Consumption Patterns of Wild Edibles by The Vasava

Chauhan et al.
Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:57

https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0254-3
RESEARCH Open Access
Consumption patterns of wild edibles by

the Vasavas: a case study from Gujarat,
India
Sonali Hasmukh Chauhan1* , Santosh Yadav2, Taro Takahashi3,4, Łukasz Łuczaj5, Lancelot D’Cruz6
and Kensuke Okada1
Abstract
Background: Wild edibles continue to be a significant contributor to the global food basket in much of the
developing world. A consensus has now been formed that information on wild edibles is an important part of
ethnobotanical knowledge and hence elucidating region-specific patterns of habitat management and consumption
assists policy making with regard to natural conservation, human nutrition, and human health. Using an original data
set from Gujarat, India, the present research aims to document the collective knowledge of wild edibles possessed by
the local Vasava tribe, as well as the habitat usage and consumption trends of these species.
Methods: Data were collected using three approaches: key informant interviews to record the local knowledge of wild
edibles and methods of collection, village group discussions to quantify past and present consumption trends, and
expert interviews to elucidate the reasons for changing consumption patterns.
Results: Through key informant interviews, 90 species of wild edibles from 46 botanical families were identified along
with their Vasavi names, plant parts utilized, habitats, and cooking methods. Of these, 60 species were also used
medicinally and 15 carried economic value. Different habitats were preferred for collection at different times of
the year. Village group discussions unanimously concluded that the consumption of wild edibles has significantly
reduced over time. Expert interviews identified the decreased availability of these species in their natural habitats
as the most important reason for their reduced consumption.
Conclusion: The present study has demonstrated that the Vasavas’ collective knowledge of wild edibles is vast
and that these species contribute to their dietary diversity throughout the year. The finding of the present study,
namely that anthropogenically managed habitats were often preferred over natural environments for the collection of
wild edibles, suggests that conservation efforts should be extended beyond wild and human-uninhabited landscapes.
Keywords: Wild edibles, Ethnobotany, India, Gujarat, Wild food plants
Background The word “wild” in this context refers to species that are
Wild plants are a crucial source of food, healthcare, and not intentionally grown and managed by humans, includ-
material subsistence in much of the developing world and ing those minimally managed to prevent overgrowth or
carry a strong association with human livelihood [1–4]. overharvest. This includes both native and alien plants, re-
Amongst wild plants, in particular, wild edible plants gardless of the preservation level of the habitats [6, 7].
(WEP), once the most important food source for the hu- Many earlier ethnobotanical works focused on lists of
man population, along with game food, continue to be sig- useful plants and had a strong tendency to focus on the
nificant contributors to the global food basket [5]. scouting of new drug sources and new non-wood forest
products (NWFP), both of which can be economically
* Correspondence: sonalihchauhan@gmail.com
lucrative [8–12]. However, in recent years, there has
1
Department of Global Agriculture Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture been a growing interest in exploring the traditions of
and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 1138657, Japan using wild plants beyond material and medicinal
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s). 2018 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0
International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to
the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.

Chauhan et al. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine (2018) 14:57 Page 2 of 20
purposes and focus on wild edibles, as their roles be- considered one of the rich biodiversity zones of the state
come better understood in terms of local nutrition [2, (Fig. 1). The Narmada district, the administrative unit
13–15], dietary diversity [16, 17], income generation [4, above them, has a forest cover of 41.5% across an area
18–21], healthcare [22, 23], reduction of micronutrient characterized by hilly terrain and a semi-arid climate. The
deficiency [24, 25], and food security through diversifica- district’s average annual rainfall is ~ 700 mm, with 31 re-
tion [26–28]. There is now a consensus that information corded rainy days (Fig. 2). There are two agricultural sea-
on wild edibles, including various modes of utilization sons, the rainy season (Kharif) from July to October and
and preparation, constitutes an important part of ethno- the post-rainy season (Rabi) from November to March.
botanical knowledge and therefore that elucidating While all farmers cultivate during Kharif, only those with
region-specific patterns of their habitat management and irrigation facilities plant a second crop during Rabi.
consumption assists policymaking in the areas of natural According to the 2011 district census data for
conservation, human nutrition, and healthcare [29, 30]. Narmada, 85% of the total population are involved in
This is particularly the case as a lack of extensive data is agricultural production. At the same time, 65% of the
one of the major barriers that prevent optimal decision total population earn their income as agricultural or in-
making tailored to local conditions. dustrial laborers, primarily because of small landholding,
There have been efforts to document WEP use tradi- a phenomenon originating from land fragmentation
tions in India for a long time; however, due to the ex- through inheritance. The majority of the population lie
treme diversity of the ethnic population of the Indian below the poverty line and the literacy rate is low; in
subcontinent, as well as its flora, the work is still in its Dediapada Taluka, it is 65%. Combined together, these
infancy [31–42]. factors force many Vasavas to out-migrate for alternative
The research presented in this paper aims to docu- sources of livelihood, moving them away from their ori-
ment the collective knowledge of wild edibles possessed ginal ecological zone. As their “wisdom” concerning wild
by the local Vasava tribe, as well as the habitat usage plants has typically been passed on from parents to chil-
and consumption trends of these species. Previous dren, limited access to forests by family members is
ethnobotanical studies in Gujarat have exclusively fo- thought to be threatening knowledge transfer.
cused on economically important species [43, 44], or According to the information collected during field-
ethnomedicinal uses [43, 45, 46], so clear knowledge gap work, the staple source of carbohydrates for the Vasavas
exists for the listing and habitat usage with respect to is rice while in hilly regions where paddy farming is diffi-
wild edibles. cult, it is maize. Other cereals such as sorghum, as well
as indigenous millet such as bunti (Echinocloa crus-galli
Methods (L.) P.Beauv.), muu (Panicum pilosum Sw), kodri
Study site (Paspalum scrobiculatum L.), and bajro (Pennisetum
Located in the western part of the country, the state of typhoides (Burm.f.) Stapf & C.E.Hubb.), are also con-
Gujarat is home to 29 Scheduled Tribes that together sumed, along with cultivated vegetables (both heirloom
account for 14.8% of the state population. The Vasavas and commercial varieties) grown in both agricultural
are one such tribe that have inhabited the Shoolpanesh- fields and home gardens. Wild edibles form a major part
war forest belt, one of the dense forest belts within the of their complementary diet; for example, as much as
state (Fig. 1). The medicine men “Bhagats” of Vasava 40% of the food consumed by the Bhil tribe, who live
tribe are known for their indigenous plant knowledge to nearby, was sourced from non-agricultural fields [48],
treat illnesses of their community, part of which has re- typically collected from nearby forests or their surround-
cently been recorded from the pharmaceutical perspec- ings. For the Vasavas, a typical meal consists of a staple
tive [47]. The Vasavas are often described as subsistence (rice, maize, sorghum, or millet) with vegetables and/or
farmers who possess traditional knowledge about plants wild edibles, the latter of which are boiled, sautéed, or
due to close proximity to the forests. Nonetheless, rapid added to daal (a runny soup made with pulses). Meat,
economic growth is inducing outmigration and trans- poultry, and fish can also be part of the Vasavas’ diet de-
formation of land usage in the region, thereby threaten- pending on the family’s economic reach and availability,
ing the survival of traditional knowledge as well as free while dairy products are severely limited due to the lack
access to forests for this tribe. Even though tribal areas of storage facilities.
in India often receive intervention programs for nutri-
tion and livelihood enhancement, such programs have
never been implemented in the study area, locally Data collection
known as Dediapada Taluka. In order to achieve the aforementioned aim of the re-
The Shoolpaneshwar forest belt spans an area of search, local data were collected under three approaches:
608 km2 over two Talukas, Dediapada and Sagbara, and is key informant interviews to record the Vasavas’

Fig. 1 Map of Dediapada Taluka with study sites
knowledge of wild edibles and methods of plant collection, Key informant interviews
village group interviews to quantify past and current con- Twenty-five key informants from 12 different villages
sumption trends, and expert interviews to elucidate rea- (Fig. 1) were purposefully selected. Altogether, 14 men
sons for the decreased consumption of wild edibles. and 11 women were interviewed. Their ages ranged from

Fig. 2 Minimum, maximum, and average temperatures and rainfall at Dediapada Taluka
26 to 87 (mean 51.8, median 49). The studied settle- and seasonal consumption patterns, as described below
ments represent all the major ecological features of in the “Data analysis” section.
Dediapada Taluka. These key informants consisted of tri-
bal healers and the local elders, who were considered Village group discussions
the most knowledgeable about local plants within each Village heads, local school officials, and long-term resi-
village. Care was taken to include both genders from dents from 12 villages (96 respondents) were invited to
each village as, generally speaking, more men collect group discussions, held in August–September 2016,
wild plants from forests, while more women are respon- about the past and current trends surrounding the con-
sible for collecting and cooking plants from the village sumption of wild edibles. These open-ended interviews
surroundings (e.g., home gardens) on a regular basis. were carried out at either village schools or the homes
The interviews were conducted during the periods of of village heads/key informants. When the snowball
August–September 2016 and December 2016–February technique was employed to maximize the amount of in-
2017. The Gujarati language (the regional language) was formation collected, care was taken to include partici-
used with occasional translation to the Vasavi language pants of various age groups from both genders.
(the local tribal language). Each interview started with a
field visit with the interviewee, which covered nearby Expert interviews
forests, agricultural fields, and swamp habitats where ed- Structured questionnaire surveys were conducted with
ible plants were growing at the time of the survey. Infor- seven experts from different villages (Bondiservan,
mation on the plant part used, typical recipes for Vadhwa, Khudadi, Khokhraumar, Zadoli, Khairdipada,
cooking, potential for medicinal use, and the season, and and Jamni villages), who were selected based on the rec-
primary locations of collection were noted. Each species ommendation of village heads during the group discus-
was identified and photographically recorded in the field. sions. The questionnaire was based on the input
Voucher specimens were also collected for species not obtained from the village group discussions and de-
already covered by previous floristic surveys carried out signed as a multi-purpose survey. The results presented
in the region. Following the field visit, each informant in this paper primarily focus on the reasons for changing
was interviewed again, inside their house, where the consumption patterns of wild edibles, obtained by means
local names for the plants were confirmed and matched of pairwise comparisons [23, 49], encompassing six alter-
against photographs and dried specimens of the species, natives. The scores derived for each reason were aggre-
under the supervision of an experienced local taxono- gated across seven experts, producing an overall score
mist. The dried herbarium specimens of the species are that can take any value between 0 and 35.
identified by a taxonomist and stored at the herbarium
of The Serenity Library & Botanical Garden (for details, Data analysis
refer to “Availability of data and materials”).At the Categorization of species
conclusion of all interviews, a comprehensive list of wild Each species included in the plant list (prepared from
edibles utilized by the Vasavas was compiled. This list key informant interviews) was categorized into one of
was subsequently used to analyze habitat distribution five groups based on its habit (trees, shrubs, herbs,

twiners, climbers), and one of the seven groups based on Typical months of collection and typical methods of
the habitat from which it was primarily collected (village, cooking were also recorded in this list, so as to obtain
forest, swamp, village and forest, swamp and forest, vil- insight into the Vasavas’ culinary outlook and nutritional
lage and swamp, all three locations). Here, a village habi- status.
tat was defined as an environment that was fully or A complete plant list was compiled with their
partially anthropologically managed (Fig. 3a–c). A forest Vasavi names, scientific names, plant parts utilized,
habitat was defined as an area minimally managed by primary habitats, and cooking methods. This aggre-
humans (although they are often close to villages), and a gated information was further used for analyzing the
swamp habitat as a location where water bodies were consumption and collection patterns as described in
present for most of the year, for example puddles, small the “Results” section.
riverines, and ponds. This grouping was based on the
most common habitats from which each species was col- Consumption and collection patterns
lected and therefore does not imply non-presence of the Following the compilation of the species list, the number
species in other locations. of species collected from each habitat category was
The parts of the plants utilized were also categorized quantified. This value was used as an indicator for the
into six groups (leaves, flowers, seeds/fruits, under- seasonal availability of the plants and for the locations of
ground parts, young shoots, multiple parts). The fourth actual collection events [50]. Since the primary focus of
group (underground parts) represents all storage organs the present study was on usage patterns of habitats for
including tubers, bulbs, corms, and rhizomes. The last sourcing these species, the number of species was judged
group (multiple parts) covers species that are primarily to offer better insights than the level of biomass avail-
collected for non-edible purposes but of which organs able, a common indicator for sustainable harvesting. The
(same or different) are also used as human food. number of species collected for each plant part was also
Local names for plants in the compiled species list collated to evaluate the potential of wild edibles to pro-
were transcribed into English with phonetic intuition, as vide diverse pathways of nutrient acquisition. The infor-
the Vasavi language does not have a written script. mation collected from the village group discussions and
Fig. 3 a–c Representative habitats for wild edibles: a village habitat, b forest habitat, and c swamp habitat

Table 1 List of wild edible species used by the Vasavas

Sr. No. Botanical names and Season Family/sub family Vasavi name Plant Plant Habitat/ Recipe and use
collection number type part location
used
1 Achyranthes aspera L. June–Dec Amaranthaceae Arpchinjudo 2 1 4 The leaves are consumed as leafy
TSLBG: 2402 vegetables either boiled or stir-fried
with spices
2 Aegle marmelos (L.) April–June Rutaceae Bila (Bili) 1 3 1 Unripe fruit is pickled, and ripe fruit
Corr. TSLBG: 2413 is consumed directly or in the form
of a juice
3 Alangium salvifolium Oct–Jan Alangiaceae Aakna 1 3 1 The fruit is edible, and the twig is
(L. f.) Wang. TSLBG: used as a dental floss
2483
4 Alternanthera sessilis L. June–Oct Amaranthaceae Ganthiyu 2 1 4 The leaves are boiled and consumed
TSLBG: 2454 as leafy vegetables with spices
5 Amaranthus hybridus June–Nov Amaranthaceae Laal matnu 3 1 7 Leaves are boiled and drained, and
L. TSLBG: 2548 chili spice and salt are added for flavor
6 Amaranthus spinosus June–Nov Amaranthaceae Kantalomatnu 3 1 7 Leaves are boiled, and spices are
L. TSLBG: 2464 added. Sometimes addition of
khatibhindi (Hibiscus sabdarifa)
7 Amaranthus viridis L. June–Nov Amaranthaceae Matnu 3 1 7 Leaves are boiled, and spices are
TSLBG: 2558 added
8 Annona squamosa L. Sept–Nov Annonaceae Aanusari 1 6 4 The fruits are edible when ripe. The
TSLBG: 2409 roots, leaves, and bark are used
medicinally
9 Argyreia nervosa June–Oct Convolvulaceae Panjo 5 6 4 Tender leaves are boiled or sautéed
(Burm. f) Boj TSLBG:
2540
10 Arisaema tortuosum June–July Apaceae Vayu 3 5 4 The young tender petiole of the
(Wall.) Schott. TSLBG: plant is soaked overnight in salt
2502 water to reduce the mucilage and
then pickled or cooked in sour
yoghurt or buttermilk with spices
as a vegetable
11 Asparagus racemosus All year Liliaceae Shatavari 2 4 4 Root is boiled removing the central
Willd. TSLBG: 2414 vein and stir-fried with oil and spices;
soup of boiled roots is also prepared
12 Azadirachta indica A. March–June Meliaceae Limdo 1 6 1 The ripe fruit pulp is edible
Juss. TSLBG: 2429
13 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Sept–Jan Scrophulariaceae Nirbrahmi/Bam 3 1 3 Washed thoroughly and prepared
Wettest. TSLBG: 2438 with onions and spices or boiled
14 Bambusa Once after Poaceae Vans 1 5 2 The young shoot is boiled and
arundinacea(Retz.) 25 years stir-fried to a vegetable, or young
Willd. TSLBG: 2415 shoot is boiled and made in to pickle
with spices
15 Bauhinia racemosa Feb–May Caesalpiniae Aachitro, Hinglo 1 2 1 The young leaves and flowers are
Lam. TSLBG: 2411 used as stir-fried vegetable
16 Bauhinia vahlii Feb–May Caesalpiniae Aavalvel 4 3 2 The young leaves and flowers are
Graham TSLBG: 2417 used as stir-fried vegetable
17 Benkara pundulacakai June–July Rubiaceae Gungur (flower) 2 2 2 The flowers are washed and stir-fried
(Gmelin.) Almeida. in oil and spices
TSLBG: 2422
18 Boerhavia diffusa L. All year Nyctaginaceae Dhagarphodiyu/ 3 6 1 Stir-fried vegetable in yoghurt with
TSLBG: 2501 Patharphodiyu spices or boiled
19 Bombax ceiba L. Feb–March Bombacaceae Hambo, Samro 1 2 2 Flowers are used to make stir-fry curry
TSLBG: 2564 in oil, or they are boiled with spices
20 Borassus flabellifer Feb–May Palmaceae Tad 1 6 4 The sap from the inflorescence is
Linn. TSLBG: 2484 collected in an earthen pot, and
the juice is either fresh or consumed
in the evening after some
fermentation. Fruit is also edible

Table 1 List of wild edible species used by the Vasavas (Continued)

used
21 Borreria articularis (L.f.) All year Rubiaceae Ganthi 3 1 1 The leaves are used and are boiled
F.N.Williams TSLBG: round with some spices or stir-fried in oil
2420
22 Bridelia squamosa Jan–Feb Euphorbiaceae Akano (1) 1 3 2 The fruits are edible when ripe. The
(Lamk.) Gehrmann. roots, leaves, and bark are used
TSLBG: 2435 medicinally
23 Buchanania Feb–May Anacardiaceae Charoli 1 3 2 The fruit is edible and eaten when
cochinchinensis (Lour.) ripe
Almeida TSLBG: 2509
24 Cassia tora L. TSLBG: June–Aug Fabaceae Chinjudo 2 6 4 The small tender leaves are edible
2425 as a leafy vegetable or as a
stir-fried with oil and spices
25 Celosia argentea L. June–Oct Amaranthaceae Lemdi 2 1 1 The leaves are eaten as a leafy
TSLBG: 2444 vegetable either boiled or stir-fried
in oil with spices
26 Ceropegia bulbosa July–Aug Asclepiadaceae Sap okoni 3 4 1 The tubers are edible. The tubers
Roxb. TSLBG: 2427 are boiled and added with crushed
chili flakes
27 Ceropegia fantastica July–Aug Asclepiadaceae Okoni 3 4 1 The tubers are edible. The tubers
Sed. TSLBG: 2555 are boiled and added with crushed
chili flakes
28 Chenopodium album June–Nov Chenopodiaceae ChilBhaji 3 1 1 Leaves are cooked in buttermilk as
L. TSLBG: 2546 a vegetable
29 Chlorophytum June–Aug Liliaceae Kuvlu 3 1 2 The leaves and bulb are stir-fried
borivalianum Sant. & and eaten. The leaves are added in
Fernand TSLBG: 2498 daal sometimes
30 Chlorophytum June–Aug Liliaceae Dholimusli/Kuvli 3 6 2 The leaves are used in daal as a
tuberosum (Roxb.) vegetable
Baker TSLBG: 2447
31 Clematis hedysarifolia June–Aug Ranunculaceae Kukadvel 5 5 4 The tender stem is used as a
DC. TSLBG: 2506 vegetable
32 Cocculus hirsutus (L.) All year Menispermiaceae Vasano/Vasanvel 5 1 4 Can be eaten raw or boiled and
Diels. TSLBG: 2519 round stir-fried in spices after draining
water
33 Commelina June–Aug Commelinaceae Keniyu 3 1 7 The tender leaves are stir-fried and
benghalensis L. TSLBG: eaten
2475
34 Commelina diffusa L. f. June–Aug Commelinaceae Punyopujyu 3 1 6 The tender leaves are stir-fried in oil
TSLBG: 2513 and eaten with crushed chilies and
salt
35 Commelina obliqua June–Aug Commelinaceae Narelu 3 1 6 Tender leaves are edible and eaten
Vahl. TSLBG: 2450 stir-fried with oil and spices
36 Cordia dichotoma Dec–Feb Ebenaceae Gunda 6 4 Inflorescence is cooked stir-fried with
Forst. f. TSLBG: 2471 (flower) (green and chikna) yoghurt and spices. The unripe fruit
March–June is used for making pickle
fruit
37 Cordia gharaf (Forsk.) Dec–May Ehretiaceae Gundi 1 3 1 The ripe fruit is consumed, and
E. & A. TSLBG: 2524 unripe fruit is pickled
38 Dalbergia volubilis June–Nov Fabaceae Kinhariyu/Pingush 5 1 1 The tender leaves are cooked as a
Roxb. TSLBG: 2561 leafy vegetable as a stir-fried in oil
and spices
39 Dendrocalamus July–Aug Poaceae Vans nibhaaji 5 2 Tender just emerged shoot apex is
strictus (Roxb.) Nees boiled and cut and made in pickle
TSLBG: 2445 and made into vegetable
40 Dioscorea belophylla Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Huvi 4 4 4 The bulbil is similar to Taro and is
Voigt. TSLBG: 2469 boiled and cooked similarly in oil
and spices


used
41 Dioscorea bulbifera L. June–July Dioscoreaceae Kadvokand 4 4 4 The bulbil is boiled or soaked
TSLBG: 2482 overnight in salt to remove
bitterness and then cooked like
potato with oil and spices and
sometimes in buttermilk
42 Dioscorea hispida Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Manovaj 4 4 4 The bulbil is similar to Taro and is
Dennstd. TSLBG: 2521 boiled and cooked similarly in oil
and spices and sometimes in
buttermilk
43 Dioscorea pentaphylla Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Huvdo 4 4 4 The bulbil is similar to Taro and is
L. TSLBG: 2463 boiled and cooked similarly in oil
buttermilk
44 Dioscorea wallichii Hk. Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Chaydu 4 4 4 The bulbils is similar to Taro and is
TSLBG: 2530 boiled and cooked similarly in oil
buttermilk
45 Diospyros melanoxylon May–June Ebenaceae Timru 1 6 2 Fruit is consumed for its sweet
Roxb. TSLBG: 2448 taste; unripe fruits are picked from
forest and ripened in sandy soil.
Leaves are used for making local
handmade cigarette (bidi)
46 Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Sept–Feb. Asclepiadaceae Kadvishir 5 3 1 The young leaves and stems are
Benth. ex Hook.f. boiled and drained and eaten with
TSLBG: 2431 crushed chili and salt
47 Enicostema littorale Bl. June–Aug Gentianaceae Mamejavo/ 3 1 1 Tender leaves stir-fried as vegetable
TSLBG: 2488 KadviNai
48 Eulophia herbacea July–Sept Orchidaceae Waghmodhu 3 2 1 Inflorescence is cooked
Lindl. TSLBG: 2497
49 Ficus hispida L.f. May–July Moraceae Umbo/Koth Umbo 1 3 1 Fruit edible and much enjoyed by
TSLBG: 2507 kids, leaves medicinal
50 Flueggea microcarpa July–Nov Euphorbiaceae Safed chini 2 3 1 The white, ripe fruits are edible
Bl. TSLBG: 2489
51 Garuga pinnata Roxb. Jan–May Burseraceae Kakaro 1 3 1 Pickle is made up of fruits
TSLBG: 2494
52 Grewia hirsuta Vahl. Aug– Tiliaceae Tamna 1 3 2 Ripe fruit is edible raw and has
TSLBG: 2495 October medicinal properties for stomach
disorders
53 Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl. Aug– Tiliaceae Dhaman 1 6 2 Ripe fruit is edible raw. Stem is
TSLBG: 2529 October used for toothache as dental floss
54 Heracleum grandis All year Umbelliferae Bokhudo 2 6 3 Stir-fried vegetable of the leaves
(Dalz. & Gibs.) Mukh. either boiled or stir-fried with oil
TSLBG: 2532 and spices
55 Holarhena June–Aug Apocynaceae Kunvad 2 1 4 The tender leaves are made into a
antidysenterica (Heyne leafy vegetable
ex Roth) Wall. ex DC.
TSLBG: 2451
56 Holoptelea integrifolia Jan–May Ulmaceae Kunjo, Punjo 1 3 1 The leaves are boiled and drained
(Roxb.) Planch TSLBG: and eaten with added spices
2441
57 Holostemma June–Aug Asclepiadaceae Nanshiri/meethishir 4 6 2 Tender leaves are used as
annularium (Roxb.) K vegetables, and flowers are bit sweet
Schum. TSLBG: 2534 and edible as well. Medicinally, the
leaves and roots are used for
menstrual disorders and period pain
58 Ipomoea marginata June–Oct Convolvulaceae Panjvu 5 1 7 The leaves are used as leafy
(Desr.) Verdc. TSLBG: vegetable and is edible either
2432 stir-fried or boiled with spices


used
59 Ipomoea aquatica All year Convolvulaceae Nal 3 1 3 Stir-fried vegetable or boiled leaves
Forsk. TSLBG: 2436 with added spices
60 Ipomoea carneassp. July–Nov Convolvulaceae Nihuto 2 1 1 The tender leaves after rain are
Fistulosa (Mortex ex plucked and stir-fried into a
Choisy) Austin TSLBG: vegetable with oil and spices
2433
61 Kirganelia reticulata July–Aug Euphorbiaceae Kinhariyu/Kalichini 2 1 1 Tender shoots and leaves are
(Poir.) Bail. TSLBG: stir-fried to make leafy vegetable
2442 with oil and spices
62 Leea asiatica (L.) Aug–Nov Leeaceae Nanidhini 2 2 2 The inflorescence is cut and cooked
Ridsdale TSLBG: 2437 as a vegetable with oil and spices
63 Leea edgeworthii Sant. July–Sept Leeaceae Nanudhinu 2 5 2 The inflorescence is cut and cooked
TSLBG: 2544 as a vegetable with oil and spices
64 Leea macrophylla July–Aug Leeaceae Motu Dhinu 3 2 1 Cultural importance of leaves for
Roxb. ex Hornem usage in ritual of offering first grain
TSLBG: 2485 of harvest and praying. Fruits
edible. Inflorescence is cooked as
vegetable stir-fried in oil with spices
65 Limonia acidissima L. Nov–March Rutaceae Kotha 1 3 1 The fruit pulp is edible after adding
TSLBG: 2520 some spices. It is usually made into a
chutney (thick sauce) with salt and
chili occasionally also adding sugar
66 Madhuca indica Gmel. March–July Sapotaceae Mahuda 1 6 2 Flower is fleshy and is sun-dried and
TSLBG: 2473 eaten, local liquor made from fleshy
flower. Seed oil is medicinal and
used for massage and cooking. Fruit
pulp can be edible too
67 Manilkara hexandra April–May Sapotaceae Rayan 1 3 1 Ripe fruits are sweet and edible
Dub. TSLBG: 2443
68 Marsilea minuta L. In water Marsileaceae Chabarchilu/Chilo 3 1 3 Tender leaves are stir-fried with
TSLBG: 2446 bodies fresh pigeon pea beans with spices
throughout as a leafy vegetable
the year
69 Momordica dioica July–Sept Cucurbitaceae Kantola/Kotno/ 5 3 4 Fruit is cooked as a vegetable with
Roxb. TSLBG: 2449 Kankoda spices stir-fried in oil
70 Morinda tomentosa Sept Rubiaceae Aal 1 3 2 Ripe fruits are edible
Heyne ex Roth syn M.
Tinctoria Roxb. TSLBG:
2472
71 Moringa concanensis Sept–Feb Moringaceae Hengvo 1 6 2 The leaves and flowers are thoroughly
Nimmo. TSLBG: 2455 washed and consumed as a leafy
vegetable stir-fried in oil with spices
72 Moringa oleifera Lamk. Oct–Mar Moringaceae Saragvo 1 6 1 Fruit pods are used as a vegetable
TSLBG: 2499 in daal and boiled vegetable with
spices. The leaves and flowers are
also used as a leafy vegetable
either boiled or stir-fried in oil
73 Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Jan–June Arecaceae Khajuri 1 3 4 The fruit is edible
Roxb. TSLBG: 2528
74 Phyllanthus emblica L. Oct–Feb Euphorbiaceae Ambli/amla 1 3 2 Fruits are edible raw or pickled,
TSLBG: 2487 pickled vegetable also made. Dried
fruit powder used in medicines
75 Pleurotus sp. TSLBG: July–Aug Pleurotaceae Vansitro/Vans 6 2 The mushrooms are washed and
2505 naphool cleaned and stir-fried with onions
and spices
76 Pueraria tuberosa All year Fabaceae Bohon 4 1 3 Stir-fried or boiled with spices
(Roxb.) DC. TSLBG:
2474


used
77 Randia spinosa Jan–May Rubiaceae Galu 2 3 1 The fruits are edible in small amounts
(Thumb.) BL. TSLBG:
2468
78 Schleichera oleosa Feb–July Sapindaceae Kusum 1 3 1 The ripe fruits are edible
Lour. TSLBG: 2479
79 Solanum nigrum L. June–Nov Solanaceae Nagadyu 2 6 4 The leaves are edible as leafy
TSLBG: 2458 vegetables and eaten boiled with
chili and salt. The fruits are edible
when ripe
80 Spondias acuminata May–June Anacardiaceae Khatakumba/ 1 3 2 Fruits are edible raw. Bark is
Roxb. TSLBG: 2517 Khatambni softened and applied on rashes
81 Syzygium cumini (L.) May–Sept Myrtaceae Jambu 1 3 1 The ripe fruits are edible
Skeels TSLBG: 2492
82 Tamarindus indica L. Feb–July Caesalpiniaceae Katra (Khatiambli) 1 6 1 The leaves and flowers are made
TSLBG: 2512 into a leafy stir-fried vegetable with
spices. Chutney (sauce) of
unripe fruits made by crushing it
with spices and garlic. Ripe fruits are
used for culinary purpose as well.
Bark and seeds are used medicinally
83 Telosma pallida June–Nov Asclepiadaceae Varshadodi 4 1 1 The tender leaves are eaten as leafy
(Roxb.) Craib. TSLBG: vegetable either boiled or stir-fried
2523 with spices
84 Terminalia bellirica Jan–May Combretaceae Behado 1 3 1 The red fruits are edible
(Gaertn.) Roxb. TSLBG:
2461
85 Tinospora glabra Jan–May Menispermiaceae Kamboli 5 5 1 The leaves are tender; stem is cut
(Burm.f.) Merrill TSLBG: and stir-fried in oil and mixed with
2480 other leafy vegetables
86 Wrightia tinctoria March–June Apocynaceae Safed Kuvad/Dudh 1 6 1 Flowers are edible and stir-fried as
(Roxb.) R. Br. TSLBG: Kuvad a vegetable with oil and spices
2500
87 Wrightia tomentosa March–July Apocynaceae Danti-Kuvad 1 6 1 Flowers are edible and stir-fried as
Roem. & Schult. a vegetable with oil and spices
TSLBG: 2514
88 Ziziphus mauritiana Jan–March Rhamnaceae Bor 1 3 1 The ripe fruits are edible
Lam. TSLBG: 2511
89 Ziziphus oenopila (L.) Jan–April Rhamnaceae Emardi 1 3 1 The ripe fruits are edible
Mill. TSLBG: 2526
90 Ziziphus xylopyra Jan–March Rhamnaceae Ghat bor 1 3 1 The ripe fruits are edible
(Retz.) Willd. TSLBG:
2439
Key to the numerical categorization: plant type: 1—tree, 2—shrub, 3—herb, 4—twiner, 5—climber; plant part used: 1—leaves, 2—flowers,
3—seed/fruits, 4—tuber/underground part, 5—young shoot, 6—multiple parts used; habitat/location: 1—field/village, 2—forest, 3—swamp,
4—village + forest, 5—swamp + forest, 6—village + swamp, 7—all
the expert interviews was utilized to support interpret- collected for their leaves, while all Dioscoreaceae species
ation of the quantitative findings. for their aerial tubers. The family Asclepiadaceae had a
more diverse pattern of plant utilization, with leaves, tu-
Results bers, and fruits all used for cooking. Some of these spe-
Through the key informant interviews, 90 species of wild cies were used for medicinal purposes as well.
edibles were identified (Table 1). These species belonged The average number of wild edible species men-
to 46 different botanical families; the families with the tioned by a key informant was 48.4 (median 51). The
most number of species represented were Amarantha- average number of wild edible species collected for
ceae (6 spp.), followed by Asclepiadaceae (5 spp.) and fruits mentioned was 13.6 (median 13), for leaves was
Dioscoreaceae (5 spp.). All Amaranthaceae species were 14.5 (median 14), flowers 3.4 (median 3), tubers 5.1

Table 2 Wild edibles with reported medicinal use (as reported by previous ethnobotanical study)
Sr. No. Botanical names Season Family/sub family Vasavi name Plant type
1. Achyranthes aspera L. June–Dec Amaranthaceae Arpchinjudo Shrub
2. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. April–June Rutaceae Bila (Bili) Tree
3. Alangium salvifolium (L. f.) Wang. Oct–Jan Alangiaceae Aakna Tree
4. Amaranthus hybridus L. June–Nov Amaranthaceae Red Herb
5. Amaranthus spinosus L. June–Nov Amaranthaceae Kanto Herb
6. Amaranthus viridis L. June–Nov Amaranthaceae Tandaljo (desi) MATNU Herb
7. Annona squamosa L. Sept–Nov Annonaceae Aanusari Tree
8. Asparagus racemosus Willd. All year Liliaceae Shatavari Shrub
9. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. March–June Meliaceae Limdo Tree
10. Bacopa monnieri (L.) Wettest. Sept–Jan Scrophulariaceae Nir brahmi/Bam Herb
11. Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. Once after 25 years Poaceae Vans Tree
12. Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Feb–May Caesalpiniae Aachitro, Hinglo Tree
13. Bombax ceiba L. Feb–March Bombacaceae Hambo, Samro Tree
14. Borassus flabellifer Linn. Feb–May Palmaceae Tad Tree
15. Borreria articularis (L.f.) F.N.Williams All year round Rubiaceae Ganthi Herb
16. Bridelia squamosa (Lamk.) Jan–Feb Euphorbiaceae Akano (tree) Tree
Gehrmann. Syn. Bridelia retusa Spreng.
17. Buchanania cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida Feb–May Anacardiaceae Charoli Tree
18. Cassia tora L. June–Aug Fabaceae Chinjudo Shrub
19. Celosia argentea L. June–Oct Amaranthaceae Lemdi Shrub
20. Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. July–Aug Asclepiadaceae Sap okoni Herb
21. Chenopodium album L. June–Nov Chenopodiaceae Chil Bhaji Herb
22. Chlorophytum borivalianum Sant. & Fernand June–Aug Liliaceae Kuvlu Herb
23. Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker June–Aug Liliaceae Dholi musli/Kuvli Herb
24. Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Diels. All year round Menispermiaceae Vasano/Vasanvel Climber
25. Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Dec–Feb (flower) Ebenaceae Gunda (green and chikna)
March–June (fruit)
26. Dalbergia volubilis Roxb. Cor. Pl. June–Nov Fabaceae Kinhariyu/Pingush Climber (woody)
27. Dioscorea belophylla Voigt. Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Huvi Twiner
28. Dioscorea bulbifera L. June–July Dioscoreaceae Kadvo kand Twiner
29. Dioscorea hispida Dennstd. Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Manovaj Twiner
30. Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Aug–Sept Dioscoreaceae Huvdo Twiner
31. Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. May–June Ebenaceae Timru Tree
32. Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. Sept–Feb. Asclepiadaceae Kadvi shir Climber
33. Enicostema littorale Bl. June–Aug Gentianaceae Mamejavo/Kadvi Nai Herb
34. Ficus hispida L.f. May–July Moraceae Umbo/Koth Umbo Tree
35. Garuga pinnata Roxb. Jan–May Burseraceae Kakaro Tree
36. Heracleum grandis (Dalz. & Gibs.) Mukh. All year Umbellifera Bokhudo Undershrub
37. Holarhena antidysenterica (Heyne ex Roth) Wall.ex DC. June–Aug Apocynaceae Kunvad Shrub
38. Holoptelea integrifolia (Roxb.) Planch. Jan–May Ulmaceae Kunjo, Punjo Tree
39. Holostemma annularium (Roxb.) K Schum. June-Aug Asclepiadaceae Nanshiri/meethi shir Twiner
40. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. All year Convolvulaceae Nal Aquatic herb
41. Ipomoea carnea ssp.fistulosa (Mortex ex Choisy) Austin July–Nov Convolvulaceae Nihuto Shrub
42. Kirganelia reticulata (Poir.) Bail. July–Aug Euphorbiaceae Kinhariyu/Kalichini Shrub
43. Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem July–Aug Leeaceae Motu Dhinu Herb

Table 2 Wild edibles with reported medicinal use (as reported by previous ethnobotanical study) (Continued)
Sr. No. Botanical names Season Family/sub family Vasavi name Plant type
44. Limonia acidissima L. Nov–March Rutaceae Kotha Tree
45. Madhuca indica Gmel. March–July Sapotaceae Mahuda Tree
46. Manilkara hexandra Dub. April–May Sapotaceae Rayan Tree
47. Momordica dioica Roxb. July–Sept Cucurbitaceae Kantola/Kotno/Kankoda Climber
48. Moringa concanensis Nimmo. Sept–Feb Moringaceae Hengvo Tree
49. Moringa oleifera Lamk. Oct–Mar Moringaceae Saragvo Tree
50. Phoenix sylvestris (L.) Roxb. Jan–June Arecaceae Khajuri Tree
51. Phyllanthus emblica L. Oct–Feb Euphorbiaceae Ambli/amla Tree
52. Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb.) DC. All year Fabaceae Bohon Twiner
53. Schleichera oleosa Lour. Feb–July Sapindaceae Kusum Tree
54. Solanum nigrum Linn. June–Nov Solanaceae Nagadyu Shrub
55. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels May–Sept Myrtaceae Jambu Tree
56. Tamarindus indica L. Feb–July Caesalpiniaceae Katra (Khati ambli) Tree
57. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Jan–May Combretaceae Behado Tree
58. Tinospora glabra (Burm.f.) Jan–May Menispermiaceae Kamboli Creeper
59. Wrightia tinctoria (Roxb.) R. Br. March–June Apocynaceae Safed Kuvad/Dudh Kuvad Tree
60. Zizyphus mauritiana Lam. Jan–March Rhamnaceae Bor Tree
Table 3 Wild edible plants from Table 1 that were also reported in the GSFDC list as NWFP collection. Prices are mentioned in INR/kg
and INR per quintal
Sr. No. Botanical names Family/sub family Vasavi name Plant type Plant parts INR/kg INR/q
1. Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Arpchinjudo Shrub Leaves 10 1000
2. Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr. Rutaceae Bila (Bili) Tree Fruit 12 1200
3. Asparagus racemosus Willd. Liliaceae Shatavari Shrub Tuberous root 200 20,000
4. Azadirachta indica A. Juss. Meliaceae Limdo Tree Flower and fruit
5. Bambusa arundinacea (Retz.) Willd. Poaceae Vans Tree Young shoot 20 2000
6. Boerhavia diffusa L. Nyctaginaceae Dhagarphodiyu/ Herb Leaf and tender stem 60 6000
Patharphodiyu
7. Cassia tora L. Fabaceae Chinjudo Shrub Seeds 20 2000
7. Cassia tora L. Fabaceae Chinjudo Shrub Pods 5 500
8. Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker Liliaceae Dholi musli/Kuvli Herb Tuberous root grade 1 600 60,000
8. Chlorophytum tuberosum (Roxb.) Baker Liliaceae Dholi musli/Kuvli Herb Tuberous root grade 2 350 35,000
9. Enicostema littorale Bl. Gentianaceae Mamejavo/Kadvi Nai Herb Leaf 60 6000
10. Holarhena antidysenterica Apocynaceae Kunvad Shrub Leaves 40 4000
(Heyne ex Roth) Wall.ex DC.
11. Limonia acidissima L. Rutaceae Kotha Tree Seed 30 3000
11. Limonia acidissima L. Rutaceae Kotha Tree Fruit pulp 500 50,000
12. Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae Ambli/amla Tree Seed 600 60,000
12. Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae Ambli/amla Tree Fruit pulp 28 2800
13. Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae Jambu Tree Fruit 10 1000
14. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Behado Tree Bark pulp 38 3800
14. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Behado Tree Whole fruit 4 400
14. Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. Combretaceae Behado Tree Seed 30 3000
15. Tinospora glabra (Burm.f.) Menispermiaceae Kamboli Creeper Stem 20 2000
Abbreviations: NWFP non-wood forest product, INR Indian rupee, kg kilogram, q quintal

(Median 5), and young shoots 2.1 (median 2), and These periods are marked, respectively, with the onset of
average wild edibles with multiple uses mentioned summer and the beginning of the Kharif cropping sea-
was 9.5 (median 9). son. Forests were most utilized in August (9 spp.) and
The Vasavas were found to prefer leafy greens either least utilized in December, the latter of which coincides
stir-fried or boiled and to consume them in combination with dry winter and was generally the least active month
with other distinct-tasting (sour or bitter) leafy greens for collection across all habitats. Swamps were used
and crushed chilies. Tubers, leaves, and shoots were more regularly across the year, with 5–6 species col-
sometimes boiled and then blended with yoghurt or lected at any given time.
buttermilk to weaken the mucilage. The use of oil and A large number of tree species were collected from vil-
spices other than salt and chilies in their recipes was lage habitats between January and June, while more herb
minimal. Fruits were often collected recreationally and species were collected from June to December (Fig. 6).
sometimes pickled and preserved. The number of tree species collected from forest habi-
A comparison of the compiled list against a preceding tats was relatively constant across seasons, whereas col-
list of ethnomedicinal plants from the study area [47] lection of herb and shrub species in forests was more
suggested that 60 out of the 90 wild edibles identified frequent between June and September. The numbers of
are also medicinally used by the Vasavas (Table 2). A fur- herb, shrub, and climber species from swamp habitats
ther comparison of the list against the Gujarat State For- remained constant throughout the year. For species col-
est Development Corporation’s (GSFDC) NWFP lected from both villages and forests, collection of shrub
collection revealed that 15 out of the 90 species also species increased between May and December, while
carry economic values when sold to GSFDC (Table 3). tree species were mainly collected from January to July.
Figure 4 represents the Euler proportional distribution Across all habitats, the collection of herb species in-
[51] for the locations of collection. The largest number of creased during the months of May to September.
species (37) was collected from village habitats only, Seasonal consumption patterns for each plant part are
followed by the groups only collected from forest habitats shown in Fig. 7. Twenty species of leafy vegetables were
(20 spp.), and from both village and forest habitats collected during the monsoon season of June to Septem-
(20 spp.). Six species were collected only from swamp ber, while seeds and fruits were collected, probably to
habitats, while two species were collected from both vil- supplement the diet during the dry and hot summer
lages and swamp habitats. Five species showed no habitat period, between February and May.
preference, collected at all three location groups. Three of Of the species originating from village habitats, leafy
these species were from the genus Amaranthus, and one species dominate from June to November (Fig. 8). In
species each was from genera Commelina and Ipomea. contrast, more fruits and seeds were utilized during the
Different habitats were preferred for collection at dif- dry period of January to May. Utilization of forests as a
ferent times of the year. Village habitats were extensively source of leafy vegetables was negligible; species col-
used during the months of March and July (Fig. 5). lected for multiple parts dominated these habitats,
followed by fruits and seeds mainly collected from
January to May. The number of leafy species harvested
from both village and forest habitats was highest from
June to October. No tubers were exclusively sourced
from forests; they were rather collected from combined
village and forest habitats. Young shoots were collected
from forest habitats from July to October and then from
village habitats from January to May. Across all habitats,
the number of leafy species collected increased between
June and November.
The majority of fruits in the Vasavas’ diet were con-
tributed by tree species (Table 4), while leafy vegetables
were mostly sourced from herb and shrub species. Trees
were mainly utilized as edible fruits or for multiple parts
(refer to the “Categorization of species” section), shrubs
for multiple parts, and herbs for leaves. The main
sources of tubers were twiners, and edible flowers were
mainly sourced from trees, shrubs, and herbs.
Fig. 4 Euler’s proportional distribution representing the number of
As previously mentioned, village group discussions
species found in each habitat category
were open-ended, guided towards conversations about

Fig. 5 Collection patterns by habitat overlaid with monthly precipitation
the consumption patterns of wild edibles past and for decreased consumption of wild edibles. The most
present. When asked whether consumption and utilization common reason, ranked on the total score of 7 respon-
of wild edibles had increased, decreased, or remained un- dents, was decreased availability, followed by a change in
changed since as distant a past as they could remember, all food preferences and the lack of the knowledge needed
respondents unanimously stated that their consumption to identify species (Table 5). The respondents also indi-
had decreased, a response subsequently repeated in the ex- cated that there was an increasing preference for culti-
pert interviews as well. Participants in group discussions vated edibles amongst the younger generation, who have
highlighted several reasons for this change, for example the insufficient time to go out and collect wild edibles, due
inability of children to identify species and participate in to their work and household commitments. The lowest
their collection, and their preference for cultivated vegeta- ranked reason was a reduced requirement for a safety net
bles. Comments were also made that the availability of cer- for times of need, such as famines and financial shortfalls.
tain species had decreased in their respective habitats, and
thus, villagers would need to travel further into the forest
to collect a sufficient amount. Discussion
These answers were then used to design a section of All-year sustenance from wild edibles
the questionnaire for the expert interviews, in which In this research, 90 species of wild edibles from 46 bo-
they were asked to rank pairwise the predefined reasons tanical families were identified as used by the Vasavas in
Fig. 6 Collection patterns by habitat and plant type

Fig. 7 Collection patterns by plant part utilization overlaid with monthly precipitation
Dediapada Taluka. This is a high number of species of wild vegetables) from the Chinese (Han) [57]. Zou
compared to other studies previously undertaken in et al. [58] recorded more, noting the use of 335 taxa of
India: 61 species from Maharashtra located near Gujarat wild vegetables in 10 villages of Hunan, China, whereas
[52] and 22 species from the deciduous forests of Ghorbani et al. [59] recorded the use of 173 wild food
Chhattisgarh in Central India [53]. From the northeastern plants from 485 informants of four ethnic groups of the
state of Manipur, there were reports of 32 wild edibles by Naban valley of Xishuangbanna (a tropical area of south
Pfoze et al. [15] and 68 species by Thongam et al. [54]. As China), the latter being very heterogeneous in terms of
for leafy vegetable plants, 24 species were identified in the elevation, inhabitants, and vegetation. To sum up, the
present study, which is comparable to 21 species reported numbers of WEPs recorded in India, Pakistan, and on
from Uttarakhand by Misra et al. [2]. the Tibetan Plateau are comparable with our results,
To compare our results to other parts of Asia, 45 apart from parts of Thailand and China, where the local
WEP species were recorded from the Lesser Himalayas communities use much longer lists of WEPs. The num-
in Pakistan [23], 87 and 252 from Thailand [50], 90 from bers of wild foods recorded in the studied community
the Mekong Delta region of Vietnam [22], 54 and 81 are also similar to those found in the Mediterranean
from Tibetan communities of the eastern part of the countries, e.g., 82 wild food species as reported by
Tibetan Plateau [55, 56], and 185 (including 126 species Dolina and Luczaj [60].
Fig. 8 Collection patterns by habitat and plant part utilization

Table 4 Number of species by habit and plant part utilization the first half of the year, when only households with irriga-
Tree Shrub Herb Twiner Climber Total tion facilities can cultivate crops (Fig. 6). These tree spe-
Leaves 0 6 13 2 3 24 cies, therefore, are thought to be a vital, and possibly the
Flowers 2 2 2 0 0 6
only, source of micronutrients for a large proportion of
the Vasavas, especially during the hot and dry summer.
Fruits 21 2 0 1 2 26
Swamps were shown to be important habitats for leafy
Tubers 0 1 2 5 0 8 vegetables throughout the year (Fig. 8). While a large
Young shoot 1 1 1 0 2 5 number of species were sourced from these habitats dur-
Multiple parts 12 3 2 1 1 19 ing the monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, their avail-
Total 36 15 20 9 8 ability in villages and forests was negligible during
summer. Hence, the maintenance of swamps and water
bodies is likely to be crucial for the year-round inclusion
The species that have been the first reports from this of wild leafy vegetables in the diet.
area for their edible purpose are Ceropegia fantastica
Sed and Clematis hedysarifolia DC. The role of wild edibles in dietary diversity
The fact that wild vegetables are collected all year Boedecker et al. [16] showed that the consumption of
round (partly due to access to swampy habitats) is quite wild edibles was significantly related to an increased
unique. In most of the papers dealing with wild foods, level of dietary diversity, which, in turn, has been associ-
the times of gathering are usually mentioned as the ated with nutritional quality and therefore is a useful in-
“rainy season” [61] spring and early summer [57] or dicator for food security [63, 64]. It is thus likely that the
spring and autumn [62]. consumption of wild edibles would improve the nutri-
tional status of the tribal population, who have limited
Anthropogenically managed habitats for wild edible access to anthropogenically produced plants. In the
collection present case, the largest number of species belonged to
Anthropogenically managed habitats (e.g., villages, 37 fruits category, followed by leafy vegetables (Table 1).
spp.) were preferred to unmanaged habitats (e.g., forests, This finding suggests that the Vasavas enjoy a diverse
20 spp.) for the collection of wild edibles (Fig. 4). This re- supply of micronutrients, as many of them are abundant
sult is counter-intuitive given the term “wild,” which is in plants that come under these two categories [14].
more generally associated with unmanaged environments. A FAO case study carried out in Gujarat reported that,
A similar observation was made by Cruz-Garcia and Price for the Bhil tribe, wild foods contributed 30% of total en-
[50] and Misra et al. [2], in whose research man-made ergy intake for children and 24% for pregnant women.
agro-ecosystems were found to be an important source of Furthermore, 41% (39 of 95 items) of their foods were
wild edibles. Combined with the number of species col- collected from uncultivated sources, showing a high de-
lected from both forest and village habitats (20), a total of pendence on wild edibles for both energy and micronu-
57 species were collected from anthropogenically man- trients [48]. While a detailed nutritional investigation is
aged habitats; this suggests that conservation efforts for beyond the remit of the present study, the above results
wild edibles should be extended beyond natural forests, as indicated that the Vasavas are highly dependent on wild
human-inhabited areas also constitute important habitats edibles as well, especially for micronutrients from fruits
for the community. Their occurrence is intertwined with and leafy vegetables.
traditional crop cultivation, forming agro-ecosystems pro- Wild leafy vegetables are an important source of carot-
viding both cultivated and wild economic plants [7]. enoids, including vitamin A [65]. Provided the leaves are
While tree species from forests were collected all year consumed with fats, they can provide a year-round sup-
round, their collection from villages was largely limited to ply of vitamin A, as is the case of this tribe, where it is
Table 5 Pairwise ranking for the cause of decreased consumption of wild edibles
Reasons for decreased consumption of edible wilds V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7 Total score Rank
Decreased availability in wild 3 4 3 4 3 4 2 23 1
Change in food preference 1 3 1 3 5 2 4 19 2
Lack of knowledge of identifying edible vegetables 2 2 3 4 2 2 3 18 3
More preference to cultivated vegetables 3 3 3 2 2 1 3 17 4
No time to collect 4 0 3 1 3 3 2 16 5
Less desperate need or famine situation 2 2 2 1 0 3 1 11 6
Abbreviation village: V1 Bondiservan, V2 Vadhwa, V3 Khudardi, V4 Khokhraumar, V5 Zadoli, V6 Khairdipada, V7 Jamni

noted that they consume leafy vegetables that are schooling [74] and lack of access to forests [67] led to a
stir-fried in vegetable oil [66]. decline in traditional ecological knowledge and individ-
ual knowledge of medicinal plants.
Healthcare implications The primary reason behind the preference for culti-
A comparative analysis between the present data and a vated vegetables is thought to be a gradual shift in diet.
previous ethnobotanical investigation focusing on medi- For example, young children attending a school outside
cinal plant usage (Table 2) revealed that 67% of edible spe- their village become acquainted with wheat and culti-
cies could also be used for medicinal purposes. This vated vegetables and at the same time have fewer oppor-
shows a great overlap of the food and healthcare functions tunities to visit forests with those who can share their
of wild plants, as has been reported elsewhere [22, 53]. knowledge of edible (and medicinal) plants. This trend
Although it is difficult to quantify the health impact asso- may potentially be reversed by, amongst other methods,
ciated with the regular consumption of medicinal wild edi- maintaining children’s contacts with wild edibles when
bles, their inclusion in the daily diet at least ensures the they return home for holidays and modifying the educa-
maintenance of traditional medicinal knowledge through tion curriculum to cover more knowledge from within
continued usage. The level of traditional medical know- the region [75, 76].
ledge has been rapidly declining in various parts of the Unlike other studies reporting “stigma” against wild
world [67–69]; in the case of India, where medical plural- edibles amongst tribal people in India [69], such a per-
ism is a long-standing cultural phenomenon [70], wild ception was not observed during the present study. The
plants offer an important alternative to modern allopathic results from the expert interviews indicate that the
healthcare options, which are expensive and less accessible Vasavas do not generally collect wild edibles as an eco-
in many rural areas [70]. nomic safety net, the leading mechanism to produce
A study of the adolescent tribal population from nine “stigma” [69]; instead, the most cited reason for the de-
states in India, including Gujarat, reported that amongst creased consumption of wild edibles was simply de-
tribal people, deficiency in micronutrients, such as creased availability. It is interesting to note that, while
vitamin A, iron, free folic acid, and riboflavin, was more most families in the study region are still engaging in
severe than that in energy and protein [71]. The same collection, most respondents at both the village group
trend was also observed on the study site by a local allo- discussions and the expert interviews expressed the view
pathic doctor, who attested that vitamin B and iron that the overall consumption had significantly decreased.
deficiency (including genetic sickle cell anemia) were ex- A similar finding was also reported from the Nanda Devi
tremely common in the region. Given that leafy vegeta- biosphere reserve in India by Misra et al. [2]. This
bles are widely recognized as a rich source of vitamin A, phenomenon warrants further analysis, possibly through
vitamin B complex, and iron and that cultivated greens quantitative evaluation of biomass availability across
as well as meat and dairy products are limited in the habitats and seasons.
local market, wild leafy vegetables are a crucial source of
these micronutrients [65]. A similar argument also holds Promotion of wild edibles
for wild fruits, which are considered to be a good source Reyes-Garcia et al. reported that association of “cultural
of micronutrients and fibers, as nutritional studies of in- ecosystem services and values” explains the change in
digenous food from Jharkhand, India, indicate [72, 73]. consumption patterns of wild edibles and that there had
Considering the relatively low cost associated with the been a revival of certain wild species that were associated
acquisition of wild edibles compared to foods of equal with “traditional” foods [68]. In other words, gastronomic
nutritional value available on the commercial market, culture could help maintain the consumption of certain
encouraging their continued consumption is likely to be wild edible plants. This is an important point to consider
a reasonable choice. at the designing stage of intervention programs for con-
servation of traditional knowledge or dietary diversity.
Decreased consumption Associating cultural identity with wild edibles will likely
It was found that the primary reasons for decreased con- maintain the familiarity of these plants and, by extension,
sumption of wild edibles were their decreased availabil- promote their usage amongst younger generations. Exam-
ity, changes in food preferences, and a lack of the ples of these efforts include community-based activities,
knowledge needed to identify edible species (Table 2). such as recipe competitions and food tasting at village
The second and third reasons are somewhat interrelated, fairs, or workshops at schools and social gatherings.
as changes in food preferences over a prolonged period
of time may have exacerbated the lack of knowledge of Conclusion
species which are no longer familiar. Similar situations The present study has demonstrated that the Vasava
have been reported in the literature, where formal tribe’s collective knowledge of wild edibles is vast and,

more importantly, significantly contributes to dietary di- Author details

1
versity throughout the year. The finding of the present Department of Global Agriculture Sciences, Graduate School of Agriculture
and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo 1138657, Japan. 2The
study, namely that anthropologically managed habitats Serenity Library & Botanical Garden, Botany outreach, Plot no. 96/12, of
were preferred over natural environments for the collec- Koteshwar village, Motera, Gandhinagar, Gujarat 380005, India. 3Bristol
tion of wild edibles, suggests that conservation efforts Veterinary School, University of Bristol, Langford, Somerset BS40 5DU, UK.
4
Sustainable Agriculture Sciences Department, Rothamsted Research,
should be extended to village landscapes in addition to Okehampton, Devon EX20 2SB, UK. 5Department of Botany, Faculty of
human-uninhabited landscapes. Of a wide range of wild Biotechnology, University of Rzeszów, Zelwerowicza 8B, 35-601 Rzeszów,
edibles, tree species are likely playing an especially import- Poland. 6Department of Biology, St. Xavier’s College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat,
India.
ant role in the acquisition of micronutrients, as they can
provide sustenance throughout the dry period. While Received: 22 January 2018 Accepted: 1 August 2018
there is no doubt that inclusion of these species in future
development planning is important, pathways to ensure
the spontaneous consumption of wild edibles need to be References
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Consumption patterns of wild edibles by

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Fig. 1 Map of Dediapada Taluka with study sites

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Table 1 List of wild edible species used by the Vasavas

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Table 1 List of wild edible species used by the Vasavas (Continued)

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Fig. 5 Collection patterns by habitat overlaid with monthly precipitation

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Fig. 8 Collection patterns by habitat and plant part utilization

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more importantly, significantly contributes to dietary di- Author details

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