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PALGRAVE STUDIES OF
MARKETING IN EMERGING ECONOMIES
Fashion Marketing in
Emerging Economies
Volume II
South American, Asian and
African Perspectives
Edited by Frederica Brooksworth

Emmanuel Mogaji · Genevieve Bosah
Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging
Economies
Series Editors
Robert E Hinson
Dept of Marketing and Entrepreneurship
University of Ghana Business School
Accra, Ghana
Ogechi Adeola
Pan-Atlantic University
Lagos Business School
Lagos, Nigeria
This book series focuses on contemporary themes in marketing and mar-
keting management research in emerging markets and developing econo-
mies. Books in the series cover the BRICS (Brazil, Russia, India, China
and South Africa), MINT (Mexico, Indonesia, Nigeria and Turkey),
CIVETS (Colombia, Indonesia, Vietnam, Egypt, Turkey, and South
Africa); EAGLE economies (those which are expected to lead growth in
the next ten years, such as Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, South Korea,
Mexico, Russia, Taiwan, and Turkey) and all other African countries
(classified under developing countries), taking into consideration the
demographic, socio-cultural and macro-economic factors influencing
consumer choices in these markets. The series synthesizes key subject
areas in marketing, discuss marketing issues, processes, procedures and
strategies across communities, regions and continents, and also the way
digital innovation is changing the business landscape in emerging
economies.
Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies presents a unique
opportunity to examine and discuss marketing strategy and its implica-
tions in emerging economies, thereby filling a gap in current marketing
literature.
All chapter submissions to the series will undergo a double blind peer
review and all book proposals will undergo a single blind peer review.
Frederica Brooksworth
Emmanuel Mogaji • Genevieve Bosah
Editors
Fashion Marketing in
Emerging Economies
Volume II
South American, Asian and African
Perspectives
Editors
Frederica Brooksworth Emmanuel Mogaji
Fashion Education Group Greenwich Business School
London, UK University of Greenwich
London, UK
Genevieve Bosah
University of Hertfordshire
Hatfield, UK
ISSN 2730-5554 ISSN 2730-5562 (electronic)

Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies
ISBN 978-3-031-07077-8 ISBN 978-3-031-07078-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07078-5
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether
the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and
transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar
or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or
the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any
errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG.
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Contents
Part I An Introduction 1
1 Fashion
Marketing in Emerging Economies Volume II:
South American, Asian and African Perspectives 3
Frederica Brooksworth, Emmanuel Mogaji, and
Genevieve Bosah
Part II Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies: South

American and Asian Perspectives 17
2 Fashioning
the Future Generation: Generation Z Indian
Consumers’ Attitudes Towards Western and Indian Fashion 19
Aurore Bardey, Utkarsha Mehdiratta, and Rose Turner
3 A
Closer Look at the Menswear Market in Brazil 49
Fábio Shimabukuro Sandes
4 The
Power of Neuromarketing: Taking Luxury Fashion
Marketing in Southeast Asia Markets to a Whole New Level 73
Mamun Ala, Sumesh Nair, and Tareq Rasul
v
vi Contents
5 Afloat
in a Changing COVID-19 World: The Rise of
Artisanal Fashion in India for Brand Story Relevance
in Challenging Times 99
Pandora Kay and Caroline Young
Part III Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies: African

Perspectives 161
6 Towards
Understanding How Nigerian Fashion Brands
Influence Customer Purchasing Behaviour. A Case
Study of Nigerian Fashion Brands163
Damilola Joseph
7 South
Africa: A Snapshot of Contemporary Fashion Retail189
Ken Kweku Nimo
8 The
Rise of Female Empowerment in Egypt: The Fashion
Psychology Behind Their Attire and Armour213
Yasmina Nessim and Aurore Bardey
9 Fashion
Analytics in Africa and Middle East: Strategies,
Tools, and Insights for Fashion Brands241
Coy Griffin
Part IV Conclusion 269
10 South
American, Asian and African Perspectives in
Fashion Marketing: Conclusion and Research Agenda271
Frederica Brooksworth, Emmanuel Mogaji, and
Genevieve Bosah
I ndex287
Notes on Contributors
Mamun Ala is Lecturer in Strategic Management and International

Business at the Australian Institute of Business. He holds a PhD in
Applied Economics from the University of South Australia (UniSA) and
a GradCert in L&T from Swinburne University. He has long experience
in teaching in higher education institutions, including UniSA and
Flinders University. His research interests include teaching and learning,
entrepreneurship, international competitiveness, political economy and
industrial policy.
Aurore Bardey is Associate Professor of Marketing at the Burgundy

School of Business. Having designed the BSc (Hons) Psychology of
Fashion, her expertise sits in applying psychology in fashion. Her research
interests fall into three topics: (1) applying cognitive and experimental
psychology concepts to enhance green consumer behaviour in fashion;
(2) applying social psychology concepts to assess the impact of inclusive
fashion on consumers; and (3) evaluating the impact of fashion on well-
being and cognitive performance.
Genevieve Bosah is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Hertfordshire

where she teaches and researches in Public Relations, Corporate
Communications, Media and Branding. She is the Programme Leader
vii
viii Notes on Contributors
for the MA Journalism and Media Communications and the newly

developed MA Public Relations and Digital Communications. She is the
Convenor/Founder of African PhD Scholars Network. She is a chartered
practitioner of the Chartered Institute of Public Relations (CIPR) UK
and board member of Public Relations and Communications Association
(PRCA) UK qualifications board.
Frederica Brooksworth is a British-Ghanaian academic, researcher, strate-

gist, editor and author. She is the executive director of the Fashion Education
Group which comprises initiatives such as the Council for International
African Fashion Education (CIAFE), Professional Development and the
Fashion Knowledge Challenge. Brooksworth is also regional editor (Africa)
of Bloomsbury Publishing for Fashion Business Cases.
Brooksworth has taught at numerous universities and is a lecturer at
the London College of Fashion, British School of Fashion, Hult
International Business School and Conde Nast College of Fashion and
Design. She is a board member at BlueCrest University College.
Coy Griffin is a TEDx speaker, fashion analyst and fashion-tech enthusi-

ast. Griffin is a guest lecturer specialising in fashion analytics, technology
and operations with experience in teaching at Virginia State University and
the London College of Fashion. She has also worked with Nike and Black
Girls Code. Griffin works with fashion organisations to integrate the latest
technological innovations with the creative world. She has been featured in
media outlets such as Blavity and New York Fashion Week and often par-
ticipates in educational and interactive events in Accra, Ghana.
Damilola Joseph holds a PhD in Strategy, Enterprise and Innovations

from Portsmouth Business School. She is a lecturer at Teesside University
Business School and teaches across a range of modules like research meth-
ods, enterprise and practice, and the relationship between buying and sell-
ing. She also supervises undergraduate, postgraduate and doctoral students.
Pandora Kay has a life-long passion for fashion and creative industries
and, as a marketing academic, is excited by recent research on intersec-
tions between them. She has first-hand experience in the arts, cultural
Notes on Contributors ix
and creative industries as a practitioner, as an administrator and recently

as a collector, patron, philanthropist and fundraiser.
Utkarsha Mehdiratta is a first-class honours graduate from London

College of Fashion, where she studied BSc (Hons) Psychology of Fashion.
She was born and brought up in India and is now pursuing her post-
graduate studies and research at Goldsmiths, University of London. She
was a recipient of the BPS Undergraduate Research Assistantship Scheme
Award in 2019. Her area of research includes understanding consumers’
attitudes and behaviour towards sustainability and inclusive fashion; the
psychological principles of effect and persuasion involved in consumer
decision-making; and the evolving relationship between technology,
data, and consumer behaviour.
Emmanuel Mogaji is Senior Lecturer in Advertising and Marketing

Communications at the University of Greenwich. His primary area of
interest is ABCDE of marketing communications—advertising, brand-
ing, communications, digital and ethics. He has authored and edited over
ten books on branding, fashion marketing and higher education.
Sumesh Nair works at the Australian Institute of Business as a senior

lecturer, and he previously worked with Monash and Murdoch
Universities for 11 years. His research appeared in the Journal of
Macromarketing, Journal of International Consumer Marketing, Business
Strategy and the Environment and Ergonomics, to name a few.
Yasmina Nessim is the founder and CEO of pstyled—the world’s first-

ever styling service that uses fashion psychology to optimise mood and
productivity. Her initial academic background is in business manage-
ment from King’s College London and an MSc in Strategic Marketing
from Imperial College in London. She holds a second MSc degree in
Applied Psychology of Fashion from the London College of Fashion. She
conducts her scientific research proving the significant correlation
between outfit curation and the human psyche, focusing on emotive fluc-
tuations, productivity levels and self-expression. Consequently, pstyled
x Notes on Contributors
was born. She is running the business from Cairo, Egypt, but continues
to collaborate and cater to both men and women across the globe.
Ken Kweku Nimo is pursuing an MA in fashion design at the University

of Johannesburg. His research focuses on luxury in Africa, with a specific
interest in South Africa’s emerging luxury fashion industry. He believes in
the fashion industry’s potential as a vehicle for job and wealth creation.
He seeks to contribute to the development of local luxury fashion brands
through research and practice. He is keen on charting the history of lux-
ury across diverse cultures in Africa and developing and managing local
and international luxury brands on the continent.
Tareq Rasul is a senior lecturer at the Australian Institute of Business,

Australia. He holds a doctorate in marketing from the University of South
Australia, Australia, and an MBA from East London, UK. His research has
been published in many international journals such as Australasian Journal
of Information Systems, Tourism Recreation Research, Journal of Strategic
Marketing, International Journal of Web-Based Communities, Journal of
Knowledge Management and Journal of Open Innovation: Technology Market,
and Complexity. He is also a Certified Practising Marketer (CPM) and a
member of Australian Marketing Institute (AMI) and Action Learning
Action Research Association (ALARA).
Fábio Shimabukuro Sandes is Assistant Professor of Marketing at

Universidade Lusófona. Marketing professional with 15+ years of work in
the Fashion Industry, working in multinational companies like Vicunha
Textil and LYCRA® Brand. Sandes holds an MSc and PhD degrees in
Marketing at EAESP Fundação Getulio Vargas, São Paulo, Brazil.
Rose Turner is a cognitive scientist and Lecturer in Psychology at UAL:

London College of Fashion. She studies relationships between engage-
ment with stories and artistic practices, empathy and sustainability.
Having previously worked as a theatre artist taking creative arts interven-
tions into education, criminal justice and social care contexts, she is inter-
Notes on Contributors xi
ested in the real-world impact of arts engagement and research methods,

emphasising quantitative approaches and statistics.
Caroline Young is a creative diplomat; her innate understanding of cul-

tural and creative sensibilities encompass decades of collaborating with
exceptional creative visionaries, including Vogue, Hermes, Balenciaga,
Shiseido, Peter Saville, Brian Eno, Peter Lindbergh, Joyce Ma and Li
Edelkoort. She studied art history and then lived in London, Paris, Milan,
Tokyo, and India since 2005.
List of Tables
Table 2.1 Foreign brands launched (by entry year) in India from the
late 1980s to 2007 (from Son, 2011) 22
Table 2.2 The decision-making characteristics of Indian consumers
(adapted from Mishra, 2010) 24
Table 2.3 Superordinate and subordinate themes highlighted by Study
1 IPA analysis. Note that P1 stands for Participant 1, P2 for
Participant 2 and so on 28
Table 2.4 Means (and standard deviations) for awareness, quality,
association, and loyalty across the three fashion categories
(Western fast fashion, traditional Indian fashion) and
branded Indian fashion 35
Table 2.5 Means (with standard deviations) and correlations between
sustainability dimensions 35
Table 3.1 Experts interviewed information 52
Table 5.1 Indian fashion cases: company and brand details 122
Table 5.2 Indian fashion cases: branding summary 148
xiii
Part I
An Introduction
1
Fashion Marketing in Emerging
Economies Volume II: South American,
Asian and African Perspectives
Frederica Brooksworth, Emmanuel Mogaji,
and Genevieve Bosah
Introduction
Emerging economies have often been under-researched, and models of
comparison to global markets are ill-suited to conceptualize the contex-
tual factors that are specific to the market. There is a growing interest and
research in this area which poses challenges for existing models and the
need for adaptation or creation of hybrid models for market integration,
segmentation and consumption. The new models also contribute to
F. Brooksworth (*)
Fashion Education Group, London, UK
e-mail: frederica@internationalfashioneducation.org
E. Mogaji
Greenwich Business School, University of Greenwich, London, UK
e-mail: e.o.mogaji@greenwich.ac.uk
G. Bosah
University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK
e-mail: g.bosah@herts.ac.uk
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

F. Brooksworth et al. (eds.), Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies Volume II,
Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07078-5_1
4 F. Brooksworth et al.
economic growth, employment and productivity because of the inte-

grated ecosystems of operation. These emerging markets have become
co-creation hubs for the societies in which they operate. This book high-
lights the different perspectives in such markets by presenting empirical
evidence on strategies and tools employed by the contributors in this
volume to unpack the evolving phenomenon in the Fashion Markets in
markets considered emerging.
The term “emerging markets” is defined as developing countries with
high growth expectations and increasing influence, which have proven to
become more attractive to investors because of their high return potential
(Wilson 20,026). These countries considered as emerging markets are
characterized by the level of economic development, economic growth
and market governance by Czinkota and Ronkainen (1997). Emerging
Economies are home to approximately 80% of the world’s population
(Alon and Welsh, 2001), and constitute the primary destinations not
only for exports but also for direct investment, as more and more equity
investors are seeking opportunities in these economies. According to
Cavusgil, Ghauri and Agarwal (2002), emerging markets will be respon-
sible for a high share of the world’s growth in the next two decades as they
are rapidly transforming their economies. Cities within emerging mar-
kets also provide the most dynamic opportunities and varying market
potentials for companies mostly in developed countries to extend their
markets.
According to the Financial Times and Stock Exchange (FTSE), the
countries identified as emerging markets propelling consistent economic
growth and active across all sectors of the economy are Brazil, the Czech
Republic, Hungary, Mexico, Malaysia, Poland, South Africa, Turkey and
Taiwan. The secondary emerging countries are Chile, China, Columbia,
Egypt, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Morocco, Pakistan, Peru, the
Philippines, Russia, Thailand and the UAE (FTSE, 2012), with Brazil,
Russia, India, China and South Africa (BRICS) being the most popular,
and their capacity to provide investors with higher profits and boost the
world economy cannot be underestimated (Goldman Sachs, 2003).
Mexico, Indonesia, South Korea and Turkey (MIST), which followed
years later as the second tier of nations. According to Goldman Sachs’
projections, within the next 20 years, BRICS will add to their
1 Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies Volume II: South… 5
populations some 225 million “middle class” consumers who earn at least
US$ 15,000 a year. The economy of BRICS will overtake the U.S., Japan,
Germany, France, the UK, Italy and Canada by 2040 (BusinessWeek,
2006). According to Hanlon Investment Management, the market capi-
talization of emerging markets are as follows: China 38%, India 10.9%,
South Korea 8.7%, Taiwan 6.3%, Brazil 5.0%, Russia 3.2%, South Africa
2.8%., Thailand 2.8%, Saudi Arabia 2.5%, Indonesia 2.5%, Malaysia
2.3%, Mexico 1.9%, and all other emerging markets represent 13.0%.
Emerging markets offer several advantages to equity investors. They
include, but are not limited to, an expanding middle class necessary for
e-commerce and retail to excel, relatively unsaturated markets, urbanized
and highly populated cities, for the most part, a growing youth market,
free trade zones, relatively friendly business laws, liberalized markets and
transitioning economies, and a huge pent-up demand for Western-style
goods and services.
Fashion in Emerging Markets

How is fashion looking like in emerging markets? It is estimated that by
2035, the gross domestic product of emerging markets will permanently
surpass that of all advanced markets (Wilson and Purushothaman 2003).
Emerging markets have enormous raw material advantages ranging from
human capital (China, India), industrial raw materials (Brazil, Central
America), energy (Russia, Nigeria) and other natural resources (Peru,
Africa). Many of these markets also have strong agricultural (Brazil) and
cattle-based natural resources (India). With developing markets becom-
ing saturated, equity investors have turned to emerging markets for
future growth.
The fashion multinational industries in emerging markets have been
widely acknowledged as important global players and have initiated
unique strategies that aid the development of these industries. Since the
term “BRICS” was coined (O’Neill, 2001), much has been learned over
the past decades on mature and developed markets; yet our knowledge is
incomplete on several major issues happening in emerging markets that
offer a variety of opportunities, whether it is sourcing, producing, selling,
disposal or engaging in other relevant activities and conversations along

the fashion value chain and some of the world’s most important issues
(Cavusgil, Ghauri & Agarwal, 2002). The paucity of historical Literature
on Emerging Economies is part of the reason why researchers interested
in the field have come together with the ultimate goal of shaping the
agenda for research work on Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies
through identifying Fashion Multinational Corporations, interesting
research topics, collaborating, exploring and sharing insights and find-
ings from the field on fashion marketing strategies in emerging econo-
mies (Agarwal & Malhotra, 2019; Malhotra, Schaller, & Patil, 2017;
Malhotra & Uslay, 2018, Mogaji et al., 2022).
Fashion is one of the most important and competitive industries in the
world, and emerging markets are employing the right tools and strategies
to keep up with the competition. It is one of the most progressing indus-
tries in the world and worth billions (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2009). The fashion multinational apparel industries in emerging markets
have undergone profound transformation due to various changes in the
business environment; efforts have been made to improve technology,
design, business management and service delivery (Mogaji, 2021), which
have results in an intensified global competition in the emerging market’s
fashion businesses. The industrial sectors in emerging markets have seen
a rapid growth and are playing a vital role in the global economy by con-
tributing to shaping international standards (Allwood, Laursen,
De-Rodriguez and Bocken, 2006, Mukonza et al., 2021).
With the rise of fashion consumption and industrial upgrading, fash-
ion in emerging economies has emerged as a lucrative business model as
they have been successful in attracting global equity investors and offer
arguably the widest array of market opportunities (Gereffi, 2005). The
fusion of digital technologies, where technologies mean “knowledge,
methods, tools, devices” mediates communication, including internet-
enabled technologies (Varadarajan et al., 2010, Abdulquadri et al., 2021).
The fusion of digital technologies, such as computer-aided design (CAD),
computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) and enterprise resource planning
(ERP) into clothing production and manufacturing, has pushed these
economies into becoming leading fashion manufacturing and produc-
tion hubs and the cornerstone for global fashion exports. These have seen
a significant internal change in the labour process: impressive employ-

ment growth and expanding and fuelling consumption, raising wages
and income, accumulating wealth and reducing poverty (Cavusgil,
Ghauri and Agarwal, 2002).
The global fashion apparel procurement industry has been dominated
by strong players in emerging markets. With a considerable amount of
expertise in the industry, along with decades of experience, modern infra-
structure, efficient supply chain management, and high productivity,
apparel manufacturers and retailers, primarily from the developed mar-
kets have developed interests in doing business in emerging markets as
they present plentiful business opportunities for them (Cavusgil, Ghauri
& Agarwal, 2002). The Chinese textile and apparel industry has seen a
rapid development within the global apparel and textile supply chain as
it has become the largest producer and supplier of fibres, yarns, fabrics
and apparel (Gereffi & Memedocic 2003). In 2007, the industry
accounted for 20% of China’s manufacturing employment, 7% of China’s
GGDP, 14% of its manufacturing value added and 15% of its total
exports (China Textile Industry Development Report 2006/2007, 2008).
There is an emergence of a unique and local apparel chain in Brazil
(Pinto, 2011; Pinto & Souza, 2013; Pontual, 2010). Brazil ranks among
the world’s top producers of textiles and the second major supplier of
indigo (Vilasboas 2012). The textile and clothing production chain is
present in all 27 Brazilian States, with more than 32,000 companies,
located mainly in the South and Southeast regions of Brazil, especially in
the State of São Paulo, which concentrates 27% of production units
(Brasil, 2014). There are approximately 1.585.6 million direct jobs, rep-
resenting 17% of the total of workers engaged in the manufacturing
industry, distributed in all segments of the production chain, from the
natural and synthetic fibre production, spinning, weaving, knitting, fin-
ishing and sewing (ABIT, 2015). The industry is worth US$ 797 billion
in global value according to the World Trade Organization (WTO, 2015).
The Indian clothing industry is labour-intensive, and it provides
employment to those with simple skills, including women. Some of the
countries, such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Vietnam, and Mauritius, have
experienced high output growth in this sector (Chakrabarty, 2014).
Bangladesh is a growing country in the emerging market (Khan and
Ullah, 2017), and its most vital export industry is the Fashion Industry.
According to Barua and Ansary (2007), there are more than four million
employees in Bangladesh’s Fashion Industry. It has been identified as
being the second biggest exporter of fashion products after China (Khan
and Ullah, 2017). The country has joint ventures with different compa-
nies in developed countries and export clothes all over the world. The
apparel industry in India is one of the leading apparel industries globally
by adopting new production and technological techniques (Cavusgil,
Ghauri & Agarwal, 2002).
The growing markets of Asia, especially in Korea, Japan, India and
China (Morton, 2002; Bryck, 2003), have proven to become an impor-
tant sourcing and control centre for the global garment industry, and a
lot of equity investors have dedicated their attention even more than
before to the market potential beckoning in these markets, with produc-
tion plants mainly in China, Indonesia, Thailand and India (Hong Kong
Government Industry Department, 1995). Global value chains in the
fashion industry have been motivated by the emergence of these new
markets (Markusen, Wassall, DeNatale, & Cohen, 2008; Nika, 2010;
Pontual, 2011; Prideaux, 2009). Any discussion on this substantial
growth would not be complete without understanding the positive and
favourable fashion marketing strategies and factors attributing to this
global competitiveness in emerging markets.
The dominant patterns in the fashion industry that the industry gets
called out for are polluting the environment, producing enormous
amounts of waste, and exploiting people but changes are slowly happen-
ing highlighting the many enormous hurdles to overcome in the fashion
networks (Lacy and Hayward, 2011). There is an increasing pressure for
Fashion Multinational Corporations to take a greater role in addressing
global societal issues such as eradicating poverty and environmental pro-
tection. Emerging economies are beginning to contribute to environ-
mentally sustainable challenges. There are several allocations and
relocations of resources for production activities to cities within emerging
economies, thereby putting pressure on the world’s resources (Barba-
Navaretti and Falzoni, 2004; Pennings and Sleuwaegen, 2000). Fashion
sustainability has gained considerable attention and has become one of
the crucial conversations in the fashion industry (Niinimaki, 2011,
Nguyen & Mogaji, 2021a). An important element identified in emerging

markets is the growing expectations and preferences of customers to shift
towards a more transparent, sustainable, less negative but positive social
impact brands, because they believe fashion brands have the responsibil-
ity of addressing environmental and social issues (Marchand and
Walker, 2008).
Objective of the Book

There is little academic and contemporary research about Fashion Markets
in Emerging Economies. The fashion industry is growing rapidly in
emerging markets; in addition to this, marketing strategies, tools and
technologies have also evolved. There is a growing demand for additional
research, information, recommendations and insight from practitioners,
entrepreneurs, students and academics. The book aims to provide and
shed light on insights, challenges and opportunities to support the devel-
opment and economic growth of the fashion industries within emerging
markets.
Target Audience
This book will aim to satisfy the needs of our audience by providing
timely information on growing areas such as sustainability, luxury, digi-
tal, trends and psychology.
The book could be implemented as a manual to help with organiza-
tional activities and will be relevant to policy makers interested in growth
and development of economies.
The book will also satisfy the needs of scholars by filling in a research
gap for research papers, case studies and journal articles and by pursuing
their own personal projects.
For undergraduate and postgraduate students this will also be very use-
ful to support them with research for their thesis and assignments.
Additionally, it will give them insight into various job roles within the
industry and educate them on opportunities within the emerging market.
The Book Outline

This volume contains ten chapters, which include introductory and con-
cluding chapters. In the series, there are 17 contributing authors from
different emerging markets across the globe including Brazil, Nigeria,
South Africa and India. Authors who have presented their contributions
to theories, knowledge and discussion around Fashion Marketing in
Emerging Economies. Drawing from the contributions, these chapters
provide an understanding of effective marketing strategies employed by
Fashion Multinational Corporations within Emerging Markets.
The authors made important contributions to their host literatures,
and they encompass and should however be noted that the portfolio of
these chapters is a focused selection from a far wider corpus of research
output, conducted over a period of 12 months. Presentations, collabora-
tions and other published outputs, while excluded from the core portfo-
lio, provide relevant evidence along the research journey, and are
referenced accordingly. The individual portfolio papers are distinguished
throughout by writing style. This academic research bridges the gap to
not only the relatively neglected area of marketing activities happening in
emerging markets but also the growth of emerging economies entirely.
This volume compliments the first volume which had a focus on brand,
consumer and sustainability perspectives (Brooksworth et al., 2022a,
2022b). This volume examined fashion marketing from various contexts
and across other emerging economies such as Sect. “Fashion in Emerging
Markets”—South America and Asian perspectives with case studies from
India, Brazil and markets in Southeast Asia and Sect. “Objective of the
Book”, which considers the emerging economies of the fashion market
from the African and Middle East perspective with contributions from
Nigeria, Egypt, South Africa and the Middle East.
While Chap. 1 offers an introduction to the book, Bardey et al. (2022)
in Chap. 2 provided insights into Generation Z Indian consumers’ atti-
tudes towards Western and Indian Fashion. This chapter reports on the
current state of the Indian fashion industry and describes Indian fashion
consumers. It focused on an under-researched demographic: young
Indian fashion consumers. Specifically, the authors assessed their
attitudes and brand equity towards Western and Indian fashion as well as
their environmental attitudes and behaviours. The study provides insight
into how Western and Indian fashion brands can be successful in their
marketing towards Indian Gen Z fashion consumers.
Chapter 3 by Sandes (2022) discusses the characteristics of fashion’s
menswear market in one of the biggest emerging countries in the world:
Brazil. In-depth interviews were conducted with experts to build a point
of view of the dynamics present in this market. Fashion designers, prod-
uct managers, journalists and brand managers’ perspectives offer the
reader a qualitative perception of relevant characteristics of the men’s
buying behaviour in fashion in Brazil, an emerging country that still faces
gender discrimination in fashion consumption and usage.
Chapter 4 focused on the Southeast Asia markets. Ala et al. (2022)
presented theoretical insight into the power of neuromarketing and high-
lighed the huge possibilities of taking luxury fashion marketing to a
whole new level. This chapter highlights some of the ways neuromarket-
ing can be applied in social media to better understand and influence the
psychological motivation and decision-making of consumers, and it pro-
vides a summary of scholarly insights into effective strategies for using
neuromarketing in e-commerce and social commerce. This chapter pres-
ents a comprehensive analysis of the application of neuromarketing to
support market research, product development and marketing commu-
nication associated with luxury fashion marketing in SE Asia markets.
In Chap. 5, Kay and Young (2022) recognized the impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic on fashion brands and further presented evidence
of how artisanal fashion in India is building the brand through storytell-
ing, even in challenging times. This is the first chapter under the fashion
brand positioning theme. Like other markets in the world, the Coronavirus
pandemic has created massive challenges and opportunities (Ding et al.
2020) for fashion industries within emerging markets. There is the need
to also discuss the impact of the Novel Coronavirus on Fashion Businesses
and Corporate Social Responsibility activities in Emerging Economies.
This chapter highlights the resilience of some fashion brands that emerged
during the pandemic environment in India.
Section “Objective of the Book” with a focus on the African perspec-
tive starts with Chap. 6, where Joseph (2022) presented a study on how
Nigerian fashion brands influence customer purchasing behaviour. With

a case study approach on a select number of well-established Nigerian
Brands such as Lisa Folawiyo, Lanre Da Silva and Orange Culture, the
study revealed that Nigerian fashion brands influence purchase behaviour
through the use of psychological factors like Cultural and ethnic identity,
Influencer marketing. An important implication is that since consumers’
consumption of fashion has moved beyond materialism, and towards cul-
ture and self-identity, fashion brands need to communicate brand mes-
sages that deeply resonate with the values and ideology of their customers.
In the same manner, in Chap. 7, Appiah-Nimo (2022) presented a
snapshot of contemporary retail in South Africa. This chapter presents a
condensed overview of contemporary fashion retail in South Africa. Its
core objective is to offer valuable insight and a critical point of entry for
brands and retailers prospecting the South African market. This chapter
briefly explores the country’s fashion retail history, examining the con-
temporary retail environment, while providing a glimpse into its fashion
retail future. Furthermore, the trajectory of growth in the fashion retail
market, contextualized by the recent COVID-19 global pandemic and
the emergence of frontier technology, is discussed. The study adopted a
qualitative approach, through a combination of document analysis and
case studies to analyse the phenomenon.
Chapter 8 by Pstyled and Bardey (2022) recognizes the rise of female
empowerment in Egypt and the fashion Psychology Behind Their Attire
and Armour. The study assessed the use of clothing practices as a means
of communicating and expressing the woman’s newfound confidence in
the MENA region, with a particular focus on Egypt. The evolution
in local fashion designers and consumer demands paint a clear and beau-
tiful picture of how women across the region are using fashion to express
their growth, their power and their love——for themselves and for their
cultures. The findings revealed ways in which neighbouring and interna-
tional brands and fashion houses can appreciate and empathize with the
women of the MENA region: communicate, market and support their
growth and energy.
Chapter 9 authored by Griffin (2022) presented Strategies and Tools
for Fashion Analytics in Africa and Middle East. This chapter analyses the
effectiveness of advanced data-driven marketing practices and fashion
consumer analytics in emerging markets in the Middle East and African

regions (MEA). It inspects the analytical tools facilitating decisions within
the arising landscapes and examines data-driven marketing case studies,
literature reviews, and reference frameworks to obtain a current view of
fashion marketing in emerging markets. Additionally, this chapter inves-
tigates digital disadvantages in MEA markets, and the analytical tools
facilitating decisions within the arising landscape. Brooksworth et al.
(2022c) present the conclusion in Chap. 10. Research agenda for Fashion
Marketing in Emerging Economies were also presented.
Conclusion
The main intention of Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies is to
focus attention on how the fashion apparel industries in emerging mar-
kets have significantly expanded their boundaries (Djelic and Ainamo
1999). The book develops a classification of the major impacts of emerg-
ing markets around the globe. Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies
is a timely contribution to highlighting the most significant economic
growth and rapid transformation happening in emerging markets
(Thompson and Reynolds 2018), which are not only undervalued but
also under-researched, yet embody and offer enormous opportunity for
investors and entrepreneurs (Mckinsey, 2014; Kaur et al., 2022).
The book describes the Influence and Power of Emerging Markets and
some effective Fashion Marketing Growth Strategies adopted by Fashion
Multinational Corporations in these markets, while highlighting things
that have noticeably improved, concurrently, and why it is compelling to
investors and worth investing in (Atsmon, Kertesz & Vittal, 2011). The
book provides a detailed analysis of numerous indisputable strengths and
attractive attributes of Fashion Multinational Corporations within
emerging markets and some interesting challenges.
Highlighting the differences and unique characteristics between the
various emerging markets, the authors strongly suggest the need for
investors to use different approaches to marketing in emerging markets
(Atsmon, Kertesz & Vittal, 2011, Gökerik et al., 2018). By highlighting
the developments of Fashion Multinational Corporations in Emerging
Markets, these chapters in the book respond to the call that emerging
markets are a distinct cluster rather than a set of discrete regional stories
and must be treated as such (Austin et al., 2017). These chapters further
identify, profile and evaluate the performance of some emerging markets
in Africa with compelling growth stories that not a lot of investors are
aware of, thereby tilting their resources towards what’s familiar resulting
in them missing out on a world of potential opportunities (Mwenda
2000). The contributions will serve as a roadmap to encourage corpora-
tions and investors looking for investment opportunities in emerging
markets to be strategic and establish localized and more tailor-made
approaches and suitable actions/solutions (Bespoke) and not a generic or
standardized go-to-market models for each market (Aaker and
Shansby 1982).
With the sluggish growth in developed markets, equity investors, fash-
ion marketers and retailers are increasingly becoming aware of the bene-
fits in these markets and are forced to seek their future growth potential
in emerging economies. Although billions of dollars of apparel business
are conducted in emerging markets, relatively little knowledge about the
management of supply chains is reported in published research. In view
of this data limitation, all the authors use multiple methods and theories
to uncover, analyse, demonstrate and present the facts in their chapters
and provide integrated guideposts for future research. This book posited
the strong characteristics of emerging markets. The authors further pro-
vide integrated guideposts for future research.
References
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Ala, M., Rasul, T., & Nair, S. (2022). The power of neuromarketing: Taking
luxury fashion marketing in Southeast Asia markets to a whole new level. In
F. Brooksworth, E. Mogaji, & G. Bosah (Eds.), Fashion Marketing in Emerging
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Part II
Fashion Marketing in Emerging
Economies: South American and
Asian Perspectives
2
Fashioning the Future Generation:
Generation Z Indian Consumers’
Attitudes Towards Western and
Indian Fashion
Aurore Bardey, Utkarsha Mehdiratta, and Rose Turner
Introduction
India’s high-end fashion industry emerged in the 1980s. Since the early
2000s, Indian fashion has become a functioning and well-established
industry, earning revenues of approximately 2 billion Indian rupees
(KPMG India report, 2020; almost £21 million). According to McKinsey’s
Fashion Scope (2019), India’s fashion market will be worth £45.5 billion in
2022 (compared to the United Kingdom’s £49.8 billion), making India the
fifth largest apparel market in the world and one of the emerging markets
with the highest growth rates. In addition to this unprecedented growth,
A. Bardey (*)
Burgundy School of Business, Dijon, France
e-mail: aurore.bardey@bsb-education.com
U. Mehdiratta • R. Turner
London College of Fashion, London, UK
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 19

F. Brooksworth et al. (eds.), Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies Volume II,
Palgrave Studies of Marketing in Emerging Economies,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-07078-5_2
20 A. Bardey et al.
the Indian apparel industry has evolved greatly over the past three decades.
Western fashion brands’ presence in India (Nagrath, 2003), the rise of
e-commerce (Chanana & Goele, 2012), consumers’ rejuvenation (Sinha,
2003) and their desire to shop sustainably (Kaur et al., 2018; Mukonza
et al., 2021) have transformed Indian consumerism. Even though the
Indian fashion industry is one of the largest and fastest-growing apparel
industries to date, there is still a lack of studies focused on Indian consum-
ers (Ganguly & Ayres, 2006; Kaur et al., 2022). This chapter aims to
address this gap by reporting on the current state of the Indian fashion
industry and describing Indian fashion consumers. We will focus on an
under-researched demographic: young Indian fashion consumers.
Specifically, we will assess their attitudes and brand equity towards Western
and Indian fashion as well as their environmental attitudes and behaviours.
We aim to provide insight into how Western and Indian fashion brands can
be successful in their marketing to Indian Gen Z fashion consumers.
Literature Review
Theoretical Background
In the past four decades, the world has seen significant and unprece-
dented growth of emerging markets (Nguyen & Mogaji, 2022b), and
particularly the Indian economy (Kaur et al., 2022). While Indian GDP
steadily increased from 37.03 billion USD in 1960 to 468.39 billion
USD in 2000, it increased remarkably to 2.65 trillion USD in 2017
(World Bank Data, 2020), making India the 12th largest consumer mar-
ket (McKinsey & Company, 2007). This growth led economists to iden-
tify India as a future major global economic power (Indian Week, 2005).
Indeed, if the country’s growth continues at the same rate, India will
become the fifth largest worldwide consumer market by 2022 (Beinhocker
et al., 2007; McKinsey & Company, 2007; McKinsey’s Fashion Scope,
2019). This impressive economic growth is paired with increased con-
sumer demand, which will expand three to four times faster than the
global economy (Nguyen & Mogaji, 2021; Zainulbhai, 2005).
2 Fashioning the Future Generation: Generation Z Indian… 21
Indian retail appears to be one of the sectors that has benefited most
from worldwide economic growth, with a Compound Annual Growth
Rate (CAGR) of 13% in 2013 (KPMG report, 2014). On the one hand,
the rapid growth of internet penetration in India made the Indian retail
sector the earliest to adapt to retail mobile applications (Bhattacharya &
Anand, 2019; Ming 2017). On the other hand, the fact that India is one
of the main raw material suppliers, and provides cost competitiveness for
several international retail chains, places Indian retail as the most attrac-
tive retail sector worldwide. Although organized retailing is currently only
3% in India, the Indian retail industry is expected to keep expanding in
the next decade, thanks to Indian demographics, increasing urbanization,
increased number of malls, growing preference for branded products and
change in consumer habit towards foreign brands (Kang, 2015).
Apparel retailing is one of the sectors expected to obtain the highest
growth (KPMG report, 2014). With 40–50% of Indian women’s salaries
spent on clothing and footwear (Hasan, 2016), the Indian apparel mar-
ket accounts for $3.5 billion and for almost 39% of the organized retail
sector (being the second-largest organized retail sector after food and gro-
ceries; Fernandes et al., 2000; Pani & Sharma, 2012). According to Pani
and Sharma (2012), the Indian apparel market growth has been insti-
gated by several factors: (1) increase in average household income, (2) rise
in special occasion trends, (3) women empowerment, (4) access to fash-
ion by middle-class women, (5) use of fashion as a tool for self-expression,
(6) increased urbanization, (7) growth of organized retail and shopping
malls, (8) circulation of fashion innovators due to the rise of internet use
and (9) presence of Western brands in India.
This last factor is particularly interesting as Western products were
restrained in India before the 1980s, and they were mainly available to
the higher social classes only (Batra et al., 2000). In the late 1980s, the
Indian government chose to ease these restrictions allowing foreign com-
petitors to bring their branded goods to the local markets (Field, 2005).
With an annual growth of 25%, a rise in consumer demand for fashion
and increasing middle-class salaries, the Indian apparel industry today
offers significant opportunities for multinational fashion retailers
(Bellman, 2005; Moreau & Mazumdar, 2007; Nicholls et al., 1996).
Many international apparel brands have launched in India (see Table 2.1),
22 A. Bardey et al.
Table 2.1 Foreign brands launched (by entry year) in India from the late 1980s to
2007 (from Son, 2011)
Entry Entry
Brand year Country Brand year Country
Adidas 1989 Germany Bossini 2005 Hong
Kong
Pierre Cardin 1994 France Christian Dior 2006 France
Levi’s 1994 USA Promod 2006 France
Nike 1995 USA Giordano 2006 Hong
Kong
Lee 1995 USA Mango 2006 Spain
Reebok 1995 USA Zara 2006 Spain
Benetton 1998 Italy Nautica 2006 USA
Ermenegildo 1999 Italy Guess 2006 USA
Zegna
Van Heusen 2000 USA DKNY 2006 USA
Marks & spencer 2001 UK Seven jeans 2006 USA
Ralph Lauren 2001 USA Versace 2006 Italy
Wrangler 2001 USA Fendi 2007 Italy
Allen Solly 2001 UK Dolce and 2007 Italy
Gabanna
Louis Vuitton 2002 France Armani 2007 Italy
Hugo boss 2003 Germany Gucci 2007 Italy
Daks Simpson 2004 UK Diesel 2007 Italy
Bvulgari 2004 Italy Sisley 2007 Italy
Mexx 2004 Netherlands Banana republic 2007 USA
Calvin Klein 2004 USA Gap 2007 USA
Tommy Hilfiger 2004 USA Kipling 2007 Belgium
La Senza 2004 Canada FCUK 2007 UK
Channel 2005 France Jimmy Choo 2007 UK
Esprit 2005 Hong Kong Canali 2007 Italy
offering new shopping formats to Indian consumers, that is, shopping

malls and department stores similar to the Western type. Table 2.1 illus-
trates the wide offer from Western Fashion, from mass-market and fast
fashion brands to mid-market brands as well as luxury brands. Foreign
branded products are now in competition with traditional and mostly
unbranded Indian apparel (Bandyopadhyay 2001; Kinra, 2006). The
branded apparel sector is a growing market (Nguyen & Mogaji, 2022a)
and is considered to be the second-largest retail sales in India (Vaid,
2007). These multinational apparel brands that entered India have
transformed Indian consumerism over the past decade (Gopal &

Srinivasan, 2006).
The impact of multinational, and also Western, brands on Indian con-
sumerism can be better understood through the lens of cross-cultural
research. Traditionally, cross-cultural studies have depicted Indian society
as an Eastern culture with Eastern cultural preferences such as collectivist
orientation, respect for status and power, primacy of personalized rela-
tionships, desire to be embedded in an in-group and familism (Hofstede,
1991; Panda & Gupta, 2004; Sharma 2015). Foreign brands have ‘cre-
ated a powerful image among the upper-middle-class that foreign goods
were exotic, showy and better than Indian-made products’ (Bullis 1997,
p. 64). Western brands have heightened the need for uniqueness in young
Indians (Handa & Khare, 2010) and increased brand consciousness
among Indian consumers (Shashidhar, 2004). Western brands have also
increased the choice of products with emotional benefits such as the com-
munication of status, wealth and prestige (Batra et al., 2000; Sinha,
2003) as well as utilitarian benefits such as quality and low price (Batra
et al., 2000). Table 2.2 summarizes cross-cultural studies that have
assessed Indian consumer decision-making characteristics since the
1980s. Overall, research depicts Indian consumers as brand loyal, brand
and price-value conscious, new fashion and recreational-shopping con-
scious, perfectionist, time-energy conserving but also confused by over-
choice and impulse (see Table 2.2).
Research has underlined that Indian consumers, particularly young
generations such as Generation Z (18–24-year-old), have a more positive
attitude and higher consumer preferences towards foreign brands as com-
pared to local brands (Jin, Chansarkar & Kondap 2006; Kumar et al.,
2009). Indian consumers are more inclined to prefer and purchase
Western rather than Indian fashion brands because of the perception that
Western goods are of higher quality, depict high social class and provide
modernity and nonconformity to traditional values, uniqueness and
emotional values (Batra et al., 2000; Jin, Chansarkar & Kondap 2006;
Kinra, 2006; Kumar et al., 2009).
Despite the Indian growth rate, Indian fashion consumption has been
the subject of relatively little research. Furthermore, 500 million Indians
were under the age of 25 in 2011 (KPMG report, 2014) representing
Table 2.2 The decision-making characteristics of Indian consumers (adapted from Mishra, 2010)
24
Articles
Sproles & Lyonski Fan & Mitchell Hiu
Decision-making Kendall Hafstrom et al. Xiao & Bates et al. Mokhlis Mishra
characteristics (1986) et al. (1992) (1996) (1998) (1998) (2001) (2009) (2010)
Brand conscious x x x x x x x
Confused by over choice x x x x x x x
Dissatisfied shopping x
A. Bardey et al.
consciousness
Fashion-conscious x
Habitual, brand loyal x x x x x x x
Information-utilization x
Impulsiveness x x x x x x
Novelty-fashion conscious x x x x x
Perfectionist x x x x x x x
Price-value conscious x x x x x x
Quality conscious x x
Recreational-shopping x x x x x x x
conscious
Store loyal x x
Time-energy conserving x x x x
Variety-seeking x
20% of the world’s population under the age of 24 (Sinha, 2003), and
young female Indian consumers are more involved in fashion than mature
Indian women (Khare et al., 2012). Interestingly, young consumers,
including young Indian consumers, choose to engage with sustainability
(Dabija et al., 2019; Goswami, 2008; Kaur et al., 2018; Singh et al.,
2011). In order to cope with unethical image of fast fashion as well as to
attract young consumers, Western fast fashion brands tend to focus their
image and strategy on sustainability (McNeill & Moore, 2015).
Considering Gen Z Indian consumers’ prevalence and ease of access to
fashion, and understanding the attitudes of these consumers towards
Western fast fashion, Indian traditional fashion and sustainability will
enable brands to enhance their targeted marketing strategies.
Research Objectives and Rationale
This research is aimed at evaluating the fashion consumer behaviour of

Gen Z Indian consumers. Our specific research objectives were (1) to
assess the opinion of these consumers towards Western and Indian fash-
ion, (2) to measure Indian Gen Z’s brand equity towards Western and
Indian fashion and (3) to measure Indian Gen Z’s behaviours and atti-
tudes towards sustainability. Two studies were conducted in order to
address these objectives.
Study 1 aimed to evaluate Gen Z’s attitudes and opinions towards
Western and Indian fashion. Given the lack of academic research into
Indian fashion consumers, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
(IPA; Smith et al., 2009) was used to explore the qualitative features,
depth and richness of individuals’ experiences of, and perspectives on,
Western and Indian fashion.
Study 2 aimed to quantify the brand equity (brand awareness, per-
ceived quality, brand associations and brand loyalty) of young Indian
consumers towards Western and Indian fashion, as well as to measure
their environmental behaviours and attitudes (fast fashion purchasing,
disposal, value-oriented hoarding and recycling, and environmental atti-
tudes). Specifically, Study 2 addressed the following hypotheses:
26 A. Bardey et al.
H1. There will be a difference in brand equity (brand awareness, perceived

quality, brand associations and brand loyalty) between Western and
Indian fashion.
H2. There will be associations between fast fashion purchasing, environmen-
tal behaviours (disposal, value-oriented hoarding and recycling) and envi-
ronmental attitudes.
H3. Brand equity will predict environmental behaviours and attitudes.
Study 1
Participants
Participants were recruited using convenience1 and snowball sampling2

methods. As explained in the literature section, only Gen Z consumers were
invited to participate in this study. As women are more involved in fashion
than men (O’Cass, 2000), only women were recruited for this study in
order to obtain a homogeneous sample. The sample included five Indian
Gen Z (1997–2013) females aged between 18 and 24 years. Participants
were recruited from across the country: Hyderabad (P1, participant 1), New
Delhi (P2, participant 2), Chandigarh (P3, participant 3), Lucknow (P4,
participant 4), Noida (P5, participant 5). All participants declared having an
interest in fashion and volunteered to participate in this study.
Methods
Participants were invited for a one-on-one interview.3 Prior to the inter-

view, an information sheet and consent form were signed by all partici-
pants. The interviews were set up on a video call, and the participants were
1
Nonprobability sampling technique where participants are recruited because they are ‘convenient’
source of data for researchers, that is, easy to contact or to reach.
2
Nonprobability sampling technique where participants are recruited from existing participants’
referral.
3
This study has been carried out during the COVID-19 lockdown. As a result, all the 1:1 inter-
views were carried out online.
informed that their interview would be audio-recorded. Participants were

then asked five to six open-ended questions about their experiences and
opinions on Indian and Western fashion. Topics explored during the inter-
view were their opinions towards both Indian and Western fast fashion
brands, their consumption habits over the last few years as well as their
opinions about sustainability. To explore these topics in-depth and encour-
age elaboration, questions were adapted in response to each participant’s
answers during the interview. At the end of the interview, participants were
debriefed and thanked for their valuable time and input.
Data Analysis
All interviews were transcribed, and IPA (Smith et al., 2009) was used to
explore the qualitative features, depth and richness of individuals’ experi-
ences of, and perspectives on, Western and Indian fashion. The first stage
of analysis consisted of reading each transcript several times, highlighting
descriptive words and phrases. The second stage was a more systematic
and critical reading of the transcript in order to identify developing
themes in the text. The third stage was grouping together these themes
into clusters. The fourth stage consisted of summarizing each partici-
pant’s themes, keywords, and quotations. The fifth and final step was
consolidating superordinate themes across all transcripts to identify
shared themes about their experience and attitude towards Western and
Indian fashion (Smith et al., 2009).
The second author carried out all the interviews and transcribed all the
interviews. The first author carried out the data analysis with the help of
the second author. Considering that the second author is Indian, and the
first author is French, this dual data analysis provided an insider and out-
sider’s point of view in the analysis.
Results
The data analysis highlighted two superordinate themes: (1) fashion as a

communication tool and (2) opinion about fashion in India. As Table 2.3
shows, the analysis featured several subordinate themes.
28 A. Bardey et al.
Table 2.3 Superordinate and subordinate themes highlighted by Study 1 IPA

analysis. Note that P1 stands for Participant 1, P2 for Participant 2 and so on
Superordinate themes Subordinate themes P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
Fashion as a The social self x x
communication tool The authentic self x x x
The cultural self x x
Opinions about fashion in Positive opinion Western brands x x x
India Negative opinion Western x x
brands
Positive opinion about x x x
traditional Indian fashion
‘They don’t get it’. x x x
Fashion as a Communication Tool
While all participants perceived fashion as a communication tool used to

express themselves, the analysis highlighted two trends of thought.
Indeed, P1 and P2 communicated the notion of social perception in their
use of fashion while P3, P4 and P5 focused on their authentic selves.
P1 mentioned using fashion to ‘convey a message’ with the way she
dresses; to show people who she is. P2 went beyond this communication
tool idea by stating that fashion is ‘a general statement about a person’,
which reflects the personal and social characteristics of a person, that is,
fashion ‘reflects how you think, how your life is, and that generally reflects
your socio-economic factor, your social status, where you come from’. In addi-
tion to being herself, P3 mentioned using fashion to feel comfortable,
being in her ‘own comfort zone’. P4 and P5 echoed this statement by
describing the use of fashion as a means to ‘be authentic and be comfort-
able’ (P4) and to ‘feel comfortable and attractive’.
Indian culture seemed to impact two of the participants in their fash-
ion choice. P1 explained that her Indian culture, which she defines as
‘strong and rigid’, affects the way she dresses. Even though she described
using fashion to express her true self, this expression seems constrained
within a social and cultural context. Among all the different models she
has access to, P3 focuses her dress style on her Indian peers, that is, her
mother and her law school peers.
‘I dress according to the place I’m going, and not the way I want to dress. I dress
according to what people would perceive of me and how I should maintain
myself in that place - but it’s not like I can dress in whatever because somewhere
a thought would come, about what people will think of me if I wear something
like this?’ (P1)
‘Since I am in my fourth year of law school and I belong to such a place where
people around me are wearing mostly Indian ethnic wear suits, and I feel that,
over the past 3-4 years, I have changed my consumption patterns from the
mainstream patters of jeans and shirts to mostly wearing ethnic suits in college;
and I have also seen all my friends do that.’ (P3)
Before going further into the consumers’ opinion about Western and
Indian fashion, it is interesting to notice the importance of fashion to the
consumer’s self, identity and culture.
Western Versus Indian Fashion
All of the participants defined Indian fashion in two different categories.

On the one hand, they described traditional Indian fashion, defining this
concept as unbranded fashion, sold on local markets or homemade and
tailored. On the other hand, participants talked about branded Indian
fashion, defining this concept as branded fashion using Indian style,
which could be bought online or in stores.
The data analysis did not reveal opinions about branded Indian fash-
ion, however it did highlight an apparent dichotomy between partici-
pants’ perceptions of Western fast fashion and traditional Indian fashion.
P1, P4 and P5 mentioned being attracted to Western fast fashion brands
due to the wide range of products, their style and their affordable price-
points. While P1 underlined the lack of sustainability of Western fast
fashion brands, she described being amazed by the wide product range
that these brands offer. She also highlighted the innovative visual mer-
chandising of these products and it appeared that the vast offer of prod-
ucts was more attractive to her than the lack of sustainability. P4 also
mentioned being attracted to Western fast fashion brands as these brands
offer affordable products with better style. She confirmed that the
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both upper and lower radial nervules uniting with the posterior branch of
the subcostal. It has been treated as a moth by several entomologists.
Aurivillius considers that it is certainly a butterfly; but as the
metamorphoses are unknown, we cannot yet form a final opinion as to
this curious form. The extraordinary Peruvian Insect, Styx infernalis, is
also placed in this family by Staudinger; it is a small, pale Insect, almost
white, and with imperfect scales; a little recalling a Satyrid. It appears to
be synthetic to Pieridae and Erycinidae.
Fig. 180—Pupation of the Orange-tip butterfly, Euchloe cardamines. A,

The completed pupa; B, the larva, with its girdle, prepared for the
change.
The caterpillars of Pieridae are perhaps the least remarkable or

attractive of all butterfly-caterpillars; their skins are as a rule bare, or
covered only with fine, short down or hair; their prevalent colour is
green, more or less speckled with black and yellow, and they are
destitute of any prominent peculiarities of external structure. Pupation is
accomplished by the larva fixing itself to some solid body by the
posterior extremity, with the head upwards (or the position may be
horizontal), and then placing a girdle round the middle of the body. The
pupa never hangs down freely as it does in Nymphalidae. It has been
ascertained by experiment that if the girdle round the larva be cut, the
pupation can nevertheless be accomplished by a considerable
proportion of larvae. Some of the pupae are of very peculiar form, as is
the case in the Orange-tip (Fig. 180, A) and Brimstone butterflies. The
Orange-tip butterfly passes nine or ten months of each year as a pupa,
which is variable in colour; perhaps to some extent in conformity with its
surroundings. The North American E. genutia has a similar life-history,
but the larva leaves its Cruciferous food-plant, wanders to an oak tree,
and there turns to a pupa, resembling in colour the bark of the tree.
Fig. 181—Newly-hatched larva of Euchloe cardamines. A, The larva in
profile; B, one segment more magnified, showing the liquid-bearing
setae; C, one of the setae still more magnified, and without liquid.
It is not unusual for caterpillars to change their habits and appearance

in a definite manner in the course of the larval life. The caterpillar of
Euchloe cardamines exhibits a larval metamorphosis of a well-marked
character. The young larva (Fig. 181) is armed with peculiar setae,
furcate at the tip, each of which bears a tiny ball of fluid. In this stage
the caterpillar makes scarcely any movement. In the middle of the
caterpillar's life a new vestiture appears after an ecdysis; numerous fine
hairs are present, and the fluid-bearing spines nearly disappear, being
reduced to a single series of spines of a comparatively small size on
each side of the upper middle region of the body (Fig. 182). The colour
is also a good deal changed, and concomitantly there is a much greater
voracity and restlessness.
Fig. 182—Larva of Euchloe cardamines in middle life. A, the larva in

profile; B, one segment more magnified.
Fam. 5. Papilionidae.—All the legs well developed. Claws large,

simple, without empodium. Front tibiae with a pad. The metanotum
free, conspicuously exposed between mesonotum and abdomen. This
series of butterflies includes some of the most magnificent of the
members of the Insect world. It is considered by some authorities to be
the highest family of butterflies; and in one very important feature—
sexual differentiation—it certainly is entitled to the rank. There are
about 700 recorded species, the larger portion of which are included in
the genus Papilio. The great variety of form has led to this genus being
divided; the attempts have, however, been partial, with the exception of
an arrangement made by Felder, who adopted 75 sections, and a
recent consideration of the subject by Haase, who arranges Felder's
sections into three sub-genera. Many of the sections have received
names, and are treated by some authors as genera, so that an
unfortunate diversity exists as to the names used for these much-
admired Insects. The genus is distributed all over the world, but is
perhaps nowhere more numerous in species than in South America.
Fig. 183—Ornithoptera (Schoenbergia) paradisea, male. New Guinea. ×

1. (Colours, velvet-black, golden-yellow and green.)
Wallace informs us that the great majority of the species of the Amazon
valley frequent the shady groves of the virgin forest. In many cases the
sexes are extremely different in appearance and habits, and are but
rarely found together in one spot. The genus Ornithoptera is closely
allied to Papilio, and contains some of the most remarkable of
butterflies, the homes of the species being the islands of the Malay
Archipelago, and outlying groups of islands, there being a smaller
number of species in the neighbouring continents. The females are of
great size, and are so excessively different from their consorts of the
other sex, as to arouse in the student a feeling of surprise, and a strong
desire to fathom the mysteries involved.
Fig. 184—Ornithoptera (Schoenbergia) paradisea, female. × 1. (The wings, on the
right side, detached, showing the under surface. Colours, black, white, and gray.)
It would be difficult to surpass the effective coloration of the males in

many of the species of Ornithoptera; they are, too, very diverse in this
respect; O. brookiana is of an intense black colour, with a band of
angular green marks extending the whole length of its wings, while
behind the head there is a broad collar of crimson colour. Perhaps the
most remarkable of all is the O. paradisea, recently discovered in New
Guinea; in this species the sexual disparity reaches its maximum. The
female (Fig. 184) is a large, sombre creature of black, white and grey
colours, but the male (Fig. 183) is brilliant with gold and green, and is
made additionally remarkable by a long tail of unusual form on each
hind wing.
We may anticipate that these extraordinary cases of sexual total

dissimilarity in appearance are accompanied by equally remarkable
habits and physiological phenomena. In the case of O. brookiana the
female is extremely rare, so that the collector, Künstler, could only
obtain fifteen females to a thousand males. According to Mr. Skertchly,
instead of the crowd of males being eager to compete for the females,
the reverse is the case; the female diligently woos the male, who
exhibits a reluctance to coupling. This observer apparently considered
that the "emerald feathers" of the male are a guide or incitement to the
female.[229]
In Africa Ornithoptera is to a certain extent represented by two

extremely remarkable forms, Papilio zalmoxis and P. (Drurya)
antimachus. There are about a dozen other genera of Papilionidae;
most of them contain but few species. Parnassius, however, is rich in
species inhabiting the mountains and elevated plateaus of the northern
hemisphere in both the Old and New Worlds; it is remarkable for the
small amount of scales on the wings, and for the numerous variations
of the species. The female possesses a peculiar pouch at the end of
the body; although only formed during the process of coupling, it has a
special and characteristic form in most of the species. The curious
Indian genus Leptocircus has parts of the front wings transparent, while
the hind pair form long tails. This genus is of interest in that it is said to
connect Papilionidae to some extent with Hesperiidae. The larvae of
this family are remarkable on account of a curious process on the
thoracic segment called an "osmeterium." It is usually retracted, but at
the will of the caterpillar can be everted in the form of a long furcate or
Y-shaped process; there is a gland in the osmeterium, and as a result a
strong odour is emitted when the exstulpation occurs.
The pupation of Papilionidae is similar to that of Pieridae, the pupa

being placed with the head upwards, fixed by the tail, and girt round the
middle. A very curious diversity of pupation occurs in the genus Thais,
in which the pupa is attached by the tail as usual, and—which is quite
exceptional—also by a thread placed at the top of the head. Scudder
thinks there is also a girdle round the middle, but Dr. Chapman inclines
to the view that the thread attaching the head is really the median girdle
slipped upwards. The pupation of Parnassius is exceptional, inasmuch
as, like Satyrides, it is terrestrial, in a slight construction of silk.
Fam. 6. Hesperiidae (Skippers).—Six perfect legs: metanotum not

free, largely covered by the mesonotum. A pad on the front tibia. Claws
short and thick; empodium present. Although this family has been
comparatively neglected by entomologists, upwards of 2000 species
and more than 200 genera are known, and it is not improbable that it
may prove to be as extensive as Nymphalidae. We have already said
that Hesperiidae is generally admitted to be the most distinct of the
butterfly groups. It has been thought by some taxonomists to be allied
to Papilionidae, but this is a mistake. It is undoubtedly more nearly
allied to Heterocera, and when the classification of Lepidoptera is more
advanced, so that the various natural groups placed in that sub-Order
are satisfactorily distinguished, it is probable that Hesperiidae will be
altogether separated from Rhopalocera. We have already mentioned
that E. Reuter considers the Hesperiidae to be phylogenetically
unconnected with Rhopalocera proper; but though quite ready to admit
that he will probably prove correct in this, we think Lepidopterists will
not be willing to recognise the family as a sub-Order equivalent in value
to all Heterocera.
The body is shorter and thicker than it is in most butterflies, and is

pointed at the tip rather than knobbed or bent downwards; the wings
are less ample; the antennae are not truly knobbed, but are thicker
before the actual tip, which is itself pointed and more or less bent
backwards, so that the antennae are somewhat hook-shaped.
In habits as well as structure the family is markedly distinct from

butterflies; the pupation is peculiar, and the name Skipper has been
applied to the perfect Insects, because so many of them indulge in a
brief, jerky flight, instead of the prolonged aerial courses characteristic
of the higher butterflies.
There is great difference among the members of the family, and some
of them possess a very high development of the powers of locomotion,
with a correspondingly perfect structure of the thoracic region, so that,
after inspection of these parts, we can quite believe Wallace's
statement that the larger and strong-bodied kinds are remarkable for
the excessive rapidity of their flight, which, indeed, he was inclined to
consider surpassed that of any other Insects. "The eye cannot follow
them as they dart past; and the air, forcibly divided, gives out a deep
sound louder than that produced by the humming-bird itself. If power of
wing and rapidity of flight could place them in that rank, they should be
considered the most highly organised of butterflies." It was probably to
the genera Pyrrhopyge, Erycides, etc., that Mr. Wallace alluded in the
above remarks. Although the Hesperiidae are not as a rule beautifully
coloured, yet many of these higher forms are most tastefully
ornamented; parts of the wings, wing-fringes, and even the bodies
being set with bright but agreeable colours. We mention these facts
because it is a fashion to attribute a lowly organisation to the family, and
to place it as ancestral to other butterflies. Some of them have
crepuscular habits, but this is also the case with a variety of other
Rhopalocera in the tropics.
In their early stages the Skippers—so far as at present known—depart

considerably from the majority of butterflies, inasmuch as they possess
in both the larval and pupal instars habits of concealment and
retirement. The caterpillars have the body nearly bare, thicker in the
middle, the head free, and more or less notched above. They make
much greater use of silk than other butterfly-larvae do, and draw
together leaves to form caves for concealment, and even make webs
and galleries. Thus the habits are almost those of the Tortricid moths.
Fig. 185—Pupation of Badamia exclamationis. (After Dudgeon. J. Bombay

Soc. x. 1895, p. 144). A, One side of the leaf-cradle, the other
(nearest to the observer) being broken away; B, transverse section
of entire cradle, a, The pupa; b, fastenings of perpendicular threads
round pupa; c, cross thread retaining the leaf in cradle form; d,
margins of the leaf; e, midrib of leaf.
Pupation takes place under similar conditions; and it is interesting to

find that Chapman considers that the pupa in several points of structure
resembles that of the small moths. Not only does the larva draw
together leaves or stalks to make a shelter for the pupa, but it
frequently also forms a rudimentary cocoon. These arrangements are,
however, very variable, and the accounts that have been given indicate
that even the same species may exhibit some amount of variation in its
pupation. Scudder considers that, in the North American Skippers, the
cremaster is attached to a single Y-like thread. In other cases there is a
silk pad on the leaf for the cremaster to hook on. An interesting account
given by Mr. Dudgeon of the pupation of a common Indian Skipper,
Badamia exclamationis, shows that this Insect exercises considerable
ingenuity in the structure of the puparium, and also that the
arrangements it adopts facilitate one of the acts of pupation most
difficult for such pupae as suspend themselves, viz. the hooking the
cremasters on to the pad above them. Badamia uses a rolled-up leaf
(Fig. 185); the edges of the leaf are fastened together by silk at d; from
this spot there descends a thread which, when it reaches the pupa, a,
forks so as to form an inverted Y, and is fastened to the leaf on either
side; the two sides of the leaf are kept together by a cross thread, cc.
Mr. Dudgeon was fortunate enough to observe the act of pupation, and
saw that "although the anal prolegs of the larva were attached to a tuft
or pad of silk in the usual way, and remained so until nearly the whole
skin had been shuffled off, yet when the last segment had to be taken
out, the pupa drew it entirely away from the skin and lifted it over the
empty skin, and by a series of contortions similar to those made by an
Insect in depositing an egg, it soon re-attached its anal segment or
cremaster to the web, throwing away the cast-off skin by wriggling its
body about."
Series II. Heterocera. Moths.
Although Rhopalocera—if exclusion be made of the Hesperiidae—is

probably a natural group, yet this is not the case with Heterocera. The
only definition that can be given of Heterocera is the practical one that
all Lepidoptera that are not butterflies are Heterocera. Numerous
divisions of the Heterocera have been long current, but their limits have
become more and more uncertain, so that at the present time no
divisions of greater value than the family command a recognition at all
general. This is not really a matter of reproach, for it arises from the
desire to recognise only groups that are capable of satisfactory
definition.
Several attempts have recently been made to form a rough forecast of

the future classification of moths. Professor Comstock, struck by some
peculiarities presented by the Hepialidae, Micropterygidae (and
Eriocephalidae), recently proposed to separate them from all other
Lepidoptera as a sub-order Jugatae. Comstock's discrimination in
making this separation met with general approval. The character on
which the group Jugatae is based is, however, comparatively trivial, and
its possession is not sufficient, as pointed out by Packard,[230] to justify
the close association of Hepialidae and Micropterygidae, which, in
certain important respects, are the most dissimilar of moths. The
characters possessed by the two families in common may be
summarised by saying that the wings and wing-bearing segments
remain in a low stage of development. In nearly all other characters the
two families are widely different. Packard has therefore, while accepting
Comstock's separation of the families in question, proposed a different
combination. He considers that Eriocephalidae should be separated
from all others as "Protolepidoptera" or "Lepidoptera Laciniata," while
the whole of the other Lepidoptera, comprised under the term
"Lepidoptera Haustellata," are divided into Palaeolepidoptera
(consisting only of Micropterygidae) and Neolepidoptera, comprising all
Lepidoptera (inclusive of Hepialidae) except the Eriocephalidae and
Micropterygidae. The question is rendered more difficult by the very
close relations that exist between Micropterygidae and a sub-Order,
Trichoptera, of Neuroptera. Dr. Chapman, by a sketch of the
classification of pupae,[231] and Dyar, by one on larval stages,[232] have
made contributions to the subject; but the knowledge of early stages
and metamorphosis is so very imperfect that the last two memoirs can
be considered only as preliminary sketches; as indeed seem to have
been the wishes of the authors themselves.
Simultaneously with the works above alluded to, Mr. Meyrick has
given[233] a new classification of the Order. We allude, in other pages,
to various points in Mr. Meyrick's classification, which is made to appear
more revolutionary than it really is, in consequence of the radical
changes in nomenclature combined with it.
As regards the various aggregates of families that are widely known in

literature by the names Bombyces, Sphinges, Noctuae, Geometres,
Pyrales, we need only remark that they are still regarded as to some
extent natural. Their various limits being the subject of discussion and
at present undecided, the groups are made to appear more uncertain
than is really the case. The group that has to suffer the greatest
changes is the old Bombyces. This series comprises the great majority
of those moths that have diurnal habits. In it there were also included
several groups of moths the larvae of which feed in trunks of trees or in
the stems of plants, such as Cossidae, that will doubtless prove to have
but little connection with the forms with which they were formerly
associated. These groups with aberrant habits are those that give rise
to the greatest difficulties of the taxonomist.
The following key to the families of Heterocera is taken from Sir G. F.

Hampson's recent work, Fauna of British India—Moths.[234] It includes
nearly all the families at present recognised among the larger
Lepidoptera; certain families[235] not mentioned in this key are alluded
to in our subsequent remarks on the families:—
Key to the Families of Moths[236]
N.B.—This table is not simply dichotomic; three contrasted categories are used
in the case of the primary divisions, A, B, C, and the secondary divisions, I,
II, III.
A. Fore wing with nervule 5 coming from the middle of the discocellulars, or
nearer 6 than 4 (Categories I, II, III = 1-18).
I. Frenulum rudimentary. .......... Fam. 38. Epicopeiidae, see p. 418.
II. Frenulum absent (Categories 1-8).
1. Proboscis present, legs with spurs (Cat. 2-5).
2. Hind wing with nervule 8 remote from 7 (Cat. 3 and 4).
3. Fore wing with nervule 6 and 7 stalked .......... Fam. 39. Uraniidae,
see p. 419.
4. Fore wing with nervules 6 and 7 not stalked .......... Fam. 5.
Ceratocampidae, see p. 375.
5. Hind wing with nervule 8 nearly touching 7 beyond end of cell ..........
Fam. 4. Brahmaeidae, see p. 374.
6. Proboscis absent, legs without spurs (Cat. 7 and 8).
7. Hind wing with one internal nervure .......... Fam. 3. Saturniidae, see
p. 372.
8. Hind wing with two or three internal nervures .......... Fam. 6.
Bombycidae, see p. 375.
III. Frenulum present (Cat. 9-18).
9. Antennae fusiform [spindle-shaped] .......... Fam. 9. Sphingidae, see
p. 380.
10. Antennae not fusiform (Cat. 11-18).
11. Proboscis absent .......... Fam. 7. Eupterotidae, see p. 376.
12. Proboscis present (Cat. 13-18).
13. Hind wing with nervule 8 curved and almost touching 7 after end of
cell; nervure 1a reaching anal angle .......... Fam. 12.
Cymatophoridae, see p. 386.
14. Hind wing with nervule 8 remote from 7 after end of cell (Cat. 15-
18).
15. Tarsi as short as tibia, hairy; stoutly built moths .......... Fam. 11.
Notodontidae,[237] see p. 383.
16. Tarsi long and naked; slightly built moths (Cat. 17 and 18)
17. Fore wing with nervule 7 remote from 8, and generally stalked
with 6 .......... Fam. 40. Epiplemidae, see p. 420.
18. Fore wing with nervule 7 given off from 8; hind wing with
nervure 1a short or absent .......... Fam. 36. Geometridae, see
p. 411.
B. Fore wing with nervule 5 coming from lower angle of cell or nearer 4 than 6
[see figures 161 and 162, pp. 318, 319] (Categories 19-58).
19. Hind wing with more than 8 nervules (Cat. 20, 21).
20. Proboscis absent, no mandibles nor ligula; size not very small ..........
Fam. 23. Hepialidae, see p. 396.
21. Mandibles, long palpi and ligula present; size very small .......... Fam.
47. Micropterygidae, see p. 435.
22. Hind wing with not more than 8 nervules (Cat. 23-58).
23. Hind wing with nervule 8 remote from 7 after origin of nervules 6 and 7
(Cat. 24-51).
24. Frenulum absent (Cat. 25-29).
25. Hind wing with one internal nervure; nervule 8 with a precostal spur
.......... Fam. 31. Pterothysanidae, see p. 406.
26. Hind wing with two internal nervures (Cat. 27 and 28).
27. Hind wing with a bar between nervules 7 and 8 near the base;
nervure 1a directed to middle of inner margin .......... Fam. 30.
Endromidae, see p. 406.
28. Hind wing with no bar between nervules 7 and 8; nervure 1a
directed to anal angle .......... Fam. 29. Lasiocampidae, see
p. 405.
29. Hind wing with three internal nervures .......... Fam. 21. Arbelidae,
see p. 396.
30. Frenulum present (Cat. 31-51).
31. Hind wing with nervule 8 aborted .......... Fam. 15. Syntomidae,
see p. 388.
32. Hind wing with nervule 8 present (Cat. 33-51).
33. Antennae knobbed .......... Fam. 1. Castniidae, see p. 371.
34. Antennae filiform, or (rarely) dilated a little towards the tip (Cat.
35-51).
35. Fore wing with nervure 1c present (Cat. 36-43).
36. Hind wing with nervule 8 free from the base or connected
with 7 by a bar (Cat. 37-42).
37. Proboscis present .......... Fam. 16. Zygaenidae, see
p. 390.
38. Proboscis absent (Cat. 39-42).
39. Palpi rarely absent; ♀ winged; larvae wood-borers ..........
Fam. 20. Cossidae, see p. 395.
40. Palpi absent; ♀ apterous (Cat. 41, 42).
41. ♀ rarely with legs; ♀ and larvae case-dwellers ..........
Fam. 19. Psychidae, see p. 392.
42. ♀ and larvae free[238] .......... Fam. 18. Heterogynidae,
see p. 392.
43. Hind wing with nervule 8 anastomosing shortly with 7 ..........
Fam. 26. Limacodidae, see. p. 401.
44. Fore wing with nervure 1c absent (Cat. 45-51).
45. Hind wing with nervule 8 rising out of 7 .......... Fam. 34.
Arctiidae, see p. 408.
46. Hind wing with nervule 8 connected with 7 by a bar, or
touching it near middle of cell (Cat. 47, 48).
47. Palpi with the third joint naked and reaching far above
vertex of head; proboscis present .......... Fam. 33.
Hypsidae, see p. 408.
48. Palpi not reaching above vertex of head; proboscis absent
or very minute .......... Fam. 32. Lymantriidae, see p. 406.
49. Hind wing with nervule 8 anastomosing shortly with 7 near
the base; proboscis well developed (Cat. 50, 51).
50. Antennae more or less thick towards tip .......... Fam. 35.
Agaristidae, see p. 410.
51. Antennae filiform .......... Fam. 37. Noctuidae, see p. 414.
52. Hind wing with nervule 8 curved and nearly or quite touching nervure 7,
or anastomosing with it after origin of nervules 6 and 7 (Cat. 53-58).
53. Hind wing with nervure 1c absent (Cat. 54-57).
54. Hind wing with nervule 8 with a precostal spur .......... Fam. 24.
Callidulidae, see p. 400.
55. Hind wing with nervule 8 with no precostal spur (Cat. 56, 57).
56. Hind wing with nervure 1a absent or very short .......... Fam. 25.
Drepanidae, see p. 400.
57. Hind wing with nervure 1a almost or quite reaching anal angle
.......... Fam. 28. Thyrididae, see p. 404.
58. Hind wing with nervure 1c present .......... Fam. 41. Pyralidae, see
p. 420.
C. Fore wing with 4 nervules arising from the cell at almost even distances
apart (Cat. 59-66).
59. Wings not divided into plumes (Cat. 60-63).
60. Hind wing with nervule 8 coincident with 7 .......... Fam. 13. Sesiidae,
see p. 386.
61. Hind wing with nervule 8 free (Cat. 62, 63).
62. Fore wing with nervure 1b simple or with a very minute fork at base
.......... Fam. 14. Tinaegeriidae, see p. 387.
63. Fore wing with nervure 1a forming a large fork with 1b at base ..........
Fam. 45. Tineidae, see p. 428.
64. Wings divided into plumes (Cat. 65, 66).
65. Fore wing divided into at most two, hind wing into three plumes ..........
Fam. 42. Pterophoridae, see p. 426.
66. Fore wing and hind wing each divided into three plumes .......... Fam.
43. Alucitidae (= Orneodidae), see p. 426.
Fam. 1. Castniidae.—The Insects of this family combine to a large

extent the characters of butterflies and moths. The antennae are
knobbed or hooked at the tip, there is a large precostal area to the hind
wing. The nervules of the front wing are complex and anastomose so
as to form one or more accessory cells (Fig. 162). This important, but
not extensive, family consists chiefly of forms found in tropical America
and Australia. The diversity of size, form and appearance is very great,
and it is probable that the members of the family will be separated;
indeed, taxonomists are by no means in agreement as to the limits of
the family. The Castniidae are diurnal Insects, and the North American
genus Megathymus is by many considered to belong to the
Rhopalocera. Euschemon rafflesiae (Fig. 186) is extremely like a large
Skipper with long antennae, but has a well-marked frenulum. The
members of the Australian genus Synemon are much smaller, but they
also look like Skippers. Their habits are very like those of the
Hesperiidae; they flit about in the hot sunshine, and when settling after
their brief flights, the fore wings are spread out at right angles to the
body, so as to display the more gaily coloured hind wings; at night, or in
cloudy weather, the Insect rests on blades of grass with the wings
erect, meeting vertically over the back, like a butterfly. Hecatesia,
another Australian genus, is now usually assigned to Agaristidae; its
members look like moths. The male of H. fenestrata is provided with a
sound-producing organ similar to that of the Agaristid genus Aegocera.
Fig. 186—Euschemon rafflesiae. Australia. (After Doubleday.)
The Castnia of South America are many of them like Nymphalid

butterflies, but exhibit great diversity, and resemble butterflies of several
different divisions of the family.[239]
The species are apparently great, lovers of heat and can tolerate a very
dry atmosphere.[240] The transformations of very few have been
observed; so far as is known the larvae feed in stems; and somewhat
resemble those of Goat-moths or Leopard-moths (Cossidae); the
caterpillar of C. therapon lives in the stems of Brazilian orchids, and as
a consequence has been brought to Europe, and the moth there
disclosed. The pupae are in general structure of the incomplete
character, and have transverse rows of spines, as is the case with other
moths of different families, but having larvae with similar habits.[241]
Castnia eudesmia forms a large cocoon of fragments of vegetable
matter knitted together with silk. These Insects are rare in collections;
they do not ever appear in numbers, and are generally very difficult to
capture.
Fam. 2. Neocastniidae.—The Oriental genus Tascina, formerly placed

in Castniidae has recently been separated by Sir G. Hampson and
associated with Neocastnia nicevillei, from East India, to form this
family. These Insects have the appearance of Nymphalid butterflies.
They differ from Castniidae by the want of a proboscis.
Fam. 3. Saturniidae.—This is a large and varied assemblage of moths;

the larvae construct cocoons; the products of several species being
used as silk. These moths have no frenulum and no proboscis. The
hind wings have a very large shoulder, so that the anterior margin or
costa stretches far forward beneath the front wing, as it does in
butterflies. The antennae of the males are strongly bipectinated and
frequently attain a magnificent development. The family includes some
of the largest and most remarkable forms of the Insect-world,
Coscinocera hercules, inhabiting North Australia, is a huge moth which,
with its expanded wings and the long tails thereof, covers a space of
about 70 square inches. One of the striking features of the family is the
occurrence in numerous forms of remarkable transparent spaces on the
wings; these window-like areas usually occur in the middle of the wing
and form a most remarkable contrast to the rest of the surface, which is
very densely scaled. In Attacus these attain a large size. In other
species, such as the South African Ludia delegorguei, there is a small
letter-like, or symboliform, transparent mark towards the tip of each
front wing. We have at present no clue to the nature or importance of
these remarkable markings. In the genus Automeris, and in other
forms, instead of transparent spaces there are large and staring
ocellate marks or eyes, which are concealed when the Insect is
reposing. In Arceina, Copiopteryx, Eudaemonia and others, the hind
wings are prolonged into very long tails, perhaps exceeding in length
those of any other moths.
Fig. 187—Larva of Attacus atlas, India. A, at end of 1st instar, profile; B,

4th instar, dorsal view; C, full-grown larva, in repose. (After Poujade.)
The cocoons are exceedingly various, ranging from a slight open

network to a dense elaborate structure arranged as in our Emperor
moth; in this latter case an opening is left by the larva for its exit after it
has become a moth, but by an ingenious, chevaux-de-frise work, this
opening is closed against external enemies, though the structure offers
no resistance at all to the escape of the moth. Fabre has recorded
some observations and experiments which seem to show that the
instinct predominating over the formation of the cocoon is not
cognoscent. The Insect, if interfered with, displays a profound stupidity.
Its method is blind perseverance in the customary.[242] The cocoon of
Saturniidae is more often continuous, i.e. entirely closed. Packard says
that Actias luna effects its escape by cutting through the strong cocoon
with an instrument situate at the base of the front wing. Other species
were examined and were found to possess the instrument; but Packard
is convinced that the majority of the species possessing the instrument
do not use it, but escape by emitting a fluid that softens the cocoon and
enables the moth to push itself through.[243] The cocoons of the
species of Ceranchia have a beautiful appearance, like masses of
filagree-work in silver. The pupa in Ceranchia is very peculiar, being
terminated by a long, spine-like process. In Loepa newara the cocoon
is of a green colour and suspended by a stalk; looking like the pod, or
pitcher, of a plant. The silk of the Saturniidae is usually coarse, and is
known as Tusser or Tussore[244] silk.
The larvae of this family are as remarkable as the imagos, being

furnished with spine-bearing tubercles or warts, or long fleshy
processes; the colours are frequently beautiful. The caterpillar of
Attacus atlas (Fig. 187) is pale olive-green and lavender, and has a
peculiar, conspicuous, red mark on each flank close to the clasper.
About seventy genera and several hundred species are already known
of this interesting family. They are widely distributed on the globe,
though there are but few in Australia. Our only British species, the
Emperor moth, Saturnia pavonia, is by no means rare, and its larva is a
beautiful object; bright green with conspicuous tubercles of a rosy, or
yellow, colour. It affects an unusual variety of food-plants, sloe and
heather being favourites; the writer has found it at Wicken flourishing on
the leaves of the yellow water-lily. Although the Emperor moth is one of
the largest of our native Lepidopterous Insects, it is one of the smallest
of the Saturniidae.
The family Hemileucidae of Packard is included at present in

Saturniidae.
Fam. 4. Brahmaeidae.—The species forming the genus Brahmaea

have been placed in various families, and are now treated by Hampson
as a family apart, distinguished from Saturniidae by the presence of a
proboscis. They are magnificent, large moths, of sombre colours, but
with complex patterns on the wings, looking as if intended as designs
for upholstery. About fifteen species are recognised; the geographical
distribution is remarkable; consisting of a comparatively narrow belt
extending across the Old World from Japan to West Africa, including
Asia Minor and the shores of the Caspian Sea. Little has been recorded
as to the life-histories of these Insects. The larva is said to have the
second and third segments swollen and armed with a pair of lateral
spines projecting forwards. A cocoon is not formed.
Fam. 5. Ceratocampidae.—This is a small family. They are fine moths

peculiar to the New World, and known principally by scattered notices in
the works of North American entomologists. Seven genera and about
sixty species are known. The chief genus is Citheronia. Some of the
larvae are remarkable, being armed with large and complex spines. A
cocoon is not formed.
Fam. 6. Bombycidae.—In entomological literature this name has a

very uncertain meaning, as it has been applied to diverse groups; even
at present the name is frequently used for the Lasiocampidae. We
apply it to the inconsiderable family of true silkworm moths. They are
comparatively small and uninteresting Insects in both the larval and
imaginal instars; but the cocoons formed by the well-known silkworm
are of great value, and some other species form similar structures that
are of more or less value for commercial purposes. The silkworm has
been domesticated for an enormous period, and is consequently now
very widely spread over the earth's surface; opinions differ as to its real
home, some thinking it came originally from Northern China, while
others believe Bengal to have been its native habitat. The silkworm is
properly called Bombyx mori, but perhaps it is as often styled Sericaria
mori. Besides being of so great a value in commerce, this Insect has
become an important object of investigation as to anatomy, physiology
and development. Its domestication has probably been accompanied
by a certain amount of change in habits and instincts, the creature
having apparently lost its appreciation of freedom and its power of
flight; it is also said to be helpless in certain respects when placed on
trees in the larval state; but the importance of these points has been
perhaps somewhat exaggerated.[245]
Although the family Bombycidae is very widely distributed in the warmer

regions of the world, it includes only 15 or 20 genera, and none of them
have many species. The Mustiliidae of some entomologists are
included here. Like the Saturniidae, the Bombycidae are destitute of
proboscis and of frenulum to the wings, but they possess two or three
internal nervures on the hind wing instead of the single one existing in
Saturniidae.
Fam. 7. Eupterotidae (Striphnopterygidae of Aurivillius).—This family

has only recently been separated from Lasiocampidae; its members,
however, possess a frenulum; while none is present in the larger family
mentioned. Its limits are still uncertain, but it includes several extremely
interesting forms. The larvae of the European processionary moth,
Cnethocampa processionea, are social in habits; they sometimes occur
in very large numbers, and march in columns of peculiar form, each
band being headed by a leader in front, and the column gradually
becoming broader. It is thought that the leader spins a thread as he
goes on, and that the lateral leaders of the succeeding files fasten the
threads they spin to that of the first individual, and in this way all are
brought into unison. The hairs of these caterpillars are abundant, and
produce great irritation to the skin and mucous membrane of any one
unlucky enough to come into too close contact with the creatures. This
property is, however, not confined to the hairs of the processionary
moths, but is shared to a greater or less extent by the hairs of various
other caterpillars of this division of Lepidoptera. In some cases the
irritation is believed to be due to the form of the hair or spine, which
may be barbed or otherwise peculiar in form. It is also thought that in
some cases a poisonous liquid is contained in the spine.
The larvae of other forms have the habit of forming dense webs, more
or less baglike, for common habitation by a great number of caterpillars,
and they afterwards spin their cocoons inside these receptacles. This
has been ascertained to occur in the case of several species of the
genus Anaphe, as has been described and illustrated by Dr. Fischer,
[246] Lord Walsingham,[247] and Dr. Holland.[248] The structures are
said to be conspicuous objects on trees in some parts of Africa. The
common dwelling of this kind formed by the caterpillars of Hypsoides
radama in Madagascar is said to be several feet in length; but the
structures of most of the other species are of much smaller size.
The larvae of the South American genus Palustra, though hairy like
other Eupterotid caterpillars, are aquatic in their habits, and swim by
coiling themselves and making movements of extension; the hair on the
back is in the form of dense brushes, but at the sides of the body it is
longer and more remote; when the creatures come to the surface—
which is but rarely—the dorsal brushes are quite dry, while the lateral
hairs are wet. The stigmata are extremely small, and the mode of
respiration is not fully known. It was noticed that when taken out of the
water, and walking in the open air, these caterpillars have but little
power of maintaining their equilibrium. They pupate beneath the water
in a singular manner: a first one having formed its cocoon, others come
successively and add theirs to it so as to form a mass.[249] Another
species of Palustra, P. burmeisteri, Berg,[250] is also believed to breathe
by means of air entangled in its long clothing; it comes to the surface
occasionally, to renew the supply; the hairs of the shorter brushes are
each swollen at the extremity, but whether this may be in connexion
with respiration is not known. This species pupates out of the water,
between the leaves of plants.
Dirphia tarquinia is remarkable on account of the great difference of

colour and appearance in the two sexes. In the Australian genus
Marane the abdomen is densely tufted at the extremity with hair of a
different colour.
Fam. 8. Perophoridae.—The moths of the genus Perophora have for

long been an enigma to systematists, and have been placed as
abnormal members of Psychidae or of Drepanidae, but Packard now
treats them as a distinct family. The larvae display no signs of any
social instincts, but, on the contrary, each one forms a little dwelling for
itself. Some twenty species of Perophora are now known; they inhabit a
large part of the New World, extending from Minnesota to Buenos

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Marketing Communications in Emerging Economies, Volume

Green Marketing in Emerging Economies: A Communications

Employee Voice in Emerging Economies 1st Edition Amanda

Green Marketing in Emerging Markets : Strategic and

Public Sector Reform and Performance Management in

Global Changes and Sustainable Development in Asian

Marketing Brands in Africa Perspectives on the

Marketing Brands in Africa: Perspectives on the

Edited by Frederica Brooksworth

ISSN 2730-5554 ISSN 2730-5562 (electronic)

Part I An Introduction 1

Part II Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies: South

Part III Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies: African

Mamun Ala is Lecturer in Strategic Management and International

Aurore Bardey is Associate Professor of Marketing at the Burgundy

Genevieve Bosah is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Hertfordshire

for the MA Journalism and Media Communications and the newly

Frederica Brooksworth is a British-Ghanaian academic, researcher, strate-

Coy Griffin is a TEDx speaker, fashion analyst and fashion-tech enthusi-

Damilola Joseph holds a PhD in Strategy, Enterprise and Innovations

and creative industries as a practitioner, as an administrator and recently

Utkarsha Mehdiratta is a first-class honours graduate from London

Emmanuel Mogaji is Senior Lecturer in Advertising and Marketing

Sumesh Nair works at the Australian Institute of Business as a senior

Yasmina Nessim is the founder and CEO of pstyled—the world’s first-­

Ken Kweku Nimo is pursuing an MA in fashion design at the University

Tareq Rasul is a senior lecturer at the Australian Institute of Business,

Fábio Shimabukuro Sandes is Assistant Professor of Marketing at

Rose Turner is a cognitive scientist and Lecturer in Psychology at UAL:

ested in the real-world impact of arts engagement and research methods,

Caroline Young is a creative diplomat; her innate understanding of cul-

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 3

economic growth, employment and productivity because of the inte-

Fashion in Emerging Markets

disposal or engaging in other relevant activities and conversations along

a significant internal change in the labour process: impressive employ-

Nguyen & Mogaji, 2021a). An important element identified in emerging

Objective of the Book

The Book Outline

Nigerian fashion brands influence customer purchasing behaviour. With

consumer analytics in emerging markets in the Middle East and African

Appiah-Nimo, K. (2022). South Africa: A snapshot of contemporary retail. In

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2023 19

offering new shopping formats to Indian consumers, that is, shopping

transformed Indian consumerism over the past decade (Gopal &

Research Objectives and Rationale

This research is aimed at evaluating the fashion consumer behaviour of

H1. There will be a difference in brand equity (brand awareness, perceived

Participants were recruited using convenience1 and snowball sampling2

Participants were invited for a one-on-one interview.3 Prior to the inter-

informed that their interview would be audio-recorded. Participants were

The data analysis highlighted two superordinate themes: (1) fashion as a

Table 2.3 Superordinate and subordinate themes highlighted by Study 1 IPA

Fashion as a Communication Tool

While all participants perceived fashion as a communication tool used to

Western Versus Indian Fashion

Part I An Introduction 1

Part II Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies: South

Part III Fashion Marketing in Emerging Economies: African

Yasmina Nessim is the founder and CEO of pstyled—the world’s first-

Fashion in Emerging Markets

Objective of the Book

The Book Outline

Research Objectives and Rationale

Fashion as a Communication Tool

Western Versus Indian Fashion