry include colorful drawings of cereals
feature, MindTap, is included classification table was upgraded on the stalk, Figure 16-7 illustrated
for online interactive textbook with pics and new information, and different kernel types, inserted
learning. salmonella amounts were modified researching showing oats decrease
●● Chapter 1 Food Selection. Added (¾ and not ¼). blood cholesterol and glucose,
the NEW information from the ●● Chapter 9 Fish & Shellfish. NEW updated cereal production figure,
2015-2020 Dietary Guidelines FDA mercury fish eating guidelines added chia seeds (popular new
for Americans, including were added along with sushi defini- food), clarified the addition of oil
MyPlate, updated statistics on tions and photos. to cooking pasta and improved the
diversity in the U.S. population, ●● Chapter 10 Milk. New definitions definition of “noodles” vs “Asian
added new definitions for oleo- were added for kefir, yogurt con- noodles.”
gustus, whole foods, processed sistency, coconut milk vs water was ●● Chapter 17 Flours & Flour
foods, natural foods, discussed clarified, camel milk was removed, Mixtures. Added Emmer (farro)
kcalorie requirements for res- Table 10-5 was corrected from 71.5 grain to types of flour, psue-
taurants, GMO crops, and food to 72 C, and a figure was added on do-grains were better defined,
phytochemicals. probiotic food. added folic acid to masa flour
●● Chapter 2 Food Evaluation. Added ●● Chapter 12 Eggs. Updates included recently approved by FDA,
new food analyzer photograph. egg consumption changing to 90 gluten-free definition by FDA
●● Chapter 3. Chemistry of Food to 80 billion eggs, FDA safe egg reached final approval, clarified
Composition. Added standard- handling tips, the number of whole difference between semolina and
ized numbering system for food eggs/whites/yolks per cup, along durum flour, percentages of pro-
additives. with new color figures to clarify tein in text matched Table 17-1,
●● Chapter 4 Food Safety. Added information. and added Registered Trademark
how HACCP was replaced by ●● Chapter 11 Cheese. Added two to kamut.
HARPC, the WHO (FERG) – official government sources of ●● Chapter 18 Starches. Clearer pho-
Foodborne disease burden epide- cheese classification, a beautiful tographs on making a reduction
miological reference group, how graphic of commercial cheese were added.
Norovirus is #1 with Salmonella production, additional methods of ●● Chapter19 Quick Breads. Added
close behind, defined Integrated inhibiting mold formation, yeast NEW table explaining different
Pest Management (IPM) Program, as a contributor to ripening, and types of flatbreads.
added gluten as a possible quark cheese, common in Europe, ●● Chapter 21 Sweeteners. Updated
problem. to soft cheeses. Appendix E was NEWLY FDA approved Advantame
●● Chapter 5 Food Preparation moved to Table 11-1 showing sweetener, and improved the sugar
Basics. Added menu calorie origins of cheeses. Camel was alcohol table.
requirements, mixing method removed as a source of cheese in ●● Chapter 22 Fats & Oils. Improved
table, photos of culinary herbs, Iran. chemistry by adding NEW chem-
induction cook top option, addi- ●● Chapter 13 Vegetables & Legumes. istry figures describing fatty acid
tional cutting styles (Batonnet, Removed vitamin D as antioxidant, saturation and length, acrolein,
chiffonade, chop, pariseinnes), updated the Exchange List, NCI hydrogenation, oxidation and anti-
meniscus information, new rubs was updated to ‘no’ recommen- oxidant examples.
and pastes, mondoline figure, dations, improved descriptions of ●● Chapter 23 Cakes & Cookies.
melon baller figure, and metric Fermented Soy Foods, and inserted Inserted numerous photos of cakes
tables. the Color Inserts of vegetables into and cookies.
●● Chapter 6 Meal Management. to this chapter. ●● Chapter 24 Pastries & Pies.
Inserted NEW 2016 USDA Adult ●● Chapter 14 Fruits. Two color Inserted NEW photos of pies and
Care Meal Pattern, updated ter- inserts moved to this chapter pastries.
minology for registered dietitian (apples and exotic fruits), more ●● Chapter 25 Candy. Improved defi-
nutritionist, and nutrition dietetic fruits were added to Table 14-10 nition of unsweetened, bittersweet,
nutritionist, registered, modified Climacteric and Non-climacteric semi-sweet chocolates
nutrient box [removed decreas- fruits, and different types of olive ●● Chapter 29 Government Food
ing dietary cholesterol, added processing were added. Regulations. Included NEW
decreasing saturated fat (10% kcal), ●● Chapter 15 Soups, Salads, & FDA 2016 food label, NEW health
decreasing added sugars (10% Gelatins. Two color inserts were claims, NEW topic of “Food
kcal)], removed the Exchange List, moved to this chapter, koji defini- Fraud,” and updated pesticide
and added Use By, Best By and Sell tion was clarified, and additional information.
By dates. herbs were depicted in color ●● Chapter 30 Careers in Food &
●● Chapter 7 Meat. Color inserts figures. Nutrition. Updated terminology
were removed and inserted into ●● Chapter 16 Cereals Grains & of RD to RDN, and DT to NDTR.
this chapter for easier reference. Pasta. Expanded Figure 16-1 to Inserted salary updates.
xxv
ANCILLARY www.cengage.com/login. Access Loeb, publisher of The Union Leader.
and download PowerPoint pre- Your early support and encouragement
MATERIALS sentations, images, instructor’s catapulted my writing career. Lastly,
Assorted student and instructor sup- manual, videos, and more. thank you Peter Marshall, publisher,
port materials, thoroughly updated for starting it all by giving me my first
for the sixth edition, are available as contract. Without your knowledge and
follows: ACKNOWLEDGMENTS experience, this book would never have
come to be.
●● The print Lab Manual, revised Many individuals assisted me in the Many colleagues have contributed
by Janelle M. Walter (Baylor development of this textbook. I want to to the development of this text. Their
University), presents food experi- thank Krista Mastroianni, the lead edi- thoughtful comments provided me
ments and recipes to demonstrate tor who masterfully brought this book with valuable guidance at all stages of
the principles discussed in the to the completion of yet another edi- the writing process. I offer them my
text. Pretest questions and materi- tion, infused the book with new life by heartfelt thanks for generously sharing
als/time needed information for adding “color,” and inserted the online their time and expertise. They are:
instructors enhance the lab units, MindTap option for the very first time.
which parallel the organization and Lauren Oliveira, Associate Content Renee Hirschman Alster, MS, RD
content of the text. Development Manager for Life and Brooklyn College CUNY
●● Cengage Learning Testing pow- Earth Sciences, got the book started on Elizabeth Christian
ered by Cognero. A flexible, online the right track. Texas Woman’s University
system allows you to author, edit, I extend my thanks to the outstand- Kristi Crowe, PhD, RD, LD
and manage test bank content ing members of the Cengage nutri- University of Alabama
from multiple Cengage Learning tion editorial team: Oden Connolly,
Alyce D. Fly, PhD
solutions. Create multiple test ver- Associate Content Developer, for help-
Indiana University
sions in an instant. Deliver tests ing me revise and greatly enhance
from your LMS, your classroom, the artistic appeal of the sixth edition Keely Hawkins, MS
or wherever you want. Test ques- with incredible finesse and an incred- Texas Tech University
tions for this edition were writ- ible eye for artistic layout, design, Georgia Jones, PhD
ten by Joan Aronson (New York and absolutely perfect photos. Your University of Nebraska–Lincoln
University). speedy attention to detail and quick Lalitha Samuel, PhD
●● An Instructor’s Manual written by communications propelled this book Lehman College CUNY
Joan Aronson and Cheryl Houston forward to the finish line. Marketing
(Fontbonne University), available is ever y t hing, so t hank you Tom Finally, I wish to express my appre-
electronically, features engaging Ziolkowski, Marketing Manager, for ciation to the students. Were it not for
classroom activities, objectives, rec- making this book sell successfully on them, I would not have taken pen to
ommendations, and lecture outlines. numerous campuses where it counts. paper. I am grateful to be a part of your
●● Instructor Companion Website. Elesha Feldman, once again weaved academic journey.
Everything you need for your her invaluable editorial wizardry in
Amy Christine Brown, PhD, RDN
course in one place! This collec- revamping the text for the 6th edition.
University of Hawaii at Manoa
tion of book-specific lecture and A special thanks goes to the person
amybrown@hawaii.edu
class tools is available online at who kindled my writing career, Nackey
xxvi
About the Author
Human Nutrition and Foods. She has libitum high carbohydrate, low fat
been a college professor and a regis- multi-cultural diet for the reduction of
tered dietitian with the Academy of chronic disease risk factors” (Hawaii
Nutrition and Dietetics since 1986. Medical Journal); “Lupus erythemato-
Dr. Brown currently teaches at the sus and nutrition: A review” (Journal
University of Hawaii’s John A. Burns of Renal Nutrition); “Dietary survey
School of Medicine in the Department of Hopi elementary school students”
of Complementary and Integrative (Journal of the American Dietetic
Medicine. Her research interests are in Association); “Serum cholesterol lev-
the area of medical nutrition therapy els of nondiabetic and streptozotocin-
and bioactive plant substances ben- diabetic rats” (Artery); “Infant feeding
eficial to health. Some of the studies practices of migrant farm laborers in
she has conducted include “Diet and northern Colorado” (Journal of the
Crohn’s disease,” “Potentially harmful American Dietetic Association); “Body
herbal supplements,” “Kava beverage mass index and perceived weight status
consumption and the effect on liver in young adults” (Journal of Community
function tests,” and “The effectiveness Health); “Dietary intake and body com-
Amy Brown
of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” position of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete

Selected research journal publications of the Year” (Clinical Sports Medicine);
include “Position of the American and numerous newspaper nutrition
Amy Christine Brown received Dietetic Association: Functional foods” columns.
her PhD from Virginia Polytechnic (Journal of the American Dietetic Feedback welcome, contact:
Institute and State University in Association); “The Hawaii Diet: Ad amybrown@hawaii.edu
To Betsy Brown
The person who I love dearly, is one of the nicest
people I know, sacrificed unflinchingly for me, and
worked harder her whole life, as most Moms do,
than I ever will. I deeply respect and love you for
eternity. May the shining light that you created,
brighten many candles to bring more light and
love (Aloha) into the world.
Always and Forever,
Amy Christine Brown
xxvii
1
iStock.com/RapidEye
Food Selection
Sensory Criteria . . . . . . . . 1 attractive products. The food scientists
they employ focus on why people eat,
Sight
Nutritional Criteria . . . . . . 6 The eyes see the first impression of foods:
what they eat, and which food char-
Cultural Criteria . . . . . . . 11 acteristics entice consumers to choose shapes, colors, consistency, serving size,
one brand over another. and presence of any outward defects.
Religious Criteria . . . . . . 12 Black bananas, barely yellow lemonade,
People choose foods and beverages
Psychological and for at least five basic reasons: how foods meat cooked red raw, a cockroach eat-
Sociological Criteria . . 14 look and taste; health, cultural, and reli- ing cheese left out on the counter, and
gious values; environment; psychological scorched macaroni send visual signals
Budgetary Criteria . . . . . 17 that may alter a person’s choices. Color
and social needs; and budgetary con-
cerns (16). This chapter addresses the fac- can be deceiving; if the colors of two
tors influencing consumer food selection. identical fruit-flavored beverages are
different, people often perceive them
N ot too long ago, whole foods, such

as meats, milk, grains, nuts, veg- SENSORY
etables, and fruits, were the only foods
available for consumption. Today, food
CRITERIA Whole Foods Foods as you
find them in their natural state,
companies offer thousands of prepared People choose foods primarily by how
minimally processed, and free from
and packaged foods, which are primar- they look, smell, taste, feel, and even
additives or artificial ingredients.
ily mixtures of these basic ingredients, sound (Figure 1-1). Sensory criteria
but often include natural and/or arti- are discussed first because how a food Processed Foods Any deliberate
ficial additives. This wide assortment or beverage affects the senses is more change to a food before it is
of processed foods makes planning a important to most consumers than available to eat, such as salting,
nutritious diet more difficult, rather food selection criteria. The sensory fermenting, drying, canning,
than easier. Food companies compete criteria of sight, odor, and taste are freezing, packaging, or other types
fiercely to develop ever newer and more now briefly summarized. of processing.
2 Chapter 1 Food Selection
FIGURE 1-1 Sensory impressions of food provided by the five senses. Detecting Odors
Regardless of which classification is
used, most odors are detected at very
low concentrations. Vanillin can be
smelled at 2 × 10−10 (0.0000000002) mg
per liter of air (11). However, if an
odor is repeatedly detected, the ability
to distinguish between various odors
diminishes over the time; and this per-
ception of a continuously present smell
gradually decreasing over time is called
adaptation. People living near a nox-
ious-smelling paint factory will, over
time, come not to notice it, whereas
visitors to the area may be taken aback
by the odor.
How do we smell odors? They are
detected when volatile molecules
travel through the air, and some of them
reach the yellowish-colored olfactory
epithelium, an area the size of a quar-
ter located inside the upper part of the
nasal cavity. This region is supplied
with olfactory cells that number from
10 million to 20 million in a human
and about 100 million in a rabbit (11),
appearance when evaluating foods and reflecting the difference in importance
as tasting different even though they
are exactly the same (80). People may beverages for quality and desirability.
judge milk’s fat content by its color. For Although the sense of smell is not as
instance, if the color of reduced-fat (2%) acute in human beings as it is in many
milk is improved, it is often judged to be other mammals, most people can dif- How & Why?
higher in fat content, smoother in texture, ferentiate between many thousands of
and better in flavor than the reduced-fat odors. Recent research suggests that Imagine the scent of chocolate
milk with its original color (5). people’s ability to distinguish smells chip cookies wafting through
Chefs know that the color of foods is much greater than once thought. the house as they bake. How
on a plate is either appealing or detract- Researchers found the number of does this smell get carried to
ing. Imagine being served a plate of olfactory receptors to far exceed the people? Why is the odor of
baked flounder, mashed potatoes, boiled 10,000 originally thought to be present something baking more intense
cabbage, and vanilla ice cream, and then with the number being as high as than the odor of cold items like
compare it to one that contains a nicely 1 trillion (4). ice cream or frozen peaches?
browned chicken breast, orange sweet Heat conver ts many substances
Classification of Odors
potatoes, green peas, and blueberry cob- into their volatile form. Because
bler. Based on eye appeal alone, most Naming each of these thousands of
only volatile mole cule s in the
people would prefer the latter. odors separately would tax even the form of gas carry odor, it is easier
most fertile imagination, so research- to s m e ll h o t f o o d s t h a n c o l d
ers categorized them into major ones. Hot coffee is much easier to
groups. One classification system rec- detect than cold coffee. Relatively
Odor ognizes six groups of odors: spicy, large molecules such as proteins,
Chocolate chip cookies baking in the flowery, fruity, resinous (eucalyptus), starches, fats, and sugars are too
oven, coffee brewing, and spoiled meat burnt, and foul. The other widely heavy to be airborne, so their odors
used grouping scheme consists of are not easily noticed. Lighter
makes smell almost as important as
molecules capable of becoming
four categories: fragrant (sweet), acid
volatile are physically detected by
(sour), burnt, and caprylic (goaty) the olfactory epithelium by one of
(4). A newer proposed classification two pathways: (1) directly through
Volatile molecules Molecules divides odors into categories based on the nose, and/or (2) during eating
capable of evaporating like a gas into whether they are perceived as edible when they enter the mouth and
the air. (e.g., fruit, candy, bakery, or spice) or flow retronasally, or toward the
inedible (e.g., clean, flower, and cos- back of the throat and up into the
Olfactory Relating to the sense metic) and overlaps with previous nasal cavity (Figure 1–2) (65).
of smell. classification systems (94).
Chapter 1 Food Selection 3
FIGURE 1-2 Detecting aroma, When food comes into the mouth,
mouthfeel, and taste. bits of it are dissolved in the saliva
pools and they come into contact with
the cilia, small hair-like projections
from the gustatory cells. The gustatory
cells relay a message to the brain via
one of the cranial nerves (facial, vagus,
and glossopharyngeal). The brain, in
turn, translates the nervous electrical
impulses into a sensation that people
Stockbyte/Jupiter Images
recognize as “taste.” As people age, the
original 9,000 to 10,000 taste buds
begin to diminish in number, so people
over age 45 often find themselves using
more salt, spices, and sugar in their
food. Genetics also plays an important
role in taste; for example, some people acids of fruits, vinegar, and certain
can detect monosodium glutamate vegetables. The perceived unpleas-
(MSG) in foods because it contains glu- antness of too much sour food may
tamate. Another important factor influ- protect against disrupting the body’s
encing the ability of a person to taste acid-base balance (12).
is the degree to which a compound ●● Bitter. Bitterness is imparted by
can dissolve (56). The more moisture compounds such as caffeine (tea,
of the sense of smell between people or liquid is present, the more the mol- coffee), theobromine (chocolate),
and rabbits. The exact function of these ecules triggering flavor can dissolve and and phenolic compounds (grape-
specialized cells in the sense of smell is spread over the tongue to contact the fruit). Many other substances yield
not well understood. taste buds (29). bitter tastes, including the alkaloids
Interestingly, molecules can some- often found in poisonous plants (6).
times reach the olfactory epithelium The Six Taste Stimuli Thus, the ability to taste bitterness
by first going through the mouth and The common concept of a “tongue can warn us against ingesting some
then back up to the nose. Who has map,” in which different areas on the toxins.
not experienced the feeling of bubbles tongue are associated with the basic ●● Salty. Salty taste comes from ionized
tingling in the nose brought on by types of tastes—sweet, sour, bitter, and salts—for example, from the sodium
drinking a carbonated beverage while salty—has been largely discredited ions (Na+) in sodium chloride
simultaneously being made to laugh (12). Nonetheless, the four basic tastes, (NaCl) or other salts found naturally
unexpectedly? along with a fifth known as savory in some foods.
(umami, a Japanese word meaning ●● Umami (savory). This taste was first
“delicious”), and now a sixth taste for identified in 1908 by researchers at
Taste fat (oleogustus a Latin word meaning Tokyo Imperial University. Umami
is attributed to glutamate, an amino
“taste for fat”), have been proposed (52).
Taste is usually the most influential fac- acid that imparts the taste of beef
All are perceived in response to certain
tor in people’s selection of foods (52). broth but without the salt (46).
chemical stimuli. The time it takes to
Taste buds—so named because the Oleogustus. This wordy mouthful is
detect taste stimuli varies from a split ●●
arrangement of their cells is similar to Latin for “taste for fat.” It’s new. Pur-
second for salt to a full second for bitter
the shape of a flower bud—are located due University researchers recently
substances (11). Bitter tastes, therefore,
primarily on the tongue but are also identified and added oleogustus as
have a tendency to linger. The chemical
found on the mouth palates and in the the sixth taste. They demonstrated
basis of these five categories of taste is
pharynx. These taste detectors are not that medium- and long-chain es-
as follows:
found on the flat, central surface of terified fatty acids produce a unique
the tongue, but rather on the tongue’s ●● Sweet. The sweetness of sugar taste sensation separate from the
underside, sides, and tip. comes from the chemical configura- basic tastes already identified
tion of its molecule. A long list of above (52).
Mechanism of Taste substances yield the sweet taste, in-
What is actually being tasted? Many cluding sugars, glycols, alcohols, and
tasted substances are a combination of aldehydes. Little is known, however,
nonvolatile and volatile compounds. about the sweet taste receptor and
Gustatory Relating to the sense
In order for a substance to be tasted, how “sweetness” actually occurs (29).
of taste.
it must be dissolved in liquid or saliva, ●● Sour. Food acids deliver the sour
which is 99.5% water. In the middle of taste found in food. It is related to Oleogustus A proposed sixth
each taste bud is a pore, similar to a the concentration of hydrogen ions taste for the unique flavor of fat,
little pool, where saliva collects. (H+), which are found in the natural from the Latin for “taste for fat.”
4 Chapter 1 Food Selection
Taste Interactions
Each item used in food preparation How & Why? How & Why?
contains several compounds, and
bringing these items together creates Why does a dash of salt make How are food flavors preserved
new tastes when all their compounds some foods sweeter? during storage?
interact.
Taste sensitivity depends on a num- Flavors, regardless of the medium
Factors Affecting Taste ber of factors, including (1) the in which they are dissolved, do not
Not everyone perceives the taste of amount of time allowed to taste stay at the same intensity day after
a substance, (2) the concentra- day but diminish over time. Sensory
apple pie the same way. There is con-
tion of the substance generating chemists and flavor technologists
siderable genetic variation among indi- the taste, and (3) the individual’s know that one way to keep the
viduals in sensitivity to basic tastes (52). ability to detect various tastes. food products sold by manufac-
Tasting abilities may also vary within The threshold concentration is the turers from losing their appeal is
the individual, depending on a number minimum concentration required to prevent the volatile compounds
of outside influences. One such factor to detect a substance. This is not responsible for flavor from deterio-
affecting taste is the temperature of a easy to determine because peo- rating, escaping, or reacting with
food or beverage. Taste buds operate ple more sensitive to a particular other substances. In devising flavor
best at temperatures of around 86°F taste than others can detect it at preservation strategies, they look
a lower concentration. Below the at processing, storage, and cook-
(30°C). As the temperature of foods or
threshold concentration are sub- ing methods, all of which affect
beverages goes below 68°F (20°C) or
threshold concentrations that are the volatile flavor compounds. One
above 86°F (30°C), it becomes harder to not detected but may influence the of the major functions of protec-
distinguish their tastes accurately. For person’s ability to perceive other tive packaging is to retain a food’s
example, very hot coffee tastes less bit- tastes. For example, subthresh- flavor. Packaging guards flavor in
ter, whereas slightly melted ice cream old salt levels increase perceived several ways. It protects against
tastes sweeter. Other factors influenc- sweetness while decreasing per- vaporization of the volatile com-
ing taste include the color of the food; ceived acidity, even though the pounds and against physical dam-
the time of day it is eaten; and the age, actual amount of sugar or acid in age that could expose food to the
sex, and degree of hunger of the taster the food is unchanged. Conversely, air and result in off odors. It keeps
subthreshold sugar or acid con- unpleasant odors from the outside
(30). Psychological factors, such as pre-
centrations make a food taste less from attaching to the food. It also
conceived ideas based on appearance or
or more salty, respectively. This prevents “flavor scalping”—the mi-
on previous experiences with a similar principle can be applied to foods gration of flavor compounds from
food, also affect a person’s perception when too much salt is added to the packaging (sealers, solvents,
of taste. For instance, cherry-flavored soups or stews. Even though the etc.) to the food or vice versa (44).
foods are expected to be red, but if they salt cannot be removed, adding a
are colored yellow, they become dif- small amount of sugar will make
ficult to identify as cherry. In addition, the dish taste less salty (60). Trace
unpleasant experiences associated with additions of sugar also make acids
a food may influence the perceived taste taste less sour and coffee or tea to smell affects flavor perception, think
of that food in the future. less bitter. Small amounts of salt of having a cold with a badly stuffed-
Variety in available food choices also
sprinkled on grapefruit or added up nose. Everything tastes different.
to fruit pies tend to decrease tart- The nasal congestion interferes with
affects taste. This can be seen when the ness and enhance sweetness. Some
“taste,” or appetite, for a food eaten day the function of the olfactory sense,
compounds, such as monosodium impairing the ability to detect the aro-
after day starts to diminish. Even favor- glutamate (MSG), often used in
ite foods can eventually lose their appeal mas contributing to the perception of
Chinese cooking, actually improve
when consumed daily. Some weight- the taste of meat and other foods
flavor. Some people apply this principle
reducing fad diets that severely restrict by making them sweeter (34). to their advantage by pinching their
choices are based on the idea that peo- nostrils shut to lessen the bad flavor
ple will get tired of eating just one type of a disagreeable medicine they must
of food and therefore eat less. A routine swallow.
of grapefruit for breakfast, grapefruit for solely on the taste buds’ connection Whether in a package or on a plate,
lunch, and grapefruit for dinner quickly to the brain via nerve cells to signal a commercial food’s flavor is the single
becomes boring and unappetizing. the sensations of sour, salt, sweet, bit- most important factor determining
ter, umami (savory), and oleogustus marketplace success (52).
Definition of Flavor (fat). Flavor is a broader concept that
It’s important to know that taste is not encompasses taste, odor, and mouth-
the same thing as flavor. Taste depends feel. The perception of odor is triggered Touch
by volatile compounds reaching the The sense of touch, whether it oper-
nose and provides about 75 to 95% of ates inside the mouth or through the
the impression of flavor (79). Thus, a fingers, conveys to us a food’s texture,
Flavor The combined sense of taste, food without aroma has very little fla- consistency, astringency, and tempera-
odor, and mouthfeel. vor. To get some idea of how the ability ture. These terms are important to the
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disciplinarians until all are wearied out in turn, and all too late
conclude that the case is one for a doctor or perhaps an asylum. At
the evolution of the sexual power and at its decadence, during
menstruation, pregnancy, childbirth, lactation, especially after fevers,
blows injuring the brain, and cerebral disease or disorders of any
kind, are the periods of especial danger, as more general mental
disease is then developed with seemingly trivial exciting causes. The
friends observe that the sufferers do not seem entirely natural. They
imagine and suspect a great deal, rather than possess real
delusions. They often say that their heads are not quite right, and
manifest an evidently diminished capacity for mental work, which
tires them or makes them irritable. Modest girls become indelicate,
the truthful lie, the delicate use profane and obscene language, the
mild-mannered destroy furniture and clothing, the peaceful quarrel,
the gentle storm and rave; and yet there is a standard of virtue and
right, often a high one, on which they theorize, and up to which they
often think that they live. They take strong dislikes to those with
whom they are brought in contact, especially their nearest relatives.
They often lose the capacity to do work, and now and then become
spendthrifts or drunkards. As a rule, there are frequent periods of
quiet, amounting to depression, but rarely reaching the condition of
melancholia. Alternation or periodicity in the symptoms is the rule.
After threatening and even endangering the lives of those nearest to
them, insulting and indelicate conduct in public, perhaps frequent
arrests, a dozen times outwitting those who wish to confine them in
asylums, where they belong, their minds being alert enough to
attribute their conduct to drink or some cause for which they receive
slight punishment, and to argue their own cases so as to convince
almost any jury of their sanity, the rule is that their doubts,
imaginations, and suspicions deepen into active insane delusions,
their mental impairment advances to noticeable dementia, their
moral deterioration goes on to such a degree of depravity that every
body wonders why they had not been seen to be insane long ago,
and they are secluded in an asylum or elsewhere. A not uncommon
but unfortunate end is when they kill themselves before anybody but
a few specialists recognize their irresponsibility. Their recklessness
and want of judgment are often the cause of fatal illnesses and
accidents. Clouston reports the case of a lady who by a series of
extraordinary misrepresentations and clever impostures raised large
sums of money on no security whatever, and spent them as
recklessly; imposed on jewellers, so that they trusted her with goods
worth hundreds of pounds; furnished grand houses at the expense of
trusting upholsterers; introduced herself by open impudence to one
great nobleman after another, and then introduced her dupes, who,
on the faith of these distinguished social connections, at once
disgorged money. To one person she was a great literary character;
to another of royal descent; to another she had immense
expectations; to another she was a stern religionist. At last all this
lying, cheating, scheming, and imposture developed into marked
insanity and brain disease, of which she soon died; and it was seen
that all these people had been the dupes of a lunatic whose very
boldness, cunning, and mendacity had been the direct result of her
insanity.
S. K. Towle has reported the case of a man whom he had under his
care at the Soldiers' Home near Milwaukee, Wis., as follows: “He
had been a lieutenant in a volunteer regiment, and I gave him rather
more privileges on that account, but after a time I found that he was
more nearly an example of total depravity than I had ever seen.
There was no truth in him, and he was intelligent enough to make his
lies often seem plausible to me as well as to others. By his writing
and talking and conduct generally he kept the patients and their
friends in a ferment, and gave me more trouble than the whole
hospital besides. He had a small scar about the middle of his
forehead, which he said was due to a slight flesh wound from a
glancing ball in battle. While he was under my care an older brother
came to see him, and he told me that up to the time his brother, my
patient, who so tried my patience, entered the army he was almost a
model young man, amiable and affectionate, the pet of the whole
family and intimate friends; ‘But,’ said he, ‘ever since he came back
he has been possessed of a devil if ever any one was.’ After a time,
much to my delight, he asked for a transfer to the Soldiers' Home at
Dayton, Ohio, which I got for him with commendable alacrity; and he
went there. His conduct at Dayton was the same as with me, but
after a few months he quite suddenly died, when an autopsy was
made. In sawing open the skull, at the point of the small scar on his
forehead the saw came directly upon the butt end of a conical bullet,
two-thirds of which projected through the skull, piercing the
membranes and into the brain. The internal table of the skull had
been considerably splintered by the ball, the pieces not being
entirely separated, and there was evidence of severe chronic
inflammation all around, and quite a collection of pus in the brain
where the ball projected into it. Here was the devil that had
possessed the poor fellow—that not only took his life, but destroyed
his character, lost him the love and esteem of his friends, and
doomed him for half a dozen years to do things he would most have
hated and despised when he was himself. Dunlap, the assistant
surgeon at Dayton, told me that he found in this man's trunk letters
from several—half a dozen, I think, at least—women in various
places, from which it appeared that he was engaged to be married to
each one of them. The letters were neatly tied up in packages, each
one's separately, in several instances with photographs supposed to
be of the writers, and the date of reception and reply was noted on
many of the letters in a business-like way.”
As Westphal well says15 of such persons, “They often think correctly

and logically, and show reflection and deliberation to a certain
degree; but there is a certain something lacking, and there are some
general conceptions, general processes of thought and judgment, of
which they are incapable. Their mentality stops short on a certain
plane, especially in matters of judgment where every even
uneducated person easily succeeds. They sometimes act as if they
had good judgment and common sense, of which they are really
destitute, particularly in regard to the proprieties of life and their
proper social relations and duties. Certain of the finer feelings are
absolutely impossible of development in them. Through their various
nets, perverted by their mental defect, the patients often seem
perverse (bösartig), passionate (leidenschaftlich), although of true
sustained passion they are incapable. What seems passion is a
sudden idea or fitful impulse to which they yield at once. Moral
insanity is a defect in the affective sphere, but also an intellectual
defect of a peculiar kind, which is often concealed under the mask of
a perverted moral sense, and which requires time and practice on
the part of the physician for its detection.”
15 Berl. klin. Wochenchrift, 1878, No. 15.
Moral insanity is quite certain to pursue a downward course,

although something can be done by training, general hygiene, simple
diet, mental discipline, avoiding overwork, a judicious choice of the
few occupations of which the moral insane are capable, and a
constant steadying hand to help them try to keep their balance.
IMPULSIVE INSANITY is perhaps more properly called instinctive

monomania, as the morbid impulse is usually shown in only one
insane propensity at a time. Like moral insanity, its manifestations
are commonly periodic, or at least alternating. Under the name of
emotional insanity it furnishes sympathetic juries with an excuse for
finding not guilty of murder women who kill their betrayers and
husbands who shoot a wife's seducer. It is a not uncommon
symptom in a considerable proportion of the persons suffering from
the various forms of insanity. As a separate disease it is quite rare,
and includes those persons whose insanity is manifested, as Marc
says, by what they do rather than by what they say. The insane
impulse does not come from any logical process. It is rarely
provoked by or associated with a criminal motive, except in an
analogous way to the production by excitement of an epileptic attack,
to which, indeed, it offers some points of similarity. There would be
reason to doubt the existence of the disease unless other indications
of mental degeneration were present, especially where there is proof
of a criminal motive or where the criminal act and the prisoner's
statements are the sole evidence of unsoundness of mind.
Unconsciousness, even temporary, and loss of memory, are not
symptoms of instinctive monomania. On the contrary, the mind is
quite clear, and resists successfully the insane impulse so long that
the person affected with it has often gained confidence that he will
never yield to it; and he soon learns the fact that, there being in
circumstances external to himself no reason for the crime suggested
to the mind with such force, temptations do not occur to the act.
While the impulse lasts a great variety of distressing mental
symptoms accompany it, so intense that the impulse often cannot be
resisted, and then the terrible brain-tension is relieved. I doubt
whether hallucinations of hearing are found in impulsive insanity, and
incline to think that all the reported cases where crimes of impulse
have been committed in obedience to a voice commanding the
individual to do this or that act of violence are more properly
classified under other forms of mental disease. One kind of
instinctive monomania sometimes disappears to be replaced by
another. In developing boys and girls there is not seldom a
pathological mental state during which lying, stealing, running away
from home, etc. are common for several months or a few years; but
this is a curable condition, and does not by any means necessarily
end in instinctive monomania.
Suicidal insanity is probably the most common form of instinctive

monomania. The force, or even presence, of the suicidal impulse is
largely dependent upon the general tone of the system. The suicidal
idea is common; it occurs to the minds of a vast number of sane
people at one time or another under adverse circumstances.
Hysterical women talk a lot of nonsense on the subject. Self-
destruction due to self-depreciation, weariness of life, and general
gloom is not uncommon in the insane temperament. It is also a
refuge to proud and sensitive people who have sacrificed their honor.
But this is quite different from suicidal insanity, in which the impulse
is often strongest at a time when there are the most reasons for
living and the greatest happiness in life if the tormenting demon
urging to self-murder could be excluded. Such people finally kill
themselves, in spite of their best resolutions and efforts to the
contrary, if the various faculties of the mind become more and more
involved as the disease goes on and the power of self-control is
progressively weakened. More general insanity of the degenerative
type is sometimes developed from suicidal insanity.
Homicidal insanity is fortunately still rarer than the last-mentioned

form, although motiveless homicidal ideas occur to husbands and
wives and parents with reference to those dearest to them, under
conditions of prolonged mental strain or exhaustion, during
pregnancy and the puerperal state, and at the climacterium. In
suspected crimes the evidence of homicidal insanity should be clear
and should rest upon the general signs of the degenerative mental
state. Homicidal impulses are common enough among the insane.
Just as there are persons who do not dare to have sharp instruments
in their rooms for fear of killing themselves, so there are others to
whose minds axes, knives, and razors suggest imperative
conceptions of plans for killing another. It is difficult in either case for
the physician to satisfy himself at what point real insanity begins.
Seclusion under the morbid influences of an asylum is very bad
treatment for the individual, and symptoms which seem very serious
often disappear by restoring the general health. In a recent case,16
where a youth of nineteen was acquitted of the murder of his mother
on the ground of homicidal insanity, he knew that the act was wrong,
realized that he had committed a crime, and was full of grief for it, as
occurs in all such cases. It is the rule, too, that there is some
condition of mental defect or degeneration out of which the homicidal
insanity is developed.
16 Quarterly Journal of Mental Science, October, 1883, p. 387.
Dipsomania, a rare manifestation of impulsive insanity, differs

entirely from the acquired alcohol habit, drunkenness, acute or
chronic alcoholism, delirium tremens, or habitual intoxication, all of
which conditions are also more readily developed in the neuro-
psychopathic constitution than in persons with healthy brains, and
may reach a point constituting insanity. Dipsomania is periodic,
uncontrollable, and associated with other evidences of the insane
diathesis. The prognosis is unfavorable. The treatment is to improve
the general nervous tone and to seclude the patient during his
attacks.
Pyromania and kleptomania are not rare as symptoms of insanity of

the marked forms which are observed in asylums. As manifestations
of impulsive insanity—that is, as constituting a form of insanity—they
are associated with other evidences of mental defect or
degeneration. Burning and stealing alone are not indications of
insanity. As such, they are without sane motive, and directed to
objects in burning or stealing which there is no gain to the person
and usually no gratification except the sense of relief which comes
from yielding to the impulse, and of distressing mental symptoms if
the impulse is resisted.
Nymphomania in the female, satyriasis in the male, and the various

perverse and degrading methods of gratification of the sexual
instinct, may, when joined with other evidences of mental or nervous
disorder, constitute one form of impulsive insanity. Erotomania, an
ideal attachment without erotic feeling, is a more common mental
disease, but the other evidences of insane conduct are quite striking.
The same statement holds true of the many perverted instincts
which, according to circumstances, are or are not manifestations of
the defective brain-inhibition of disease. Animal impulse as a form of
impulsive insanity I had been inclined to doubt until I recently saw
two cases of as extreme mental suffering as I ever witnessed, in two
refined ladies who had suffered also from some cerebral symptoms,
occasional dizziness, and suicidal insanity, but who had no other
symptoms of cerebral disorder than those which are grouped under
the head of insane diathesis, and they not marked. It is not
associated with any erotic feeling or with particular persons. There is
more rapid wasting in flesh and strength and loss of sleep than in the
other forms of impulsive insanity, and, in my experience, greater
dread of yielding to the demon of unrest.
The perverted sexual instinct, with a feeling of repugnance to the

opposite sex, has thus far been observed chiefly in persons who
have been addicted to masturbation. It is marked by a passion for
some individual of the same sex, by other evidences of the
neuropathic condition, and commonly by a grotesque imitation of the
habits or dress of the opposite sex.
The indications for treatment in impulsive insanity are cod-liver oil,

the bromides, simple non-stimulating diet, open-air life, judiciously
regulated exercise, mental occupation so far as is possible, and
removal from suggestive surroundings and associations. The
prognosis is not favorable as to the final result. If the symptoms
disappear on restoration of the general health, other marked
indications of cerebro-mental disorder are pretty certain to appear
sooner or later.
HYSTERICAL INSANITY is one of the states of mental degeneration,

much less common among men than among women, arising from
the further development of a neurosis, hysteria, and probably to a
great extent due to bad training. Hysterical symptoms, quite marked,
are very common among young persons and in single women of all
ages in simple mania. They are not uncommon in simple
melancholia and in other forms of mental disease. They add
somewhat to the gravity of the prognosis in these cases. They
constitute a group of symptoms which I suppose to be understood by
those authors who speak of hysterical insanity as a disease in which
the cure-rate is high. But hysterical insanity, as quite distinct from
other psychoses, is quite a different matter. It is characterized by
extreme and rapid mobility of the mental symptoms—amnesia,
exhilaration, melancholic depression, theatrical display, suspicion,
distrust, prejudice, a curious combination of truth and more or less
unconscious deception, with periods of mental clearness and sound
judgment which are often of greater degree than is common in their
families; sleeplessness, distressing and grotesque hallucinations of
sight, distortion and perversion of facts rather than definite delusions,
visions, hyperæsthesias, anæsthesias, paræsthesias, exceeding
sensitiveness to light, touch, and sound, morbid attachments, fanciful
beliefs, an unhealthy imagination, abortive or sensational suicidal
manœuvres, occasional outbursts of violence, a curious combination
of unspeakable wretchedness alternating with joy, generosity, and
selfishness—of gifts and graces on the one hand and exactions on
the other. The mental instability is like a vane veered by every
zephyr. The most trifling causes start a mental whirlwind. There is no
disease giving rise to more genuine suffering or appealing more
strongly for the sympathy which, freely given, only does harm. One
such person in the house wears out and outlives one after another
every healthy member of the family who is unwisely allowed to
devote herself with conscientious zeal to the invalid.
The PROGNOSIS is unfavorable. While the symptoms may be

alleviated and a nominal cure may be effected, a relapse or the
development of some other troublesome form of insanity or neurosis
is the rule, to which the exceptions occur for the most part in women
in whom there is also some serious curable uterine disease or a
state of excessive physical prostration which can be relieved.
The TREATMENT of hysterical insanity demands tact and educating

power which will tax to the utmost the ingenuity of the wisest
physician. Sympathetic friends, and sympathy in general, are useful
in moderation, but they oftener do great harm, because they are
excessive; and the care which does good is that which, while being
kind and firm, tends to develop strength and character. The will and
the imagination are so extraordinarily powerful that their wise
direction and government constitute the most important part of
successful treatment. Diversion, occupation, and the development of
self-control, with careful attention to the general laws of health, are
quite important. The temptation to use drugs is, like the fascination of
being pitied and petted, very great, as alcohol, chloral, or opium
often acts like magic for the time being, and there is generally a
craving for one or all of them. But they are utterly demoralizing in the
end. The habitual use of stimulants and narcotics in such cases only
increases the evil. The fact must be recognized that the hysterical
insane are often least responsible where they seem most so, and
that they must be treated with unending patience, kindness, gentle
firmness, and a wise ignoring of most of the symptoms. Simple
palliative sedatives which cannot do harm must sometimes be used,
but the general rule, the less active treatment the better, is safest. In
the few cases where benefit has been got from removal of the
ovaries, healthy or diseased, the improvement, if it shall prove to be
lasting, will probably be attributable to the great physiological shock
from the operation rather than to any relation of the ovaries to the
disease. Removal from home is usually advisable for a time at least
—often it is necessary; and if residence in an asylum is not thought
to be wise, properly-selected hydropathic establishments or private
asylums are useful. Living in a judicious physician's home is
desirable when a suitable one can be found. In an asylum a rational
letting-alone treatment is found to be the most successful. If the
patient remains at home, hired nurses should be in charge of the
patient, or at least not members of the family. Safe seclusion will be
found necessary for the few who will not otherwise be prevented
from committing crimes and offences of startling ingenuity or
conspicuous publicity.
EPILEPTIC INSANITY arises from a neurosis, epilepsy, which almost

inevitably ends in mental deterioration of greater or less degree, from
scarcely noticeable impairment to complete dementia. The insanity
may be a continuous state; it may be subsequent to the epileptic
attack, or precede it, or take the place of it. Epileptic dementia is
more nearly allied to idiocy than dementia following other mental
diseases, and it is associated with a degree of moral perversion and
brutality which is quite uncommon in other dementia. The insanity
following or preceding the epileptic attack is attended with stupor,
delusions of persecution, confusion, transitory fury, or a condition
quite analogous to somnambulism or cerebral automatism; and the
same may be said of insanity replacing the epileptic attack, except
that the most common condition in it is a violent maniacal fury, with
unconsciousness, and subsequent nearly if not quite complete
amnesia. The forms of mental impairment are progressive in the vast
majority of cases. The other forms are more amenable to the usual
treatment of epilepsy, and sometimes diminish in severity as the
disease advances and the mind becomes weakened. In the fury
which takes the place of the epileptic convulsion there is in nearly
every case—I am inclined to think in all cases—an intellectual aura,
a slight change of action, observable early enough to give warning of
the approaching storm, which can always be mitigated, and often
entirely prevented, by absolute rest in bed and the use of chloral and
the bromides.
Although some few epileptics become well without treatment, and a

small number permanently recover under treatment, the PROGNOSIS is
even less favorable for the epileptic insane. The care of insane
epileptics should embrace, in the first place, safety to the community
by secluding those dangerous to it, and, second, the usual hygienic
and medical treatment of epilepsy.
Epileptic vertigo, analogous to petit mal, is a transitory mania, often

associated with passing delusions.
With regard to the responsibility of the epileptic insane—and, indeed,

all epileptics—the facts should be borne in mind that their mental
state is usually one of such instability that a slight irritation of any
kind is apt to induce a full or modified convulsion, and that under
provocation they commit partly volitional crimes, for which they are
not fully responsible.
HYPOCHONDRIACAL INSANITY differs only in degree from

hypochondriasis, described on a subsequent page. It is an incurable
manifestation of one type of the mental degenerations. It is slowly
progressive, and often ends in dementia. It differs from
hypochondriacal melancholia in being an evolution of mental defect
or degeneration, and in the fact that the mental depression, which is
usually of a mild, periodic, or impulsive form, is secondary to the
other symptoms, and not, as in hypochondriacal melancholia, the
mental condition out of which the hypochondriacal symptoms are
evolved.
The TREATMENT consists in attention to the general laws of health,

occupation, and a fattening diet. It is seldom successfully managed
without occasional recourse to an asylum at least, and oftenest a
permanent residence in hospitals, occasionally changing, is quite
necessary.
PERIODIC INSANITY, usually mania or melancholia, is marked by

attacks recurring at more or less regular intervals, with a partial but
not complete return to the previous mental health between them. It is
one of the incurable degenerative mental diseases. The seeming
recovery is only apparent, and the mental deterioration is
progressive, although quite slow. The form of insanity is also not
seldom a folie raisonnante (affective or moral insanity) with periods
of all sorts of excesses, destructive tendencies, tramp-life,
destructive acts, drunkenness, stealing, indecent exposure, etc. In
the intervals, which may be short or long, and which sometimes
correspond to certain seasons of the year, the mental condition is
still a pathological one, with the usual signs of mental degeneration,
thereby being differentiated from recurrent insanity, one of the
curable psychoneuroses, in which there is a state of mental health
between the successive attacks, but no sort of regularity or
periodicity in the recurrences. The prognosis is unfavorable, except
in so far as a quiet life in an asylum tends to prolong the intervals
between the periodic outbreaks, as well as to prevent annoyance to
the community during them.
CIRCULAR INSANITY (Alternating insanity, Folie circulaire, Folie à

double forme, Folie à formes alternes, Die cyclische Psychose, Das
circuläre Irresein) consists in a psycho-rhythm or succession, in
uniform order in each particular case, of (1) mental exaltation in all
degrees, from mild exhilaration or even gayness to acute mania, and
(2) mental depression of all conditions, torpor, or anergic stupor.
These two opposite mental conditions are separated in the vast
majority of cases by a shorter or longer interval of the normal mental
state, in which, however, there is soon observed some mental
impairment, however slight, rarely amounting to pronounced
dementia except in old age. Sometimes the three states shade off
into each other, so that it is difficult to say just where one begins and
the other ends; less often the transition is abrupt, sometimes during
sleep. The interval between the two opposite conditions of mind may
succeed either of the other mental stages, but the order once
established is maintained. The duration of the vicious circle varies in
succeeding attacks, sometimes becoming longer, sometimes shorter,
in the progress of the disease. The relative duration of the three
succeeding mental condition also varies, but the type of each
remains identical, or at least changes very gradually. The state of
mental exaltation often resembles moral insanity, with all sorts of
immoral impulses and tendencies, and may then properly be called
an insanity of action. The depression sometimes goes no farther
than sluggishness of will. The tendency of the disease is to shorten
life only slightly, if at all, except from the chance of suicide in the
depressed state and from exhaustion when the excited stage is one
of active mania. The shortest duration of the cycle in my experience
has been twenty-four hours, and the longest reported extends over
several years. It sometimes remains an affective insanity in its whole
course, without delusions and with little more dementia than might
happen from simply a corresponding advance in age without mental
disease.
During the period of excitement some supervision or control will

usually be desirable, and removal to some retreat or asylum will
often be necessary. In the depressed stage the indications are to
maintain the general health, to meet the chances of suicide, and if
there are delusions to obviate the risks of danger to other persons. If
the interval of comparative mental health is of considerable duration,
the ordinary occupation of the patient can commonly be followed at
that time for a number of years, rarely for life; but a better result may
be looked for if the patient's circumstances are such that he can give
up active and anxious work for some quiet occupation not involving
great care.
PRIMARY INSANITY (primäre Verrücktheit, primordiale Verrücktheit,

originäre Verrücktheit) is usually a further development of an
hereditary predisposition to mental disease. The term primary
monomania, although used as an equivalent for primäre
Verrücktheit, seems to me too narrow for a disease in which the
leading delusion may change so many times. Primary insanity is
sometimes congenital, and may be developed also by injury or by
disease involving the brain early in life or during the physiological
changes at puberty, possibly by self-abuse, in persons of an
unstable mental organization. It often develops so slowly with the
character as to almost seem part of it, until it reaches such a degree
of insane delusion of self-importance and expansive ideas as to be
unmistakable insanity. There are also delusions of persecution,
distrust, and suspicion, erotomania, and moral perversion, in spite of
high claims to superior character, and indeed in spite of a high
standard of life in some particulars. Perhaps the most striking
symptom of primary insanity is the great variety of imperative
conceptions (Zwangsvorstellungen) by virtue of which the individual
is impelled, by a force often irresistible, to commit various offences
against propriety and the laws, even to murder, as well as to perform
countless acts of unwisdom or folly. There are usually physical
indications of chronic or old cerebral disease, or of defect or
degeneration in the incomplete or asymmetrical development of the
brain, which, however, may be no more than are found in persons
who might not be classed as of unsound mind. Attacks of simple
mania (mental excitement) of short duration are quite common, and
there is a progressive impairment of the higher faculties of the brain
—those which come last in a high order of civilization—although
there may be acuteness of memory, perspicacity, and shrewdness
which seem altogether phenomenal as compared with the other
mental qualities. There is no form of mental disease which is better
expressed by the word craziness than primary insanity, no other in
which the victim is more thoroughly in the grasp of his malady, and
yet no other in which he is more likely to be held responsible for the
crazy acts which he may perform, because his inherent mental state,
out of which his generally deluded frame of mind is evolved, gives
rise to delusive ideas of such a character that they are not
universally recognized, even by physicians of experience in mental
disease, as insane delusions, but are considered by some of them
as the prevarications of a criminally-minded person. When these
persons commit crimes, too, they often do so with methods and
motives quite like those of the ordinary criminal.
The PROGNOSIS in primary insanity, after the disease is fully

developed, is in the highest degree unfavorable. It remains to be
seen how much can be done by moral training in childhood and
youth to correct the evil tendency. The education of those who get
into the courts and insane asylums, so far as my knowledge of such
cases goes, has been bad to the last degree, so that, in my opinion,
there has been a fair difference of opinion as to which of them the
law should treat as criminals and which as insane persons.
TREATMENT for the most part requires absolute control of the
individual, which there is usually no one in the family sound enough
to maintain. If begun early, training away from home may accomplish
much. Restraint in some institution is commonly called for, but the
vast majority of the primary insane are allowed to take their chances
in the world, and as many end in jails and prisons or on the scaffold
as in asylums.
The states of mental defect and degeneration, except in the case of

idiocy or marked imbecility, are not associated with such obvious
physical evidences of deviation from a normal mental standard as to
make them pathognomonic. While asymmetry and other cerebral
defects are frequently observed in them, it must be acknowledged
with Schüle that similar and as extensive gross intracranial
anomalies are found in persons who could not be called of unsound
mind, and that this statement holds true even of primary insanity, in
which some writers have laid so much stress upon the value of any
indication of imperfect or asymmetrical cerebral development. Any
defect in the brain, however, is far more common among persons of
unsound mind than among those of sound mind, and therefore in
doubtful cases it is of a certain value as corroborative evidence of
mental infirmity or impairment.
Spitzka places as signs of the insane constitution (1) atypical

asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres as regards bulk; (2) atypical
asymmetry in the gyral development; (3) persistence of embryonic
features in the gyral arrangement; (4) defective development of the
great interhemispheric commissure; (5) irregular and defective
development of the great ganglia and of the conducting tracts; (6)
anomalies in the development of the minute elements of the brain;
(7) abnormal arrangement of the cerebral vascular channels,—at the
same time acknowledging that there are cases of insanity of
inherited origin in which cerebral defects are not discernible. It is too
early to estimate the value and importance of the finer or qualitative
cerebral defects as giving rise to insanity. Benedikt finds them also in
criminals.
With regard to responsibility before the law, the statutes of no
country provide for any criterion by which accountability is defined in
these cases; medical witnesses differ in opinion as to their
criminality, and the courts are obliged to interpret the law to suit
individual cases.
The states of mental defect and degeneration are not sharply

defined. They run more or less into one another. The fact should also
be kept in mind that isolated symptoms and groups of symptoms
belonging to them are repeatedly found in curable conditions of
physical and mental exhaustion in neurotic persons.
The degenerative mental states are thought to be increasing, to

furnish material for the increase in the otherwise curable insanities,
and to thus include much of that portion of the community which is
most filling up our institutions with incurable cases. It is probably in
the prevention of them, or at least in the proper training and
disposition of children affected with them or predisposed to them,
that the most can be done to stay the increase of insanity. Perhaps
at some time unwise marriages of passion and sentiment will be less
common than now, and the rights of children to a fair start in life
more considered.
Psychoneuroses.
AFFECTIVE MENTAL DISEASE is a folie raisonnante, one of the

reasoning insanities, sometimes called moral insanity, and very like
the moral insanity already described, except in the absence of signs
of mental degeneration and in the fact that it is a curable disorder. It
is an insanity of action, marked by scarcely noticeable mental
impairment. It often is the early stage of more serious mental
disease, and not seldom its symptoms remain, as simply change of
character, after the striking symptoms of extensive mental disorder
have disappeared. It also exists and is cured without the appearance
of more pronounced insanity. At the time of the climacteric it is a
form of mental disorder not uncommon among women, who,
however, usually fail to recognize it as such until they have
recovered. Maudsley includes under this head simple melancholia,
simple mania, and moral alienation, but it will be more convenient for
the present purpose to use the term affective mental disease as
indicating a curable moral alienation or change of character affecting
the intellect chiefly so far as the judgment and sense of propriety
only are concerned, and not dependent upon constitutional defect or
developed degenerative mental state. There is usually slight
exhilaration or depression, which alternates or varies from time to
time.
The PROGNOSIS is favorable.
The TREATMENT is brain-nutrition, with those general measures

already described.
HYPOCHONDRIASIS, as Flint17 well says, belongs in the list of disorders

of the mind, although the mental alienation is not regarded as
amounting to insanity. The mental state is one of morbid imagination
and apprehension rather than of definite delusion, and it consists in a
belief in the existence, present or to come, of maladies and diseased
conditions for which there is no foundation in fact, in spite of
sufficient proof of their unreality. There is usually, not always, mental
depression. Its causes lie in conditions, usually obscure, which lower
the tone of the general health, including hereditary weaknesses, or
depress the vitality of the brain either by physical wear or mental
worry, and the exhausting influence of functional disorders or of
organic diseases which may not be discovered before the autopsy.
Disappointment, bad habits, want of proper mental occupation are
often at fault.
17 Practice of Medicine, p. 854.
The physical symptoms of hypochondriasis are commonly those

associated with impaired digestion and nutrition—namely, anæmia,
dyspepsia, neurasthenia, constipation, flatulence, headache or a
feeling of discomfort after using the brain, less appetite, slight loss of
flesh, disordered sleep.
The mental indications are more or less melancholy, indisposition to

exertion, irritability, diminished power of self-control, and an inability
to cease except temporarily from interpreting signs, proved to be
trivial, as indicating grave maladies or as forewarnings of severe
disease to come. Sometimes the fixed idea is limited to a single false
conception, but oftener slight changes in physical symptoms or
differing phases of morbid introspection produce a complete
kaleidoscope of pictures of fancied misery. The whole catalogue of
diseases, or a large part of it, may be exhausted, with the help of
some of the many foolish treatises always ready for hypochondriacs
or from reading medical books and talking with charlatans, who are
consulted at rapid intervals, one after another, both by those who
wander from office to office and those who take to their beds. The
most common type of hypochondriasis arises, directly or indirectly, in
some form of unhealthy or false ideas regarding the sexual function,
and in the idea that some imagined or exaggerated abuse of it has
produced or will produce most serious evils; but there is not an organ
of the body which may not be the basis for the unwholesome
thoughts. Not seldom there is simply the delusion of especial
weakness or sensitiveness or delicacy.
Hypochondriasis may be only the early stage of more serious mental

disease. It may be one manifestation of an hereditary neurosis or
psychoneurosis, or it may arise from deterioration of the body's
vitality by organic disease, especially of the abdominal or pelvic
organs or through some incurable weakness or functional disorder.
In either of these cases its cause and duration will be determined by
the clinical history. As an uncomplicated psychoneurosis
hypochondria lasts from a few months to a number of years, with
very little change in its prominent symptoms, resulting in recovery for
the most part, becoming chronic in a moderate proportion of cases,
and rarely proving fatal except by some accidental complication,
including suicide.
The PATHOLOGY AND MORBID ANATOMY of the disease are unknown.
The differential DIAGNOSIS consists in the exclusion of other diseases.
The PROGNOSIS is favorable in uncomplicated cases.
TREATMENT consists in measures to improve the general health,

especially a full diet carefully selected, hydro-therapeutics, massage,
gymnastics, horseback riding, walking, rowing, abundant and
agreeable exercise in the open air, and the management of the
patient's surroundings so as to lighten the mind and relieve from
worry, perhaps by travel, sea-voyages, etc. Argument is commonly
worse than useless, but there should be a decided impression given
that the generally morbid state is due to ill-health. The risk of suicide
is so small that restrictions of liberty directed to its prevention do
more harm than good. It goes without saying that bad habits should
be reformed, narcotics should be avoided, and a healthy occupation
should be encouraged, or, if possible, insisted upon. The difficulties
in treatment are fully as great with the highly-educated superstitious
and credulous people whom we find in the literary and professional
circles as in the ignorant and weak-minded.
MELANCHOLIA (Die Melancholie, Schwermuth, Tiefsinn, Trübsinn,
Lypemanie, Mélaneolie, Aliénation partielle depressive, Monomanie
triste, Phrenalgie, Psychalgia) is one of the functional mental
diseases, in the sense that the pathological condition of the brain
upon which it depends is not yet known, although it is thought to
begin with disturbances in circulation and nutrition, which end, if not
resulting in cure, in atrophic, degenerative, and inflammatory states,
indicating, in the great majority of cases, extensive brain disease. As
a rule, melancholia first appears in a slight change of character; the
patient is said by his friends to be not quite like himself. After some
days or months, as the case may be, the symptoms develop into
settled gloom associated with mental pain—the state known as
Simple Melancholia (Mélancolie raisonnante), in which the events of

life are correctly observed, but, incorrectly interpreted, are the source
of constant apprehension, self-depreciation, depression, and
despondency. There are no delusions, properly speaking, and yet
there is a disposition to take the dark-side view even of
circumstances which promise favorably, which amounts to a
generally deluded state of mind. Commonly there is increased
irritability, now and then a genuine moral insanity, and occasionally in
neuropathic constitutions the state of mind already described under
the head of Impulsive Insanity, of which the suicidal impulse is the
least infrequent. Sometimes there are no physical indications of
disease, but as a rule there are headache, increased sensibility to
light and noise, sleeplessness, restlessness, impaired appetite and
digestion, gastro-intestinal catarrh, marked loss of flesh, diminished
or abolished sexual desire, and in women usually delayed
menstruation or amenorrhœa. A few persons are able to keep up, in
an irregular sort of way, their customary employment. In the majority
of cases it is impossible to concentrate the mind upon work, mental
occupation fatigues the brain, and the physical strength is too
impaired for steady labor. Suicide is thought of probably in nearly
every case, as it is by many sane people at some time in their lives,
but it is very seldom committed unless there are such disgraceful or
distressing acts performed or suffered by them as would tempt to

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of kukui nut oil in treating psoriasis.” position of Mike Pigg—1988 Triathlete

N ot too long ago, whole foods, such

As Westphal well says15 of such persons, “They often think correctly

Moral insanity is quite certain to pursue a downward course,

IMPULSIVE INSANITY is perhaps more properly called instinctive

Suicidal insanity is probably the most common form of instinctive

Homicidal insanity is fortunately still rarer than the last-mentioned

Dipsomania, a rare manifestation of impulsive insanity, differs

Pyromania and kleptomania are not rare as symptoms of insanity of

Nymphomania in the female, satyriasis in the male, and the various

The perverted sexual instinct, with a feeling of repugnance to the

The indications for treatment in impulsive insanity are cod-liver oil,

HYSTERICAL INSANITY is one of the states of mental degeneration,

The PROGNOSIS is unfavorable. While the symptoms may be

The TREATMENT of hysterical insanity demands tact and educating

EPILEPTIC INSANITY arises from a neurosis, epilepsy, which almost

Although some few epileptics become well without treatment, and a

Epileptic vertigo, analogous to petit mal, is a transitory mania, often

With regard to the responsibility of the epileptic insane—and, indeed,

HYPOCHONDRIACAL INSANITY differs only in degree from

The TREATMENT consists in attention to the general laws of health,

PERIODIC INSANITY, usually mania or melancholia, is marked by

CIRCULAR INSANITY (Alternating insanity, Folie circulaire, Folie à

During the period of excitement some supervision or control will

PRIMARY INSANITY (primäre Verrücktheit, primordiale Verrücktheit,

The PROGNOSIS in primary insanity, after the disease is fully

The states of mental defect and degeneration, except in the case of

Spitzka places as signs of the insane constitution (1) atypical

The states of mental defect and degeneration are not sharply

The degenerative mental states are thought to be increasing, to

AFFECTIVE MENTAL DISEASE is a folie raisonnante, one of the

The PROGNOSIS is favorable.

The TREATMENT is brain-nutrition, with those general measures

HYPOCHONDRIASIS, as Flint17 well says, belongs in the list of disorders

The physical symptoms of hypochondriasis are commonly those

The mental indications are more or less melancholy, indisposition to

Hypochondriasis may be only the early stage of more serious mental

The differential DIAGNOSIS consists in the exclusion of other diseases.

The PROGNOSIS is favorable in uncomplicated cases.

TREATMENT consists in measures to improve the general health,

Simple Melancholia (Mélancolie raisonnante), in which the events of

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