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Table of Contents
PART 1: CELLS
1. Introduction
2. The Chemistry and Energy of Life
3. Nucleic Acids, Proteins, and Enzymes
4. Cells: The Working Units of Life
5. Cell Membranes and Signaling
6. Pathways that Harvest and Store Chemical Energy
PART 2: GENETICS
7. The Cell Cycle and Cell Division
8. Inheritance, Genes, and Chromosomes
9. DNA and Its Role in Heredity
10. From DNA to Protein: Gene Expression
11. Regulation of Gene Expression
12. Genomes
13. Biotechnology
14. Genes, Development, and Evolution
PART 3: EVOLUTION
15. Processes of Evolution
16. Reconstructing and Using Phylogenies
17. Speciation
18. The History of Life on Earth
PART 4: DIVERSITY
19. Bacteria, Archaea, and Viruses
20. The Origin and Diversification of Eukaryotes
21. The Evolution of Plants
22. The Evolution and Diversity of Fungi
23. Animal Origins and Diversity
PART 7: ECOLOGY
41. The Distribution of Earths Ecological Systems
42. Populations
43. Ecological and Evolutionary Consequences of Interactions within and among
Species
44. Ecological Communities
45. The Global Ecosystem
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officer in charge of the Arsenal, joined us. After we had taken tea
and had a pleasant chat with him we were given the very unusual
privilege of taking several photographs of different parts of the
garden, among them one or two of a group, which included the
General himself.
The Katsura-no-Rikyū, or Katsura Summer Palace, was formerly a
retreat made for a Princess of the Imperial family by this name. It is
now one of the four so-called “Palaces of the Mikado”—more
properly speaking there are two palaces and two villas,—in the city
and suburbs of the ancient capital. Permits must be obtained from
the Department of the Household, in order to visit any of these
palaces; and when I was first in Japan, in 1892, they were much
more difficult to secure than they are now. Through Marquis, then
Count, Matsukata, who was at that time Prime Minister, the
necessary permission was obtained; and the same kindly service
furnished me with a letter to the Governor of the District of Kyoto,
who sent his private secretary to act as an escort to all the four
palaces. This was particularly good fortune; for this gentleman, in his
youth, had served on the side of the Mikado’s forces in their contest
against the forces of the Shōgunate; he was thus able to point out
many details of interest—among them, the defacements of the
decorations of the Nijo Palace, that “dream of golden beauty within,”
which were made by these young patriots, who thought in this way to
show their contempt for the Shōgun, and for ancient art, and their
devotion to the cause of the Mikado and of progress.
“WINDING PATHS OVER RUDE MOSS-COVERED STEPPING-
STONES”
The garden of the Katsura Summer Palace represents the style of
the art which was practised by Kobori Enshū and his “School.” These
men were as aristocratic in their tastes as they were enthusiastic in
teaching and practising their theories of the arts. According to their
canons, everything was to be exceedingly plain and simple; and all
the other arts were to be combined in the celebration of the cha-no-
yu, or tea ceremonies. Indeed this garden, and all the buildings and
other structures in it, may be said to be planned for use in the
highest kind of style belonging to such æsthetic enjoyment. Its
exceedingly plain summer-houses are, accordingly, so placed as to
look out on modest pools and artificial streams, on plain rustic
bridges and winding paths over rude moss-covered stepping-stones,
brought from the two extremities of the Empire. Everywhere there
are trees of various species and trained in manifold artificial shapes;
there are also moss-clad hillocks and a goodly store of antique
lanterns; and in the lake there are islets deftly placed. The lake itself
is full of the water-plant Kohone, which here has red flowers as well
as the usual yellow ones.
It is not necessary to describe or even refer to the more celebrated
of the temple gardens, such as Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji, in Kyoto; or
the groves surrounding the Tombs of the Shōguns in Shiba and at
Nikko; or the park at Nara, and other nearly or quite flowerless
specimens of the art of gardening in Japan; for has not everyone
who has spent not more than a single week in the country seen them
all; and are they not all sufficiently described in the guidebooks?
The more beautiful of the modern gardens in Japan, while retaining
the most admirable features of the native art, have succeeded in
adding something which it formerly lacked and in avoiding more fully
its suggestion of pettiness and of artificiality. This they have
accomplished by allowing a larger freedom from ancient conventions
and conceits in the way both of modifying the native traditions and of
introducing foreign elements. And since in the best private gardens
there has been a most judicious selection and combination of natural
resources and æsthetical ideals, there are some examples of the art
of landscape-gardening in Japan, which are not excelled, if indeed
they are equalled, by anything else of the kind.
I do not expect ever to see again a landscape, prepared and
cultivated by human skill, quite so perfectly beautiful as was the
Imperial garden at Aoyama, on the afternoon of November 16, 1906,
when the annual “chrysanthemum party” was given there to His
Majesty’s guests. The rainy weather of the days preceding had
prevented the Imperial party from attending the festivities in person.
But it had added something to the customary charm of the
landscape; for the showers had freshened all the colours of ground
and foliage and sky, and the moist haze was now producing that
exquisite softness and blending of them all which is so characteristic
of the “atmosphere” of Japanese natural scenery and of Japanese
pictorial art. The size of the garden and the manner of its artistic
treatment render it, in some of its features, more like an English
deer-park than are any of the gardens of the more purely Chino-
Japanese style. There were large pines and maples and autumn
camelias of wonderful growth. There was great variety to the
surface, both natural and helped out by art; and on such a generous
scale as nowhere to suggest artificiality or pettiness. The hills were
real hills, and worthy of the name; they made the assembling guests
climb their sides and gave them new and extended views as a
reward when they had reached their tops. There were also many
ponds and winding streams, with picturesque curved bridges
crossing the streams. But most conclusive of all the proofs of the
highest æsthetical skill was the arrangement of all the larger and the
minuter features, from whatever point of view one held them in
regard. The most brilliantly coloured maples, of the cut-leaf variety,
were planted singly rather than in groups; and every detail of their
delicate shapes was carefully brought out against a background of
the dark green of pines or the golden yellow of the jinkō tree. As one
strolled up any of the several winding paths that led to the high
plateau on which the show of chrysanthemums was placed, one
could stop at almost every step and admire the change of far-
reaching vistas or nearer views; and over every square yard of the
whole, not only each tree and shrub, but each twig and leaf, seemed
to have been made an object of loving care.
To speak of the show of flowers, the entertainment, and the friends
we met on this occasion would savour more of gossip about garden
parties than of description of the art of landscape-gardening. But a
word about the flowers. I am of the impression that while we raise in
this country as fine, or finer, individual chrysanthemums, the
Japanese excel us in the culture and development of the whole
plant. For example, some of the specimens shown at this Imperial
garden party had as many as 985 flowers on a single stock, making
a plant fourteen feet in circumference; and others had no fewer than
fifty-five varieties growing from one stock. The more properly artistic
character of the show, however, was maintained by the elegant and
simple arrangement of the single flowers as to colour and other
kindred effects.
Among the private gardens in Japan which have combined the
excellences of the native art with certain modifications introduced
from abroad, may be mentioned those of Count Okuma and Marquis
Nabeshima. The former seems to me to have been more influenced
by English examples; it has a remarkable collection of Japanese
maples,—more than one hundred varieties in all. The Count is also
quite justly proud of his chrysanthemums, which are as fine as any in
Japan. On the other hand the Marquis’ garden has the appearance
of having been under the influence of Italian examples,—not, indeed,
of the older and more artificial style, but of the sort surrounding the
more beautiful of the modern villas.
I have already referred to the fondness of the Japanese for
exceedingly minute representations of large natural objects, or even
of extensive natural scenes. Hence those single specimens or
collections of Bonsai, on which certain wealthy æsthetes have spent
thousands of yen, and which may render their possessors as much
the objects of friendly or envious rivalry as were the rival cultivators
of rare species of tulips, in Holland some decades of years ago.
Some of these aforesaid Bonsai are tiny pines or other trees, only a
few inches in heighth, but of years mounting up to a half century or
more. Such specimens require more tender and intelligent cultural
care than the majority of human beings are wont to receive. One of
the most delightful and benevolent and widely useful of Japanese
ladies never travels from home even for a single night without taking
along her choice collection of bonsai, which she cares for daily with
her own hands. This same lady presented to my wife one of the
products of this art, which consisted of scores of tiny pines growing
out of the sand and so arranged that the eye could look through the
grove as though upon the distant sea,—a fairly complete picture in
miniature of a celebrated view in Kiushiu, along the seashore near
Fukuoka.
In Japan every national festival and, indeed, almost every form of
social gathering or species of entertainment partakes more or less of
the character of a garden party. At the remotest and meanest tea-
house in the mountains or by the sea, if the weather permits, you
take your cup of tea where you can look upon a scene which nature
or man has made into a work of art. If you call upon a native friend,
you must enjoy the refreshment which is always offered, either in the
garden or in a room or on a verandah, which looks out upon a
garden. At every dinner party, when the season is favourable, either
before the meal, or afterward in the moonlight, the guests are
expected to wander over the grounds of the host or of the tea-house
where the entertainment is given, enjoying its natural beauties. Of
the various forms of excursioning, the pleasure of which implies an
appreciation of nature,—such as mushroom-gathering, snow-
viewing, etc., I have already spoken.
Garden parties are not infrequently given by the more wealthy
Japanese at an expense of thousands of yen. The programme of
one of the most elaborate of those given in Tokyo in the Autumn of
1906, included not only the inspection of the gardens and extensive
museum of the host, music and refreshments, but the exhibition of
Japanese histrionic performances and dances, in which actors and
scenic apparatus were as good as could be seen in the very highest-
class theatres. The most elaborate of these histrionic performances
bore the title of “Urashima,” the Japanese Rip Van Winkle, and
employed a dramatis personæ and orchestra of twenty-one persons.
The description in the programme of the First Scene reads as
follows: “In the depths of the broad expanse of the Ocean, stands
Ryūgū, the seagod’s palace, bathed in serene moonlight which
shines bright upon the corals and emeralds. Young fishes swimming
about the palace add to the charm of the scene. The graceful
movement of the sea-bream, the lively evolutions of the lobster, the
brisk flouncing of the flounder, etc., are comically represented in the
Joruri.” Thus ran the description of the printed programme. The ill
condition of the weather,—for it had been raining steadily all day, and
the out-of-door part of the entertainment had to be much curtailed,—
did not prevent the several thousands of invited guests from
attending, or the feast from being spread in the large refreshment
tent, which was so arranged that its open side gave a view of a
fountain surrounded by chrysanthemums and a beautiful bit of the
garden beyond.
About the same time, another wealthy Japanese celebrated an
important birthday for which the out-of-door preparations were more
elaborate and unusual, if not so æsthetically refined. Mr. A—— had
reached his sixty-first year, a time when Heaven should be thanked
for prolonging one’s life beyond the customary span, and one’s
friends should be summoned to render fitting congratulations. This
time, also, the weather was most unpropitious; but the continued
downpour, the soaked grass, and liquid mud, did not deter several
thousands of guests from assembling. The entire wall surrounding
the extensive grounds was solidly covered with ground-pine and
diamond-shaped medallions of flowers set in at intervals,—the whole
outlined with the national colours, red and white. Boards raised and
spread with matting furnished dry paths from place to place inside
the garden, where numerous booths of bamboo and ground-pine
were cleverly distributed, from which the guests were served with tea
and many kinds of cakes, with fruit, and with tobacco and beer.
Hundreds of little maids in the gay dresses and with the painted
faces of the professional waitress, were running about everywhere,
ready to bring the various foods and drinks. In two large tents
“continuous performances” of fencing or of a theatrical and other
sort, were going on; and at the entrances of each stood scores of
boys with Japanese paper umbrellas, employed in escorting the rain-
bedrizzled crowd from one booth or tent to another. Several bands
were stationed here and there, some playing foreign music and
others performing on native instruments.
But the most astonishing attempt at the extraordinary by way of
entertainment took the shape of a miniature Fuji, which was more
than seventy-five feet in heighth, and which could be climbed by a
spiral path from the inside. In a clear day, a fine view of Tokyo and its
immediate and remoter surroundings, including the real Fuji, could
have been seen from the platform at the top. All the rooms of the
house on the garden side had been thrown into one, in which, on
tables and rows of steps were arranged the store of presents from
the guests. The greater number consisted of “katsebushi,” or fancy
wooden boxes filled with dried fish. But besides, there were many
rolls of white and red silk, for underwear, or for wadding kimonos in
the cold weather; numerous screens decorated with the appropriate
emblems of pine, bamboo and plum branches, or with cranes to
signify wishes for long life, and made of a variety of materials from
candy cake to bronze; a pair of rather more than ordinarily well-
modelled bronze camels, designed to decorate the grounds and
presented by four different banks in which the host was a director.
In each of the large tents a camp fire of charcoal was kept burning,
which softened somewhat the damp air; and if one was especially
honoured with a hibachi full of live coals at the back, one could sit to
see through a play with a fair amount of comfort. Of these histrionic
performances, the most interesting to me was one especially
designed to typify congratulations and wishes for long life, and
regularly performed at the period of the New Year’s festivities. In it a
priest figured as the guardian of a mystical bridge which led up to
Paradise; and over the crossing of which a hermit from the
mountains contended with two devils, one with hoary locks and one
with long and tangled hair of brilliant red, who gnashed their tusks
and danced and stamped the ground with fury.
A very different garden party was that given, on a similar occasion,
by the Marquis and Marchioness Nabeshima. Although the date was
so much later, the fifth of December, the weather was all that could
be desired. The engraved and embossed card of invitation, literally
interpreted, asked us to do the host the honour of attending a “sixty-
first birthday wine-drinking party.” The Marquis was born under that
one of the twelve signs of the Japanese zodiac which is called “the
sign of the Horse!” It should be explained that the coincidence of the
Japanese reckoning of the periods of life by twelves with the
Chinese system of reckoning by periods of ten, affords a reason for
the pleasant fiction that, at sixty-one, a man begins life over again by
becoming a child as it were. It is therefore proper to give him
presents adapted to the improvement and pleasure and employment
of children. The guests who gathered on this occasion were the élite
of Tokyo; and the Emperor and Empress had signalised the occasion
by sending congratulatory presents. Some of the presents, sent by
the various friends, were simple offerings in wooden boxes, of food,
or of crape; but others were beautiful and expensive dishes of silver,
or bags of money resting underneath effigies of the “god of luck.”
From an edge of the garden, which overhangs a valley, Fujiyama
was to be seen in the distance. Returning to the house, we found
that the stage in the ball-room was being used for an exhibition by
two famous dancers of the old-fashioned kind (the older man said to
be the most famous in Japan), who were dancing to the music made
by six or seven samisen players and singers, seated above a chorus
of four or five others who were drumming and “yowling” after the
fashion of performers in the “Nō.” At a delightful collation which
followed, the speech of congratulation to the host was made in
English by Prince Ito, who had just returned to his own country, for a
brief stay, from his work as Resident-General in Korea. This garden
party became the more memorable, because it was while walking in
the grounds that I was summoned to meet the Prince, and receive
the first intimation of an intention, which culminated in the invitation
to visit Korea as his guest and “unofficial adviser,” the following
Spring. And now, alas! this great statesman has—to quote the words
of a native paper—“died for the Koreans at the hands of a Korean.”
It has been for several years the custom of Count Okuma to throw
open his beautiful grounds to garden parties, not only in the interest
of entertaining his many personal and political friends, but also in the
favour of an endless variety of good causes. Here rare roses, and
wonderful chrysanthemums, and various native exhibitions of
athletic, or musical, or histrionic skill, may be seen; here, also,
problems of state and plans of beneficence may be discussed.
“THE WORSHIP OF NATURE IN THE OPEN AIR”
It would be a great mistake, however, to suppose that the enjoyment
of the Japanese garden in a social way is confined to the wealthy
and the nobles with their large estates. All over the country the
multitude of the people love nature and have it abundantly at their
command to enjoy in quiet ways. In Tokyo thousands of artisans and
common labourers and coolies, with wives and children, will trudge
for miles to view the plum or cherry blossoms, or to see the morning-
glories open at four o’clock of a Summer morning. The temple
groves on all the many holidays are thronged with crowds, who
combine their unintelligent and not even half-hearted worship with a
much more intelligent and heartfelt appreciation of the beauties of
nature. Indeed, with these multitudes, the worship of the departed
ancestor in the family shrine in-doors, and the worship of nature in
the open air constitutes their only religion.
How profoundly influenced is all the art and all the national life of the
Japanese by this love and æsthetical appreciation of all forms of
natural beauty, it is not necessary to say in detail. Gardens and
garden parties are not trifling incidents or accessories of man’s
existence, happiness, and progress, in Japan; for there, indeed, they
are taken very seriously, and as necessaries of living well and
happily at all.
CHAPTER VII
AT THE THEATRE