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A Transdiagnostic
Approach to Develop
Organization, Attention
and Learning Skills
A Transdiagnostic Approach to Develop Organization, Attention and Learning Skills introduces
the GOALS program—an innovative and skill-based approach that addresses the unique array
of academic, occupational, and socio-emotional difficulties commonly faced by college students
with underdeveloped executive functions.
This program consists of ten sessions delivered in a group format to help college students
improve their academic performance. Over the course of these sessions, participants learn
strategies to prioritize tasks and assignments; schedule and manage life responsibilities; cope
with life stressors; identify relevant on-campus resources; prepare for upcoming exams; take well-
structured notes; maintain motivation; and several other strategies designed to reach their
academic goals. Each session builds on earlier sessions, so previously learned skills lay the
foundation for the successful implementation of newly learned skills. This practical and easy-to-
implement program includes detailed session notes for group leaders and reproducible handouts
for participants including in-session activities, session summaries, and homework assignments.
This treatment manual is an essential resource for mental health providers who deliver
interventions to students enrolled in post-secondary institutions pursuing undergraduate or
graduate level degrees.

Laura K. Hansen, PhD is a Licensed Clinical Psychologist and Director of Clinical Psychology
at Mitchell’s Place, a clinic for children and adolescents with Neurodevelopmental Disorders in
Birmingham, Alabama.

Brandi M. Ellis, PhD is a Clinical Psychology Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Alabama at
Birmingham, a Maternal and Child Health Leadership Education in Neurodevelopmental and
Related Disabilities (LEND) training site.

Stephanie D. Smith, PhD is an Associate Professor of Psychology at the University of Southern

Mississippi and Adjunct Faculty at the Yale Child Study Center.
 A Transdiagnostic
Approach to Develop
Organization, Attention
and Learning Skills
The GOALS Treatment Manual for College Students

Laura K. Hansen, PhD, Brandi M. Ellis, PhD, and

Stephanie D. Smith, PhD
Cover image: © Getty Images
First published 2023
by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
and by Routledge
4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

© 2023 Laura K. Hansen, Brandi M. Ellis and Stephanie D. Smith

The right of Laura K. Hansen, Brandi M. Ellis and Stephanie D. Smith to be identified as authors
of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. The purchase of this copyright material confers the right on the purchasing
institution to photocopy pages which bear the photocopy icon and copyright line at the bottom of
the page. No other parts of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by
any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission
in writing from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and
are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalog record for this title has been requested

ISBN: 978-1-032-05877-1 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-05876-4 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-19961-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9781003199618

Typeset in Times New Roman

by MPS Limited, Dehradun
 Contents
About the Authors.............................................................................................................. vii

Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1 Introduction to the Goals Program .................................................................................... 16

Appendix 1.1 Session 1 Outline—Introduction to the Group for
Organization, Attention and Learning Skills (GOALS)........................ 25
Appendix 1.2 Session 1 Handout—Executive Functions Psychoeducation ................. 27
Appendix 1.3 Session 1 Homework—Self-Rewards and Barriers to
Success ................................................................................................... 28

2 Self-Advocacy and Building Motivation ............................................................................. 29

Appendix 2.1 Session 2 Outline—Self-Advocacy and Building
Motivation ............................................................................................. 37
Appendix 2.2 Session 2 Handout—Extracting Vital Information From
a Course Syllabus .................................................................................. 40
Appendix 2.3 Session 2 Activity—Instructor Role-Plays............................................. 42
Appendix 2.4 Campus Resources Handout Development Guide and Template......... 44
Appendix 2.5 Session 2 Handout—Accessing Accommodations................................. 51
Appendix 2.6 Session 2 Handout—Emailing an Instructor......................................... 53
Appendix 2.7 Session 2 Homework—Effective Communication
Worksheet .............................................................................................. 55
Appendix 2.8 Session 2 Homework—Self-Rewards List ............................................. 56
Appendix 2.9 Session 2 Homework—Self-Rewards Implementation Worksheet ........ 58

3 Taking Notes From Lectures and Course Readings ........................................................... 59

Appendix 3.1 Session 3 Outline—Taking Notes From Lectures and
Course Readings .................................................................................... 65
Appendix 3.2 Session 3 Activity—Note-Taking Passage ............................................. 67
Appendix 3.3 Session 3 Handout—Blank Note Framework ....................................... 68
Appendix 3.4 Session 3 Handout—Note-Taking Example.......................................... 69

4 Time Awareness and Tuning Out Distractions ................................................................... 70

Appendix 4.1 Session 4 Outline—Time Awareness and Tuning Out Distractions ...... 75
Appendix 4.2 Session 4 Handout—Time Awareness Word Search ............................. 77
Appendix 4.3 Session 4 Handout—Mindfulness Exercises .......................................... 78
vi Contents

Appendix 4.4 Session 4 Homework—Time Awareness Worksheet ............................. 80

Appendix 4.5 Session 4 Homework—Mindfulness Practice ........................................ 81

5 Prioritizing and Scheduling Tasks...................................................................................... 82

Appendix 5.1 Session 5 Outline—Prioritizing and Scheduling Tasks .......................... 88
Appendix 5.2 Session 5 Handout—Printable Calendar Page ...................................... 90
Appendix 5.3 Session 5 Homework—Listing and Prioritizing Tasks .......................... 91

6 Program Review and Getting Organized............................................................................ 92

Appendix 6.1 Session 6 Outline—Organizing Your Workspace and Course
Materials ...............................................................................................100

7 Overcoming Procrastination and Coping With Stress ...................................................... 103

Appendix 7.1 Session 7 Outline—Overcoming Procrastination and
Coping With Stress ...............................................................................111
Appendix 7.2 Session 7 Homework—Implementing Stress Management
Techniques ............................................................................................113

8 Planning a Long-Term Project ........................................................................................ 114

Appendix 8.1 Session 8 Outline—Planning a Long-Term Project ..............................119
Appendix 8.2 Session 8 Activity—Planning a Project Worksheet ..............................120

9 Studying for Tests of Varying Formats............................................................................ 121

Appendix 9.1 Session 9 Outline—Studying for Tests of Varying
Formats.................................................................................................127
Appendix 9.2 Session 9 Activity—Example Practice Questions .................................129
Appendix 9.3 Session 9 Homework—Practice Study Questions.................................130

10 Summary of Program and Progress Made....................................................................... 131

Appendix 10.1 Skills Review: Sessions 2 through 9....................................................135

Index................................................................................................................................ 139
 About the Authors
Laura K. Hansen, PhD is the Director of Clinical Psychology at Mitchell’s Place, a special needs
clinic serving the greater Birmingham community. She graduated from The University of
Southern Mississippi in 2019 following the completion of a pre-doctoral internship in Clinical
Psychology at Indiana University School of Medicine. She also completed a pediatric psychology
postdoctoral fellowship at Children’s Mercy Hospital in Kansas City, where she received the
Edward Christophersen Award for Excellence in Child/Pediatric Psychology. Dr. Hansen has
worked clinically with children, adolescents, and young adults with ADHD and related disorders
since 2011. Dr. Hansen was a primary author of the initial GOALS treatment manual and was a
group leader for the first two GOALS treatment sequences to obtain pilot data and feedback
from group members regarding the program’s effectiveness, feasibility, and acceptability.

Brandi M. Ellis, PhD is a clinical psychology postdoctoral fellow at The University of Alabama at
Birmingham, a Maternal and Child Health Leadership Education in Neurodevelopmental and
Related Disabilities (LEND) training site. Her current fellowship involves conducting research to
improve treatment and assessment services of children, adolescents, and young adults with
Neurodevelopmental Disorders including ADHD. She graduated from The University of
Southern Mississippi in 2020 following the completion of a LEND Fellowship and a Pre-
Doctoral Internship in Clinical Child and Pediatric Psychology at The University of Alabama at
Birmingham. Dr. Ellis has worked clinically with children, adolescents, and young adults with
ADHD and related disorders since 2015. She was a primary author on the initial GOALS
treatment manual and was a group leader for the first three GOALS treatment sequences during
which pilot data were collected to evaluate the program’s effectiveness.

Stephanie D. Smith, PhD is an Associate Professor of Psychology at The University of Southern

Mississippi and an Adjunct Assistant Professor at the Yale Child Study Center. She is the
director of the Childhood Neurodevelopmental Disorders Lab at USM and has extensive
experience conducting treatment outcome research with children and adolescents with
Neurodevelopmental Disorders for the past 15 years. She has published over 25 peer-
reviewed research papers in top-tier journals evaluating risk factors and treatments of
ADHD and related disorders and her program of research has been funded by the Institute
of Education Sciences, Brain and Behavior Research Foundation, and the National Institutes
of Health. Dr. Smith is the senior author of the GOALS Treatment Manual and served as the
clinical supervisor and principal investigator of the pilot study evaluating the effectiveness of
the program presented in this manual.
 Introduction

Case Example
Leah is a 19-year-old student at a 4-year university. She is majoring in Biology and hoped to be
accepted into the Nursing School program in her junior year of college. Leah sought out
therapy services in the spring semester of her sophomore year after she was rejected from
Nursing School. During her intake appointment, Leah reveals to her clinician that she has
always had trouble managing her time and staying organized. In high school, Leah was an
athlete and able to stay on-task and motivated to complete her school assignments because she
had one-on-one tutoring and weekly check-in meetings with her coach. Since starting college,
Leah has tried to schedule her classes three days a week so she can work two days a week and
reserve her weekends for studying. However, she often finds that it is difficult to balance cour-
sework and social engagements on the weekends, leading to frequent “cram” sessions on Sunday
nights. Often, her notes from class are incomplete and she must track down notes from other
students to study for tests, only to find that she does not have enough time to review all the
material. Leah also noted that large projects (such as a recent term paper) are especially chal-
lenging, considering she waits until a few days before the due date to begin the project and does
not have time to edit and review the assignment before she submits it to her course instructor.
Moreover, Leah finds it challenging to balance academic and work obligations while also
enjoying time with her friends and family. She works part-time in the library on campus and
was recently reprimanded by her boss for showing up late on too many occasions. Last week,
Leah forgot she was scheduled for a shift and her co-worker had to text her a reminder. When
she is at work, Leah’s mind often wanders, and she sometimes shelves books in the wrong
section because she is not paying close attention to details. She is worried that she will lose her
job if things do not improve.
Because of these recent setbacks, Leah frequently feels stressed and does not know how to
cope with these feelings. According to Leah, her rejection from the Nursing School program
was because she turned in her application late and failed to include some of the required
materials. Ultimately, Leah wants to figure out ways to manage her time more effectively, so
she does well in her courses, keeps her job, and enjoys her time in college.
--------------
Leah’s case demonstrates some of the struggles college students may face when expected to juggle
a myriad of competing commitments at a time when the level of structure and support received in

DOI: 10.4324/9781003199618-1
2 Introduction

high school is no longer available. Evolutionarily, humans have learned how to manage such
commitments through the development of an intricate neural network of cognitive processes
known as executive functions. However, the brain structures and myelination of neural pathways
underlying executive functions are still developing as students enter and progress through college
(Grieve et al., 2014). College students with psychological disorders that are commonly linked to
executive dysfunction (e.g., Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, ADHD; Specific Learning
Disorders, SLD; and Autism Spectrum Disorder, ASD) are thought to have a “double-deficit”
because they must navigate the challenges associated with their disorder when their neural net-
works supporting EFs are still maturing (Fleming & McMahon, 2012). As in Leah’s case, these
students are often at increased risk of getting placed on academic probation, withdrawing from a
greater number of classes, taking longer to complete their degrees, and dropping out before
graduating (Barkley et al., 2008; National Center for Education Statistics, 2009). Further, self-
management (e.g., goal setting, planning, task initiation, task completion, and study skills) and
self-advocacy (e.g., effective communication with instructors; identification and use of school
resources) skills have often been cited by students seeking accommodations while in college as
vital for their success (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). Thus, there is a great need for interventions aimed
at building such skills to offset executive function deficits in order to improve the academic
success, retention, and graduation rates of these at-risk students.
The Group for Organization, Attention and Learning Skills (GOALS) program outlined in
this treatment manual has been specifically designed to meet this need. It has been modeled
after other evidence-based Organizational Skills Training (OST) interventions for adolescents
and adults with ADHD with vital modifications and enhancements to address the unique
constellation of academic, emotional, occupational, and social needs of college students with
executive function deficits. As part of this development process, we carefully reviewed the most
recent and relevant research literature to identify executive functions shown to be under-
developed across psychological disorders that have high prevalence rates among college stu-
dents. We then incorporated skills into the GOALS program that have been theorized or
empirically tested to circumvent the behavioral manifestations of these executive function
deficits. The following section defines executive functions and how they should be con-
ceptualized; what problems they may cause college students when underdeveloped; and sug-
gested strategies to address these problems.

The Essentials of Executive Functions

Executive functions are higher-order cognitive processes underlying goal-directed behavior that
have a profound influence on all aspects of daily living, especially with respect to a person’s
ability to learn, problem-solve, plan, and perform everyday tasks and activities (Kornell &
Metcalfe, 2006). These cognitive processes are housed in the prefrontal cortex and regulate
behaviors associated with problem-solving and attentional control (Dvorsky & Langberg,
2019). An important aspect of executive functions is that they are effortful (Diamond, 2013). In
other words, the ability to pay attention, stop an already occurring behavior, or change an
approach to solve a problem does not happen automatically and only strengthens with age and
 Introduction 3

practice. There is a general consensus in the research literature that three core executive
functions exist: inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility (Diamond, 2013;
Doebel, 2020). The GOALS program was developed to teach skills that compensate for
executive function deficits so their behavioral manifestations (e.g., procrastination, missing
deadlines, and inadequate study skills) are minimized and overall functioning (e.g., academic,
social, and occupational) is improved.

Inhibitory Control
One primary executive function is inhibitory control, which refers to the ability to modulate
behaviors, thoughts, emotions, or attention in response to internal or external stimuli.
Essentially, inhibitory control allows for the stopping of an ongoing behavior so there is time to
think through alternative options, thus lessening the occurrence of an impulsive or in-
appropriate response (Diamond, 2013). In addition, inhibitory control facilitates the transition
between activities by stopping the allocation of attention from one stimulus and moving it to
another stimulus. For example, if a student walks into class while texting with a friend, in-
hibitory control is the mental tool that allows the student to focus on the lecture instead of
responding to every text message as it arrives.
Inhibitory control can be further subdivided into three distinct but related processes:

♦ Attentional control (sometimes called selective or focused attention) involves focusing

on one stimulus while actively discounting other stimuli. Attentional control allows
a student to focus on their instructor’s voice while other students are having a
whispered conversation in the row in front of them.
♦ Cognitive inhibition allows for the suppression of past experiences, memories, and
thoughts that may intrude on directing attention to the present moment. Resistance to
proactive interference (i.e., when information obtained in the past makes it difficult
to learn something new) and retroactive interference (i.e., when information learned
recently makes it difficult to remember what was previously learned) fall within the
bounds of this mental process.
♦ Self-control is a complex aspect of inhibitory control. At its core, self-control is the
ability to manage behaviors and emotions, even when presented with temptation.
Relatedly, self-control is the mental process that makes staying focused and completing
a task possible, rather than allowing distractions that are more interesting and
entertaining get in the way.

Inhibitory control matures over time, so it is much less developed in children than in adolescents
and adults (Diamond, 2013). Relatedly, inhibitory control in childhood appears to be linked to
better outcomes in adulthood. For example, one longitudinal study followed girls through
childhood into adolescence and found that inhibitory control was significantly associated with
improved weight management, grades, cognitive functioning, and psychosocial well-being
(Anzman-Frasca et al., 2015). Additionally, a large-scale research study found that inhibitory
self-control in childhood was predictive of physical health, financial stability, decreased substance
use, and fewer criminal offences in adolescence and early adulthood (Moffitt et al., 2011). These
results suggest that inhibitory control influences several domains of functioning throughout de-
velopment so that impairment of this cognitive process warrants intervention.
4 Introduction

Difficulties with inhibitory control can have a significant impact on how students navigate
the demands of college. For example, inhibitory control is necessary for persisting with the
task-at-hand (e.g., listening to a class lecture) and not responding to distractions (e.g., reading
an email as it is received). Inhibitory control also allows a student to discontinue an on-going
activity to transition to a useful pursuit (e.g., stopping a conversation with a friend when class
starts). These capabilities lay the foundation for more complex cognitive processes that allow
for long-term planning and organization (Fleming & McMahon, 2012). To circumvent weak-
nesses in inhibitory control, the GOALS program teaches group members how to modify their
environment to reduce distractions and practice exercises that strengthen their ability to focus
on the present moment (i.e., mindfulness). Moreover, group members learn how to reward their
efforts when they continue to work on mentally taxing tasks despite the presence of more
tempting alternatives.

Working Memory
A second core executive function is working memory, or the capacity to hold information in
mind after it is no longer perceived and manipulate it. It is further subdivided into verbal
working memory and visual-spatial (nonverbal) working memory (Diamond, 2013). Working
memory is required for a wide range of everyday tasks, from figuring out change at the gas
station to reversing directions on a college campus to get back to a resident hall. More complex
mental tasks, such as listening to a lecture, writing notes, and thinking about questions to ask
the instructor, are also dependent on working memory. Thus, working memory is considered to
underlie all tasks that require reasoning and creativity (Diamond, 2013).
Working memory and inhibitory control are related in that they are nearly always activated
simultaneously when interacting with the environment. Essentially, inhibition allows for the
halting of an ongoing or reactive behavioral response, and working memory allows for the for-
mulation of a decision based on information presently held in mind. By considering the available
data and using it to make an informed decision, it lessens the likelihood of an inhibitory error
(Diamond, 2013). Moreover, inhibitory control supports working memory by allocating atten-
tion to the most important information while ignoring distractions and preventing the tendency
to hyperfocus on one aspect of the situation.
Given the cross-cutting nature of working memory regarding its influence on several domains
of functioning, a deficit in this area can be quite detrimental for students pursuing a post-
secondary degree. For example, it has been found that a weakness in verbal working memory is
significantly related to lower grade point averages among college students (Gropper & Tannock,
2009). College students with working memory impairment may have difficulty with processing the
complex information they learn in class and encoding it into long-term memory. Additionally,
less salient information, like assignment due dates or a course instructor’s office hours, may be
pushed out of working memory and forgotten. Thus, the GOALS program has incorporated
strategies to address these challenges including how to actively listen, schedule using a planner or
calendar, and employ memory rehearsal tools to store information (Fleming & McMahon, 2012).

Cognitive Flexibility
Cognitive flexibility, the third core executive function, refers to the ability to think flexibly to
solve problems, process information, and make decisions. For example, cognitive flexibility
 Introduction 5

allows for the prioritization of tasks and the adjustment of plans when demands change or new
opportunities arise. Cognitive flexibility is also vital for interpersonal effectiveness, which in-
volves both perspective taking and adaptability in social situations (Diamond, 2013). Thus,
other commonly recognized executive functions (e.g., set shifting and attentional switching) are
subsumed under this larger cognitive flexibility umbrella.
As cognitive flexibility develops later than the other two core executive functions (Diamond,
2013), it is particularly relevant to college students who often enter college in early adulthood
when this higher-order mental process is still maturing. In fact, prior studies have revealed that
cognitive flexibility is linked to better academic performance in reading, math, and writing, and
overall grade point averages among college students (e.g., Kercood et al., 2017; Toraman et al.,
2020). It has also been found to be associated with higher life quality, including students’
satisfaction with their school climate and faculty members (Kercood et al., 2017). Interestingly,
cognitive flexibility has been shown to be related to higher self-esteem and self-efficacy in a sample
of Asian-American college students (Kim & Omizo, 2005). These results suggest that cognitive
flexibility is important for positive college outcomes across a variety of functional domains.
In sum, cognitive flexibility plays a critical role in goal setting, planning, task prioritization,
and resource allocation to facilitate the execution of tasks and long-term projects. College
students with weaknesses in this area may struggle to balance their academic, occupational, and
social obligations without becoming distressed or overwhelmed. They may also be more vul-
nerable to academic failure due to less developed mathematic, reading, and writing skills.
Importantly, the GOALS program equips group members with self-management (e.g., goal
setting, planning, and study skills) and self-advocacy skills (e.g., interpersonal effectiveness and
identification of school resources) as well as coping strategies so they are better prepared to
navigate the many challenges of college.

Table A.1 Core Executive Functions, Behavioral Manifestations of Impairment, and Strategies to Address Impairment
Example of Strategies to Address
Executive Function Impairment Impairment
Inhibitory Attentional Difficulty focusing on a Reduce distracting stimuli by
Control control homework assignment when studying in a quiet place or
others are talking putting in headphones
Cognitive Trouble attending to new Practice mindfulness—
inhibition material presented during a refocus attention to the present
course lecture moment
Self-control Inability to persist with work Deliver contingent self-reward
when a favorite TV show is only after the task is
available to binge watch accomplished or working for a
pre-established time period
Working Verbal Trouble listening and Apply active listening
Memory extracting important strategies & practice capturing
information from a course content in note form
lecture
(Continued)
6 Introduction

Table A.1 (Continued)

Example of Strategies to Address

Executive Function Impairment Impairment
Visual- Struggle to remember Rehearse new information in a
spatial complex diagrams from different way to promote long-
assigned course readings term memory encoding (e.g.,
describe it to a friend)
Cognitive Perspective- Demands of a course do not Effectively communicate with
Flexibility taking coincide with expectations so instructor to achieve a better
grade is negatively impacted understanding of how to
prepare for the evaluative
components of a course
Set shifting Difficulty finding time to Prioritization of tasks and
complete a class assignment scheduling using a planner
when the due date is changed
and overlaps with a social
commitment

Current Treatments for Executive Dysfunction

Academic Accommodations and Medication
Treatment options for college students with executive dysfunction are limited and less studied
than treatments for adults at later stages of development. Academic accommodations (e.g.,
alternate exam formats, extended test-taking time, distraction-free testing environment, and
classroom notetakers) is one option available to students if documentation is provided to their
university verifying the presence of a disability; however, the benefits of these accommodations
have not been rigorously tested and tend to only be seen when other forms of treatment are
already in place (Lewandowski et al., 2013; Miller et al., 2015). Medication is another option
for some students with executive function deficits (e.g., ADHD); however, few studies have
evaluated the efficacy of medication in college students, especially with respect to their impact
on executive functions and functional impairment (e.g., academic, social, and occupational).
There is some evidence to suggest that certain stimulant medications (e.g., lisdexamfetamine)
significantly improve symptoms of inattention and verbal working memory in college students
(DuPaul et al., 2012), yet significant impairment in these domains remained after treatment in
comparison to healthy controls. A few studies have also revealed that students taking stimulant
medication for ADHD do not significantly differ on measures of academic performance (i.e.,
grade point averages, GPA) relative to their unmedicated peers (Advokat et al., 2011; Rabiner
et al., 2009a). Given that stimulant medications are ineffective or result in side effects in up
 Introduction 7

to 50% of adults with ADHD coupled with the increased risk of medication misuse (i.e., selling
or sharing medication with others; Hartung et al., 2013) among college students, it has been
suggested that medication should not be the first line of treatment for these students.

Cognitive Behavioral Interventions

An alternative or adjunct to these treatment options is OST interventions, which have shown
a great deal of promise in significantly improving symptoms of inattention, organizational
skills, and academic functioning in children, adolescents, and adults with ADHD (e.g.,
Langberg et al., 2008; 2012; Evans et al., 2004, 2005; Solanto et al., 2010, 2008). These OST
interventions often comprise of shared elements including psychoeducation for ADHD; goal
setting; time management; organization of materials and workspaces; use of calendar systems
for scheduling; prioritization of tasks; planning of long-term projects; and contingent self-
rewards to enhance motivation (see Langberg et al., 2008 for a review). There are a handful
of treatment manuals available to mental health providers who deliver therapy services to
adult clients with ADHD struggling with executive dysfunction, particularly with temporal
planning and organization. Mastering Your Adult ADHD: A Cognitive Behavioral Program
by Safren et al. (2017) is a cognitive behavioral intervention for adults with ADHD and
includes three core modules covering the establishment of systems for keeping track of ap-
pointments and tasks, reducing distractibility, and improving adaptive thinking skills. There
are two optional modules that present strategies to combat procrastination and ways to
involve family members in treatment for additional support and accountability. In the initial
study evaluating the efficacy of this intervention (Safren et al., 2005), the treatment group
outperformed the control group on clinician and self-reported ratings of ADHD symptoms.
Further, a significantly greater number of participants in the treatment group (56%) were
rated by clinicians as treatment responders than participants in the control group (13%).
Another study compared this intervention to relaxation-based therapy with educational support
in medicated adults with ADHD who still had residual symptoms (Safren et al., 2010). Results
were similar to the findings from the initial efficacy study as both clinician and self-reported
ADHD symptoms significantly improved post-treatment and there were more treatment re-
sponders for the cognitive behavioral intervention than the relaxation-based therapy. These
studies offer empirical support that OST interventions within a cognitive behavioral framework
ameliorate ADHD symptomatology; however, it is unclear whether organizational skills were
indeed learned and internalized or how symptom reduction translates to improvements in ex-
ecutive functions or functional impairment.
Another treatment manual, The Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult ADHD: An
Integrative Psychosocial and Medical Approach, co-authored by Ramsay and Rostain (2014)
outlines the content of 20 individual psychotherapy sessions that aim to develop coping stra-
tegies for the management of ADHD symptoms and assist with the recognition and adjustment
of maladaptive thoughts and beliefs. ADHD psychoeducation as well as organizational and
time management components are also part of this treatment. In an open-trial study evaluating
a treatment approach that combined this intervention with stimulant medication in a sample of
adults with ADHD, it was found that there was a significant and positive change for self-rated
ADHD symptoms and clinician-rated ADHD symptom severity and overall functioning
(Rostain & Ramsay, 2006). Although these results are promising, it is impossible to disentangle
the effects of the two interventions and determine which contributed the most to these
8 Introduction

improved outcomes. Unlike the GOALS program, neither treatment manual was designed
with college students in mind; therefore, specific strategies (e.g., structured note-taking, test
preparation, effective communication with instructors, and identification of on-campus re-
sources) aimed at circumventing the executive dysfunction that impact the learning and success
of college students are not included.
Over the past decade, Solanto and colleagues have been evaluating and refining a cognitive
behavioral intervention for adult ADHD, which was designed to build executive self-
management skills inclusive of time management, organization, and planning in a group
format. Their treatment manual, Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult ADHD: Targeting
Executive Dysfunction (Solanto, 2011), has been evaluated via studies using open trial and
randomized controlled trial designs, which have revealed large to small treatment effects on
measures of inattention and organizational skills where the magnitude of the effect size de-
pended upon the study design (Solanto et al., 2008, 2010).
More recently, they have adapted their treatment protocol, so it more adequately aligns
with the needs of college students with ADHD. Specifically, students are taught how to
identify and use resources on campus; read to retain information; listen to lectures and take
notes; and write and edit term papers. The organizational, time management, and planning
skills were also updated so they were relevant to the academic routines of college students
while taking into consideration the on-campus distractions that may impede student pro-
gress. In a recent study evaluating the effectiveness of this intervention, a total of 15 students
completed at least 9 of the 12 two-hour sessions, and 39% of students who received treatment
no longer met diagnostic criteria for adult ADHD at the time of study completion (Solanto &
Scheres, 2020). There was also a significant improvement on measures assessing inattention
(clinician and self-rated), executive functions, and learning strategies; however, students’
GPA remained unchanged from pre- to post-treatment. Overall, these results offer initial
evidence of the effectiveness of this intervention in reducing symptoms of inattention and
executive function deficits that are known to negatively impact the functioning of students
with ADHD at the college level.

Effectiveness of the GOALS Program

Two major distinguishing features of the GOALS program relative to the previously re-
viewed treatment manuals is that it was specifically developed for college students with ex-
ecutive dysfunction and may be used with students across diagnostic categories. It is intended
to be delivered in a group format and takes a skill-based behavioral approach to promote
skill internalization. As cognitive restructuring is not embedded in the treatment sequence, it
requires less of a time commitment from group members (90 minutes for ten weeks vs. 120
minutes for 12 weeks). Importantly, a pilot efficacy study of the GOALS program involving
thirty-three students who completed the entirety of the program revealed clinically significant
improvements in measures assessing executive functions, learning strategies, and symptoms
of inattention (Smith et al., in preparation). Furthermore, anonymous feedback surveys
indicated that students had a high level of satisfaction with the program and found it to
be extremely useful. Studies evaluating the GOALS program’s impact on an objective
measure of sustained attention and response inhibition and students’ academic performance
are currently underway.
 Introduction 9

Implementation of the GOALS Program

Purpose and Structure of the GOALS Program
Who Should Participate?
The GOALS program was developed for college students with significant impairment in ex-
ecutive functions across diagnostic categories (e.g., ADHD, SLD, and ASD). As mentioned
previously, the GOALS program follows a similar approach to OST for children and adoles-
cents with ADHD (e.g., Homework, Organization, and Planning Skills (HOPS) Intervention,
Langberg, 2011; Organizational Skills Training for Children with ADHD, Gallagher et al.,
2014), and draws on behavioral and cognitive-behavioral based interventions for adults with
ADHD (e.g., Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy for Adult ADHD; Solanto, 2011). However, the
GOALS program is innovative in that it is a skill-based approach implemented in a group
format, which was developed to address the unique academic, emotional, occupational, and
social difficulties of students (ages 18 and above) with executive dysfunction who are enrolled in
college-level courses. While the program was initially developed for young adults just beginning
college, the skills taught throughout this program are relevant and applicable to college stu-
dents at different stages in their academic careers (e.g., undecided freshman, sophomore ma-
joring in anthropology, and master’s student in journalism). In fact, this intervention has been
successfully implemented with students at both the undergraduate and graduate level.
Importantly, skills are taught and applied in a manner that sets students up for academic
success, and once mastered, these skills readily extend to life beyond the college setting.

Basic Manual Structure

Over the course of 10, 90-minute sessions, GOALS group members are taught various orga-
nizational and learning skills with the ultimate objective of improving their academic perfor-
mance. Each session builds on past sessions so previously learned skills lay the foundation for
the successful implementation of newly learned skills. For example, group members begin by
learning how to build motivation, increase time awareness, and prioritize and schedule tasks.
These skills are eventually combined to learn and implement more complex organizational
strategies such as planning and completing a long-term project. It is recommended that no more
than one group session is held per week, as this schedule allows sufficient time for group
members to learn and practice new skills. Each session usually covers more than one skill so
having multiple group sessions per week puts a greater demand on group members, which may
increase the likelihood of treatment noncompliance or early termination. Each session should
be at least 90 minutes, as this session length allows sufficient time for group discussion as well as
skill demonstration and practice, which are critical components of the GOALS program and
necessary for skill internalization.
Each session follows the same basic structure. Group leaders begin with a review of the
homework that was assigned during the previous session. Following homework review, new
skills are presented using the GOALS teaching method—describe, demonstrate, and discuss.
Specifically, group leaders introduce and describe the skills specific to that session; group
10 Introduction

members observe a demonstration of these skills or practice the skills; and group members ask
questions or discuss how they will apply these skills to real world situations. Each session ends
with a review of the content covered, a discussion and assignment of homework, and a brief
overview of the upcoming session. This structure allows for a balance between didactic training,
discussion, and activities to facilitate learning and to ensure that group members remain
engaged and motivated throughout the treatment process. Each session also emphasizes real-
world application of skills to encourage generalizability beyond the group therapy setting. For
example, weekly homework assignments are designed to make use of each skill while facilitating
rather than adding to group members’ already existing obligations. This important feature of
the GOALS program contributes to group members’ buy-in and treatment compliance, as it
tends to alleviate stress surrounding the complexity of juggling multiple responsibilities.
Two skill review sessions are built into the program, one about midway through the
treatment sequence (Session 6) and one at the very end of the treatment sequence (Session 10).
These sessions give group members an opportunity to problem-solve any barriers preventing
them from successfully implementing the skills taught in group. Group members’ progress and
successes are also highlighted and discussed during these review sessions.
The manual also includes fidelity checklists that assess to what extent the sessions’ tasks
have been accomplished by the group leaders. Group leaders are rated on a three-point Likert
scale (0 = Group Leader did not execute task; 1 = Group Leader partially executed task; 2 =
Group Leader fully executed task). Tasks include more general tasks, such as reviewing
homework and telling group members the topic of upcoming sessions, and session-specific
tasks. A treatment fidelity score of approximately 80% (score earned/total possible score × 100)
reflects adequate delivery of the treatment manual.

Who Should Use the GOALS Program?

The GOALS program should be implemented by professionals with a training background in
adult psychopathology and behavioral or cognitive behavioral interventions. Its intended au-
dience are mental health providers, such as social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, coun-
selors, or practitioners-in-training (master-level or doctoral-level graduate students), who
deliver interventions to young adults (ages 18+ years) enrolled in post-secondary institutions
pursuing undergraduate or graduate level degrees. The GOALS program may be used in tra-
ditional outpatient settings for college students such as Student Counseling Centers or
Psychology Training Clinics. It may also be used in the context of a class or student success
initiative to provide at-risk college students on academic probation with the skills needed to
graduate.

User’s Guide for GOALS Treatment Manual

General Tips and Considerations
The GOALS Treatment Manual was designed to be user-friendly and inclusive of all materials
needed to implement the program. Its layout is meant to guide group leaders through each
session by providing visual anchors and cues to draw attention to important activities and
concepts. The “Quick Look” section at the start of each session gives group leaders a concise
overview of its content and flow. Group leaders may reference this section to quickly familiarize
themselves with the session objectives, materials needed to deliver the session, and session
highlights inclusive of skills that will be taught and homework that will be assigned. The
 Introduction 11

“Detailed Session Content” comes next and is further subdivided into three sections: check-in,
skills introduction, and session wrap-up. Sessions start (check-in) with a review of the previous
session content and a discussion of the assigned homework and ends (wrap-up) with a summary
of the upcoming session and the distribution of homework that puts newly learned skills into
practice. The main content of the session (skills introduction) follows the GOALS teaching
method and clearly outlines when and how a skill should be described, demonstrated, and
discussed so group members are equipped to use the skill outside of session.
The GOALS Treatment Manual is not intended to be recited verbatim but instead group
leaders should paraphrase the content using a conversational style, so sessions are engaging and
promote interaction among group members. Thus, group leaders should familiarize themselves
with the content presented in each session and deliver it to group members in a way that is
relatable and relevant to them. For example, the manual gives examples to further explain how
skills are used and offers questions to prompt group discussion; however, group leaders are
encouraged to expand upon, add to, and substitute these suggestions as they see fit. As group
leaders get to know group members, it is expected that they will share their experiences navi-
gating the challenges of college and how they apply skills learned in group to their everyday life
and this should be encouraged. Although there is a great deal of flexibility with respect to
implementing the GOALS program, group leaders must adhere to the GOALS teaching
method and provide a rationale for why each skill should be used and under what circum-
stances; explain how skills build on and connect to other skills; and offer instruction on how to
implement each skill. We have included fidelity checklists for each session to evaluate how well
group leaders adhere to the main tenets of the session content, which is especially useful when
group leaders are first learning how to deliver the GOALS program. It is recommended that
two group leaders run a GOALS group where one has previous experience implementing the
program or a similar group-based intervention, which will assist with the training of the more
junior group leader and help maintain the integrity of the program.
The appendices that accompany each session provide group leaders with the materials needed
to run in-session activities and to facilitate the assignment and completion of homework. Session
outlines and homework worksheets are standard handouts for every session. Depending upon the
session content, additional handouts are provided to review or give further detail about complex
skills (e.g., Extracting Vital Information from a Course Syllabus) or to inform group members of
resources that may be beneficial to them (e.g., Accessing Accommodations). The handouts re-
quired for each session are listed in the “Quick Look” section and should be printed for dis-
tribution to group members prior to the start of each session.

The Importance of Outlining Expectations

Session 1 of the GOALS Treatment Manual is intended to orient group members to what
should be anticipated from the program and group leaders. It also serves as a way for group
leaders to clearly communicate expectations to group members who participate in the GOALS
program. Establishing clear expectations is essential to running a successful group, as it outlines
how group members should conduct themselves to get the most out of the program and sets the
precedent as to why certain problematic behaviors need to be addressed or may result in un-
favorable consequences if not remedied (e.g., expulsion from the group). Expectations re-
garding electronic device use, respectful participation, attendance, confidentiality, and
preparedness for group meetings should be thoroughly discussed and agreed upon by group
members, and any questions regarding expectations should be clarified. The expectations for
12 Introduction

homework completion are especially important and warrant special attention. Homework as-
signments are designed to provide group members with intentional, semi-structured practice of
newly learned skills. This practice helps group members identify strategies that were successful
or unsuccessful in implementing these skills. When homework is completed in a timely manner,
any challenges group members encountered with skill use can be problem-solved with group
leaders and group members during the homework review portion of sessions.

Building the Intervention Group and Tracking Progress

Based on our experience implementing GOALS, an ideal number of group members is about
six to eight participants, as this group size allows for adequate discussion and skills practice
during each session. However, sessions may be conducted with as few as two participants and
as many as ten participants. As this program was developed for college students with executive
function deficits who are struggling academically, it is imperative that the GOALS program is
an appropriate fit for group members. For example, a potential group member may have a
pressing mental health concern (e.g., suicidality, psychosis, trauma, or aggression) that is better
served by an evidence-based intervention known to effectively treat that symptom profile. In
such cases, group leaders will need to carefully consider whether potential group members
should be referred for individual therapy to focus on that presenting concern or if they may
simultaneously participate in the GOALS program and individual therapy.
Given the complexities of determining fit to the GOALS program, it is recommended that a
thorough intake assessment is completed before enrolling potential participants into the pro-
gram. A broad clinical interview such as the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-5 - Clinician
Version (SCID-5-CV; First et al., 2016) will allow for the formulation of a diagnostic im-
pression and assist in determining treatment needs. A thorough medical, developmental, and
psychological history should be taken, as not all factors contributing to academic problems or
executive dysfunction may be captured by the SCID-5-CV (e.g., some Neurodevelopmental
Disorders such as SLD). The GOALS program strives to address the behavioral manifestations
of executive dysfunction (e.g., procrastination, missed deadlines, and inadequate study skills)
by teaching skills that may prevent or circumvent the negative academic outcomes associated
with these behaviors. Therefore, psychometrically sound measures that assess executive func-
tions (e.g., Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function - Adult Version, Roth et al., 2005;
Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale, Barkley, 2011) as well as organizational and
learning skills (e.g., Learning and Study Strategies Inventory - 3rd Edition, Weinstein et al.,
2016) will determine the starting level of impairment of group members and highlight what
skills should be focused on during treatment. They may also be used as treatment progress
measures and will inform group leaders if repeating certain sessions is necessary.

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Chapter 1

Introduction to the Goals

Program

Quick Look
Objectives
♦ Group members will learn what the GOALS program entails, including the rationale
for the program, learning objectives, summary of session content, and expectations for
participation.
♦ Group members will learn how to define executive functions (EFs), where they are
situated in the brain, and how less developed EFs may impact learning and
organizational skills.
♦ Group members will receive a brief introduction to the concept of using contingent
self-rewards to increase motivation for task initiation and completion.

Materials Needed
♦ Baseline Progress Measures (Optional)
♦ Appendix 1.1: Session 1 Outline
♦ Appendix 1.2: Executive Functions Psychoeducation (Handout)
♦ Appendix 1.3: Self-Rewards and Barriers to Success (Homework)
♦ GOALS Binder (recommended)
♦ Optional: Session 1 Fidelity Checklist (Table 1.1)

It is recommended that the group leaders provide each group member with a binder at
the first session to organize GOALS-related materials (i.e., session notes, handouts,
and homework assignments).

Session Highlights
♦ Introduction to GOALS & Session Format
• Program overview and treatment rationale
• Program learning objectives
• Expectations and responsibilities
• GOALS teaching method (describe, demonstrate, and discuss)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003199618-2
 Introduction to the Goals Program 17

♦ Learn new skills

• Executive functions psychoeducation
• Contingent self-rewards
♦ Wrap-up
• Assign homework (Self-Rewards & Barriers to Success)
• Briefly introduce Session 2 content (Self-Advocacy & Building Motivation)

Detailed Session Content

Tip for Group Leaders: Progress measures are an optional component of the GOALS
program. If group leaders have chosen to administer progress measures to group members
and have not included these measures as part of the intake evaluations, additional time
should be allotted at the beginning of this session for progress measures to be distributed
and completed.

Describe the GOALS Program and Its

Rationale
General Overview of the GOALS Program
Explain why group members are participating in the GOALS program and how they may
benefit from it. Describe the role of group leaders and highlight the overarching learning ob-
jectives of the GOALS program.

Why Are Group Members Here?

Group members have either been self-referred or referred by someone who felt they could
benefit from learning strategies (i.e., planning, organization, task initiation, and study skills)
that are known to promote academic success.

Why Are Group Leaders Here?

Group leaders will help group members identify their strengths and potential areas for im-
provement. They will teach and develop skills that will capitalize on group members’ abilities,
so that they are successful inside and outside of the classroom.
18 Introduction to the Goals Program

Overall Program Objectives

♦ Teach group members how to plan and prioritize daily tasks including class-related
assignments and obligations.
♦ Assist group members to develop coping and self-regulation skills in the face of
stressful or challenging situations.
♦ Educate group members about how less developed executive functions may impact
their learning and daily functioning. Help group members learn how to connect with
resources that may be helpful in offsetting these difficulties.
♦ Provide group members with the tools necessary to become their own self-advocates
including how to communicate effectively with others to achieve success in the
classroom and workplace.
♦ Demonstrate to group members how to sustain motivation in their pursuit of short- and
long-term goals through reinforcement and the visualization of more distant rewards.

Provide group members with a summary of the content covered in this session and upcoming
sessions:

♦ Session 1 (Introduction to the GOALS Program): This session serves as an

introduction to the program and is didactic in format. Group members learn how the
information will be presented and taught, as well as expectations to promote the
effectiveness of the GOALS program. Session 1 is followed by nine 90-minute sessions
that are more interactive as skills are actively taught and practiced.
♦ Session 2 (Self-Advocacy and Building Motivation): Group members will learn how to
locate campus resources and effectively communicate with course instructors to
address any problems they may be having in class. They will be taught how to extract
important information from their course syllabi so that important course deadlines are
not missed. Finally, group members will learn how to properly use self-rewards to
build and maintain their motivation to complete various tasks.
♦ Session 3 (Taking Notes from Lectures and Course Readings): Group members will
learn how to take thorough and helpful notes during class lectures, reading assign-
ments, and other class-related activities. They will be taught how to actively listen
during course lectures and presentations and how to take notes that capture the main
themes and details of the course lectures and readings.
♦ Session 4 (Time Awareness and Tuning Out Distractions): Group members will learn
how to improve their time awareness, an essential skill that lays the foundation for
strategies introduced later in the program (e.g., scheduling and planning long-term
projects). Mindfulness will also be introduced and practiced during this session to
improve group members’ ability to tune out external distractions and focus on
important tasks.
♦ Session 5 (Prioritizing and Scheduling Tasks): Group members will learn how to create
to-do lists, prioritize tasks, and make use of a planner. While these skills may seem
simple and intuitive, they are essential for navigating the demands of college and
maintaining a healthy work-life balance.
♦ Session 6 (Program Review and Getting Organized): This session focuses on reviewing
and reinforcing the skills taught in Sessions 1 through 5. Group members are given the
opportunity to discuss the successes and challenges they faced while implementing
 Introduction to the Goals Program 19

these skills. Group members will also learn how to organize their workspace and
course materials to enhance their productivity and focus.
♦ Session 7 (Overcoming Procrastination and Coping with Stress): Group members will
learn strategies to overcome procrastination and deal with stressors that may hinder
their success. Skills to be covered in this session include how to initiate tasks, stay
motivated to make progress, and use coping strategies when feeling overwhelmed.
♦ Session 8 (Planning a Long-Term Project): Group members will learn how to plan a
long-term project by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable tasks;
prioritizing and ranking each task; and scheduling the completion of these tasks.
♦ Session 9 (Studying for Tests of Varying Formats): Group members will learn how to
prepare for tests of varying formats (i.e., multiple-choice vs. short answer/essay) using
study strategies known to improve performance on exams and quizzes.
♦ Session 10 (Summary of Program and Progress Made): This session essentially serves
as group members’ graduation from the program. Skills learned throughout the
program will be reviewed and progress made by group members will be highlighted
and discussed. Group members will be given the opportunity to ask questions about
how they will apply and maintain the use of these skills in the future.

Expectations for the GOALS Program

Set clear expectations for group members at the first session so that benefits from the program
are maximized and experiences of members can be shared in a safe environment.

♦ Electronics: Cell phones, laptops, tablets, and other electronic devices must be placed
on silent mode and put away while group is in session. It is easy to become distracted
by notifications, messages, and activities that are unrelated to group on such devices.
Given that a significant amount of material is covered during each session, it is very
important to limit these distractions.
♦ Participation: Group members are expected to be respectful of and polite to group
leaders and fellow group members. Respectful participation means listening to the
input of other group members without judgement and contributing to the discussion
by asking relevant questions or elaborating upon (e.g., providing examples) content
covered in the session.
♦ Attendance: It is recommended that group members attend a minimum of eight out of
ten sessions to complete the program, as attendance is critical for the successful
internalization of skills and preservation of the benefits of the group format (e.g.,
support from group members and sharing of information). It is also recommended
that group members be required to contact group leaders 24 hours in advance if they
cannot attend a session. In situations where multiple group members will be absent for
a given meeting, it may be necessary to reschedule a session. Having adequate notice of
absences allows group leaders to make such decisions and notify remaining group
members in a timely fashion. Group sessions must begin on time considering there is a
great deal of material to cover, and group members are expected to be present when
the session begins.
♦ Confidentiality: What is said in group, stays in group. Confidentiality is vital to ensure the
GOALS group is a safe place for members to candidly share information and seek help.
20 Introduction to the Goals Program

♦ Preparedness: Group members are expected to come to group prepared, meaning

homework assignments are completed prior to the next group session. Homework
assignments are designed to allow for the application of skills learned in group to real-
world situations. Each session’s homework review component also provides group
members with the opportunity to share how they successfully implemented a skill and
provides group leaders with the opportunity to problem-solve challenges group
members faced when using a skill.
♦ GOALS binders: GOALS binders are meant to provide members with a means of
keeping their program materials organized and secure in one place. Successful
participation in each group session requires that group members bring their program
materials, especially the previous session’s homework, to each group meeting. Group
members will learn how to organize course materials in Session 6 by applying this skill
to the GOALS binder.

Explain How Skills Are Taught

Each session group leaders will teach skills designed to increase the likelihood of group
members meeting their academic and life goals. The following approach will be used to teach
skills and promote skill internalization:

♦ Describe: Define the skill and give examples of how the skill may be used
♦ Demonstrate: Practice implementing the skill through in-session activities
♦ Discuss: Ensure all group members understand the skill by soliciting examples from
group members of how they might use the skill in real-world settings and allowing
them to ask questions about the skill. The importance of practice will be emphasized
so that group members understand that behavior change occurs slowly and skills will
become second nature only through repeated use.

Executive Functions Psychoeducation

Distribute Appendix 1.2: Executive Functions Psychoeducation (Handout).

The Importance of Executive Functions

Executive functions are higher-order cognitive or mental processes that underlie goal-directed
behavior and are orchestrated by the prefrontal cortex in the brain. They refer to abilities such
as attentional control, working memory, planning, cognitive flexibility (i.e., the ability to think
about things in different ways or problem-solve), and the self-regulation of emotions and be-
havior (Goldstein et al., 2014). Executive functions allow for the evaluation of a task or demand
and the formulation of a plan to execute it. Thus, executive functions help us make informed
decisions and respond to the environment in the best way possible. They are vital to our success
across all domains of functioning (i.e., academic, occupational, and social).
 Introduction to the Goals Program 21

These mental processes are not isolated to one area of the brain—rather, they are part of a
network that work together to help us navigate the world. Sometimes, people struggle because
one or more executive functions are not working optimally or as well as the others. By knowing
how executive functions work, are coordinated in the brain, and how they impact daily func-
tioning, it is possible to identify when there is a problem and how to address that problem.

Orbitofrontal Cortex
The orbitofrontal cortex helps control behaviors by inhibiting reactions to strong urges or
feelings (Hooker & Knight, 2006). For example, it prevents a student from hitting someone
when he/she is angry or blurting out random thoughts during a class lecture. The orbitofrontal
cortex also helps stop behaviors that are already underway. For example, it enables a student to
stop talking to his/her friends when the instructor begins class.

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex helps direct attention appropriately, so tasks and class as-
signments are completed in an organized and efficient manner (Peterson & Welsh, 2014). This
area of the brain also prevents the problem of over-focusing on one aspect of a task or situation.
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex also plays a role in social interactions by directing attention to
social cues in conversations and by facilitating communication and problem solving.

Hippocampus
The hippocampus facilitates learning from past experiences and helps with the anticipation of
future events (Zeithamova et al., 2012). For example, a student may have learned strategies that
enable them to finish a test quickly and answer questions correctly because of his/her previous
experience in taking similar types of exams.

Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe is essential for keeping track of time. Importantly, it allows for the accurate
estimation of how much time a given task is going to take (Battelli et al., 2007). This region of the
brain also allows for the planning and completion of tasks, such as long-term course assignments.

Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex systematically puts together all information from other brain areas to
allow for informed decision making (Goldstein et al., 2014). In other words, the prefrontal
cortex acts as a conductor and orchestrates all executive functions. This region of the brain
allows for safe, responsible decision making by weighing the consequences of decisions before
they are made. This ability to think through the possible outcomes of any given course of action
is the main tenet of problem solving. The prefrontal cortex also links together memories of past
experiences, allowing for the recall of outcomes from prior decisions so this information can be
used to inform problem solving in the present. For example, a student who failed an exam
because he/she decided to wait until the night before to study, may recall this experience and
22 Introduction to the Goals Program

choose a different course of action (e.g., studying each night of the week prior to the exam)
when planning how to prepare for an upcoming exam.

Skill Introduction: Contingent Self-Rewards

Describe
Introduce the concept of contingent self-rewards and its important. Hard work should be re-
warded, otherwise sustained motivation to complete difficult or uninteresting tasks is unlikely.
If completing a task does not automatically produce feelings of accomplishment (i.e., internally
rewarding), then an external reward should be identified and given immediately following the
completion of the task.

Demonstrate
Provide examples of how to set goals and pair them with rewards to increase the likelihood of
task completion. Oftentimes, larger goals need to be broken down into smaller goals, and
rewards that are motivating should be paired with completion of each smaller goal and the
larger goal. The size of the reward should be dependent upon the amount of effort or time put
into achieving the goal. An example of making use of this skill would be setting a running
schedule to prepare for a half marathon (i.e., larger goal) and having a relaxing soak in a hot
tub as a reward at the end of each run (e.g., smaller goals).

Discuss
Ask group members to come up with one or two examples of a larger goal that can be broken up
into smaller goals. Have group members assign rewards to each smaller goal that are reinforcing to
them. Provide group members with the opportunity to ask questions about the use of contingent
self-rewards. Encourage groups members to reward themselves for attending the group session.

Wrap-Up
♦ Allow for questions: Ask group members if they have any questions about the
purpose, expectations, or structure of the GOALS program; the role of executive
functions; and the benefits of contingent self-rewards.
♦ Session review: Group leaders should briefly review the topics covered during this
session.
• Expectations for both group leaders and group members
 Introduction to the Goals Program 23

• Structure of group sessions and how skills are taught

• Importance of executive functions and how they impact functioning
• Brief introduction to using self-rewards to maintain motivation
♦ Distribute Appendix 1.1: Session 1 Outline and Appendix 1.3: Self-Rewards & Barriers
to Success (Homework)
♦ Assign homework
• Instruct group members to make a list of five to ten rewards that will motivate
them to complete tasks they tend to avoid but must be completed (e.g., mentally
taxing course assignments).
• Group members should identify a class in which they would like to improve their
performance and write down three to five barriers that may be impeding their
success in that class.
• Have group members print or download a syllabus from a current course and
bring it to the next session.
♦ Closing thoughts—Highlight the following points:
• Group members will be making changes to their routines based on the skills they
learn in the program. These changes may feel strange at first. Group members
may feel as if they need to force themselves to make changes, or they may feel
nervous that they are not doing things correctly. These feelings are expected and
normal. Encourage group members by acknowledging that the more these skills
are practiced, the more natural using these skills will become.
• While group leaders provide guidance regarding how to apply newly learned
skills, group members are ultimately responsible for applying and practicing
these skills in real-life situations. Practicing these skills outside of group meetings
is essential to skill internalization (i.e., skills are used automatically and
accurately), and homework is an important part of skill practice.
• Encourage group members to openly communicate with group leaders by asking
questions or raising any concerns they may have.
♦ Remind group members of the next session time, place, and topics to be covered:
• Session 2: Self-Advocacy and Building Motivation
• Group members will learn how to locate campus resources and effectively
communicate with course instructors to address any problems they may be having
in class. They will be taught how to extract important information from their
course syllabi so important course deadlines are not missed. Finally, group
members will learn how to properly use self-rewards to build and maintain their
motivation to complete various tasks.

Table 1.1 Session 1 Fidelity Checklist

Rating
Task 0 1 2
Prepared materials for the session (i.e., printed handouts for all group members
and provided binders)
Provided an overview of the GOALS Program including:
♦ Overall objectives
(Continued)
24 Introduction to the Goals Program

Table 1.1 (Continued)

Rating
Task 0 1 2
♦ Summary of content covered in each session (1–10)
♦ Expectations for group members while participating in the program
♦ GOALS teaching method (describe, demonstrate, and discuss)
Provided psychoeducation regarding the importance of executive functions
Described contingent self-rewards and demonstrated their use by providing
examples of goals paired with appropriate rewards
Asked questions to assess group members’ understanding of contingent self-
rewards and to promote engagement
Assigned homework based on topic covered during this session
Offered opportunity for group members to ask questions about the current
session
Mentioned date and topic of the next session
0—Group Leader did not execute task.
1—Group Leader partially executed task.
2—Group Leader fully executed task.

References
Battelli, L., Pascual-Leone, A., & Cavanagh, P. (2007). The ‘when’ pathway of the right parietal
lobe. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(5), 204–210. 10.1016/j.tics.2007.03.001
Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J.A., Princiotta, D., & Otero, T.M. (2014). Introduction: A history of
executive functioning as a theoretical and clinical construct. In S. Goldstein & J.A. Naglieri
(Eds.), Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 3–11). Springer. 10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5
Hooker, C.I., & Knight, R.T. (2006). The role of lateral orbitofrontal cortex in the inhibitory
control of emotion. In D. Zald & S. Rauch (Eds.), The Orbitofrontal Cortex. (pp. 307–324).
Oxford University Press. 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198565741.001.0001
Peterson, E., & Welsh, M.C. (2014). The development of hot and cool executive functions in
childhood and adolescence: Are we getting warmer? In S. Goldstein & J.A. Naglieri (Eds.),
Handbook of executive functioning (pp. 45–65). Springer. 10.1007/978-1-4614-8106-5
Zeithamova, D., Schlichting, M.L., & Preston, A.R. (2012). The hippocampus and inferential
reasoning: Building memories to navigate future decisions. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience,
6, 1–14. 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00070
 Appendix 1.1: Session 1 Outline

Introduction to the Group for Organization,

Attention and Learning Skills (GOALS)
♦ Program objectives
• Plan and prioritize your daily tasks
• Take notes and study more effectively
• Cope with stressful situations and learn to control strong emotions
• Access campus resources that may help facilitate academic success
• Become your own self-advocate by communicating more effectively
• Gain and maintain motivation toward achieving your goals
♦ Expectations and obligations
• Electronics: Cell phones, laptops, tablets, and other electronic devices must be
turned off and put away during group.
• Participation: Respectful participation by all group members is essential.
Respectful participation means listening to the input of other group members
without judgement and contributing to the discussion by asking relevant questions
or elaborating upon (e.g., providing examples) content covered in the session.
• Attendance: It is important that you attend a MINIMUM of eight out of ten
sessions. In other words, you are allowed to miss no more than three sessions
during the course of the program. If you must miss a group meeting, contact group
leaders at least 24 hours in advance to let them know you will be absent.
• Punctuality: Be on time for group. This is very important because there is a lot of
material to cover and you need to be present to learn it. Because sessions are time-
limited, group leaders will not be able to go back over topics introduced earlier in
the session for the benefit of those who are late to group.
• Confidentiality: Confidentiality is of the utmost importance. Private information
shared in group should never be discussed outside of group sessions.
• Preparedness: You are expected to complete the homework assignments given to
you each week. Homework is important as it allows you to practice the skills you
learn in group and apply them in real-world situations. Finishing your homework
before coming to session also gives you the opportunity to problem-solve
challenges with group leaders’ help.
♦ Basic program schedule
• Session 1: Introduction to the GOALS Program
• Session 2: Self-Advocacy and Building Motivation
• Session 3: Taking Notes from Lectures and Course Readings
• Session 4: Time Awareness and Tuning Out Distractions
• Session 5: Prioritizing and Scheduling Tasks
• Session 6: Program Review and Getting Organized

Copyright material from Laura K. Hansen (2023), A Transdiagnostic Approach to Develop

Organization, Attention and Learning Skills, Routledge
 • Session 7: Overcoming Procrastination and Coping with Stress
• Session 8: Planning a Long-Term Project
• Session 9: Studying for Tests of Varying Formats
• Session 10: Summary of Program and Progress Made

♦ Executive functions
EFs are higher-order cognitive or mental processes (e.g., attentional control, working
memory, planning, flexible thinking, and the ability to regulate behaviors and
emotions) that underlie goal-directed behavior and are orchestrated by the prefrontal
cortex in the brain. EFs are essential for success in all areas of life (i.e., academic,
occupational, and social). Refer to Executive Functions Psychoeducation Handout for
review.
♦ Contingent self-rewards
To increase and sustain your motivation, your hard work should be rewarded! If you
do not automatically feel a sense of accomplishment (i.e., internal reward) when
completing a task, give yourself an external reward as soon as you complete the task.
Remember:
• Larger goals often need to be broken down into smaller goals. Give yourself small
rewards for the completion of each small goal, and pair a large reward with the
completion of the overarching or larger goal.
• The size of the reward should match the amount of effort or time put into
achieving your goal.
• Example: When setting up a study schedule for an upcoming exam, completion of
each study session would serve as your smaller goals, and taking the exam would
serve as your overarching or larger goal. If you find walks around campus
enjoyable, you may decide to study for 50 minutes each evening for the 2 weeks
leading up to an exam and reward yourself with a ten to fifteen-minute walk after
each study session. Once you have taken the exam, you would give yourself a
larger reward such as going to a movie with friends.

Copyright material from Laura K. Hansen (2023), A Transdiagnostic Approach to Develop

Organization, Attention and Learning Skills, Routledge
 Appendix 1.2: Session 1 Handout

Executive Functions Psychoeducation

Orbitofrontal Cortex
The orbitofrontal cortex helps control behaviors by inhibiting reactions to strong urges or feelings.
For example, it prevents you from hitting someone when you are angry or blurting out random
thoughts during a class lecture. The orbitofrontal cortex also helps stop behaviors that are already
underway. For example, it enables you to stop talking to your friends when the instructor begins class.

Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex

The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex helps direct your attention appropriately, so tasks and class
assignments are completed in an organized and efficient manner. Importantly, this area of the
brain prevents you from getting over-focused on one aspect of a task or situation. The dor-
solateral prefrontal cortex also plays a role in social interactions by directing your attention to
social cues in conversations and by facilitating communication and problem solving.

Hippocampus
The hippocampus allows you to learn from past experiences and helps you anticipate future events.
For example, a student may have learned strategies that enable them to finish a test quickly and
answer questions correctly because of their previous experience in taking similar types of exams.

Parietal Lobe
The parietal lobe allows you to keep track of time so you can accurately estimate how much
time is required for a given activity. This region of the brain also allows for the planning and
completion of activities, such as long-term course assignments.

Prefrontal Cortex
The prefrontal cortex systematically puts together all information from other brain areas to allow for
informed decision making. Simply stated, it orchestrates all executive functions. This region of the
brain helps you make safe, responsible decisions by enabling you to weigh the consequences of your
decisions before making them. The prefrontal cortex also links you to memories of past experiences,
allowing you to recall the outcomes of prior decisions and to use this information to inform problem
solving in the present. For example, if you failed an exam because you decided to wait until the night
before to study, you may recall this experience and choose a different course of action (e.g., studying
each night of the week prior to the exam) when planning how to prepare for an upcoming exam.

Copyright material from Laura K. Hansen (2023), A Transdiagnostic Approach to Develop

Organization, Attention and Learning Skills, Routledge
Appendix 1.3: Session 1 Homework

Self-Rewards and Barriers to Success

1. Reward yourself for attending this session – it is important that this reward matches the
amount of effort you made during group. Record your reward in the space provided
below.
2. Make a list of five to ten rewards that are reinforcing to you and will motivate you to
complete tasks that you tend to avoid, but must be completed (e.g., mentally taxing
course assignments).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
3. Identify a class in which you would like to improve your performance. Write down
three to five barriers that may be getting in the way of you reaching your full potential.

Class: ________________________________________________
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Copyright material from Laura K. Hansen (2023), A Transdiagnostic Approach to Develop

Organization, Attention and Learning Skills, Routledge
Chapter 2
Self-Advocacy and Building
Motivation

Quick Look
Objectives
♦ Learn how to extract important information from course syllabi.
♦ Discover how to locate on-campus resources vital for student success.
♦ Understand how to effectively communicate with instructors and administrators,
including how to have productive conversations with instructors so that they are better
equipped to perform well in their courses.
♦ Be introduced to the concept of self-rewards and how to implement this skill.
♦ Develop a list of contingent self-rewards that may be used throughout the semester to
motivate and reward goal setting and attainment.

Materials Needed
♦ Appendix 2.1: Session 2 Outline
♦ Appendix 2.2: Extracting Vital Information from a Course Syllabus (Handout)
♦ Appendix 2.3: Instructor Role-Plays (Activity)
♦ Appendix 2.4: Campus Resources Handout Development Guide and Template
♦ Note: This guide is designed to help group leaders develop a handout that contains
information about the types of on-campus resources available to group members. An
alternative is to obtain an equivalent handout that has already been developed by the
University. An optional fill-in-the-blank Campus Resources Handout template is
provided.
♦ Appendix 2.5: Accessing Accommodations (Handout)
♦ Appendix 2.6: Emailing an Instructor (Handout)
♦ Appendix 2.7: Effective Communication Worksheet (Homework)
♦ Appendix 2.8: Self-Rewards List (Homework)
♦ Appendix 2.9: Self-Rewards Implementation Worksheet (Homework)
♦ Optional: Session 2 Fidelity Checklist (Table 2.1)

DOI: 10.4324/9781003199618-3
30 Self-Advocacy and Building Motivation

Session Highlights
♦ Check-in
• Discuss content covered in the previous session (Introduction to the GOALS
Program)
• Review Session 1 homework (Self-Rewards and Barriers to Success)
♦ Learn new skills
• Extract important information from course syllabi
• Effective communication and locating on-campus student resources
• Self-rewards
♦ Wrap-up
• Assign homework
• Discuss content of the upcoming session

Detailed Session Content

Check-In
♦ Briefly review topics covered last week.
• Ask group members to summarize Session 1
• Material covered during the last session:
□ Group structure and expectations
□ Psychoeducation on executive functions
□ Brief introduction to self-rewards
• Answer any questions about the material covered during the previous session
♦ Homework review
• Ask group members to share the self-rewards they used for attending Session 1.
□ If necessary, discuss any barriers that prevented them from using self-rewards
and formulate a plan for homework completion. For example, if group
members explain that they forgot to do the homework, ask them where they
could place a reminder note or the homework sheet to prompt them to do the
assignment.
• Have group members refer to the Self-Rewards and Barriers to Success Homework
Handout and instruct them to give examples of barriers that they identified on this
handout as interfering with their academic success.

Tip for Group Leaders: Make sure to write down these barriers as they are asked to refer
to them when discussing effective communication and on-campus resources.
 Self-Advocacy and Building Motivation 31

Skills Introduction: Extracting Important

Information From Course Syallabi
Describe
An important initial step that can be taken to increase the chances of performing well in each
course is to carefully read the course syllabus before (if it is available) or immediately after the
initial class meeting. The syllabus is a contract between the student and instructor so it should
be continually referred to throughout the semester to ensure important dates are not missed
(e.g., assignment due dates and unit exams). It also allows students to assess whether the course
meets their educational goals, which is something to consider given the time commitment
needed to meet all course requirements.

Demonstrate
Have group members take out the course syllabus that they were asked to bring to session and
distribute Appendix 2.2: Extracting Vital Information from a Course Syllabus (Handout).
Review the handout and encourage group members to isolate relevant information by under-
lining or highlighting it. If time permits, assist group members in adding important course dates
to their planners or calendars.

Skills Introduction: Effective Communication and

On-Campus Resources
Describe
Effective communication with instructors is essential if students wish to have their needs met
and to obtain tips for success across courses of varying formats. This skill must be regularly and
intentionally practiced so that these conversations are productive and goal-oriented when the
time comes to act as a self-advocate. Here are some general tips to consider when commu-
nicating with an instructor in person, remotely, or in written form:

♦ Address the instructor respectfully and always use his/her proper title. Your instructor’s
title may be listed on the course syllabus. Address the instructor as Dr. “last name” if
he/she has a doctoral degree. If unsure of the instructor’s title, err on the side of
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 Fig. 30. 1. Rill-mark (after Williamson). 2. Trail made by a seaweed
dragged along a soft plaster of Paris surface (after Nathorst). 3. Tracks
made by Goniada maculata, a Polychaet (after Nathorst). 4. Burrow of
an insect. 4a. Section of the gallery (after Zeiller).
There is, however, another category of impressions and casts of
common occurrence in sedimentary rocks which requires a brief
notice. Very many of the fossil algae described in text-books and
palaeobotanical memoirs have been shown to be of animal origin,
and to be merely the casts of tracks and burrows. A few examples
will best serve to illustrate the identity of many of the fossils referred
to algae with animal trails and with impressions produced by
inorganic agency.
Dr Nathorst of Stockholm has done more than any other worker to
demonstrate the true nature of many of the species of Chondrites,
Cruziana, Spirophyton, Eophyton, and numerous other genera. In
1867 there were discovered in certain Cambrian beds of
Vestrogothia, long convex and furrowed structures in sandstone
rocks which were described as the remains of some comparatively
highly organised plant, and described under the generic name
Eophyton[226]. By many authors these fossils have been referred to
algae, but Nathorst has shown that the frond of an alga trailed along
the surface of soft plaster of Paris produces a finely furrowed groove
(fig. 30, 2) which would afford a cast similar to that of Eophyton. The
same author has also adduced good reasons for believing that the
Eophytons of Cambrian rocks may represent the trails made by the
tentacles of a Medusa having a habit similar to that of Polydonia
frondosa Ag. Impressions of Medusae have been described by
Nathorst from the beds in which Eophyton occurs; and the
specimens in the Stockholm Museum afford a remarkable instance
of the rare preservation of a soft-bodied organism[227]. By allowing
various animals to crawl over a soft-prepared surface it is possible to
obtain moulds and casts which suggest in a striking manner the
branched thallus of an alga. The tracks of the Polychaet, Goniada
maculata Örstd.[228], one of the Glyceridae, are always branched and
very algal-like in form (fig. 30, 3). Many of the so-called fossil algae
are undoubtedly mere tracks or trails of this type. In the fossil-plant
gallery of the British Museum there are several specimens of small
branched casts, clearly marked as whitish fossils on a dark grey rock
of Lower Eocene age from Bognor; these were described by Mantell
and Brongniart[229] as an alga, but there is little doubt of their being of
the same category as the track shown in fig. 30, 3.
FOSSILS SIMULATING ALGAE.

The well-known half-relief casts met with in Cambrian, Silurian and

Carboniferous rocks, and known as Cruziana or Bilobites, are
probably casts of the tracks of Crustaceans. The impression left by a
King-Crab (Limulus) as it walks over a soft surface affords an
example of this form of cast. It has been suggested that some of the
Bilobites may be the casts of an organism like Balanoglossus[230], a
worm-like animal supposed by some to have vertebrate affinities.
The resemblance between some of the lower Palaeozoic Bilobites
and the external features of a Balanoglossus is very striking, and
such a comparison is worth considering in view of the fact that soft-
bodied animals have occasionally left distinct impressions on ancient
sediments.
 The literature on the subject of fossil algae versus inorganic and
animal markings is too extensive and too wearisome to consider in a
short summary; the student will find a sufficient amount of such
controversial writing—with references to more—in the works quoted
below[231].
In the Stockholm Museum of Palaeobotany there is an
exceedingly interesting collection of plaster casts obtained by Dr
Nathorst in his experiments on the manufacture of fossil ‘algae,’
which afford convincing proof of the value and correctness of his
general conclusions.
The pressure of the hand on a soft moist surface produces a
raised pattern like a branched and delicate thallus. The well-known
Oldhamia antiqua Forbes and Oldhamia radiata Forbes[232], from the
Cambrian rocks of Ireland may, in part at least, owe their origin to
mechanical causes, and we have no sufficient evidence for including
them among the select class of true fossil algae. Sollas[233] has
shown that the structure known as Oldhamia radiata is not merely
superficial but that it extends across the cleavage-planes. Oldhamia
is recorded from Lower Palaeozoic rocks in the Pyrenees[234] by
Barrois, who agrees with Salter, Göppert and others in classing the
fossil among the algae. The photograph accompanying Barrois’
description does not, however, add further evidence in favour of
accepting Oldhamia as a genus of fossil algae.
The burrows made by Gryllotalpa vulgaris Latr., the Mole-cricket,
have been shown by Zeiller to bear a close resemblance to a branch
of a conifer in half-relief (fig. 30, 4), or to such a supposed algal
genus as Phymatoderma[235].
In fig. 30, 1, we have what might well be described as a fossil alga.
This is merely a cast of a miniature river-system such as one
frequently sees cut out by the small rills of water flowing over a
gently-sloping sandy beach. A cast figured and described by
Newberry as an alga, Dendrophycus triassicus[236], from the Trias of
the Connecticut Valley, is practically identical with the rill-marks
shown in fig. 30, 1. The cracks produced in drying and contracting
sediment may form moulds in which casts are subsequently
produced by the deposition of an overlying layer of sand, and such
casts have been erroneously referred to algal impressions[237].
Dawson[238] has figured two good examples of Carboniferous rill-
marks from Nova Scotia in his paper on Palaeozoic burrows and
tracks of invertebrate animals.
RECOGNITION OF FOSSIL ALGAE.

Fig. 31. Chondrites verisimilis Salt. Wenlock limestone, Dudley. From a

specimen in the British Museum (V. 2550). Slightly reduced.
The specimen represented in fig. 31 affords an example of a fairly
well-known fossil from the Wenlock limestone, originally described
by Salter as Chondrites verisimilis Salt, from Dudley[239]. He regarded
it as an alga, and the graphitic impression agrees closely in form with
the thallus of some small seaweeds. A closer examination of the
fossil reveals a curious and characteristic irregular wrinkling on the
graphite surface, which suggests an organism of more chitinous and
firmer material than that of an alga.
A similar and probably an identical fossil is described and figured
by Lapworth[240] in an appendix to a paper by Walter Keeping on the
geology of Central Wales, under the name of Odontocaulis Keepingi
Lap. and regarded as a dendroid graptolite. In any case we have no
satisfactory grounds for including these fossils in the plant-kingdom.
How then are we to recognise the traces of ancient algae? There
is no golden rule, and we must admit the difficulty of separating real
fossil algae from markings made by animal or mechanical agency.
The presence of a carbonaceous film is occasionally a help, but its
occurrence is no sure test of plant origin, nor is its absence a fatal
objection to an organic origin. While being fully alive to the small
value of external resemblance, and to the numerous agents which
have been shown to be capable of producing appearances
indistinguishable from plant impressions, we must not go too far in a
purely negative direction.
An important contribution to the subject of fossil algae has lately
appeared by Prof. Rothpletz[241]. He deals more particularly with the
much discussed Flysch[242] Fucoids of Tertiary age, and while
refusing to accept certain examples as fossil algae, he brings
forward weighty arguments in favour of including several other forms
among the algae. He is of opinion that most of the main divisions of
the algae are represented among the Flysch Fucoids, but considers
that the Phaeophyceae are the most numerous.
Rothpletz’s work is chiefly interesting as illustrating the application
of microscopic examination and chemical analysis to the
determination of fossil algae. Although he makes out a good case in
favour of restoring many of the Tertiary fossils to the plant kingdom,
the material at his disposal does not admit of satisfactory botanical
diagnosis.
No doubt some of the fossils from the Silurian and Cambrian rocks
are true algae, and Nathorst has pointed out that such a species as
Hall’s Sphenothallus angustifolius[243] may well be an alga. Additional
examples might be quoted from Bornemann and other writers, but in
view of the attempts which are sometimes made to trace the
development of more recent plants to more than doubtful Lower
Palaeozoic Algae, one must agree with Nathorst’s opinion,—“Je
crois que l’on rend un bien mauvais service à la théorie de
l’évolution, en essayant de baser l’arbre généalogique des algues
fossiles sur des corps aussi douteux que les Bilobites,
Crossochorda, Eophyton, etc.[244]”
There are many carbonaceous impressions on rocks of different
ages which it is reasonable to refer to algal origin, and although such
are of little or no botanical value, it may be a convenience to refer to
them under a definite term. The comprehensive generic name
Algites[245] has been suggested as a convenient designation for
impressions or casts which are probably those of algae.
SUPPOSED FOSSIL ALGAE.
 Some of the fossils described by Mr Kidston from British
Carboniferous rocks as probably algae present an undoubted algal
appearance, and might be placed in the genus Algites; but in some
cases—e.g. Chondrites plumosa[246] Kidst. from the Calciferous
Sandstone of Eskdale, one feels much more doubtful; in this
particular instance the impressions suggest the fine roots of a water-
plant.
The statement is occasionally made that the numerous fossil algae
and the absence of higher plants in the older strata justify the
description of the oldest rocks as belonging to the ‘age of algae.’
Such an assertion rests on an unsound basis, and is rather the
expression of what might be expected than what has been proved to
be the case. The oldest plants with which we are at all closely
acquainted are of such a type as to forcibly suggest that in the
lowest fossiliferous rocks we are still very far from the sediments of
that age which witnessed the dawn of plant life.
Many of the obscure markings on rock surfaces which have been
referred to existing genera of algae or described as new genera, are
much too doubtful to be included even under such a comprehensive
name as Algites. Space does not admit of further reference to
determinations of this type which abound in palaeontological
literature.
It would be very difficult to produce satisfactory evidence for the
algal nature of many of the supposed fossil algae from Cambrian
rocks[247]; there has been a special tendency to recognise algal
remains in the oldest fossiliferous strata, due in part no doubt to the
fallacy that in that period nothing higher than Thallophytes is likely to
have existed. The so-called Phycodes referred to by Credner[248] as
characteristic of the Cambrian rocks of the Fichtelgebirge
(“Phycoden-Schiefer”) is probably of inorganic origin, and
comparable to the genus Vexillum of Saporta[249] and other writers,
which Solms-Laubach has described as being formed every day in
the soft mud of our ponds where local currents are checked by
branches and other obstacles[250]. There are several good specimens
of Phycodes in the Bergakademie of Berlin and in the Leipzig
Museum which, I believe, clearly demonstrate the absence of all
satisfactory evidence of an algal origin.
We may next pass to a short description of a few representative
types of algae, which may reasonably be classed under definite
families, and accepted as evidence possessing some botanical
value.

A. DIATOMACEAE (Bacillariaceae).
This family occupies a somewhat isolated position among the
algae, and is best considered as a distinct subdivision rather than as
a family of the Phaeophyceae or Brown algae, with which it
possesses as a common characteristic a brown-colouring matter.
Single-celled plants consisting of a simple protoplasmic body
containing a nucleus and brown colouring matter (diatomin)
associated with the chlorophyll. The cell-wall is in the form of two
halves, known as valves, which fit into one another like the two
portions of a pill-box. The cell-wall contains a large amount of silica,
and the siliceous cases of the diatoms are commonly spoken of as
the valves of the individual, or the frustules. Diatoms exhibit a
characteristic creeping movement, and are reproduced by division,
also by the development of spores in various forms[251].
The recent members of the family have an exceedingly wide
distribution, occurring both in freshwater and in the sea. Owing to the
lightness of the frustules, they are frequently carried along in the air,
and atmospheric dust falling on ships at sea has been found to
contain large numbers of diatoms[252]. The siliceous valves are
abundant in guano deposits, and they have been found also in
association with volcanic material. Diatomaceous deposits are now
being formed in the Yellowstone Park district; “they cover many
square miles in the vicinity of active or extinct hot spring vents of the
park, and are often three feet, four feet, and sometimes five to six
feet thick[253].” The gradual accumulation of the siliceous tests on the
floor of a fresh-water lake results in the formation of a sediment
consisting in part of pure silica. Such deposits, often spoken of as
kieselguhr or diatomite, and used as a polishing material, occur in
many parts of Britain, marking the sites of dried-up pools or lakes. At
the northern end of the island of Skye there occurs an unusually
pure deposit of diatomite overlain by peat and turf, and extending
over an area of fifty-eight square miles. Many of the individuals in
this deposit were in all probability carried into the lake by running
water, while others lived in the lake and after death their tests
contributed to the siliceous deposit[254]. The late Dr Ehrenberg
published numerous papers on diatomaceous deposits in different
parts of the world, and in his great work, Zur Mikrogeologie[255], he
gave numerous and beautifully executed illustrations of such
siliceous accumulations. In many of the samples he figures one sees
fragments of plant tissues, spores of conifers and ferns, associated
with the diatom tests. The occurrence of the pollen grains of
coniferous trees in lacustrine and marine deposits is not surprising in
view of their abundance in Lake Constance and other lakes. It is
stated that the pollen of conifers in the Norwegian fiords plays an
important part in the nourishment of the Rhizopod Saccamina[256].
DIATOMACEOUS OOZE.

In the waters of the ocean diatoms are of frequent occurrence, and

very widely distributed. Sir Joseph Hooker records the existence of
masses of diatomaceous ooze over a wide area in Antarctic
regions[257]. Along the shores of the Victoria Barrier, a perpendicular
wall of ice, between one and two hundred feet above sea-level, the
soundings were found to be invariably charged with diatom remains,
and from the base of the ice-wall there appeared to be in process of
formation a bank of these tests stretching north for a distance of 200
miles. The more extended researches conducted during the cruise of
the Challenger have clearly proved the enormous accumulations of
diatoms now being formed on the ocean-bed[258]. South of latitude
45° S. there is now being built up a vast deposit which may be
eventually upraised as a fairly pure siliceous rock. From extreme
northern latitudes Nansen has recently recorded the occurrence of
these lowly organised plants. He writes,—“I found a whole world of
diatoms and other microscopical organisms, both vegetable and
animal, living in the fresh-water pools on the Polar drift-ice, and
constantly travelling from Siberia to the east coast of Greenland[259].”
In warmer latitudes diatoms abound in the surface waters, but there
they are associated with numerous other forms of the Plankton
vegetation. The waters of the Amazon carry with them into the sea
large numbers of fresh-water forms, which are floated out to sea and
finally added to the rock-building material which is constantly
accumulating on the ocean floor[260]. No definite results have so far
been obtained as to the geographical and bathymetrical distribution
of marine diatoms.
The enormous number of recent species precludes any attempt to
give a description of the better-known forms. It is more important for
us to realize how common and widely distributed are the living
genera. The hard and almost indestructible valves have been
frequently found in a fossil condition, often forming thick and
extensive masses of siliceous rock. From diatom-beds now forming
in lakes and on the ocean-bed we pass to deposits such as those in
Skye and elsewhere, which mark the site of recently dried-up sheets
of water, and so to older rocks of Tertiary age formed under similar
conditions. Among the many examples of diatomaceous deposits of
Tertiary and Cretaceous age mention should be made of those of
Berlin, Königsberg, Bilin in Bohemia, and Richmond in Virginia. The
diatoms in the beds of Berlin are regarded as fresh-water, and those
of Richmond as marine. It has been pointed out by Pfitzer that it is a
comparatively easy matter to distinguish between fresh-water and
marine forms of diatoms. The diatomaceous rocks of Bilin are known
as polishing slates; they attain a thickness of 50 feet. In these, as in
many other cases, the deposit has become cemented together as a
hard flinty or glassy rock, in which the cementing material was
formed by the solution of some of the diatom tests[261]. In many cases
in which calcareous and siliceous rocks reveal no direct evidence of
organic origin it is probable that they were originally formed by the
accumulation of plants of which the structure has been completely
obliterated by secondary causes. The genus Gallionella plays an
important part in the composition of the Bilin beds. Occasionally
impressions of leaves and other organic remains are found
associated with the diatoms in the siliceous rocks. In the British
Museum (Botanical department) a large block of white powdery rock
is exhibited as an example of a diatomaceous deposit of Tertiary age
from Australia. It is described as being largely made up of the tests
of fresh-water diatoms, such as Navicula, Gomphonema, Cymbella,
Synedra, and others.
FOSSIL DIATOMS.

The abundance of Diatoms in Cretaceous rocks of the Paris basin

has recently been recorded by Cayeux[262]; it would seem that these
algae had already assumed an important rôle as rock-builders in pre-
Tertiary times. Cayeux points out that the silica of these Cretaceous
diatomaceous frustules has often been replaced by carbonate of
calcium.
In addition to the occurrence of Diatoms in the various
diatomaceous deposits, their siliceous tests may occasionally be
recognised in argillaceous or other sediments. Shrubsole and
Kitton[263] have described several species of Diatoms from the
London Clay of Lower Eocene age. In many localities in the London
basin the clay obtained from well-sinkings presented the appearance
of being dusted with sulphur-like particles of a dark bronze or golden
colour which glistened in the sunlight. These yellow bodies have
been found to be diatomaceous frustules in which the silica has been
replaced by iron pyrites. The genus Coscinodiscus is one of the
commonest forms recorded from the London Clay[264].
Without further considering individual examples of diatomaceous
rocks we may briefly notice the general facts of the geological history
of the family. As Ehrenberg pointed out several years ago, the
Tertiary and Cretaceous species of diatoms show a very marked
resemblance to living forms. In many cases the species are identical,
and the fossil deposits as a whole seem to differ in no special
respect from those now being built up.
With the exception of two species of Liassic Diatoms, no
trustworthy examples of the Diatomaceae have been found below
the Cretaceous series. The oldest known Diatoms were discovered
by Rothpletz[265] among the fibres of an Upper Lias sponge from Boll
in Württemberg. They occur as small thimble-shaped siliceous tests
with coccoliths and foraminifera in the horny skeleton of
Phymatoderma, a genus formerly regarded as an alga. Rothpletz
describes two species which he includes in the genus Pyxidicula, P.
bollensis and P. liasica. This generic name of Ehrenberg is used by
Schütt[266] as a subgenus of Stephanopyxis.
Seeing how great a resemblance there is between the recent and
Cretaceous species, and how many examples there are of Tertiary
diatom deposits, it is not a little surprising that the past history of
these plants has not been traced to earlier periods. In 1876
Castracane[267], an Italian diatomist, gave an account of certain
species of diatoms said to have been found in a block of coal from
Liverpool obtained from the English Coal-Measures. The species
were found to be identical with recent forms. It is generally agreed
that these specimens cannot have been from the coal itself, but that
they must have been living forms which had come to be associated
with the coal. The late Prof. Williamson spent many years examining
thin sections and other preparations of coal from various parts of the
world, but he never found a trace of any fossil diatom. There is no
apparent reason why diatoms should not be found in Pre-Cretaceous
rocks, and the microscopic investigation of old sediments may well
lead to their discovery. Prof. Bertrand of Lille, who has devoted
himself for some time past to a detailed microscopical examination of
coal, informs me that he has so far failed to discover any trace of
Palaeozoic diatomaceous tests.
BACTRYLLIUM.

The genus Bactryllium is often quoted in text-books as a probable

example of a Triassic diatom. It was first described by Heer[268] from
the Trias of Switzerland and North Italy, also from the neighbourhood
of Heidelberg, and regarded as an extinct member of the
Diatomaceae. Heer defined the genus as follows:
“Small bodies, with parallel sides, rounded at either end, the surface traversed by one
or two longitudinal grooves.”

(fig. 32, C.) Several species have been figured by Heer from beds of
Muschelkalk, Keuper and Rhaetic age. He describes the wall as
thick and firm (fig. 32, C. ii.) and probably composed of silica, with a
hollow interior. The specimen shown in fig. 32, C. was found in the
Rhaetic beds, and named by Heer Bactryllium deplanatum; it has a
length of 4·5 mm.; the surface is transversely striated and traversed
by a single longitudinal groove. Stefani[269] has given reasons in
favour of removing Bactryllium from the plant to the animal kingdom;
he points out that the specimens are too large for diatoms, and
moreover that they are asymmetrical in form and possessed a
calcareous and not a siliceous shell. He would place the fossil
among the Pteropods, comparing it with such genera as Cuvierina
and Hyalaea. In view of Stefani’s opinion we cannot attach any
importance to this supposed diatom, especially as it has generally
been regarded as at best but an unsatisfactory genus.

Fig. 32. A, Lithothamnion mamillosum Gümb. (i) In section, (ii) surface

view [after Gümbel. (i) × 320, (ii) nat. size. B, Sycidium melo Sandb. (i)
Surface view, (ii) transverse section (after Deecke). C, Bactryllium
deplanatum Heer. (i) Surface view, (ii) section, showing the thick wall
and hollow interior (after Heer). D, Calcareous pebble from a lake in
Michigan. Rather less than nat. size (after Murray).

B. CHLOROPHYCEAE (Green Algae).

 Thallus unseptate, having the form of a vesicle or a variously
branched coenocyte, which may or may not be encrusted with
carbonate of lime, or of filaments composed of cells containing a
single nucleus, or of cells in which more than one nucleus occurs; in
other instances consisting of a plate of cells or a cell-mass. Asexual
reproduction by zoospores and other reproductive cells; sexual
reproduction by means of the conjugation of similar gametes or by
the fertilisation of a typical egg-cell by a motile spermatozoid.
This family of algae is represented at the present day by
numerous and widely distributed marine and fresh-water genera, as
well as by genera growing in moist air or as endophytes in the
tissues of higher plants[270].
Seeing how very few fossil forms have been described which have
any claim to inclusion in this subdivision of the Algae, it is
unnecessary to enumerate or define the various families of the
Chlorophyceae. It is true that many species have been figured as
examples of different genera of green algae, but few of these
possess any scientific value. There is, however, one division of the
Chlorophyceae, the Siphoneae, which must be treated at some
length on account of its importance from a palaeobotanical and
geological point of view.

a. Siphoneae.
Thallus consisting of simple or branched cells very rarely divided
by septa, and containing many nuclei. In certain genera the
branches form a pseudoparenchymatous tissue by their repeated
branching, and as a result of the intimate felting together of the
branched cells. Reproduction is effected either by the conjugation of
similar gametes or by the fertilisation of an egg-cell.
Vaucheria and Botrydium are two well-known British genera of this
order, but most of the recent representatives live in tropical and
subtropical seas. The most striking characteristic feature of this
division of the Chlorophyceae is the fact that the thallus of a
siphoneous alga consists of an unseptate coenocyte; the plant may
be extremely small and simple, or it may reach a length of several
inches, but in all cases the body does not consist of more than one
cell or coenocyte.
From a palaeontological standpoint the Siphoneae are of
exceptional interest. It is impossible to do more than refer to a few of
the living and fossil genera. There are numerous fossil
representatives already known, and there can be little doubt that
further research would be productive of valuable results.
As examples of the order, a few genera may be described
belonging to the three families Caulerpaceae, Codiaceae, and
Dasycladaceae.

α. Caulerpaceae.
Thallus unseptate, showing an extraordinary variation in the
external differentiation of the plant-body. Reproduction is effected by
means of detached portions of the parent plant.
The genus Caulerpa, represented by a few species in the
Mediterranean and by many tropical forms, has already been alluded
to as a striking example of a plant which appears under a great
many different forms[271]. As a recent writer has said, “Nature seems
to have shown in this genus the utmost possibilities of the
siphoneous thallus[272],” Fragments of coniferous twigs, the tracks
and burrows of various animals and other objects have been
described by several authors as fossil species of Caulerpa. As an
illustration of the identification of a very doubtful fossil as a species
of Caulerpites, reference may be made to such a form as C.
cactoides Göpp.[273] from Silurian and Cambrian rocks. There are
several examples of this fossil in the Brussels Museum which
probably owe their origin to some burrowing animal, and may be
compared with Zeiller’s figures of the tunnels made by the mole-
cricket (fig. 30, 4)[274].
Mr Murray, of the British Museum, has recently described what he
regards as a trustworthy example of a fossil Caulerpa from the
Kimeridge Clay near Weymouth[275]. Specimens of the fossil were
first figured in a book on the geology of the Dorset coast as casts of
an equisetaceous plant[276].
 To this fossil Murray has assigned the name Caulerpa Carruthersi,
and given to it a scientific diagnosis. The best specimens have the
form of a slender central axis, giving off at fairly regular intervals
whorls of short and somewhat clavate branches; they bear a
superficial resemblance to such a recent species as Caulerpa
cactoides Ag. An examination of several examples of this fossil leads
me to express the opinion that there is not sufficient reason for
assigning to them the name of a recent genus of algae[277]. To use
the generic name of a recent plant without following the common
custom of adding on the termination “ites” (i.e. Caulerpites) is as a
general rule to be avoided in dealing with fossil forms; and there are,
I believe, no satisfactory grounds for referring to these fossils as
trustworthy examples of a Mesozoic alga.
In the present case I am disposed to regard the Caulerpa-like
casts as of animal rather than plant origin. The clavate branches
have the form of very deep moulds in the hard brown rock which
have been filled in with blue mud. It is hardly conceivable that the
branches of a soft watery plant such as Caulerpa could leave more
than a faint impression on an old sea-floor. The specimens occur in
different positions in the matrix of the rock and they are not confined
to the lines of bedding; in none of the examples is there any trace of
carbonaceous matter in association with the deep moulds. On the
whole, then, this Kimeridge fossil cannot, I believe, be accepted as
an authentic example of a Mesozoic Caulerpa.
It is not improbable that some of the supposed fossil algae may be
casts of egg-cases or spawn-clusters of animals. In Ellis’ Natural
History of the Corallines[278] there is a drawing representing a number
of disc-like ovaries attached to a tough ligament, and referred to the
mollusc Buccinum, which bears a certain resemblance to the
Weymouth fossil. A similar body is figured by Fuchs[279] in an
important memoir on supposed fossil algae.
It is not suggested that the Caulerpa Carruthersi of Murray should
be regarded as the cast of some molluscan egg-case attached to a
slender axis, but it is important to bear in mind the possibility of
matching such extremely doubtful fossils with other organic bodies
than the thallus of a Caulerpa. In an example of an egg-case in the
Cambridge Zoological Museum, referred to a species of Pyrula,
there is a hard, long and slender axis, bearing a series of
semicircular chambers divided into radial compartments. The whole
is hard and horny and might well be preserved as a fossil.

β. Codiaceae.
The members of this Order present a considerable diversity of
form as regards the shape of the plant-body; the thallus of some
species is encrusted with carbonate of lime. The order is widely
distributed in tropical and temperate seas.
Among the recent genera Penicillus and Codium may be chosen
as important types from the point of view of fossil representatives.

Codium.
The thallus of Codium consists of a spongy mass of tubular cell-
branches which are differentiated into two fairly distinct regions, an
outer peripheral layer in which the branches have long club-shaped
terminations, and an inner region consisting of loosely interwoven
filaments.
Codium Bursa L. and C. tomentosum Huds. are two well-known
British species, the former presents the appearance of a spongy ball
of cells, and in the latter the thallus is divided up into dichotomously
forked branches[280]. In this genus the thallus is not encrusted with
carbonate of lime, at least in recent species.

Sphaerocodium. Fig. 37, D.

Rothpletz[281] instituted this genus for certain small spherical or
oval bodies varying from 1 mm. to 2 cm. in diameter, which have
been found on crinoid stems or shell fragments of Triassic age. Each
spherical body consists of dichotomously branched single-celled
filaments, between 50 and 100µ in breadth, and from 300–500µ in
height. The tubular cavities occasionally swell out into spherical
spaces which are regarded by Rothpletz as sporangia.
 There is not sufficient evidence that Sphaerocodium Bornemanni
Roth. has been correctly referred to the Codiaceae. The sporangia-
like swellings described by the author of the species are not by any
means conclusive as characters of important taxonomic value.
Figure 37, D, illustrates the general structure of the fossil as seen in
a transverse section of one of the calcareous grains.
Like Girvanella, which has been referred by some writers to the
Siphoneae, Sphaerocodium occurs in the form of oolitic grains. In
the Triassic Raibler and St Cassian beds of the Tyrol, as well as in
rocks of Rhaetic age in the Eastern Alps, it makes up large masses
of limestone. Rothpletz compares the structure of this genus with
that of the recent alga Codium adhaerens Ag., but it is wiser to
regard such tubular structures as Girvanella, Siphonema[282] and
Sphaerocodium as closely allied organisms, which are probably
algae, but too imperfectly known to be referred to any particular
family.

Penicillus.
The recent genus Penicillus is one of those algae formerly
included among animals. Fig. 33, O, has been copied from a drawing
of a species of Penicillus given by Lamouroux[283] under the generic
name of Nesea in his treatise on the genera of Polyps published in
1821. He describes the genus as a brush-like Polyp with a simple
stem.
The thallus consists of a stout stem terminating in a brush-like tuft
of fine dichotomously-branched filaments. The apical branches are
divided by regular constrictions into short oval or rod-like segments
which may be encrusted with carbonate of lime. A few of the
segments from the terminal tuft of a recent Penicillus are shown in
fig. 35, E. Each of these calcareous segments has the form of an
oval shell perforated at each end, and the wall is pierced by
numerous fine canals. Penicillus is represented by about 10 recent
species, which with one exception live in tropical seas.
The recognition of Penicillus, or a very similar type, in a fossil
condition is due to Munier-Chalmas[284]. This keen observer has
rendered great service to palaeobotany by directing attention to the
calcareous algae in the Paris basin beds, and by proving that many
of the fossils from these Tertiary deposits have been erroneously
included by previous writers among the Foraminifera[285]. It is greatly
to be desired that Prof. Munier-Chalmas may soon publish a
monograph on the fossil Siphoneous forms of which he possesses a
unique collection.

Ovulites. Figs. 33, K, L, and 35, F.

In his Natural History of Invertebrate Animals, Lamarck described
some small oval bodies from the Calcaire Grossier (Eocene) of the
Paris basin under the name of Ovulites. He defined them as follows:
—“Polypier pierreux, libre, ovuliforme ou cylindracé, creux
intérieurement, souvent percé aux deux bouts. Pores très petits,
régulièrement disposés à la surface[286].”
 Fig. 33. A and B, Cymopolia barbata (L.); A, transverse section of the
calcareous cylinder. B, verticillate branches and sporangium after
removal of the calcareous matrix (A and B after Munier-Chalmas). C and
D, Acicularia Andrussowi Solms (C, after Andrussowi; D, after Solms).
E, Acicularia Miocenica Reuss; section of a spicula (after Reuss). F and
G, Acicularia sp. (after Carpenter), F × 40; G × 20. H, Acicularia
Schencki (Möb.) (after Solms). I, Acetabularia Mediterranea Lamx.;
section of the cap (after Falkenberg). K and L, Ovulites margaritula
(Lam.) (after Munier-Chalmas); K slightly enlarged; L, a piece of the
thallus more highly magnified. M, Cymopolia barbata (L.) (after Ellis,
nat. size). N, C. barbata (L.); the surface of the thallus; magnified. O,
Penicillus pyramidalis (Lamx.) (after Lamouroux, nat. size).
The specimens are referred to two species, Ovulites margaritula
and O. elongata.
By some subsequent writers[287] these calcareous fossils, like
miniature birds’ eggs with a hole at either end, were included among
the Zoophytes. Carpenter and others afterwards referred Ovulites to
the Foraminifera, and compared the genus with Lagena[288]. The