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NUR 028 (Nursing Research 2-Lecture)
STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING/THIRD YEAR

Session # 2
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: METHODS OF COLLECTING DATA Book, pen and notebook
LEARNING OUTCOME: Textbook:
Upon completion of this lesson, the nursing student is
expected to: Barrientos-Tan, C. (2011). A Research Guide in
Nursing Education: Building an Evidence-Based
1. Discuss the methods of collecting data. Practice. Pasay City: Philippines, Visprint Inc.
References:
Polit, Denise F. & Beck, Cheryl T. (2012). Nursing
research: Generating and assessing evidence for
nursing research (9th ed.), Philadelphia, PA:
Wolters Kluwer Health/ Lippincott Williams &
Wilkins.
LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

The instructor will open a box of rolled papers with your assigned numbers. If your number will be picked by the instructor,
you have to answer one of the following questions:
1. What are the categories of data collection?
2. Who can explain the three types of research data?
MAIN LESSON (30 minutes)
Methods of Collecting Data

The following are the ways to collect data:
1. Use of already existing or available data
These are pertinent reports and other documents of an institution which could be any of the following
a. Raw data form basic documents such as records of patient’s admissions, birth dates, and discharges among
others
b. Tubular data indicating number of patients admitted or discharged by year or month or total number of
deliveries surgeries or the workload of nurses.
2. Use of observers’ data

These are gathered through actual observation and recording of events. For ethical reasons the subjects must be
informed that they are being observed.
Types of Observers
a. Non-participant observer
This observer does not share the same milieu with the subjects and is not a member of the group or subjects
of the study. Data from this source have the advantage of high level precision because subjective judgement
is minimal.
Example:
Ward clerks are trained to observe and record student nurses’ nursing care practices and the
response of patients to their nursing care.
This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

Education (Department of Nursing) 1 of 5
Types of non-participant observers
1. Overt non-participant observer
The observer identifies herself and her task of conducting research and informing the subjects of the
types of data to be collected.
2. Covert non-participant observer

The observer does not identify herself to the subjects she will observe. This may not be ethical since the
latter have the right to be informed of activities being involved in the process of research investigation.
b. Participant observer
The observer shares the same milieu and is better acquainted with the subjects. The observer may be a
member of the group assigned to collect data while taking part in the activity of the subjects.
Example:
Staff nurse A who is part of the population is being trained to observe Staff nurse B who is the
subject of the study. Both are assigned to the ICU on a 6 am to 2 pm shift.
Types of Participant observers:

1. Overt participant observer
The observer is involved with the subjects and has full knowledge an awareness of the subjects to be
observed.
2. Covert participant observer

The observer interacts with the subjects and observes their behaviour without their knowledge. This may
be construed by the subjects as “spying who might find out the real purpose of the observer’s activity.
This may have ethical implications similar to those of the covert non-participant observer.
Two methods of observations

a. Structured Observations.
These are done when the researcher has prior knowledge of the phenomenon of interest. The behaviour
checklist may help indicate the frequency of the subjects’ observed behaviour.
b. Unstructured Observation
The researcher attempts to describe the events or behaviour with no preconceived ideas of what will be
seen or observed. This requires a high degree of attention and concentration on the part of the
researcher.
3. The Use of Self Recording or the Reporting Approach

Self-recording and reporting method of data collection uses a specially prepared document intended to collect
data called instruments. This method describes tools, devices, test and other measures used in data collection.
It explains in detail how these are applied and validated.
4. Use of Delphi Technique

This technique uses a series of questionnaires to gather a consensus of options and information from a group of
experts. The process continues until a consensus is reached. Similar to questionnaires, it includes a large number
of subjects or respondents but its primary objective is to gather consensus of opinions, judgments or choices.
The Delphi Technique was originally conceived as a way to obtain the opinion of experts without necessarily
bringing them together face to face.
This is normally achieved through a series of rounds where information is fed back to panel members using
questionnaires. The Delphi technique can be used in developing a learning resource in mental health, cancer
research and others.
The following are types of Delphi technique according to Benner & Ketefian (2008):
 Classic Delphi
Questions are presented to a panel of informed individuals in a scientific field asking their opinions on a
particular issue or problem.

 Modified Delphi
Uses interview or focus groups to gather their opinions on certain issues or trends.
 Policy Delphi
Used mostly in organizations to examine and explore policy issues. A committee could be used to
formulate the argued policy
 Real-time Delphi
Uses a structured time, avoiding delay caused by pen and paper type, hence a face to face analysis is
done by the researcher.
 E-delphi
Uses electronics of e-mails, completion of online information by either classic or modified Delphi
technique.
5. Critical Incident Technique

This technique employs a set of principles for collecting data on observable human activities. It has high value in
nursing since the data is based on actual incidents and is not merely hypothetical. It is flexible to examine
interpersonal communication skills (Polit & Beck, 2008)
The researcher develops a codebook to define data before initiating data collection. Coding is the process of
transforming data into numerical symbols that can be easily entered into the computer (Houser, 2008) For
example, “religion catholic” as 1 and “non-catholic” as 2. Included in the codebook are definition of variables,
copies of all scales, questionnaires and forms used in the study. After data collection is completed forms are
checked for legibility and completeness and verify data as necessary.
CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (15 minutes)

Short Quiz. You have to read and analyze the sentences carefully then write T if the statement is correct and F if the
statement is incorrect. Erasures and superimpositions are not allowed (10 points).
1. The covert participant observer interacts with the subjects and observes their behaviour without their knowledge.
ANSWER: ___________
2. Miss A, an observer identifies herself as part of the research team for pediatric-oncologic department. She had
informed the nurse subjects of the types of data to be collected in the ward. She is a covert observer.
ANSWER: ___________
3. The Delphi Technique was conceived as a way to obtain the opinion of experts without necessarily bringing them
together face to face.
ANSWER: ___________
4. The researcher attempts to describe the events or behaviour with no preconceived ideas of what will be seen or
observed in a structured observation.
ANSWER: ___________
5. Mr. G formulated a questionnaire for his correlational study research instrument. His data collecting method is
Delphi technique.
ANSWER: ___________
6. The yearly mortality rate and recovery rate from COPD in a hospital can be obtained from an already existing
data.
ANSWER: ___________
7. In a retrospective study by student K, when he plans to make use of a codebook to be able to assign values to
information he is using an e-Delphi.
ANSWER: ___________
8. The participant observer shares the same milieu and is aware of the subjects in the study.
ANSWER: ___________

9. In unstructured observation, a checklist may help indicate the frequency of the subjects’ observed behaviour.
ANSWER: ___________
10. A policy Delphi is used to reveal arguments within a panel to address a policy issue.
ANSWER: ___________
RATIONALIZATION ACTIVITY
The instructor will now rationalize the answers to the students and will encourage them to ask questions and to
discuss among their classmates.
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LESSON WRAP-UP (10 minutes)
You will now mark (encircle) the session you have finished today in the tracker below. This is simply a visual to help you
track how much work you have accomplished and how much work there is left to do.
You are done with the session! Let’s track your progress.
AL Strategy: CHORAL WORK
The teacher will flash some cards to reactivate and deepen your prior knowledge on the methods of collecting data. A
series of cards will be flashed to make the class answer in unison for mastery. The pace will be quick so that all will enjoy
being part of the group. Occasionally, the teacher will say. “Say it with power” or “More energy please” to maintain
group energy.

Session # 3
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: MEASUREMENT OF VARIABLES Book, pen and notebook

Upon completion of this lesson, the nursing student is Barrientos-Tan, C. (2011). A Research Guide in
expected to: Nursing Education: Building an Evidence-Based
1. Identify the levels of measurement. Practice. Pasay City: Philippines, Visprint Inc.
References:
Wilkins.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16052183

The instructor will open a box of rolled papers with your assigned numbers. The students whose numbers will be picked
by the instructor will answer one of the following questions:
1. What are the methods of collecting data?
2. What is the difference between structured and unstructured observation?
3. What are the types of observers?
Variables are qualities, properties or characteristics of persons, things, or situations, may change or vary, manipulated,
measured, or controlled.
Measurement is a procedure for assigning numerical values to represent the amount of an attribute present in an
object or person.
Advantages of Measurement
1. It removes subjectivity and guesswork.

2. Obtain reasonably precise information.
3. It serves as a language of communication.
Levels of Measurement determine the type of statistical analysis that can be used and the type of conclusions that can
be drawn from the investigation.
1. Nominal are used to classify variables into categories but cannot be ranked, categories are mutually exclusive
Ex. GENDER: 1 Male or 1 Female

2 Female or 2 Male
CIVIL STATUS: 1 Single

2 Married
3 Others

2. Ordinal are used to show relative rankings of variables, and in ordering observations according to magnitude or
intensity; from most to least; highest to lowest
Ex. Scales – the devices designed to assign a numeric score for people to place them on a continuum with
respect to attributes being measured
a. Likert Scale- consists of several declarative items that express a viewpoint on a topic. Respondents typically
are asked to indicate the degree to which they agree or disagree with the opinion expressed by the statement
b. Semantic Differential Scale -participants are asked to rate concepts on a series of bipolar adjectives.
Respondents place a check at the appropriate point on a 7-point scale that extends from one extreme of the
dimension to the other.
c. Vignettes- brief case reports or descriptions of events to which respondents are asked to react.
Descriptions are structured to elicit information about respondents’ perceptions of some phenomenon or their
projected actions
d. Q Sorts- participants are presented with a set of cards on which words or phrases are written; they are told to
sort the cards along a specified bipolar dimension.
Typically, there are between 50 to 100 cards to be sorted into 9 or 11 piles

e. Visual Analog Scale - used to measure subjective experiences
Example: pain, fatigue, dyspnea, nausea
f. Graphic Rating Scale- A scale in which respondents are asked to rate something (e.g., concept or an issue)
along an ordered, numbered continuum, typically on a bipolar dimension (e.g., “excellent” to “very poor”)
3. Interval- rankings of variables on a scale with equal intervals between the numbers, consists of real numbers,
The zero point remains arbitrary and not absolute
Ex: Temperature in degree Centigrade
Temperature in degree Fahrenheit
Date, pH
4. Ratio- ranking of variables on scales with equal intervals, distance between ranks is specified up to the zero point
level, the zero is absolute
Ex: weight, height, income, No. of children/clients, temperature in degree Kelvin

Short Quiz. You have to identify if the level of measurement with the variables given below is Nominal, Ordinal, Interval or
Ratio. Erasures and superimpositions will be marked wrong. (10 points)
1. Marital Status
ANSWER: ___________
2. Income
ANSWER: ___________
3. Stress
ANSWER: ___________
4. Ph
ANSWER: ___________
5. Level of Knowledge
ANSWER: ___________
6. Perception
ANSWER: ___________
7. Year Level
ANSWER: ___________
8. Storm Signal
ANSWER: ___________
9. No. of nurses per shift

ANSWER: ___________
10. Type of bacteria

ANSWER: ___________
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AL Strategy: CAT 3-2-1
After the lesson, each of you will be asked to write in a one fourth sheet of paper the following:
Three things student learned:
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________
Two things student still want to learn more about:
1. ______________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________
One question student still have:
1. ______________________________________________________
The instructor will validate your learning and answer questions before the class dismissed.

Session # 4
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: SOURCES OF MEASUREMENT ERRORS Book, pen and notebook

Upon completion of this lesson, the nursing student will be able Barrientos-Tan, C. (2011). A Research Guide in
to: Nursing Education: Building an Evidence-Based
Practice. Pasay City: Philippines, Visprint Inc.
1. Explain the sources of measurement errors.
References:
Wilkins.

1. What are the four levels of measurement?
2. How are the levels of measurement different from one another?
3. Give examples of the four level of measurement
Sources of Measurement Errors

Measurement errors occur when there is a difference between what exists in reality and what is measured by a research
instrument (Burns & Grove, 2007). Instruments and objects being measured are influenced by several factors which
represent bias or can alter the resulting data. These influencing factors must be controlled in order to prevent extraneous
variables causing inaccurate data. The most common factors causing measurement errors are the following (Polit & Beck,
2008):
1. Environmental contaminants
Responses and scores are affected by the situation. Examples are temperature, lighting, time, friendliness of
researchers, presence of observers, research locale, among others.
2. Variation in personal factors

Response or scores are affected by the respondents’ personal states which influence motivation to cooperate.
Examples are fatigue, hunger, anxiety or mood.
3. Quality of responses
Characteristics and responses of respondents can interfere with accurate measures. Examples are social
desirability, acquiescence and extreme responses which social desirability, acquiescence and extreme responses
which can cause potential problems in self-report measures.
Acquiescence happens when the respondents agree to statements regardless of content.
4. Variation in data collections

Different ways of collecting data from one person to another can cause score variations. Examples are changes in
instruction, coding categories, approaches, among others.
5. Clarity of the instrument

If instructions are poorly understood, then scores are affected by confusion or misunderstanding. For example,
respondents may have varied interpretations of the questions in the instrument causing distorted measurement of
the variables.
6. Sampling of items
Errors can occurs as a result of sampling of items used to measure a variable. For example, a student score on
the 100 item test depends on what items are included as discussed and learned.
7. Format of the instrument

The manner in which the instrument is prepared such as its technical aspect, can influence measurement.
Examples are open-ended vs. closed-ended questions, oral vs. written. Order and sequence of questions may
yield different responses or information leading to errors in measurements.

Graded Recitation. Assemble with your respective thesis group. The following situation and question are given for you to
share insights. All students per group will present their answers in 1-2 sentences only.
Situation: A group of student nurses are working on their descriptive study entitled, “ BREASTFEEDING PRACTICES
OF TEENAGE MOTHERS”. A researcher formulated questionnaire checked by their adviser was revised. The 6 students
in the group plan to float their 25-item questionnaire next week Wednesday without their adviser’s go signal t as they
believe that they must have a good head start in their class for more time in data analysis. However, the weather forecast
is cloudy on the scheduled date of their data gathering. They also have 3 hours (1pm-4pm) vacant time on the day of their
supposedly data gathering. The researchers need to be in school for their 4pm Geriatric Nursing class .
Question:
What errors of measurement might result from the researchers’ premature action to float questionnaire? Why?
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AL Strategy: Think, Pair Share
You will be paired up with another member of your thesis group. The instructor will pose the question, “What can
you anticipate as measurement error/s in your group research?”. You have to share insights and write it on a sheet
of paper. Each pair will articulate their answer as the instructor calls them to recite.

Sessions # 5
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: RELIABLITY Book, pen and notebook
Textbook:
LEARNING OUTCOME:
1. Discuss reliability and its three important methods.
References:
Wilkins.

1. What are examples of measurement errors?
2. How does quality of response become a measurement error?
3. What is an environmental contaminant?
Reliability refers to the accuracy and precision of research tool. When a measure is precise, then the reader has a level
of confidence that differences between groups are not explained by differences in the way the trait was measured.
Methods of Testing Reliability

a. Stability of measurement
This is the extent to which the scores are obtained when the instrument is used with same samples on separate
occasions. A stable research instrument is one that can be repeated over and over (at different times) on the
same research subject and will produce the same result.
Major limitation → it can only be done when you can assume that the trait being measured will remain constant
over time; it is not useful in the measurement of changeable or transient states
Example of a stable concept = intelligence (can be measured repeatedly, at regular intervals, and to obtain the
same score)
Example of an unstable concept = pain (changeable, subject to frequent fluctuations even in persons with
chronic pain)
Tests of Stability
1. Test – Retest- the repeated measurements over time using the same instrument on the same subjects is
expected to produce the same results. This is used in interviews, examinations, and questionnaires.
A reliable questionnaire will give you consistent results over time. If the results are not consistent, the
questionnaire is not considered reliable and will need to be revised until it does measure consistently.

2. Repeated Observations- this method has the same basic elements as test/retest. The measurement of
the variable or trait is repeated over time, and the results at each measurement time are expected to be
very similar.
If you get different ratings at each measurement time, you will question:
Whether or not you have a reliable rating;
Whether or not you are measuring a stable trait or characteristic; or,
Whether or not you are observing the same way each time (i.e., whether you are a consistent observer)
b. Internal Consistency
The instrument shows that all indicators or subparts measures the same characteristics or attributes of the
variables. For example, the scale measures the nurse attitude towards patient care, it could be inappropriate
to include items on competencies rather than attitude since competencies of the nurse is not the attributes or
characteristics measured in the study.
Internal consistency must be established before an instrument can be used for research purposes .
a. Any new instrument that you might develop will require pilot testing before using it in your research
project.
b. If you revise an existing tool, you should treat it as a new tool for purposes of reliability testing.
c. Even an established instrument should be tested for internal consistency each time it is used with a
new population.
Tests of Internal Consistency

1. Split-Half Correlations- scores on one half of a subject’s responses are compared to scores on the
other half. If all items are consistently measuring the overall concept, then the scores on the two
halves of the test should be highly correlated.
2. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient- a measure of internal consistency, that is, how closely related a set
of items are as a group. It is a useful device for establishing reliability in a highly structured
quantitative data collection instrument.
It is not particularly useful in open-ended questionnaires or interviews, unstructured observations,
projective tests, available data, or other qualitative data collection methods and instruments.
c. Equivalence
Primarily concerns the degree to which two or more independent observers or coders agree about scoring. If
there is a high level of agreement, then the assumption is that measurement errors have been minimized.
Tests of Equivalence
1. Alternate Form- two tests are developed based on the same content but the individual items are
different. When these two tests are administered to subjects at the same time, the results can be
compared. This can be new sources of error through subjects fatigue and boredom.
Obtaining similar results on the two alternate forms of the instrument gives support for the reliability of
both forms of instrument.
2. Inter-Rater / Intra-Rater Reliability- this is the method of testing for equivalence when the design
calls for observation and is used to determine whether two observers (inter-rater) using the same
instrument at the same time will obtain similar results. Intra-rater reliability is a measure of
consistency an observer is at measuring a constant phenomenon,
A reliable instrument should produce the same results if both observers are using it the same way.
Example: BP readings using a stethoscope and sphygmomanometer – can also provide unreliable
data on test/retest when the reading is done with less than ten minutes between tests. To test the
inter-rater reliability of a blood pressure reading, a double stethoscope is used which enables two
people to listen and agree on BP readings at the same time.

Short Quiz. You have to read and analyze the statements carefully then write T if the statement is correct and F if the
statement is incorrect. Erasures and superimpositions will be marked wrong (10 points).
1. A test of stability can only be done when you can assume that the trait being measured will remain constant over time.
ANSWER: ___________
2. In the test-retest, if the results are consistent, the questionnaire is not considered reliable and will need to be revised
until it does measure consistently.
ANSWER: ___________
3. Intra-rater reliability measures the consistency of two researchers at measuring a constant phenomenon.
ANSWER: ___________
4. Repeated observation is a test of internal consistency.

ANSWER: ___________
5. An example of an unstable concept is anxiety level of people.

ANSWER: ___________
6. An established instrument should be tested for equivalence each time it is used with a new population.
ANSWER: ___________
7. Scores on one half of a subject’s responses are compared to scores on the other half in split half correlations.
ANSWER: ___________
8. A high level of agreement between two observers is an assumption that measurement errors have been minimized in
internal consistency.
ANSWER: ___________
9. Alternate form is used when two tests are developed based on the same content but the individual items are different.
ANSWER: ___________
10. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient is used in qualitative data collecting instruments.

ANSWER: ___________
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10. ANSWER: ________

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AL Strategy: Muddiest Point
The instructor summarizes the lesson discussed leaving enough time for you to respond. You will be asked to
bring out ¼ sheet of pad papers to write on your answers when the instructor asks the following question:
In today’s session in research, what was least clear to you?
The instructor collects the responses before the students leave. Responses from the students will be answered
before the class dismissed.

Session # 6
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: VALIDITY AND THE ASPECT OF SELF- Book, pen and notebook
EVIDENT MEASURES
Textbook:
LEARNING OUTCOME: Barrientos-Tan, C. (2011). A Research Guide in
Upon completion of this lesson, the nursing student will be able Nursing Education: Building an Evidence-Based
to: Practice. Pasay City: Philippines, Visprint Inc.
1. Compute for Item Content Validity Index (I-CVI)

and Scale Content Validity Index (S-CVI). References:
Wilkins.

1. What are the methods of testing reliability and their examples?
2. What is the difference between a stable and unstable concept?
3. What is a cronbach’s alpha?
Validity is the degree by which the instrument measures what it intends to measure. Validity should proved that the
instrument will consistently measure the right variables to be investigated.
It also refers to an instrument’s ability to actually measure/test what it is supposed to measure/test.
METHODS OF ESTABLISHING VALIDITY OF MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUE
A. SELF-EVIDENT MEASURES
These methods of establishing validity deal with basic levels of knowledge about the variable and look at an
instrument’s apparent value as a measurement technique rather than at its actual value. In other words, the
instrument appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.
A1. Face Validity

Refers to whether the instrument looks as though it is measuring the appropriate construct
At the most basic level, when little or nothing is known about the variable being measured, the level of validity
obtainable is called face validity
“On the face of it. . .” . . . “I think I will find out what I want to know by asking these questions. It looks right to me.”
This is the lowest level of validation and is used only when you are beginning to study a particular variable and
have no prior research literature to refer to.
If there is literature on the variable, either theory or research → face validity is not sufficient
A2. Content Validity

Concerns the degree to which an instrument has an appropriate sample of items for the construct being
measured and adequately covers the construct domain
Involves comparing the content of the measurement technique to the known literature on the topic and validating
the fact that the tool does represent the literature accurately
Content validity is frequently estimated:
a) From the review of literature on the topic, or
b) Through consultation with experts in the field who have become experts by having done unpublished
research in the area
 Use of Judge Panels → Face Validity

You put together a group of people that you believe are knowledgeable about the content you are testing or
knowledgeable about the process of developing questions.
These people, called Panel of Experts or Subject Matter Experts (SMEs), are asked to judge whether or not, “on
the face of it,” your work appears to be sound, that it will do what you want it to do.
Students can use: classmates who are familiar about the topic; instructors, particularly those who are familiar
with or teaching the subject; thesis committee; clinical staff (if it is a clinical study), etc.
The point is to get opinions other than your own.
CONTENT VALIDITY INDEX (CVI)

Parameters:
1 = Not Relevant
2 = Somewhat Relevant
3 = Quite Relevant
4 = Highly Relevant
ITEM CONTENT VALIDITY INDEX = Number of experts giving a rating of 3 or 4
Number of experts
0.78 (acceptable) or higher
SCALE CONTENT VALIDITY INDEX (S-CVI = Take average across I-CVIs
S-CVI = .90 or higher

Ave
S-CVI = 4.5 / 5 = .90 (ACCEPTED)

Seatwork. Students will be instructed to compute manually for the - ICVI and S-CVI.
S-CVI= ?

S-CVI=4/ 5 =
AL Strategy: Numbered Heads Together
As part of the review of the lesson given, you will be grouped into 6. All of you will be assigned of a number so that
each team has number 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, & 6. The following question will be asked by the teacher:
What is the importance of content validity in research?
You have to discuss the answer in your respective group. After your group discussion, the instructor calls out
numbers. The students called by the instructor who are standing are the speaker for their team.

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING/ THIRD YEAR
Session # 7
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: PRAGMATIC MEASURES OF VALIDITY Book, pen and notebook
AND CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
Textbook:
1. Describe pragmatic measures of validity and construct

validity. References:
Wilkins.

The instructor will open a box with rolled papers with your assigned numbers. The students whose numbers will be picked
1. What is a self-evident measure?
2. What is face validity and content validity?
3. How is CVI computed?
B. PRAGMATIC MEASURES
Also referred to as Criterion-Related Validity
These test the practical value of a particular research instrument or tool and focus on the questions, “Does it work?”
“Does it do what it is supposed to do?”
It involves determining the relationship between an instrument and an external criterion
One requirement of this approach is the availability of a reliable and valid criterion with which measures on the
instrument can be compared
The instrument is said to be valid if its scores correlate highly with scores on the criterion
B1. Concurrent Validity

Refers to an instrument’s ability to distinguish individuals who differ on a present or current criterion.
Instruments that attempt to test a research participant on some current characteristic have concurrent validity if
the results are compared and have a high correlation with an established (tested) measurement.
Example: You developed a behavioural checklist to measure nurses’ job satisfaction

 To validate this test, you would need to compare it with the results of an established job satisfaction
instrument shown to be valid for nurses.
 A high correlation between the results of the two dissimilar tests would indicate concurrent validity for your
checklist.
B2. Predictive Validity

Refers to the adequacy of an instrument in differentiating between people’s performance on some future criterion
Instruments that accurately predict some future occurrence have predictive validity
Measures designed to predict success in educational programs fall into this category, as do aptitude tests. They
are designed to measure some current characteristic that is expected to predict something that will occur
sometime in the future.
Predictive validity is established by measuring the trait now and waiting to see if the event occurs as predicted.
Once predictive validity has been established, the instrument can be used with confidence to discriminate
between people on the basis of expected outcome.
 The difference between predictive and concurrent validity is the difference in the timing of obtaining
measurements on a criterion.
C. CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
Attempts to answer the question – “What is the instrument really measuring?”
Used mainly for measures of traits or feelings, such as generosity, grief, or satisfaction.
The theoretical base for the concept is tested by determining the extent to which the instrument actually measures
that concept.
C1. Contrasted Groups or Known-Group Technique

This is carried out by comparing two groups, one of which is known to be very high on the concept being
measured by the tool, and the other very low on that concept
Example:
A group of recently bereaved individuals would be expected to score very high on a measure of grief, whereas a
group of people who have not suffered any losses should score very low.
The tool can be given to both groups and the scores compared.
If the tool is valid, the mean scores of these two groups will be significantly different.
C2. Experimental Manipulation

An experiment is designed to test the theory or conceptual framework underlying the instrument.
The experiment would have hypotheses that predict the behaviour of people who score at various levels on the
tool.
Data will then be collected, testing the hypotheses to determine whether the theory underlying the tool is
adequate to explain the data collected.
C3. Multitrait-Multimethod Matrix Method (MTMM) (by Campbell and Fiske)

This approach is based on the premise that different measures of the same construct should produce very similar
results, and that measures of different constructs should produce very different results.
The procedure involves the concepts of convergence and discriminability
Convergent validity is the evidence that different methods of measuring a construct yield similar results
Discriminant validity is the ability to differentiate construct from other similar constructs
MTMM is the preferred method of establishing construct validity whenever it is possible to use it.
To perform this type of validity, you must have access to more than one method of measuring the construct under
study, and you must be able to measure another construct at the same time. Thus, you have data from two or
more tools designed to measure the construct you are studying and one or more measures of a different
construct.
Example:
A study to validate a “need for autonomy” measure among nursing home residents
Measure critical concept by two or more methods
Measure a differentiating construct, using the same measuring methods

If there is a good construct validity, you will see a high correlation between the tools that are measuring the same
construct.
In addition, the measurement of the different construct will allow you to discriminate between the two constructs,
and it will be clear that the tools are measuring different traits.

Short Quiz. You have to read and analyze the questions carefully then write your answer in CAPITAL letters only.
Erasures and superimpositions will be marked wrong (10 points).
1. The difference between predictive and concurrent validity is the difference in the ______ of obtaining measurements
on a criterion.
a. Manner
b. Place
c. Timing
d. None of the above
ANSWER: ________
2. One requirement of this approach is the availability of a reliable and valid criterion with which measures on the
instrument can be compared
a. Criterion-Related Validity
b. Construct Validity
c. Content Validity
d. Face Validity
ANSWER: ________
3. This is established by measuring the trait now and waiting to see if the event occurs as predicted.
a. Construct Validity
b. Content Validity
c. Face Validity
d. Predictive Validity
ANSWER: ________

4. A researcher will measure the validity of her instrument on the phenomena of grief in pandemic. The validity that
measures grief is:
a. Criterion-Related Validity
b. Construct Validity
c. Content Validity
d. Face Validity
ANSWER: ________
5. If a researcher will determine the relationship between Student Aptitude Test (SAT) and grades in 1st year college of
PHINMA schools, the validity measure will be:
a. Concurrent Validity
b. Content Validity
c. Face Validity
ANSWER: ________
6. Two research instruments yield similar results in a study on nurses’ perception in end of life care. This is validated by:
b. Contrasted Groups
c. Experimental Manipulation
d. MTMM
ANSWER: ________
7. To perform this type of validity, the researcher must have access to more than one method of measuring the construct
under study, and you must be able to measure another construct at the same time.
d. MTMM
ANSWER: ________
8. It is the evidence that different methods of measuring a construct yield similar results.
a. Convergent Validity
b. Divergent Validity
c. Discriminant Validity
ANSWER: ________
9. It is the ability to differentiate construct from other similar constructs.
a. Convergent Validity
b. Discriminant Validity
c. Both a and b
ANSWER: ________
10. Data collection and testing the hypotheses to determine whether the theory underlying the tool is adequate to explain
the data collected is performed in:
d. MTMM

ANSWER: ________
1. ANSWER: ________
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2. ANSWER: ________
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3. ANSWER: ________
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4. ANSWER: ________
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5. ANSWER: ________
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6. ANSWER: ________
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7. ANSWER: ________
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8. ANSWER: ________
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9. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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10. ANSWER: ________

RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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AL Strategy: Using Risk Language
The instructor will ask you to recite on the things learned during the discussion and will pose the question, “Who is
willing to risk an answer?”. This strategy will help less confident students move beyond their apprehensions and
participate fully and to remind all of you how risk taking serves learning in research.

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING/ THIRD YEAR
Session # 8
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY Book, pen and notebook
Textbook:
LEARNING OUTCOME:
1. Compute for true positives and true negatives.
References:
Wilkins.

1. What is a pragmatic measure?
2. What are examples of pragmatic measures?
3. What is construct validity?
4. What are the examples of construct validity?
Sensitivity is the ability of the instrument to correctly screen or identify the variables to be manipulated and measure to
diagnose its condition.
• The ability of a measure to identify a “CASE” correctly
• To screen in or diagnose a condition correctly
• An instrument’s rate of yielding TRUE POSITIVES
Specificity is the ability of the instrument to correctly identify non-cases or extraneous variables and screen out those
condition not necessary for manipulation.
• The ability of a measure to identify “NON-CASES” correctly

• To screen out those without the condition correctly
• An instrument’s rate of yielding TRUE NEGATIVES
Example:
Objective: To evaluate whether adolescents’ self-reports about their smoking were accurate
Sample: N = 100, Teenagers aged 13 to 15
Methodology: Study participants were asked whether they had smoked a cigarette in the previous 24 hours
Tested in urinary assay
Table 1. SENSITIVITY AND SPECIFICITY IN SELF-REPORTED SMOKING AMONG TEENAGERS

SELF-REPORTED POSITIVE (Cotinine > NEGATIVE (Cotinine <
TOTAL
SMOKING 200ng/ml 200ng/ml
A (True Positive) B (False Positive) A+B

YES, smoked
20 10 30
C (False Negative) D (True Negative) C+D

NO, did not smoke
20 50 70
A+C B+D A+B+C+D

TOTAL
40 60 100
SENSITIVITY = A / (A + C)
or = ____TP___ = 20_____ = 0.50 (TRUE POSITIVES)
TP + FN 20+20
SPECIFICITY = D / (B + D) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Or = ___TN____ = 50____ = 0.83 (TRUE NEGATIVES)
FP + TN 10+50

Short Quiz. You have to write the formula and complete solution to get maximum points as you compute for sensitivity
and specificity but calculators are not allowed (10 points).
Objective: To evaluate whether university students self-reports about drinking caffeinated beverages were
accurate
Sample: N = 116, students ages 17-22
Methodology: Study participants were asked whether they had intake of caffeinated beverages for the last 24
hours
SELF-REPORTED POSITIVE (Caffeine > NEGATIVE (Caffeine <

TOTAL
COFFEE DRINKING 15mcg/ml 15mcg/ml
A (True Positive) B (False Positive)

YES, drank coffee _____
30 22
C (False Negative) D (True Negative)

NO, did not drink coffee _____
35 29
TOTAL A+C B+D _____

Sensitivity = ?
Specificity = ?
ANSWERS:
SELF-REPORTED POSITIVE (Caffeine > NEGATIVE (Caffeine <

TOTAL
COFFEE DRINKING 15mcg/ml 15mcg/ml
A (True Positive) B (False Positive)

YES, drank coffee _____
30 22
C (False Negative) D (True Negative)

NO, did not drink coffee _____
35 29
TOTAL A+C B+D _____
SENSITIVITY =

SPECIFICITY =
(Note: 3 points for the total column inside the table, 6 points for the answer and solution. 1 point bonus)
AL Strategy: Turn and Talk
Step 1: The instructor poses this question:

What can be the health practice of university students today that will yield high true positives? Why?
Step 2: Turn to the next student seated to your right to be his/her partner.
Step 3: Each pair is given 2 minutes to discuss the assigned question. When the time is up, your pair will be assigned
to share thoughts and ideas from your discussion.

Session # 9
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: THREATS TO INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL Book, pen and notebook
VALIDITY
Textbook:
1. Discuss internal and external threats to validity.

References:
Wilkins.

The instructor will open a box of rolled papers with your’ assigned numbers. The students whose numbers will be picked
1. What is the difference between sensitivity and specificity?
2. How are true positives and true negatives computed?
Internal Validity
This means the degree to which changes in the dependent variable (effects) can be attributed to the independent
variable (cause).
Threats to Internal Validity
a. Selection Bias
This exists when study results are attributed to the experimental treatment, when in fact results are due to
differences among the subjects even before the treatment.
Example:
In a study which aims to help people stop smoking using a “smoking cessation intervention (SCI),” (new
treatment) there were 20 volunteers who offered to stop smoking, (experimental group), and 20 volunteers
who refused to stop smoking (control group). However, the experimental group may have been motivated to
stop smoking even before the treatment started, hence, the selection process may have a biased effect on
the results of the study.
b. History
This occurs when some events besides the experimental treatment takes place during the course of the study
and affects or influences the dependent variable.
Example:

The incidence of prenatal training among pregnant women after 2 weeks of teaching program, but during the
teaching process, an article is published on the rise of maternal complications. This “history” factor could
result in the increased incidence of prenatal training among pregnant women.
c. Maturation
This take place when changes within the subjects occur during the experimental study thus may influence
study results.
Example:
The subjects may have gained in height and weight at the time when the pre-test and the post-test were being
administered. If the nurse is interested in gain in weight and height of malnourished children, she will keep in
mind that change in their size may occur during the treatment of course of the study.
d. Testing
Possible testing threat in studies in which a pre-test is a requisite. This refers to the influence of the pre-test,
which already projects the result of the post-test scores.
Example:
Test Scores of the actual study subjects may be altered in the post-test as a result of their knowledge of the
pre-test results.
e. Instrumentation Change
The existence of a difference between pre-test and post test results caused by change in the accuracy of the
instrument of the ratings, rather than the results of the experimental treatment.
Example:
A change or breakdown of a mechanical instrument such as the sphygmomanometer used in taking the blood
pressure affects the accuracy of reading throughout the study.
f. Mortality
This happens when a difference exists between the subject dropout rates of either the experimental group
and the control group.
Example:
If a large experimental group or control group scored very low in a pre-test, some of the subjects may have
dropped out of the study. Thus, the average scores in the post-test of either the experimental group or control
group would be correspondingly low.
External Validity
This is the degree to which study results can be influenced or affected by external factors or populations and settings.
Threats to external validity

a. Hawthorne Effect
Hawthorne effect occurs when study participants respond in a particular manner, or there is obvious change
of behaviour because they are aware that they are being observed.
Dealing with this problem is handled by having a control group that is subject to the same conditions as the
treatment group, then administering a placebo to the control group.
The study is termed a blind experiment when the subject does not know whether he or she is receiving the
treatment or a placebo.
Example:
A student nurse applies correct techniques in doing nursing procedures while the researcher observes her.
b. Experimenter Effect
This refers to a threat to the study which results when the researcher’s behaviour influences the behaviour of
the subjects, such as the researcher’s facial expression, gender and clothing among others.
c. Reactive Effect of the Pre-Test

This occurs when the subjects have been sensitized to the treatment by taking the pre-test and thereafter
influence the post-test results.
d. Halo Effect
This is the tendency of the researcher to rate the subject high or low because of the impression he has on the
latter.
Example:
A student nurse known to be intelligent is exempted in taking the post test. The teacher with that impression
will give the students the highest score.
For the researcher to minimize threats to external validity, the double blind method may be used to remove
the observer’s bias. This means that neither the subject nor the observer knows the specific research
objective or the specific subjects who belong to the experimental or control group. Hence, the observer
cannot distort the data.
If the double blind method is not feasible, the double observer method may be used to determine the extent
of bias between the two observers as they both observe and record the subjects’ performance on a
dependent variable.

Short Quiz. You are to read and analyze the questions carefully then write your answer in CAPITAL letters only. Erasures
and superimpositions will be marked wrong. (10 points)
1. A researcher made known to the subjects that they are under observation. This may result to:
a. Experimenter effect
b. Halo effect
c. Hawthorne effect
d. Reactive effect
ANSWER: ________
2. A study was conducted on the level of skills in DR among level 2 students. Two of the students are on the dean’s
list. The researchers are fully aware of this and they assume that these students are skillful in DR, a threat to
external validity called:
b. Halo effect
c. Hawthorne effect
d. Reactive effect
ANSWER: ________
Situation: Researcher B is scheduled for a 6- month data gathering in the dialysis department for a clinical trial of a new
medication for CKD. He had started the clinical trial 3 months ago. Due to the pandemic however, some dialysis clients
were not able to participate because of the community quarantine imposed by the government.
3. If the clients will continue with the clinical trial after two months, there can be changes in their body which can be
brought about by the stress in the pandemic, a threat to validity called:
a. History
b. Maturation
c. Mortality
d. Selection bias
ANSWER: ________
4. When the CKD participants believe that the gentle demeanor and smile of the researchers have a therapeutic
effect on their condition, it can be assumed that this is a:
b. Instrumentation change

c. Hawthorne effect
d. Reactive effect
ANSWER: ________
5. Due to the influx of dialysis patients after the extreme community quarantine, there was an influx of clients in the
dialysis ward. As a result, the breakdown of two hemodialysis machines may cause:
b. Instrumentation change
c. Hawthorne effect
d. Selection bias
ANSWER: ________
6. Some of the clients lose their motivation and are not willing to continue as subjects in the study because of
unavailability of transportation and challenging financial obligations. This is called:
a. Mortality
b. Maturation
c. Selection bias
d. Reactive effect
ANSWER: ________
7. The degree to which study results can be generalized to other settings or samples
a. External Validity
b. Internal Validity
c. Construct Validity
ANSWER: ________
8. This is the degree to which study results can be influenced or affected by external factors or populations and
settings.
a. External Validity
b. Internal Validity
c. Construct Validity
ANSWER: ________
9. To prevent the hawthorne effect, the participants do not know whether he or she is receiving the new drug for
CKD. This is a:
a. Blind study
b. Double blind study
c. Double observer study
ANSWER: ________
10. It is a study when neither the doctor observer nor the client subject knows the specific research objective or the
specific subjects who belong to the experimental or control group.
a. Blind study
b. Double blind study
c. Double observer study
ANSWER: ________

1. ANSWER: ________
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2. ANSWER: ________
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3. ANSWER: ________
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4. ANSWER: ________
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5. ANSWER: ________
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6. ANSWER: ________
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7. ANSWER: ________
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8. ANSWER: ________
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9. ANSWER: ________
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10. ANSWER: ________

RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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AL Strategy: Microlecture
The teacher will ask you to choose and recite an outcome sentence. The following are the outcome sentences:
I learned………
I was surprised…….
I’m beginning to wonder……..
I rediscovered……………..

Session # 10
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: THREATS TO CONSTRUCT AND Book, pen and notebook
STATISTICAL CONCLUSION VALIDITY
Textbook:
1. Describe the threats to external validity of a

research. References:
Wilkins.

1. What is internal validity?
2. What are the threats to internal validity
3. What is an external validity?
4. What are the threats to external validity?
Construct Validity is the extent to which the measurements used, often questionnaires, actually test the hypothesis or
theory they are measuring.
Threats to Construct Validity
1. Reactivity to the study situation

When people’s responses reflect, in part, their perceptions become part of the treatment construct under study.
There are several ways to reduce this problem, including blinding, using outcome measures not susceptible to
reactivity (e.g. data from hospital records) and using pre-intervention strategies to satisfy participants’ desire to
look competent or please the researcher.
2. Researcher expectancies
A similar threat stems from the researcher’s influence on participant responses through subtle (or not so-subtle)
communication about desired outcomes. When this happens, the researcher’s expectations become part of the
treatment (or nonmanipulated independent variable) construct that is being tested. Blinding is a strategy to reduce
this threat, but another strategy is to use observations during the course of the study to detect verbal or
behavioral signals of expectations and correct them.
3. Novelty effects

When a treatment is new, participants and research agents alike might alter their behavior. People may be either
enthusiastic or skeptical about new methods of doing things. Results may reflect reactions to the novelty rather
than to the intrinsic nature of an intervention, so the intervention construct is clouded by novelty content.
4. Compensatory effects
In intervention studies, compensatory equalization can occur if health care staff or family members try to
compensate for the control group members’ failure to receive a perceived beneficial treatment. The compensatory
goods or services must then be part of the construct description of the treatment conditions. Compensatory rivalry
is a related threat arising from the control group members’ desire to demonstrate that they can do as well as
those receiving a special treatment.
5. Treatment diffusion or contamination

Sometimes alternative treatment conditions can get blurred, which can impede good construct descriptions of the
independents variable. This may occur when participants in a control group condition receive services similar to
those available in the treatment condition. More often, however, blurring occurs when those in the treatment
condition essentially put themselves into the control group by dropping out of the intervention. This threat can also
occur in non-experimental studies. For example, in case-control comparisons of smokers and non-smokers, care
must be taken during screening to ensure that study participants are, in fact, appropriately categorized (e.g.,
some people may consider themselves non-smokers even though they smoke regularly, but only on weekends).
Threats to Statistical Conclusion Validity
One criterion for establishing causality is demonstrating that there is a relationship between the independent and
dependent variables. Statistical Methods are used to support inferences about whether relationships exist.
1. Low Statistical Power

Statistical power refers to the ability to detect true relationships among variables. Adequate statistical power can
be achieved by using a sufficiently large sample. When small samples are used, statistical power tends to be low,
and the analysis may fail to show that the independent and dependent variables are related, even when they are.
Another aspect of statistical power is precision. This is achieved through accurate measuring tools, controls over
confounding variables, and powerful statistical methods.
2. Restriction of Range
Although the control of extraneous variation through homogeneity is easy to use and can help to clarify the
relationship between key research variables, it can be risky. Not only does this approach limit the generalizability
of study findings, but it can also sometimes undermine statistical conclusion validity. When the use of
homogeneity restricts the range of values on the outcome variable, relationship between the outcome and the
independent variable will be attenuated, and may, therefore, lead to an erroneous inference that the variables are
unrelated,
Example, limiting the sample of nursing home residents to elders younger that 80 to reduce variability in the
denominator. The aim was to enhance the variability in depression scores attributable to nursing home admission,
relative to depression variability due to other factors. What if, however, few elders under 80 were depressed?
With limited variability, relationship cannot be detected – the values in both the numerator and denominator are
deflated. For example, if everyone had a depression score of 50, depression scores would be totally unrelated to
age, pain levels, nursing home admission, and so on. Thus, in designing a study, it is important to consider
whether there will be sufficient variability to support the statistical analyses envisioned.
3. Unreliable Implementation of a Treatment

Intervention fidelity (or treatment fidelity) concerns the extent to which the implementation of an intervention is
faithful to its plan. Interventions can be weakened by various factors, which researchers can often influence. One
issue concerns the extent to which the intervention is similar from one person to the next. Usually, researchers
strive for constancy of conditions in implementing a treatment because lack of standardization adds extraneous
variation and can diminish the intervention’s full force.
Determining that intervention was delivered as intended may need to be supplemented with efforts to ensure that
the intervention was received as intended. This may involve a manipulation check to assess whether the
treatment was in place, was understood or was perceived in an intended manner. For example, if we were testing
the effect of soothing versus jarring music on anxiety, we might want to determine whether participants
themselves perceived the music as soothing and jarring. Another aspect of treatment fidelity for interventions

designed to promote behavioral changes concern the concept of enactment. Enactment refers to participants’
performance of the treatment-related skills, behaviors and cognitive strategies in relevant real-life settings.
Another issue is that participants often fail to receive the desired intervention due to lack of treatment
adherence. It is not unusual for those in the experimental group to elect not to participate fully in the treatment –
for example, they may stop going to treatment sessions. This might mean making the intervention as enjoyable
as possible, offering incentives, and reducing burden in terms of the intervention and data collection (Polit &
Gillespie, 2010).

Short Quiz. You have to read and analyze the questions carefully then write your answer in CAPITAL letters only.
Erasures and superimpositions will be marked wrong (10 points).
1. A pharmaceutical company is in a clinical trial of a new drug for COPD and the clients get excited, this can be a
reactivity to situation.
a. Reactivity to the situation
b. Researcher expectancies
c. Novelty effects
d. Compensatory effects
ANSWER: ________
2. A control group was being left behind when it comes to weight. A family member visited the facility where the research
is ongoing and has given some of the subjects food and vitamins. This is called:
a. Reactivity to the situation
c. Novelty effects
d. Compensatory effects
ANSWER: ________
3. A researcher has spoken to the participant in a study regarding her eagerness to find out the therapeutic effect of the
new drug for COPD. This may result to what threat?
a. Contamination effects
b. Low statistical power
c. Researcher expectancies
d. Treatment diffusion
ANSWER: ________
4. Homogeneity may result to erroneous inference that variables are unrelated in:
a. Low statistical power
b. Restriction of Range
c. Reactivity to the situation
d. Unreliable implementation of treatment
ANSWER: ________
5. A statistical power can be precise with the use of all of the following except:
a. accurate measuring tools
b. controls over confounding variables
c. powerful statistical methods
d. researcher expectancies
ANSWER: ________
6. When participants in a control group condition receive services similar to those available in the treatment condition,
the threat is:
a. Restriction of range

c. Researcher expectancies
ANSWER: ________
7. Manipulation check is utilized by the researcher in what threat to statistical conclusion validity?
a. Restriction of range
c. Unreliable implementation of treatment
d. Researcher expectancies
ANSWER: ________
8. It is a related threat arising from the control group members’ desire to demonstrate that they can do as well as those
receiving a special treatment.
a. Compensatory rivalry
b. Contamination effects
c. Low statistical power
d. Restriction of range
ANSWER: ________
9. To address this threat to validity, it is important to consider whether there will be sufficient participants of variability to
support the statistical analyses envisioned.
a. Low statistical power
c. Restriction of range
ANSWER: ________
10. The degree to which inferences about relationships and differences from a statistical analysis of the data are accurate.
a. Construct Validity
b. External Validity
c. Internal Validity
d. Statistical Conclusion Validity
ANSWER: ________
1. ANSWER: ________
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2. ANSWER: ________
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3. ANSWER: ________
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4. ANSWER: ________

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5. ANSWER: ________
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6. ANSWER: ________
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7. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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8. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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9. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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10. ANSWER: ________

RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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AL Strategy: CHORAL WORK
The teacher will flash some cards to reactivate and deepen your prior knowledge on the threats to construct and
statistical conclusion validity. A series of cards will be flashed to make the class answer in unison for mastery. The pace
will be quick so that all will enjoy being part of the group. Occasionally, the teacher will say. “Say it with power” or “More
energy please” to maintain group energy.

Session # 1
Materials:
LESSON TITLE: TYPES OF RESEARCH DATA AND Book, pen and notebook
METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION
Textbook:
LEARNING OUTCOMES:
1. Describe the types of research data
2. Explain methods of data collection
References:
Wilkins.
SUBJECT ORIENTATION (15 minutes)

The instructor will start to introduce himself/herself. The course outline will be distributed and discussed accordingly.
Listed below are the additional information vital in this orientation which must be discussed inside the classroom by the
instructor.
1. The calendar of activities for major examinations

2. Course Syllabus
3. Classroom rules and regulations
4. Computation of grades specific for the subject
5. The essence and significance in grade computation of these modules
6. Election of class officers, if still undone
7. Other information that will be deemed necessary by the instructor
Types of Research Data

The conduct of research will yield research data. The type of research data is determined by the purpose of the study, the
method of research used, and the tools to be used in gathering the data. Research data greatly affect the implications of
research findings and the development of theory.
1. Cross-sectional Data
The researcher dips into study setting at a given point after the study design is completed, then gathers present
data on events occurring at that time. Such data is limited to the subjects at one point in time, and is best
gathered when the time frame is of short duration.
Example:
A study is conducted on the amount of nursing care a patient receives on certain days according to
categorization of needs an problems.
2. Retrospective Data
Frequently called ex-post facto studies. In this particular type, data are collected on events in the past before a
study design is completed, or data collected “after the fact”.

Example:
Fear responses of children during physical examination. The data will expectedly indicate previous
unpleasant experiences with health workers that could have influenced the children’s behaviour.
In such studies, it appears that events have occurred prior to the initiation of the study, and that data covering that
event have already been gathered by means of questionnaires or through analysis of existing records. Results
are limited to the availability of data.
3. Prospective Data
Refers to future data or events that occurred after the study design has been completed, but the study is pursued
over a relatively long period of time into the future.
Example:
What will happen to Cancer Patients who are discharged from the hospital after six months?
Prospective and retrospective researches are sometimes called longitudinal studies because they extend over a
long period of time. All experimental studies are prospective, and have the advantage of the possibility of
manipulating research variables and observing the effects of these after a period of time.
Retrospective cross-sectional prospective

Past current future
Categories of Data Collection
1. Primary data collection

In primary data collection, the researcher personally collects data from actual respondents using methods such as
interviews and questionnaires.
The key point here is that the data collected is unique to the researcher and the research. It is not accessible to
anyone else until it is published. The primary data generated by the methods below, may be qualitative in nature
usually in the form of words, or quantitative usually in the form of numbers or where the researcher can make
counts of words used. There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:
 questionnaires
 interviews
 focus group interviews
 observation
 case-studies
 diaries
 critical incidents
 portfolios
 physiologic instruments
 psychometric measurements
2. Secondary data collection

In secondary data collection, the researcher uses data that was collected for another purpose such as patient’s
medical records, employees or patients’ satisfaction surveys, organizational business reports and government
databases.
By their nature, they are easier to collect and gather than primary data. Its use is limited only by the specific
administrative procedures in different institutions.

Short Quiz. Multiple Choice. You have to read and analyze the following questions carefully. Write your answer in
CAPITAL letters only. Erasures and superimpositions will be marked wrong. (10 points)
Situation. A group of investigators are working on a field study exploring childhood obesity in the town of Pandayan.
The data will be gathered using questionnaire, observation and physiologic measurement. The study aims to determine
the risk factors of childhood obesity- the diet, activity and parental support given to children to formulate a program on
Child Wellness.
1. Based of the study, the category of data collection is:
a. Primary
b. Secondary
c. Both A & B
ANSWER: ___________
2. From the purpose of the study cited above, the type of research data is:
a. Cross-sectional
b. Retrospective
c. Prospective
ANSWER: ___________
3. Which of the following secondary data will help investigators achieve their research goal?
a. Immunization record
b. Dietary Record
c. School Record
d. List of Family menu
ANSWER: ___________
4. If a focused group interview with the parents regarding their children will be utilized for the childhood obesity study,
the research data is:
a. Primary-Cross-sectional
b. Primary- Retrospective
c. Primary-Prospective
ANSWER: ___________
5. If the study aims to determine the physiologic measurements of children next Friday, the type of research data is:
a. Cross-sectional
b. Retrospective
c. Prospective
ANSWER: ___________
6. Which of the following is an example of an ex post facto research? Select all that applies.
a. Randomized controlled Trial on Frozen Plasma Treatment for COVID Clients
b. Experimental Study on Drug Treatment for Flu
c. Descriptive Study on Best Practices to Prevent Pneumonia
d. A Case Study on TB Patients Drug Resistance
ANSWER: ___________
7. A descriptive data on Level of Knowledge in Dengue Fever Among Barangay X residents can be obtained from any of
the following except:
a. Checklist

b. Questionnaire
c. Interview schedule
d. Unstructured Interview guide
ANSWER: ___________
8. In a follow up study of Deworming children in Barangay Y, the type of research collection should be:
a. The same tool with the primary research
b. Questionnaire and Anthropometric measurement
c. Stool Exam
d. Varying tool from the primary research
ANSWER: ___________
9. Data obtained from the civil registry is considered a secondary data.

a. Yes
b. No
c. Maybe
ANSWER: ___________
10. Which of the following is a secondary data?

a. Interview
b. Researcher’s observation
c. Bracketing Note
d. Nurses’ Endorsement logbook
ANSWER: ___________
The instructor will now rationalize the answers to the students and will encourage them to ask questions and to discuss
among their classmates for 15 minutes.
1. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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2. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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3. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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_________________________________________________________________________
4. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
5. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
6. ANSWER: ________

RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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7. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
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8. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
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9. ANSWER: ________
RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
10. ANSWER: ________

RATIONALE:___________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
AL Strategy: Microlecture
You have to choose and recite an outcome sentence. The following are the outcome sentences:
I learned………
I was surprised…….
I’m beginning to wonder……..
I rediscovered……………..


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NUR 028 (Nursing Research 2-Lecture)

STUDENT ACTIVITY SHEET BS NURSING/THIRD YEAR

LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

MAIN LESSON (30 minutes)

Methods of Collecting Data

2. Use of observers’ data

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

2. Covert non-participant observer

Types of Participant observers:

2. Covert participant observer

Two methods of observations

3. The Use of Self Recording or the Reporting Approach

4. Use of Delphi Technique

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

5. Critical Incident Technique

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (15 minutes)

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

10. ANSWER: ________

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

AL Strategy: CHORAL WORK

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

LEARNING OUTCOME: Textbook:

LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

MAIN LESSON (30 minutes)

1. It removes subjectivity and guesswork.

Ex. GENDER: 1 Male or 1 Female

CIVIL STATUS: 1 Single

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

9. No. of nurses per shift

10. Type of bacteria

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

10. ANSWER: ________

LESSON WRAP-UP (10 minutes)

AL Strategy: CAT 3-2-1

Three things student learned:

Two things student still want to learn more about:

One question student still have:

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

LEARNING OUTCOME: Textbook:

LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

MAIN LESSON (30 minutes)

Sources of Measurement Errors

2. Variation in personal factors

4. Variation in data collections

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

5. Clarity of the instrument

7. Format of the instrument

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (15 minutes)

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

LESSON WRAP-UP (10 minutes)

AL Strategy: Think, Pair Share

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

LESSON REVIEW (5 minutes)

MAIN LESSON (30 minutes)

Methods of Testing Reliability

This document and the information thereon is the property of PHINMA

Tests of Internal Consistency

CHECK FOR UNDERSTANDING (15 minutes)

or = __TP_ = 20_____ = 0.50 (TRUE POSITIVES)

Or = _TN = 50__ = 0.83 (TRUE NEGATIVES)