HANDOUT 3

TRANSCRIPTS AND THE CONTEXTS OF SPEECH

- Transcripts are texts in themselves.

- Speakers change the ways in which they use language depending on a range of contextual factors.
- Not all members of the group will use language in the same way.
- Interpretations of spoken texts are likely to differ depending on the focus of the researcher.
Transcripts stand alone as texts.

- Depending on a variety of contextual conditions, speakers alter how they use language.

- Not every group member will speak in the same manner.

- Depending on the researcher's area of interest, interpretations of spoken texts may vary.

The study of speech is heavily emphasized in both English language and literature. Live data refers to transcripts of actual speeches that attempt to
capture and correctly depict them.

Both English language and English language and literature place significant emphasis on the study of
speech. Let us explore some of the issues surrounding so-called live data – transcripts of real
speeches that aim to record and represent them as accurately as possible.

Some of the ways you might think about and question written text can also be applied to spoken
texts, but some features are particular to each mode. Within the two very broad groupings of
spoken and written texts, there are many smaller sub-groups into which different types of spoken
text and different types of written text can be placed.

Although spoken texts have certain characteristics with written texts,

spoken texts also have other characteristics that are unique to them.
Different forms of spoken text and different types of written text can be
categorized into a variety of smaller sub-groups that fall under the two
fairly broad categories of spoken and written texts.

There is a variety of types of spoken text that you might encounter throughout your course. Some of
these are listed below:

- Transcripts of spontaneous conversations

- Transcripts of recorded interviews (where some degree of planning has taken place beforehand)
- The script of a speech to be delivered formally
- A report of a speech
- An edited account of a conversation
- The play script written to be performed

In this handout, we will consider how we can approach transcripts of real spontaneous
conversations. Live data or actual speech are terms that are frequently used to describe
conversation transcripts that have been captured in real time. They are
also occasionally referred to as spontaneous speech transcripts.
REAL CONVERSATION AND LIVE DATA

Transcripts of conversations that have been recorded live are often referred to as live data or real
speech. They are also sometimes called transcripts of spontaneous speech.
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The term "real" is in bold font here because what we see on the page in the form of a transcript is, of
course, not what really took place when the conversation originally occurred. Many things are
missing: most transcripts do not even attempt to indicate facial expressions and gestures, and only a
rather crude indication of volume can be given. Tone of voice, pitch, and tempo are not usually
indicated in a transcript. It would, in fact, be an impossible task to note the hundreds of tiny
variations in tone, expression, and gesture that occur during a typical conversation, and equally
impossible to describe and accurately reproduce them for a reader. However, all these features,
which are not included in transcripts to any significant degree, are crucial parts of the way meaning is
constructed and conveyed in talk. What we read in the transcript is far from a real and exact account
of reality. We are frequently led to believe that when we examine transcripts of spontaneous exchanges between real people, we are gaining access to
reality and seeing how language is actually used in society.

This assertion has some basis in reality. We will examine real talk transcripts to gain insight into some of the interpersonal communication
strategies. However, you must exercise caution and be wary of making broad generalizations, as with all aspects of language study. You are
urged to approach transcripts with a thorough understanding of the problems and complexity involved.

The word "real" is in bold here because what we read in the form of a transcript is obviously not what actually happened when the conversation first
started. Many things are absent from most transcripts, including attempts to indicate facial expressions and gestures and the ability to give more than a
crude indication of volume. Typically, a transcript does not include information about voice tone, pitch, or tempo. The hundreds of small variations in
tone, expression, and gesture that take place during a typical conversation would actually be impossible to observe, let alone accurately describe and
reproduce for a reader.

In analyzing transcripts of spontaneous conversations between real people, we are often

encouraged to think that we are seeing how language is really used in the world – that we are
gaining access to reality.

There is some truth in this claim. The transcripts of real talk we study will provide insight into some of
the ways in which people communicate with each other. However, as with all areas of language
study, you must be cautious and wary of making grand and sweeping claims. You are encouraged to
approach transcripts with an informed awareness of the issues and complexities surrounding them.
It can be both very interesting and initially intimidating to analyze spoken
texts. Although you are accustomed to working with written texts, the
ANALYZING TALK spoken texts that transcripts present are probably unlike any other texts you
have had to evaluate and comment on in the past.

Analyzing spoken texts can be extremely interesting but also a little daunting at first. You are used to
working with written texts, but spoken texts, in the form of transcripts, are probably different from
anything you have had to analyze and comment on before.

It can be useful to have a sense of some of the features to think about before you start. Below is a
list of some features associated with transcripts of real talk. This is not meant to be definitive, nor
should you feel you have to learn it before you can proceed, but it may provide a framework for your
thinking as you look at transcripts. Terms must be used in context.
Knowing some of the features to consider before you begin can be helpful. The characteristics of real
talk transcripts are listed below. This is not meant to be all-inclusive, and you shouldn't feel as though
SOME FEATURES OF TALK you need to understand it before moving on, but it could give you some direction as you read
transcripts. Term usage must be contextual.

1. Phatic talk: This refers to small talk or conversation used to establish social bonds and
maintain relationships rather than conveying specific information.
2. Prosodic features: These are aspects of speech such as intonation, rhythm, and stress that
convey emotions, attitudes, and emphasis in communication.
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3. Paralinguistic features: These are nonverbal elements of communication such as facial

expressions, gestures, and body language that complement spoken words.
4. Fillers: These are words or sounds used in speech, such as "um," "uh," or "like," that indicate
pauses or hesitation while speaking.
5. Back-channel noises: These are brief verbal responses like "uh-huh," "yeah," or nodding to
show active listening or agreement during a conversation.
6. False starts: These occur when a speaker begins a sentence or phrase but then pauses,
corrects themselves, and restarts with a different wording.
7. Topic change: This happens when the subject of conversation shifts from one topic to
another.
8. Agenda: This refers to the planned or intended sequence of topics or objectives in a
conversation or meeting.
9. Turn-taking: This is the process of alternating speaking turns between participants in a
conversation, allowing each person to contribute and engage in the interaction.
10. Adjacency pairs: These are pairs of conversational turns that are expected to follow a specific
pattern, such as a question and its answer or a greeting and its response.
11. Ellipsis: This occurs when certain words or information are omitted from a sentence or
phrase but can be inferred from the context. "Going to the store. Need anything?"
12. Elision: This refers to the omission or contraction of sounds, syllables, or words in spoken
language, often occurring in informal or casual speech. "going to" as "gonna" or "don't know" as "dunno."
13. Non-fluency features: These are disruptions or interruptions in speech flow, such as
stuttering, repetition of words or phrases, or pauses, which can occur due to various factors
like nervousness or lack of fluency. "So, like, you know, um, I was, uh, thinking about that."

Regardless of your grasp of the technical terms, it is helpful to think of the sort of questions you
might ask about the transcript of a real talk. Having a systematic approach can help you think about
speech in a more coherent and focused way. Some suggested questions are outlined below, and you
may wish to add your own.
Regardless of how well you understand the technical
WAYS OF APPROACHING REAL TALK jargon, it can be useful to imagine the kinds of questions
you might make regarding an actual talk's transcript. You
can think more coherently and narrowly about
1. Who are the speakers? communication by using a systematic method. The list of
2. Where are the speakers? proposed questions is below, but feel free to add more.
3. Why are they talking?
4. What is the situation between them? The transcript may give you access to some of this
5. What brought them together? information, but examining the speech in its entirety will
help you find the answers to some of these queries. The
6. What is the agenda of each participant in the conversation? answers you give to the first five (and, to a lesser extent,
7. Who (if anyone) has control at any time? the last two) questions will be greatly influenced by how
8. How does each person manage their own part in the conversation? much context you are aware of. Here, we'll look more
closely at this.

Some of this information may be provided for you by the transcript, but the answers to some of
these questions lie in analyzing the speech itself. The first five (and to some extent six) questions are
related to the contents of the conversation, and how much contextual knowledge you have will
significantly affect the responses you make. We will consider this more closely here.
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It is not helpful to assert, as you might for written text, that

SOME THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN ANALYZING SPEECH you have seen that the conversation has a specific purpose
after studying the transcript of spontaneous speech. As the
conversation goes on, the goal of real talk is negotiated and
Purpose changed by all parties. A written record of that conversation
cannot be verified if it is claimed to have one purpose.

Having analyzed the transcript of spontaneous speech, it is not helpful to claim, as you might for
written text, that you have seen that the conversation has one particular purpose. The purpose of
real talk is shifting and negotiated between all participants as the conversation progresses. To claim
that it has one purpose is to impose retrospectively a judgment that cannot be verified on a written
It is tempting to examine real-talk transcripts in the same way we might examine fictional or theatrical representations of speech.
version of that conversation.
When a character speaks, theReferring
author may be trying
to poor to convey
language usageanxiety and uncertainty
or improper by using
speech grammar a lothelpful.
is not of pauses and hesitations.
Applying the same Real
discourse does not operate incriteria
this way,
wethough. Real
might use toconversations frequently
evaluate writing to spokenhalt, allowing
language the speaker
is pointless to catch
because their differs
speech breath,
gather their thoughts, and perform other tasks. Theyall
may alsoinpause for impact. It's noteworthy tocommunicating
notice that when we speak,
and we
SPEECHES ARE RARELY 'WRONG' from writing. We don't speak complete sentences, but if we are clearly
frequently do not see this discontinuity; instead,
the other person we perceive
perceives discourse to as
the conversation befluid
essentially fluid. our speech is very effective.
and coherent,

It is not helpful to refer to incorrect use of language or wrong grammar in speech. Speech is different
from writing, and applying the standards by which we might judge writing to spoken language is a
fruitless exercise. None of us talk in complete sentences, and if we are making sense and the people
we are speaking with feel that the conversation is fluent and coherent, our speech is extremely
effective.

'REAL' AND REPRESENTED TALK ARE DIFFERENT This implies that when we are given a transcript and we highlight all the pauses, we
realize that ‘real talk’ appears to be full of hesitancy.

It is tempting to analyze transcripts of real talk in the way we might analyze represented talk, such as
in plays and novels. In represented talk, lots of pauses and hesitations may well be the writer’s way
of attempting to signal that a character is feeling nervous and uncertain. Real talk, however, does
not work like this. Real talk is full of pauses, during which speakers get their breath, collect their
thoughts, and do other things; they may pause for effect. It is interesting to note that we often do
not have a sense of this discontinuity when speaking: we hear talk as largely fluent. This means that
when presented with a transcript that has all the pauses marked, we seek a particular explanation
for what looks like a great deal of hesitancy. Making a broad association between written texts and formality and spoken texts and informality is
another common error. This causes judgments that lack nuance and might even be wholly incorrect. So
just imagine, the note for a milkman would of course be less formal compared to a speech given to a
SPOKEN TEXTS ARE NOT NECESSARILY INFORMAL crowd at a local council meeting. Even though spontaneous real talk is frequently informal to some
extent, it can still maintain a general air of formality with little to no pre-planning.

Another common mistake is to make a general connection between written texts and formality and
spoken texts and informality. This leads to judgments that lack subtlety and may be completely
incorrect. The note left for the milkman is clearly less formal than an address to a group of people at
a local council meeting. Spontaneous real talk is often informal to some degree, but, as some of the
transcripts we study show, it can maintain an overall formality even if there is little pre-planning.
In all facets of language study, avoiding overgeneralizations and oversimplifications is important. Analysis
is constrained and judgments become too harsh if all texts and examples of language use are not
approached with an open mind, probed, and investigated with nuance. So, we need to avoid assuming
that regional talk (with regional accent) indicates lack of education and being unsophisticated. This is most
DON'T OVERSIMPLIFY AND OVER-GENERALIZE likely not the situation.

Avoiding overgeneralizations and oversimplifications is crucial in all areas of language study. If all
texts and examples of language use are not approached with an open mind, and questioned and
investigated with subtlety, then judgments become too crude, and analysis is limited. For example,
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when analyzing transcripts in which one of the speakers has a regional accent and uses dialect
words, it is essential to avoid the common (and usually incorrect) assumption that regional talk
indicates the speaker lacks education and is unsophisticated. This is almost certainly not the case.

Remember, language is a dynamic and complex system that is influenced by various factors.
Each conversation is unique, shaped by the individuals involved, their relationship, the
context, and the specific communicative goals. As you delve into the study of language,
embrace the richness and diversity of speech, and approach each transcript with curiosity,
sensitivity, and a willingness to explore the intricacies of human communication.
It's important to keep in mind that language is a dynamic, complex system that is influenced by numerous factors. Every conversation is
different because of the people speaking, their relationships, the environment, and the specific communicative objectives. As you dive into
language study, appreciate the variety and richness of speech, and approach each transcript with sensitivity, curiosity, and a desire to
learn more about the subtleties of human communication.

By examining and analyzing real talk transcripts, you have the opportunity to gain valuable insights
into how language is used in social interactions, uncover patterns and strategies employed by
speakers, and deepen your understanding of the complex relationship between language, society,
and culture. Enjoy the journey of exploring the fascinating world of language in context!

You can discover patterns and strategies used by speakers, gain insightful understanding
of how language is used in social interactions, and deepen your understanding of the
intricate relationship between language, society, and culture by looking over and
analyzing real talk transcripts. Enjoy your exploration of the intriguing world of language in
context!

Assign these questions to the groups in your class and encourage them to engage in thoughtful
discussions, considering various perspectives and providing evidence-based insights.

1. What is the difference between written texts and spoken texts in terms of analyzing and
commenting on them?
2. How can analyzing transcripts of real talk be different from analyzing represented talk, such as in
plays and novels?
3. Explain the misconception that spoken texts are always informal and written texts are always
formal. Why is this assumption incorrect?
4. Why is it important to avoid overgeneralizations and oversimplifications when analyzing
transcripts and examples of language use?
5. Discuss the concept of phatic talk and its role in communication. How can phatic talk contribute to
building and maintaining social relationships?
6. What are prosodic features, and how do they contribute to the overall meaning and effect of
spoken language?
7. Describe paralinguistic features and their significance in conveying meaning beyond the words
spoken.
8. What are fillers in spoken language, and how do they impact the flow and rhythm of a
conversation?
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9. Explain the concept of back-channel noises and their role in indicating active listening and
engagement in a conversation.
10. Discuss the importance of turn-taking in maintaining effective communication. How can
adjacency pairs help regulate turn-taking in a conversation?
11. How does false starts in spoken language reflect the speaker's thought process and the dynamic
nature of conversations?
12. Discuss the significance of topic change in a conversation. How does it contribute to the flow and
progression of the discussion?
13. Explain the concept of agenda in a conversation and how it influences the participants'
communication goals.
14. What is meant by turn-taking and why is it important in maintaining balanced and inclusive
communication?
15. Describe the concept of adjacency pairs and provide examples to illustrate their role in organizing
conversational exchanges.
16. What is ellipsis in speech and how does it contribute to efficient communication?
17. Define elision and explain how it is used in spoken language to streamline the delivery of
information.
18. Discuss the significance of non-fluency features, such as pauses, hesitations, and repetitions, in
understanding the nuances of spoken language.
19. How can understanding the features of talk, such as phatic talk and fillers, contribute to effective
cross-cultural communication?
20. Reflect on your own experiences in conversations and identify instances where prosodic
features, paralinguistic features, or back-channel noises influenced the communication dynamics.