MUSIC PRODUCTION

For Producers, Composers, Arrangers, and

Students

Second Edition

Michael Zager

THE SCARECROW PRESS, INC.

Lanham • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
2012
Published by Scarecrow Press, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
http://www.scarecrowpress.com
Estover Road, Plymouth PL6 7PY, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2012 by Michael Zager
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any electronic or mechanical means, including
information storage and retrieval systems, without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote
passages in a review.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Zager, Michael.
Music production : for producers, composers, arrangers, and students / Michael Zager. — 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8108-8201-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-0-8108-8202-7 (ebook)
1. Music trade—Vocational guidance. 2. Sound recordings—Production and direction—Vocational guidance. I. Title.
ML3795.Z14 2012
781.4—dc23 2011027564

™ The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American National Standard for Information
Sciences—Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.
Printed in the United States of America
 This book is dedicated to my wife, Jane.
Thank you for all of your love, encouragement, and support.
Preface

For the first time in the history of the Internet, traffic in paid contact has passed piracy. (Spring Traffic Report from
Sandivine 2011)

The global music industry continues to experience a major reconstruction. Illegal music
downloading, brick and mortar (retail) stores and chains closing, combined with counterfeiting
and legitimate competition for leisure income, has caused the record companies to investigate
and also modify corporate business models. (iTunes has become the largest retail store and
most physical facilities are departments rather than stand-alone brick and mortar stores. Some
boutique, independent retail stores are still in existence.)
Legal digital downloading continues to increase and the sale of physical CDs continues to
decline, in most genres. Unfortunately, the increase in legitimate downloads has not replaced
the loss of revenue incurred by the decrease of physical sales. It is most difficult, if not
impossible, to control the Internet and its impact on the music industry. The negative effects are
primarily a result of illegal peer2peer file sharing and Web sites that sell music and do not pay
royalties to the copyright owners and/or content providers. (These websites are primarily
housed out of the U.S.) Yet, many new opportunities for producers and artists are available.
There are myriad new independent record labels, which sell their content solely on the
Internet, artists—both established and unestablished—who sell their music and merchandise
directly to consumers, and Web marketing and promotions (social networking), which is
relatively inexpensive (e.g., YouTube videos and streaming services).
360 record contracts have become the norm rather than the exception. 360 deals allow
record labels to become partners with artists by sharing income derived from performances,
music publishing, merchandising, and additional income generating ventures. To entice
superstar artists to sign 360 agreements, companies offer them very large advances (e.g.,
Madonna and Jay-Z); new artists will be fortunate if they ever receive a generous income
stream from the sale of recordings. In return for signing these agreements, artists receive an
increased share of record royalties. Record sales have become a marketing tool rather than a
primary source of income for most artists. It is problematical for labels to generate a profit
strictly from the sale of albums. Artists rely primarily on the income derived from live
performances to produce the bulk of their revenue stream. Labels want to share in this income
because, from their viewpoint, the label’s marketing, advertising, and promotional efforts
provide the artists with exposure, which translates into concert and merchandise revenue and
income from other sources.
Artists, managers, and agents must work jointly with labels to achieve success. Many artists
have chosen not to sign with labels or with managers or agents. The Internet has allowed them
to receive exposure with virtually no cost or very little cost. Social networking has become the
norm (e.g., Facebook and similar sites).
The public loves music. The guidance of a skilled music producer will always be essential
to music production. A music producer’s job is analogous to that of a film director. The
director brings a script to “life” on the screen. The music producer’s mission is to bring an
artist’s music to “life” on a recording, in the most creative manner. Quentin Tarantino has a
unique style of directing films, and Phil Spector had a unique style of producing music.
Spector’s imprint is referred to as a “Wall of Sound” and is discussed later in this book. In
most creative areas, this is referred to as, “Having your own voice.” Most successful artists
have their own “voice,” as do creative producers.
Music production is a craft, and to achieve a high-level of expertise requires many years of
experience. The Revised Edition of this book updates information included in the First Edition
and discusses the morphing music industry. Licensing, marketing, and producing music for film,
television, games, Internet programs, Internet advertising, and more are discussed in this
Edition. The expanded role of music supervisors, new production techniques, additional
interviews with eminent industry professions, and new terms included in music industry
contracts are also discussed.
Extensive study of the subjects discussed in this book, in addition to experience and innate
talent, form a “cocktail” of knowledge that is necessary to achieve success as a music
producer. Unfortunately, experience and talent cannot be taught. So why write a book about
music production? Subjects associated with music and music production can be taught and
learned. Dissecting compositions, understanding studio technology, coaching musicians and
vocalists, arranging and orchestration, musicianship, editing, marketing, advertising, and
promotion can be learned. Knowledge of these subjects is essential to learning music
production.
Many music producers specialize in one or two musical areas, which may include record
production, film music production, advertising music production, television music production
or supervision (not only music underscoring for programs but also generic music used on news
programs and station promotions), music for documentaries, corporate video music production,
industrial show music production, and additional multimedia genres.
Synthesizers and samplers, computer music-sequencing programs, and home studios, also
referred to as a project studios, have greatly influenced the craft of music production. All
aspects of music production can be self-contained in today’s extensive electronic music world.
The project studio has become commonplace with new artists, producers, and professionals
alike. Many artists and producers produce basic tracks at home and record overdubs and mix
in a professional studio. Others complete entire projects in home studios. Software programs
and hardware equipment is affordable; therefore, most producers and artists own home studios.
Artists, producers, and/or arrangers may have very little artistic contact with other creatives,
since they tend to live in a creative cocoon. This can be both beneficial and detrimental to
one’s artistic development. Affordable technology has allowed average artists and producers a
chance to be creative without incurring considerable studio costs. What may be detrimental is
the probable lack of creative interaction with other engineers and musicians. Collaboration
encourages a creative flow of ideas. To counter that theory, not knowing “the right way to do
things” can become the “mother of invention.” In my opinion, a delicate balance between the
two working methods is the best solution.
The subjects covered in the book, in conjunction with extensive practice, will help to
develop a nascent producer’s natural ability. Experimentation also contributes greatly to
innovative production techniques.
Acknowledgments

Teaching is the best way to learn!

I would like to thank the following individuals for sharing their knowledge and their
friendship: Ira Abrams, Esq.; Michael Abbott; Dick Asher, Esq; Bob Fernandez; Trevor
Fletcher; Doug Frank; Kevin Gershan; Dr. Stuart Glazer; Darren Higman; Robert Rainier;
Alejandro Sanchez-Samper Aram Schefrin, Esq.; Dr. Edward Turgeon; Dan Warner; and Scott
Wynne.
Thank you to David Tcimpidis (of the Mannes College of Music, a division of New School
University) for his continued support and friendship.
I would also like to thank colleagues in the Department of Music at Florida Atlantic
University, for their support and friendship.
A special thank-you to Henry and Ellie Stern for their generous support of the Commercial
Music Program at Florida Atlantic University.
Thank you to Fookloy Ford, administrator and the coordinator of the Commercial Music
Program at Florida Atlantic University. Cover photograph by Fookloy Ford.
Introduction

Let us describe the education of our men. What then is the education to be? Perhaps we could hardly find a better
than that which the experience of the past has already discovered, which consists, I believe, in gymnastic, for the
body, and music for the mind.
—Plato

The book is divided into three parts: I, Music Production; II, Recording Technology; and III,
The Music Business. When reading part I, there will be references to recording technology.
Refer to part II of the book for explanations.
Although music production is intertwined with recording technology, I did not want to begin
the book by having the students read about technology. Instead I have opted to begin by
covering the creative aspects of music production.
I advocate the creative use of technology. Producers should relate to technology in the same
manner as they relate to the music. Understanding the recording console, music computer
technology, and audio engineering requires the same study and dedication as is required to
learn how to play an instrument or to compose, arrange, and orchestrate music. Students
interested solely in the technological aspect of the music business should study audio
engineering as a separate discipline.
This book is not intended to be a technological guide but rather an overview of the numerous
areas of study that apply to music production. Studying music production, as well as current
audio production technology, will prepare students to enter the exciting world of music
production.
The Meaning of Music

The whole problem can be stated quite simply by asking, “Is there a meaning to music?” My answer would be,
“Yes.” And “Can you state in so many words what the meaning is?” My answer to that would be, “No.”
—Aaron Copland

Music (which stems from the Greek word meaning dance) is generally considered to consist of
pleasant sounds that are either played on instruments and/or sung. Music consists of pitch,
melody, harmony, rhythm, meter, timbre, tempo, form, and dynamics. Music producers must be
familiar with these elements in addition to having the ability to arrange, orchestrate, analyze
songs and instrumentals, coach recording artists, and understand recording technology. Review
the following definitions:
Pitch: The pitch of a note refers to its frequency range. If the general intonation of a piece is
poor, the average person will notice that the music is “out of tune.” Poor intonation, in any
musical style, can be a persistent problem. Many popular musicians and singers are not
properly trained and therefore may have faulty intonation. A producer has to be acutely aware
of this problem and has to correct it either by recording multiple takes of a performance and
editing the best parts together or by electronically fixing the problem.
Antares Auto-tune is a software plug-in (a digital signal processor) that can be used with
most computer music-sequencing programs. When the program processes a vocal or
instrumental performance, the program either manually or automatically corrects poor
intonation (pitch). Most popular recorded vocal performances are processed through this
device. (Other companies manufacture pitch-correction software and hardware.)
Melody: Melody is created by a succession of notes in a musical form. Random notes do not
create melodies. Melody is important in popular music because it is, generally, the prime
musical element that emotionally connects the audience to a song or composition. Popular
songs are usually easy for the listener to sing and remember. Standards are songs that have
survived for many years and are considered a part of the popular musical lexicon. In popular
music, strong melodies are usually notated within a singable range and constructed using
conjunct motion rather than disjunct motion.
Harmony: Harmony generally refers to the simultaneous sounding of different pitches called
chords. Harmony can be perceived as being pleasant (consonant) and/or unpleasant
(dissonant). It is a matter of personal artistic perception. Harmony often provides the
background support for the melodic structure of a composition. Frequently, melody and
harmony are perceived as being inseparable.
Constructing chords is not the only way to create harmony. Contrapuntal musical lines also
outline harmony. Two or more musical lines moving, weaving, and interacting with each other
can achieve the same musical results as listening to pitches played simultaneously (chords).
 Rhythm: Rhythm refers to rhythmic patterns, which are also called “beats” or “the beat”
when producing popular music. Rhythmic repeated patterns are called “grooves” (in the
vernacular of commercial musicians). The term rhythm section refers to musicians who play
keyboards, guitar, drums, percussion, and bass. The rhythm section is responsible for giving
the music a “feel” (mood) and a groove. Skilled rhythm section players have “good time,”
meaning they do not waver from the tempo (assuming the composition is at one tempo).
A drummer might play “behind the beat,” which gives the music more of a laid-back or funky
feeling. Sometimes, drummers anticipate a beat—called “pushing”—and it might appear as
though the drummer (or other musicians) is “rushing” (playing in front of the tempo), but the
tempo remains steady. Pushing can create a feeling of anticipation.
Meter: Meter divides the music into strong and weak beats. The rhythmic patterns aid
musicians in reading the rhythmic values assigned to the notes. Meter is one of the most
important compositional tools available to a composer. The flow of the music is an integral
part of how meter is used by a composer. It helps a musician interpret the rhythmic intention of
the composer; the misuse of meter can cause musical chaos. Understanding meter is challenging
for the novice musician and requires the study of music theory, including exercises in dictation
and sight singing.
An example of meter: 4/4 time means that there are four beats per measure and the quarter
note receives one beat. 6/8 time means there are 6 beats per measure and the eighth note
receives one beat.
Timbre: Timbre means tone color. The timbre of a musical instrument is the actual sound
that is produced. All instruments vary in tone color. Tone color emanates from the harmonics
(overtones) that construct the tone. An oboe does not sound the same as a bassoon, although
both are played by blowing into a double reed. They have different overtones, different
tessitura, different physical shapes, and different timbres. For instance, all B clarinets
generally sound the same although each instrument has individual and unique characteristics,
which slightly alters the timbre. Stradivarius violins—considered by some to be the greatest
violins ever made—may cost millions of dollars, primarily due to the instrument’s timbre. The
tone color is that of incomparable beauty. When instruments of various timbres play in a
section, as in an orchestral setting, the result is a beautiful sonic texture. The mix of colors
used by a painter is analogous to a mixture of orchestral timbres. Timbres also vary with
voices. No two humans are genetically the same; consequently, their timbres differ.
Tempo: Tempo is the speed at which a composition is played. Tempo is measured in beats
per minute (bpm). Thus a quarter note =120 bpm means that 120 quarter notes are played in
one minute. The tempo has a direct effect on the mood of the composition. A composition
played quickly evokes a different emotion than the same piece played slowly. Choice of tempo
is important to a music producer because if a song is performed slightly too fast or too slow,
the musical mood is affected.
In traditional classical music, using general Italian terms indicates tempo markings, which
communicates to the musicians and the conductor the musical intent of the composer. The terms
are merely guidelines and offer the interpreter flexibility rather than exact tempo indications.
Following are some of the most common tempo markings:

Largo indicates a slow tempo. Largo is also used to create a feeling of importance.
(Terms such as largamente (stately) or larghetto (slower than largo) are attempts to be
more precise in communicating the feeling of the piece. Once the interpreter knows the
music, the exact tempo becomes an artistic choice.)
Adagio indicates a slow feeling.
Andante means slow but faster than adagio.
Moderato indicates a moderate tempo. Moderato is often used as an adjective (e.g.,
andante moderato—moderately slow).
Allegro indicates a fast tempo.
Vivace means that the tempo and musical feeling should be lively.
Presto means that the music should be played quickly.

The above terms are merely broad tempo indications, and more precise markings are usually
indicated. In modern popular music, tempos are typically determined by current trends in some
forms of music. For example, in the late 1970s the average tempo of dance (club) music was
120 beats per minute; average tempos became faster with the creation of various styles of
dance music.
When hip-hop (rap) music became popular, the average tempo was 95 bpm, primarily due to
the time it takes for a rapper to recite the lyrics. Most popular composers and arrangers (in
English-speaking territories) use the English language to determine the tempo.
Form: Form brings order to music; Without musical form the notes or musical phrases are
not “threaded together.” For example, sonata form consists of an exposition, development, and
recapitulation. Sonata form is used in symphonies, chamber music, and other musical genres.
When composing film music composers often have to create form. The sequence of pictures
restricts composers from writing in traditional musical forms. For example, a scene might
change on the upbeat of a note located in the middle of a measure. That is an unnatural place to
change the flow of the music. Film composers have various musical solutions to deal with
these problems (e.g., changing the meter in the previous measure).Scenes are not generally
edited to accommodate completed pieces of music (called cues). Some directors edit scenes to
accommodate prerecorded music (cues). For instance, if a composition is exceptionally
rhythmic, the director might edit pictures that “hit” each beat, creating musical and visual
syncopation.
Dynamics: Dynamic markings within a musical composition alter the overall musical mood.
Without dynamics, the composition would have basically one mood and the music would most
likely become monotonous. Following is a list of some of the most common dynamic markings:

Pianissimo—to play very quietly; indicated in the score with a pp.

Piano—soft; indicated in the score with a p.
Mezzo forte—not too loud; indicated in the score with mf.
 Forte—loud; indicated in the score with f.
Fortissimo—very loud; indicated in the score with fff.

These dynamic markings have numerous variations.

Conclusion
Music producers, including those who are not musicians, should become familiar with the
above-mentioned subjects. Melody, harmony, rhythm, meter, timbre, tempo, form, and dynamics
are applied in music production. For example, music producers suggest changes in melodic
and lyrical content, adjust tempos, alter rhythm patterns, and so forth.
Chronology of Recorded Music and Music
Production

Alexander Graham Bell and Elisha Gray worked on developing recorded sound, but it was
Thomas Alva Edison who invented the process. He was trying to create a telephone answering
machine that could also be used for dictation. In 1877, Bell patented a machine that crudely
reproduced the human voice. In the same year, he invented the first phonograph, which he
operated by turning a tin-foil-covered cylinder with a hand screw. He could record audio,
store it, and play it back. That was the beginning of the recorded-music industry.
The following is a timeline of events leading up to the current DVD technology.
1877: Thomas Edison records “Mary Had a Little Lamb,” the first recording of the human
voice. Edison invents a phonograph having a tin-foil cylinder that can play for two to three
minutes. Emile Berliner invents the microphone.
1887: The flat record player, invented by Emile Berliner, is called a gramophone. That
format is expected to be more appealing to the public than the cylinder phonograph. The
gramophone uses zinc discs.
1888: Cylinder recordings are sold for entertainment purposes.
1889: The coin-operated cylinder phonograph precedes the jukebox. The average recorded
time per cylinder is two minutes.
1890: John Philip Sousa’s Marine Band records the first recordings for the Columbia
Records catalogue. The first duplication process is used in North America.
1891: International copyright agreements are initiated, but sound recordings are not included
in the agreements.
1892: Cylinders for the home and coin-operated markets are made available in the United
States.
1894: Billboard, the music industry trade magazine, begins publishing.
1895: Edison begins mass-producing the phonograph, consisting of a horn to amplify the
sound and cylinders to store it. The cylinders, however, are impossible to mass-produce.
The Berliner Gramophone Company begins storing music on shellac, which is easier to
reproduce and lasts longer. Wax, instead of zinc, is used to create the master recording, a
process that greatly improves the quality of recorded sound. In addition, Eldridge Reeves
Johnson, a New Jersey machinist, invents a clockwork motor, which enables people to play
the phonograph without having to manually turn the motor. By the turn of the century,
thousands of recordings are being sold. Three companies are in the forefront of the
industry; The Columbia Graphophone Company and Edison’s National Phonograph
 Company produce cylinders, and the Victor Talking Machine Company, a Berliner and
Johnson–owned company, produces discs. The Victor Talking Machine Company records
the great tenor Enrico Caruso on a 10-inch disc instead of a 7-inch disc. A 10-inch disc
stores more audio and can play for four minutes. Caruso’s legendary 1903 recordings are
released on the Victor Red Seal Label. Other famous opera singers are recorded on 10-inch
discs, which advance the popularity of the disc over the cylinder. A cylinder provides
better audio quality than a disc, but a disc can be played back at a louder volume, which
makes the format more appealing to the audience.

This was analogous to the format competition between Beta and VHS
videotapes, vinyl and CD audio recordings, VHS and video DVDs, and CDs and
audio DVDs. The audience supports a format based on price and features.
DVDs have replaced VHS tapes as the preferred video format. Downloading
digital audio will most likely replace CDs as the preferred audio format. The
newest format (as of this publication) is the DualDisc, a combination CD (audio)
and DVD (video) on one disc.

1896: Columbia manufactures a basic cylinder player called The Eagle, which sells for
$5.00.
1900: Eldridge Johnson produces the first discs with recordings on both sides. The
recordings are children’s music.
1903: Pirated records appear, but sales are small and do not have a significant effect on the
industry.
1904: Double-sided discs become available to the public, which adds more value to the
format.
1906: The Victor Talking Machine Company releases the Victrola. Designed as a piece of
furniture, the Victrola not only establishes the disc as the preferred recording format but
also becomes the state-of-the-art record player for the next two decades. For years, the
word Victrola is used as the generic term for any record player. Victor adapts the 78 rpm
(revolutions per minute) speed as the standard. When purchasing records the consumer asks
for “78s.” Many companies do not adopt the standard until the 1920s.
1909: The term album, which refers to the format used to store pictures, is first used in
connection with the release of Tchaikovsky’s The Nutcracker Suite, recorded on four
double-sided discs.
1910: There are multiple disc sizes: 7-inch, 10-inch, 12-inch, 14-inch, 16-inch, and 21-inch,
which all play at 78 rpm. Some discs can hold up to eight minutes of information. Music
 halls and movie theaters close during World War I, making records a popular form of
entertainment (many patriotic songs are recorded). The first portable record player, the
Decca, is released, which also adds to the popularity of recorded music.
1917: The first jazz recording is made. The song is “Livery Stable Blues,” by The Original
Dixieland Jass Band, from New Orleans (jass is the original spelling of jazz.) Jazz,
America’s original art form, becomes a national craze and furthers the popularity of
recorded music.
1920: In the early 1920s, radio becomes a popular form of free entertainment, negatively
affecting record sales. The Radio Corporation of America (RCA) mass-produces radios.
The public can not only listen to music for free but also hear news and dramatic
programming. The record companies refuse to allow signed artists to perform on the radio
for fear that the public will not purchase music that can be heard without paying. October
20, 1920: KDKA in Pittsburgh—the first commercial radio station to receive call letters—
begins broadcasting. November 2, 1920: KDKA initiates regularly scheduled
programming by broadcasting the results of the presidential election. Record sales increase
when recorded sound quality improves. The introduction of high-fidelity (hi-fi) sound and
the invention of the condenser microphone are contributing factors. Rivalry between record
companies and radio stations stops with the realization that radio airplay helps record
sales.
1926: The Vitaphone Company (owned by Warner Bros. and Western Electric) produces a
product that can record sound on a 16-inch disc. The audio can be played back in
synchronization with film, creating the first “talking pictures.” The disc plays at 33 1/3 rpm
and stores the same number of minutes of sound as the accompanying film. The first talking
picture is The Jazz Singer, starring Al Jolson.
1929: After the stock-market crash, record sales decrease from 100 million units a year to
six million; people purchase only necessities.
1930s: The jukebox is credited with saving the music industry. During the 1930s, jukebox
distribution increases from 25,000 to more than 300,000. That gives tremendous public
exposure to records, thereby increasing sales.
1930: Guitarist Les Paul develops the first recording process that enables additional music
(information) to be added to an existing recorded track; the process is now referred to as
overdubbing. It is the beginning of multitrack recording. Paul accomplishes multitrack
recording with the use of two acetate-disc machines; each time he records to the second
machine, he adds a part.
1931: Famous opera singer Lawrence Tibbett and the great jazz musician Sidney Bechet use
the multitrack recording technique. Tibbett overdubs a baritone part on his recording of
“The Cuban Love Song,” and Bechet plays multiple instruments on his recording of “The
Sheik of Araby.”
1939: Magnetic tape is invented. It completely transforms the manner in which music is
recorded.
 Les Paul’s recordings during the 1940s were recorded in this manner.
(Acetate is a soft substance that begins to scratch and lose quality after being
played several times.) He presented his concept to record companies, but the
labels did not see the practical application for what they considered to be a
novelty. That process, however, was the beginning of record production.
Paul invented delays, phasing, echo, and recording at various speeds—effects
that are still used (effects processing will be explained later in the book). He
also developed the solid-body electric guitar. Guitars were amplified in the
1930s because they could not be heard when other instruments were playing.
Open-body guitars were noisy, and Les Paul eliminated the problem with his
new invention. The Les Paul guitar is considered one of the finest electric guitars
and is still used by some of the best guitar players.
Bing Crosby, the famous singer, bought Les Paul a gift: the first Ampex 300
series tape recorder. After analyzing how the machine operated, Paul felt he
could adapt sound-on-sound recording by adding an additional recording head to
the three heads on the machine. Multiple “bouncing” of tracks causes a sound-
quality loss each time a track is recorded to another track, and after
experimenting and altering the recording process, he was able to achieve high-
quality sound with minimal quality loss.

1940: When the Japanese invade Southeast Asia in 1940, there is a depletion of shellac, the
material used to manufacture records; the lac beetle of southern Asia is the source of
shellac. That event curtails the ability to manufacture records. Shellac is replaced by vinyl
—a derivative of petroleum—which has superior sound quality and is more durable.
1948: Shellac records can hold only up to ten minutes of information while vinyl records
can store thirty minutes of information per side. The vinyl disc is called the LP, or long-
playing record.
1949: RCA releases the first 7-inch recordings called singles. They hold two songs, one
song per side, and the record has a doughnutlike hole in the middle. The format of singles,
also called “45s” because they play at 45 rpm, is used in jukeboxes.
1950: Les Paul and his wife Mary Ford record “How High the Moon,” the first hit using the
multitrack recording process. The record remains at number one on the charts for nine
weeks. Record production is forever changed. Prior to recording “How High the Moon,”
Les Paul invents a way to achieve tape delay and uses the technique on “How High the
Moon.” Paul’s other signal-processor inventions are still used in both analog and digital
formats.
1954: Bill Haley and His Comets record “Rock around the Clock,” the first rock ’n’ roll hit
(1955) to be documented on the Billboard magazine chart. (Billboard is still the most
 significant and respected music industry publication.) This recording begins a new genre of
popular music.
1958: Stereo recordings are released to the public.
1960s: James T. Russell invents the digital compact disc in the late 1960s. He wants to
improve the quality of reproduced music. Because vinyl scratches, it causes an unpleasant
array of pops and repeating sections when the disc is damaged. His mission is to invent a
storage system that can read back the recorded information without any physical contact.
Russell is familiar with digital data recording and knows that it is based on a binary system
comprising ones and zeros, If he can mimic the system with dark and light, he can store
huge amounts of data, not just music. The technology is accomplished by recording the dark
and light bits of information onto a photosensitive platter; the data are read by a laser light
and then converted into an electrical signal by a computer. Russell spends years developing
the system. He patents the process in 1970, while working as a senior scientist for the
Battelle Memorial Institute in Richland, Washington. Russell continues to work on the
process by developing the CD-ROM, which can be used for storing and/or reading back
almost any kind of computer data.

Some consider the first rock ’n’ roll record to be “Good Rockin’ Tonight,”
recorded in 1947 by Roy Brown on the DeLuxe label. The recording was not a major
hit and therefore did not have much influence on the popularity of the rock ’n’ roll
genre.
1982: Philips and Sony corporations bring the compact disc (digital audio) to the
marketplace. The compact disc holds approximately seventy minutes of audio, is recorded
at a sampling rate of 44.1, and is 16-bit. Fall: The compact disc is introduced in Europe
and Japan.
1983: In the spring of 1983, the compact disc debuts in the United States. January: Musical
Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) is introduced to the public. Two synthesizers are
locked together by using a 5-pin DIN cable. One keyboard is played while the other is
triggered to play the same notes simultaneously. The invention revolutionizes the popular-
music business. Today, all keyboards (and rack-mounted versions, which have the same
electronics minus a keyboard) and effects processors can be controlled via MIDI. MIDI
information is routed to devices that play back either analog or digitally sampled sounds.
1987: CDs (compact discs) are used to store and play back videos. Digital audiotape (DAT)
players, a digital-tape-based system, are brought to the public. The Fraunhofer Institute for
Integrated Circuits in Germany begins to develop the MP3 format. MP3 means Moving
Picture Experts Group-1 Audio Layer 3.
1988: Recordable Compact Discs (CD-Rs) are launched. CD-Rs enable digital information
to be stored on a compact disc. CDs replace vinyl discs as the preferred consumer format.
1990: Digital radio is introduced in Canada. Digital transmission provides improved sound
quality (e.g., Internet and satellite radio).
1991: Nielsen SoundScan becomes the most accurate system of tracking legitimate CD (as
 well as DVD and similar formats) sales. Each purchase is scanned, and the sales
information is stored in a database. The recording charts (e.g., Billboard) become more
accurate as a result of calculating accurate information.
1994: Six major companies—Philips, Sony, Thorn EMI, Time Warner, Bertelsmann (BMG),
and Universal—control the music industry, which grosses more than $30 billion annually.
Each parent company owns and/or distributes subsidiary labels, which are called imprints.
1996: DVD players were sold in Japan. The Fraunhofer Institute for Integrated Circuits in
Germany is granted a U.S. patent for MP3.
1997: DVD players are sold in the United States. Michael Robertson forms MP3.com.

MIDI is an independent platform that can control either analog or digital

devices.

1998: DVD-RAM and DVD-R (recordable DVD) become available to the public. The first
24-bit, 48 track digital recording is produced in Nashville, Tennessee. The DVD becomes
the medium of choice for video, storage, and—in the near future—playing back music.
Streaming audio and satellite audio are introduced.
2000: IMAX theaters introduce the 6-channel digital sound system. The first film to use the
system is Fantasia/2000.
2004: In August, DualDisc, a combination CD and DVD on one disc is offered to the public.
The record companies believe that this format will help revitalize traditional terrestrial
retail sales. The global music industry continues to fight illegal peer-to-peer (P2P) file
sharing and physical CD piracy. The RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America)
continues to prosecute consumers who illegally download and share music.
2011: The digital distribution of music continues to grow (e.g., Internet [downloading and
streaming], Satellite and Cable radio). Cloud Storage, which offers the ability to access
and store music (and other files) without having to save it on computers or mobile devices,
could possibly become the preferred choice to access music. Since Cloud Storage can
handle massive amounts of data, if there is a demand for high quality files, such as AIFF or
Wave files, compared to MP3s or AAC files, it is possible. As the digital market increases,
consumers will have the opportunity to hear the music the way it is intended to be heard.

Conclusion
The laws are beginning to help protect the music and film industries from users who share
music files and film titles without paying for the rights to do so.
This timeline is a brief summary of most of the seminal events that have affected the record
industry to date. Many additional events could have been reported.
I
MUSIC PRODUCTION
1

An Overview of Record Production

A record producer is responsible for the sound “shape” of what comes out. In many ways, he’s the designer—not
in the sense of creating the actual work itself, but he stages the show and presents it to the world. It’s his taste that
makes it what it is—good or bad.
—George Martin (producer of The Beatles)

Record Production
The skills of record producers vary. Some producers, such as Prince, are able to arrange
music, play multiple instruments, sing, and engineer. They are referred to as “quadruple
threats.” Others might not possess any of these attributes, but they have “good ears”—an
uncanny ability to choose artists (and projects) who will achieve commercial success. Even
with limited musical training they can appropriately communicate with performers and
engineers to achieve their creative goals. Speaking in artistic rather than musical terms is a
common technique: “The bass line is too dark” or “The keyboard part sounds too happy” can
be descriptive enough for artists who need to communicate with producers.
Record producers are essentially music critics and amateur psychologists. The term music
critic is used to describe people who comment on or review recorded music and concert
performances, but music producers, also critics, have the opportunity to improve musical
works. The effectiveness of their criticism depends on the relationship producers establish
with artists. A producer’s goal should be for the artist (at the least) to experiment with the
producer’s creative suggestions; some ideas will work and others will not. Generally, there
is an amicable compromise.
Most musicians and singers are highly sensitive. The manner in which producers
communicate with artists is the key to achieving positive results. Autocratic producers are
usually ineffectual. Accomplished producers are hired because of their creative vision and
expertise. Therefore, a producer must appear confident and create an atmosphere of mutual
respect and friendship with artists. If a producer does not pose a strong “artistic vision” to an
artist, the artist will eventually lose respect for him or her, and the relationship will ultimately
deteriorate.
Most successful artists and producers have unique creative imprints—the artist’s or
producer’s “voice” (individuality). A singer has a unique voice; a writer also has a unique
voice, as do music recording engineers, arrangers, musicians, and others who are directly
involved in the creative process. Talent is an indescribable phenomenon, which cannot be
taught but can be developed. Producers coordinate the overall recording process, and the
manner in which producers communicate with the various personalities has a direct effect on
the success of the final recording.
The process of creating recorded music is analogous to giving birth. This “product” (an
industry term) is the creator’s child, and just as mothers protect their young, artists and
producers protect their artistic visions.

Béla Bartók would not teach music composition because he felt that composition was not
teachable. John Corigliano, an accomplished contemporary composer, feels that composition is teachable.

Conflicts between artists and record-label executives have existed since time immemorial.
Most label executives view an artist’s work as something that must be commercially viable,
although still reaching the highest level of artistic achievement. If an artist’s sales do not
generate a profit, most labels will eventually terminate his or her contract. In the past, major
labels routinely nurtured and developed artists over long periods of time, but today that is a
rarity due to the financial commitment necessary to achieving commercial success. Labels are
costly to operate, and profits are expected beginning with the first releases of new artists. If the
label truly believes that an artist has a bright future, the label may release 2 albums before
terminating the contract due to insufficient sales.
Internet piracy (and physical piracy) has had an enormous financial effect on the global
music industry, and labels have become ultra-cautious about making financial commitments to
artists. That is why the preface compares the state of the music business on a worldwide basis
to the settling of America’s Wild West. Basically, the Wild West was a lawless society, and so
is the Internet.

Author’s Opinion: The business of music and the piracy of music directly affect music producers.
If consumers refuse to pay for music, there will be no need to hire music producers. Obviously,
this is an exaggeration, but not far from the truth. Successful producers can command large
advance payments (often recouped against royalties). Labels will not risk paying large advances
when it is difficult to forecast the chances of financial recovery. That is a very serious problem
for folks interested in pursuing a career in the music business. It has become a worldwide
epidemic. There have been attempts to help curtail piracy; iTunes (developed by Apple),
Amazon.com, and other legal digital downloading services have lowered prices and afforded
consumers an opportunity to download individual songs or instrumentals and to create
personalized compilation albums. Some record labels (e.g., Universal Music Group) have
lowered CD prices; the price of downloads now varies. For instance, in place of the one-price
model, iTunes now offers a three-tiered pricing system. Consumers who illegally download and
share recordings are being fined and prosecuted in the courts. To date, this model has not been
effective and no new business paradigms have solved this colossal, global epidemic.
 Record production is analogous to film directing. A film director is responsible for the
overall look and mood of a production; a record producer is responsible for the overall sound
and creative quality of a music production.
Most record producers specialize in one style of music (e.g., pop, Rhythm & Blues,
classical, country, jazz, rock, and so on). Before specializing, a student should learn the basic
music techniques that apply to all musical genres. We will dissect the elements of a successful
production and describe the tools used by producers to achieve artistic and commercial
success. Physicians complete a basic medical education before training in a specialty; music
producers should take the same approach by receiving a solid musical education and then
pursue a specialty.
Some successful producers do not have formal music education. Music education expands a
producer’s musical scope, and from a technical standpoint, helps him or her verbalize artistic
suggestions in musical terminology (e.g., “Go to bar 32, change the B to a G, and play bars 32
and 33 staccato”). The ability to communicate in musical rather than abstract terms can be an
advantage, especially when producing film music, jazz, or classical music.

Reported by the RIAA (Recording Industry Association of America)

One credible analysis by the Institute for Policy Innovation concludes that global music piracy causes $12.5
billion of economic losses every year, 71,060 U.S. jobs lost, a loss of $2.7 billion in workers’ earnings, a loss
of $422 million in tax revenues, a loss of $291 million in personal income tax, and $131 million in lost
corporate income and production taxes.

Successful music producers have an innate talent analogous to that of a gifted performer.
Musically educated producers understand music theory and recording technology.
Successful producers must also feel an emotional attachment to the music. They
communicate with artists in artistic terms—as well as in musical terms—and do not
necessarily approach music from an intellectual perspective.
Some producers cannot verbalize creative thoughts musically; they express themselves in
various ways, such as “Make that synthesizer sound less dense” or “Make the flute sound
yellow and sunny.” That is not an unusual means of expression. In fact, trained producer-
musicians who want to express an abstract feeling without sounding overly technical or sterile
also speak in abstract terms. This often makes communication with artists more accessible.
Listening to music or viewing a piece of art evokes similar emotional reactions. A painting
may appear soft and peaceful to a viewer, and a piece of music can project the same feeling to
a listener. Complementary relationships between artists and producers are paramount to
achieving artistic success.
 The goal of a producer should be to enhance an artist’s creative vision through
inspiration, and also to remain true to an artist’s artistic identity. Some producers may make
creative choices that could bring instant success but are not necessarily appropriate choices for
the long-term development of an artist’s career. Developing a career is an arduous task,
involving not only creative choices but also business choices. This book addresses various
techniques that will help achieve these goals.
If an artist is not an arranger, the label will most likely hire a producer who has a
substantial background in arranging. The producer’s job is to mold the backing tracks that
both complement the creative vision of the artist and sound marketable. Quincy Jones’s
productions of Michael Jackson’s albums showcase a “creative marriage” that became a
benchmark for popular-music production (for example, Thriller).
Record producers must have the ability to critique arrangements. After selecting the songs
to be recorded, critiquing arrangements is the primary function of a record producer. A
producer must guide an artist and/or arranger. Arrangements are crucial to an artist’s success.
The instrumentation, the rhythmic feel, the harmonic structure, and the background vocal
arrangements all contribute to the success, or lack of success, of a recording.
It can be problematic for artists to critique their own work. To remain objective is difficult
after repeatedly listening to a music track. That is one reason many artists hire producers.
Artists also choose to coproduce with producers.

Backing tracks are the instrumental tracks (and background vocal tracks) accompanying a song or
a melody of an instrumental track.

Most artists enjoy collaborating, if they are able to find synergy with a collaborator. The
chemistry that develops between a producer and an artist can be compared to the partnership
that evolves between a husband and a wife. After a period of time they begin to trust and
respect each other’s opinions. If both parties are not respectful to one another, the relationship
is most likely doomed. Artistic relationships are sensitive, since dealing with artistic matters
is generally subjective.
Some production and musical elements are not subjective. For example, if a percussion part
is out of time (not playing in the “groove”) with the rest of the track or distortion is heard on
the bass track, the problems must be repaired. The average music production is collaboration
between an artist, a producer, an engineer, and an A&R (Artists & Repertoire) representative
from the label. Making unilateral artistic and technical decisions does not work in a
collaborative endeavor. Picking that right team is essential to achieving successful recordings.
For collaboration to be successful, a producer must share the same artistic vision as an
artist. When an artist signs a recording contract, the label makes both an artistic and a financial
commitment to the artist. The most important creative decision—other than choosing the music
to be recorded—is the selection of a producer. The one common element shared by all
successful music producers is a great love of music. It is this love and passion for the music
that enables producers to communicate with artists.
Trying to explain the craft of music production is difficult because it is intangible. A music
producer applies his or her artistic expression in an unusual manner. A painter takes a brush
and strokes a canvas; a music producer is telling the artist how to take the brush and stroke the
musical canvas. Of course, that is an exaggeration. If it were a literal statement, the producer
could maneuver a robot and achieve the same results. Communication and mutual respect are
necessary for success.
Producers are selected in various ways. Most established artists choose producers in
conjunction with an A&R label representative.

Established artists often coproduce their albums with a producer.

Many artists co-write with producers and co-produce the song(s).
If an established artist’s career is floundering, a label might insist on choosing one
producer or multiple producers. Because labels make substantial financial investments in
artists’ careers, they are rightfully protective of the risks.
Artists often fail to notice that record labels are businesses. Internet piracy, physical
piracy, and the ever-changing music business paradigms have made label executives even
more aware of their financial responsibilities. The financial waste that routinely occurred
in the not-so-distant past has virtually stopped. In many ways that has benefited artists.
When record labels financially advance money to support artists’ careers, it is generally
recoupable against artists’ royalties. Young artists are not normally aware of this until
reviewing their royalty statements. “Why am I not receiving any royalties?” is the age-old
artists’ response. The problem will be discussed in Part III: The Music Business.
The label might offer new artists a choice of producers. It is rare for new artists to self-
produce or to hire whomever they desire.

In all styles of popular music (pop, R&B, hip-hop, etc.), record labels might hire multiple
producers to work on the same album. Many producers are songwriters and arrangers, and they
tend to write and arrange the tracks they record. Some producers submit an almost completed
master demo, which contains a pilot (demonstration) vocal. Demos, or demonstration records,
are minimally produced recordings designed to showcase a song. That enables the label and
the artist to hear—basically—the “sound” of the finished product. The singer replaces the pilot
vocal, the artist and the producer overdub additional parts, and the producer and engineer mix
the final track.
That is not the procedure normally used with rock bands. Rock bands usually write and
arrange the songs they record. Many rock producers are also engineers, which enables them to
achieve sonic excellence in addition to providing a “fresh creative ear.” That is not to suggest
that band producers do not make substantial contributions to the entire production—quite the
contrary. Band producers have as much influence on the creative outcome of a production as
producers working in other musical genres.
Many music engineers have become accomplished producers. Engineers are critical
listeners, analyzing both technical and creative issues. Many have worked with gifted
musician-producers and, through osmosis, learned to think like musicians. Talented engineer-
producers have a natural musical ability coupled with engineering skills.
The sonic quality of a recording contributes greatly to an artist’s success. For example, the
“Wall of Sound” (cavernous sound) created by producer Phil Spector became his trademark.
His creative concept involved an ambient sonic image, created by the engineer. Microphone
leakage (the recording of instruments not directly in front of a specific instrument) and the use
of room ambience created the uncommon sonic concept, which has been emulated by many
engineers and producers.

With hip-hop music, artists generally hear a rhythm track, and if they are inspired, they write and
record the rap, in some instances adding background vocals. The creative process is based upon a visceral
reaction to the “music bed.” In the heyday of Motown Records, the producers and songwriters worked in a
similar manner. They recorded rhythm tracks, and various artists auditioned until they found the ideal fit.
Occasionally the lyrics and the melodies were not written until the producer chose an artist. They wrote a
portion of a song and listened to several artists sing it. That provided the songwriters with the opportunity to
tailor the remainder of the song specifically for the artist.

Some successful producers have unusual backgrounds. Dance-club DJs are an example.
Club DJs have developed a reputation for remixing records. They utilize the original
production elements (e.g., vocals and synthesizer parts) in addition to adding new parts, such
as replacing the original drum and bass parts with new parts and new sounds. (The purpose of
a club mix is to make the original track more danceable.)

In the past 25 years, remixing has become a specialized field and requires a dedication to the music. Club
music is trendy and changes rapidly. A remixed version of a song completed 6 months prior to its release
could be outdated by the time it is available to the public. Producers specializing in dance music must be
aware of the current popular rhythm patterns, tempos, drum, and synthesizer sounds that are in vogue.
Remixers’ productions must remain contemporary.
Sometimes remixers begin the production process by using only the vocals from the original recording
session and develop a completely new arrangement (feel and tempo) for the backing track. Remixers who are
not synthesizer programmers or musicians generally hire a programmer and communicate their musical
vision. Playing examples, the ability to express musical thoughts to a programmer, can sometimes be
 sufficient to achieve the desired results.
Most DJs are not musicians. DJs play and mix records (in a club or at a radio station) in a unique and
creative manner. Some trend-setting DJs—Junior Vasquez, for example—attract 15,000 patrons when playing
in a club. Some of them become excellent producers.
Labels are willing to pay large fees for the services of DJs who are tastemakers. Sales of club records (CDs,
downloads, and vinyl) are relatively small compared to the sales of mainstream CDs or downloads, which are
designed to attract a commercial-radio, Satellite, cable, or an Internet audience. Some popular club records
have crossed over and become top 10 pop singles, resulting in greater sales. Many remixed versions of songs
have become the primary versions played on the radio. Club records usually contain four or five different
remixes to accommodate the variety of musical styles played in clubs. When the principal radio mix is
beginning to lose airplay, some labels release a remixed version of the song, which can generate a new
awareness to the record.
Marketing records in dance clubs is appealing to labels for several reasons:

Dance clubs have traditionally been a relatively inexpensive method to market and promote recordings.
Club hits can garner radio play, and radio performances generate sales.
A label might think that a track (song or instrumental) has the potential to become a hit recording but the
feel, or rhythmic groove, of the original production is not conducive to dance clubs. In this scenario a
remixer(s) is generally hired to give the track a new feel that will not only spawn club play but also, the label
hopes, expose the artist to a new audience. Many club records have become successful pop hits, in
addition to being licensed for use in commercials, television programs, and feature films (pop, in this
context, is being used as a generic term, encompassing most forms of popular music).

Conclusion
Various production techniques are explored throughout this book. With experience, producers
eventually develop a personalized approach to music production. It is advisable to study each
technique in depth. To be a successful producer requires a clear artistic vision and the
knowledge of how to achieve that “mental picture.”
2

The Creative Concepts of Production

There is two kinds of music, the good and bad. I play the good kind.
—Louis Armstrong

Producing music is making choices!

Note: Throughout the book, the term popular music is being used as a generic term for all
genres of commercial music.

The Production Process

The production approach to most styles of popular music is basically the same. Music
producers are responsible for:

Production concepts
Arrangement concepts
Song selection
Coaching singers and musicians
Audio engineering
Mixing and mastering
Music videos (not always a producer’s responsibility)
The business of music production

Overview
Producers should listen to and become familiar with popular recordings in the style of the
music they are planning to produce. Listen carefully and analyze production techniques. The
most difficult choice producers of popular music encounter is whether to mimic the music
heard in the current “marketplace” or to venture into new creative territory. Generally, the
answer is somewhere in between.
Producing records that emulate current hits creates certain inherent problems. The
production values (sound) of the recordings could be outdated by the time the new production
is released. The lack of originality makes artists less attractive to labels even if the recordings
sound like hits. “Cookie-cutter” records are sometimes successful and can be profitable, but
artists who are not unique generally have brief careers.
Artists and producers want their recordings to sound distinctive, but originality cannot be
manufactured. Many artists who may not be considered artistically original still have
successful careers.
Barbra Streisand and Celine Dion have recorded immaculately produced records, and their
voices are exceptional and distinct. But are the records original? There are many fine singers
who are surrounded by well-crafted arrangements, but Barbra’s and Celine’s extraordinary
voices, choice of songs, and impeccably produced recordings have made them superstars.
(Also, they are both extraordinary performers and their concerts engender record sales.)
Frank Sinatra, arguably the greatest male pop artist, is unique. The sound of his recordings
also established his distinct identity. Sinatra’s choice of songs and arrangers (Nelson Riddle,
Billy May, and others) created a sound that continued throughout his career. If an audience was
able to listen to a Frank Sinatra arrangement minus his vocal, the listeners could easily identify
it as a Sinatra arrangement or an arrangement emulating his style. Steely Dan and Sting are also
unique artists. They have established musical identities, which should be the goal of any artist.
A distinct artistic identity is also characteristic of successful producers. Most producers
find a creative niche. Singers and musicians usually specialize in one musical genre. The same
is true of music producers. They produce music in one or two styles. That applies not only to
record production but also to other forms of music production such as library music, film
music, and so forth.
The primary motive to produce a project should be a love of the music. If a producer is not
fond of the music, the creative process will be laborious and the results, most likely,
uninspiring.
The ability to “listen” is a prerequisite to producing music. Listening is a skill that
requires development. The art of listening refers to the ability to analyze the component parts
of compositions, arrangements, and productions, from both a creative and musical perspective.
Gain an understanding of why the emotional content and the complexity of a piece evoke
emotional reactions from listeners. (Listening in this context refers to any style of music––not
just forms of commercial music.)
Music producers enhance artists’ musical visions by helping them effectively
communicate their emotions to the listener. Music producers are also usually musicians,
artists, composers, arrangers, and/or engineers. Diverse backgrounds prepare them to
analyze and critique music.
Critiquing one’s own work can be difficult. Therefore many artists hire co-producers. A rock
band might be more comfortable with an engineer-producer; an R&B artist may want to work
with a producer who is also an arranger and a synthesizer programmer. A producer’s
background should complement the artist’s needs.
Attorneys do not learn how to practice law in law school; they learn how to think like
lawyers. Attorneys learn law by practicing law! The same is true for music producers. A music
producer may not possess the ability to arrange or perform music, but a producer who has
studied music production and who understands musical structure can successfully guide artists
through the recording process. Competent producers must be able to analyze compositions,
performances, and technical issues in addition to guiding songwriters, artists, and arrangers
within the confines of an overall creative concept. A combination of musical and technical
skills is required to achieve success.

Author’s Note: Listening to the work of skilled producers is the best tutorial. Although taste
cannot be learned, absorbing the techniques used by successful producers unlocks new
avenues of creative thought.

Producers who want to achieve successful artistic and personal relationships with artists
must become amateur psychologists and understand artists’ motivations and artistic
temperaments. If they do not believe in the artistic integrity of an artist, it will be difficult to
achieve success. Artists and producers must agree on artistic visions and goals. This does not
mean there will be no differences of opinion. Relationships should be based on mutual respect
and willingness to compromise. Creative conflicts often produce positive results.
Listen to the songs, rhythms, and sounds in contemporary hit recordings. Production
techniques continually change, and new trends evolve. Cutting-edge producers are aware of
changing trends and have the ability to quickly analyze and attempt to predict future trends. The
popular-music business is analogous to the fashion-design business. Each year the styles and
trends completely change or morph into something new, yet remain based in tradition. Musical
evolution keeps the public’s interest. Popular-music listeners are fickle, and audiences’ tastes
rapidly change.

In some musical genres, such as hip-hop, R&B, and pop, multiple producers are employed, which
has proven to be a successful formula. In other forms of music, such as rock and jazz, there is usually one
producer.

Not all genres of popular music are trendy. Contemporary jazz (Kenny G), traditional jazz
(Diana Krall), and traditional rock (Aerosmith) remain popular musical styles. Their listeners
do not expect their recordings to follow current trends. Those genres rely less on technical
wizardry and overly produced contemporary popular music. The latest drum sound and newest
reverb or digital delay is not necessarily used when producing classic-sounding albums.
Listeners want to feel as though they are in the room with an artist. They expect a well-
produced recording and artistic integrity.
Pristine engineering and immaculate production remain a constant in all forms of recorded
music.
 How Do Trends Affect the Music Business?
Trends are often the catalysts that encourage entrepreneurs or producers to start independent labels. Trends
initiate in various locations. For example, many new styles begin in dance clubs. The island of Ibiza (off the
coast of Spain) has become a summer haven for college students. A genre of dance music called Chillout
began in Ibiza. It is interesting to analyze how a musical genre(s) spreads from such a small territory.
European club DJs were hired to perform in Ibiza dance clubs. The DJs brought new recordings back to their
countries, and a new style of music was born. Radio eventually began playing the music because sales
resulted from the club play. If the public reacts to radio play and sales continually increase, a domino effect
occurs, with other territories following the trend. Imitators oversaturate the market, the trend evaporates, and
the labels and the public await the next trend.
Dance clubs are places to uncover inventive music. Artists and producers generally experience creative
freedom on small dance labels, and they can afford to take risks. Creative freedom enables new music to
surface and develop.
Trend setting is easier to write about than to achieve. Trends are also difficult to predict.

In the competitive atmosphere of the professional music business, success is usually

linked to a complete commitment to a project. Producers must address the minutest details of
production. The phrase “Dot every i and cross every t” certainly applies to music production.
Attention to details is essential, but the feel of the music is more significant. A production will
most likely not be a commercial or artistic success if each song (instrumental) does not have a
distinct mood (ambience). Music evokes a visceral response from listeners, and it is a
producer’s obligation to help artists achieve that objective. If a production is immaculately
produced but lacks emotion (feel), listeners will not react.

Production Concept
Developing a production concept is the most crucial stage of the production process. A
production concept is the framework of an album. Many composers write a sketch before
completing a composition; most authors write an outline before writing a book; film directors
hire storyboard artists to sketch each scene in a cartoonlike drawing prior to shooting a movie.
Record producers outline a creative and sonic image (concept) before recording an album.
What is the music going to “say” to the listener? The choice of songs (instrumentals) is the
first step in developing a production concept; the second step is for the artist and producer to
agree on a sonic image. The production concept has to incorporate the artist’s physical image,
which will most likely be included on the album cover and in the music videos. The music
must reflect that image. How does the artist plan to project his or her image within the music?
Such concerns have to become one combination of ideas.
An album that sounds romantic and intimate illustrates a production concept. Thus a
producer might choose reverberation settings (such as a small-room reverb) that virtually
transport the audience from a living room into an intimate nightclub setting; using a small
ensemble rather than a large orchestra also helps to achieve intimacy. Psychoacoustics plays a
considerable role in the musical relationship between artists and the listeners. The audience
has to connect with the artist’s vision. (Psychoacoustics is the manner in which a listener
perceives a musical environment.)
Some artists strive to create recordings that simulate their live performances. Capturing a
live performance in the recording studio is the paramount objective of some producers. To
accomplish that, artists perform “live” in the studio. Following the recording of the “basic
track,” they will generally record a series of overdubs to enhance the “live” performance. For
instance, the rhythm guitar might be doubled to add power of the original part. This provides
the engineer/producer with the ability to pan one guitar to the left and the other to the right
thereby creating a stereo image; solos and percussion might be added, and so forth. Artists
overdub additional parts and repair mistakes made during the live recording. The objective is
to capture the same energy achieved during concert performances. Producers might choose not
to overdub numerous additional parts since artists cannot reproduce all of the parts during live
performances. The sound would be inconsistent with the overall ambience of the group.
Many producers record one instrument at a time. A common technique is to program a track
on synthesizers (and samplers) and subsequently replace the synthesized tracks with live
musicians or combine live musicians with the synthesized tracks.
Once an artist and a producer agree on a production concept, it is the producer’s
responsibility to remain focused throughout the recording process. A production concept is
analogous to a corporation’s mission statement. If the concept of the production is not
adhered to, the album will not sound cohesive. It could sound like myriad tracks with a lack of
musical focus like a compilation album consisting of songs or instrumentals from various
genres, such as a heavy metal track followed by an R&B track. This example is an
exaggeration, but close to a listener’s perception of the album.

Most studio effects are able to be reproduced during a concert. The audience is generally
disappointed if artists do not basically reproduce their recordings during their live performances. Frequently
when an audience member is asked, “How was the concert?” the response is, “They sounded just like their
recordings.” That is the ultimate compliment from a fan.

Producers and Artists

If the foundation is not solid, the house will fall! Building an album is analogous to building
any structure. When a newly built home is purchased, the builder offers a basic model, and
upgrades are available. Upgrades depend on the buyer’s taste and budget. The same basic
concept applies to designing an album.
The songs are the foundation of the majority of popular-music albums. Creating a well-
crafted arrangement and/or a pristine production will not enhance a mediocre song. If the songs
are not commercial or artistically interesting, the album will fail. Song selection continually
changes until the final material is agreed on. Artists’ original songs are replaced, rewritten,
and/or edited. The building process emanates from a creative concept. If artists choose to
record “covers” (songs that have been previously released), or if a song has already been a hit,
the new arrangement must differ substantially from the original version. There is no purpose in
releasing “cover band” versions. Although retaining the basic feel of “I Heard It Through the
Grapevine,” Michael McDonald’s recording is slower and differs enough from the original, by
Marvin Gaye, to make it an outstanding cover of a classic recording. McDonald’s first Motown
album was extremely successful.
Producers and/or A&R executives search for unique artists. Originality is the main
ingredient in the recipe for superstardom. In this context stardom is not defined in the
traditional sense of mere fame but refers to the distinctive characteristics of great musical
personalities. Mick Jagger, Barbra Streisand, Aretha Franklin, Luciano Pavarotti, and Leonard
Bernstein are formidable examples.
Producers should appreciate artists from both a musical and personal perspective.
Understanding one’s artistic personality helps a producer explore an artist’s musical psyche.
Most substantial artists have a mission, which is to bring a musical message to the public.
Music is the defining factor of an artist’s psychological structure. If an artist does not “live the
music,” it would be unwise for a producer to devote the time and energy required to create a
successful production.
Design a production concept after gaining a thorough understanding of the artist. Most
important is that an album has a consistency of sound. Each track should sound as if it is part of
a collection. Creating an overall mood for a project provides a unified quality. Each
song/instrumental should be connected to the others either by a general lyrical concept, sound
design, instrumental combination, or alternative method that sews the project together. Artists
who achieve longevity have an identity and a producer’s job is to enhance their musical
images. Producers guide artists’ recording careers.

Mick Jagger, of the Rolling Stones, is a songwriter and a dynamic performer. Streisand, Franklin,
and Pavarotti are vocal icons in their respective musical arenas and have all become benchmarks for other
performers. Leonard Bernstein was a master conductor, composer, and educator.

The artistic motivation of an artist is of primary concern to a producer. Commitment and a

unique artistic vision are the driving forces behind most successful artists. They have a musical
vision and also the ambition to pursue a career. Creating the best music is always their primary
motivation; financial rewards follow.

A global hit reaches millions of listeners in a very short period of time. Downloading, terrestrial radio, Internet
radio (including streaming), cable, HD, and Satellite radio, videos, mobile music downloads, and broadcast
and cable television stations provide instant access to music. Public awareness can be achieved quickly with
intensive airplay and touring.
In the 1950s, when folk music was at its peak in popularity, folk artists communicated through music. Many
rock ’n’ roll bands and hip–hop artists are also passionate about delivering messages to the listeners (sans
preaching). Dedication to the music helps artists achieve success. Mature audiences generally react to artists’
creative achievements and they remain loyal fans. Billy Joel, Elton John, Steely Dan, Paul McCartney, and
James Taylor are superstars partially because of fan loyalty.

The great jazz trumpeter Miles Davis continually explored new ways to transport his musical
message to the public. He was never creatively stagnant. Sinatra had an image, which emanated from his
music. Most great artists are the music they perform. Music cannot be separated from an artist’s psyche.
Many artists have “something to say” and their music provides a forum for expression.

Production techniques and recording technology keep evolving, but the basic premise of
recording––capturing a performance––will never change. Capturing a performance does
not necessarily refer to emulating a live performance (vocal or instrumental) in the studio. It
means to capture an artist’s and producer’s creative objectives. For instance, a synthesizer
programmer may spend months creating a track; the process involves myriad musical parts that
eventually collide to form one musical composition. The final composition is not merely based
on the selected sounds (synthesized and sampled) and the compositional form but also includes
the creative use of technology. Composers might use reverberation, delays, equalization,
compression, and so forth, as essential components of a composition. A flute note might have
an eighth-note delay written into the score, or a bass might trigger a 50-millisecond tap echo.
Signal processing can also become part of the ambience created during a live performance; it
helps generate a sonic image.
The evolution of music production is directly related to music technology. As technology
became more sophisticated, so did the creative use of technology. Just the simple ambience that
can be created with the proper use of reverberation can transform a recorded piece of music
into an emotional experience. Since music is, arguably, the most sensual art form, having the
ability to manipulate recorded music into virtually any imaginable sonic atmosphere is
possible; purchasing the software to do so is financially affordable for most musicians.
One of the greatest gifts both artists and music producers possess is the ability to create
without financial restrictions. The music that can be created and recorded in a bedroom could
previously only be accomplished in a technically sophisticated and costly recording studio.
When the creative urge strikes an artist, the process of documenting the music must happen
immediately. A songwriter can record with a small digital recorder; a symphonic composer
can notate on score paper or on a computer notation program such as Finale or Sibelius. Now,
any artist can immediately document his or her work in a computer-sequencing program. When
the creative spirit appears, a programmer can use a laptop computer and not only experiment
with the sonic quality of a production but actually hear what it will sound like by listening to
instrumental samples of real instruments or by creating synthesized sounds. The incredible
development of real orchestral samples has afforded composers and orchestrators an
opportunity to hear their compositions prior to hiring musicians, if that is the ultimate goal.
They simply play the notes on a keyboard (or another instrument that can trigger MIDI), which
triggers the sound of the real sampled instrument. (The notes can also be typed into the
program.) Synthesizers and samplers are also manufactured as virtual instruments (analogous
to a physical instrument), which are stored on a computer’s hard drive. With a computer-
sequencing program, an electronic keyboard, and virtual synthesizers and samplers, almost any
recording can be accomplished on demand.
Contemporary popular-music productions customarily follow trends. Listen to the musical
elements used in hit recordings, and analyze the marketing approaches used to market
successful recordings. In the music business, music and marketing are inseparable. If an artist
produces a musically viable album and the public is not aware that it has been released, there
will be relatively few sales. Success in the music industry is based upon 50% artistic
achievement and 50% business acumen.
Study the overall production concepts of successful albums. Listen carefully to the
compositions and the production qualities. Try to analyze analogous elements that are found in
various styles of music such as rhythm patterns, bass sounds, and the use of signal processing.

Why does the song (instrumental) selection build an organized artistic concept? Most
successful albums are designed as a project and song selection is the key to success. The
songs (instrumentals) are chosen to fit together like the pieces of a puzzle, although
“fitting together” is not meant to imply that all albums are designed as concept albums.
Concept albums are intended to work as a story. The Who’s Tommy is a concept; there is
an explicit relationship between the lyrics of the songs, even if there is no definitive
storyline. The lyrics may contain an emotional thread that ties them together.
Is there a synergy between the lyrics on the album? Society changes, and mores change,
and the lyrics of popular songs usually mirror those changes. Contemporary popular
music reflects popular culture. Some lyrics have substance while others are designed as
unadulterated entertainment. For instance, hip-hop music reflects a lifestyle—a
 subculture, such as Southern, East Coast, or West Coast hip-hop.
Listeners relate to lyrical content. At the beginning of rock ’n’ roll, the lyrics were trite,
but the music and culture helped promote civil rights by obliterating musical racism on
U.S. radio stations. During the Vietnam War, many lyrics reflected an antiwar sentiment.
The perils of love have consistently been the most popular subject of lyrics.
Singer-songwriters have a definite point of view. Lyrics that reflect popular culture in an
entertaining manner have to echo current popular thought, or attracting a youthful
audience, the primary consumers of popular culture, will be difficult. For instance,
Britney Spears or Justin Bieber must record records with cutting-edge production values,
but the lyrical content of the songs should also appeal, primarily, to a young demographic.
(Britney Spears had to morph from a young artist to a mature artist without losing her core
fan base.) Usher sang about being unfaithful, and Eminem rapped about family problems
and growing up poor. The fans can relate to the lyrics.
Producers have to address these issues when designing albums. Artists without a point of
view are probably not worth producing.
Does the sonic quality remain constant throughout the album? An overall sound is vital
to achieving sonic cohesiveness. Some artists develop a sonic identity (e.g., The Beatles,
Coldplay, and Linkin Park). The audience expects to hear an identifiable ambience.
Artists, producers, and engineers all contribute to creating a sonic identity.
How is the album going to be marketed and advertised? The music dictates the most
suitable approach. If an album has a theme, the record label will design the advertising,
marketing, and promotions around the concept. (This subject is addressed in the business
section of this book.)
An artist’s music and stage performance are the most significant ingredients of the image-
building process. Music videos reflect an artist’s image, and advertising (photos and
graphics) and public relations (interviews) project his or her image.
Usher is an example of an artist who wants the public to perceive him as being “cool” and
entertaining. Alicia Keys sings, plays the piano, writes songs, and projects a
contemporary image. Her style of music will most likely afford her a long career that will
continue after her record sales decline.

To arrive at a viable album concept, producers and artists must agree on artistic goals. The
following questions should be taken into consideration:

What message does the artist want to deliver? The choice of songs should be an
affirmation of an overall concept. If the concept is to record The Greatest Love Songs, the
lyrics should suggest a variety of emotions so the listener remains stimulated throughout
the album; the lyrical messages can vary but remain related to one another. A concept
album A Tribute to Frank Sinatra could include songs recorded by Sinatra (a
compilation) or recorded by new artists recording Sinatra classics. A title can instigate a
diversity of conceptual ideas and can be the primary tool for building a production
 concept.
Achieving an overall musical design for an album is a producer’s most crucial
consideration before recording begins.
Should the emotional-technical ambience of a recording be intimate or spacious? Is the
listener going to be mentally transported into a small nightclub, to Carnegie Hall, or to a
large stadium?
The choice of a studio and an engineer affects the sonic atmosphere of the album. Large
studios, such as studios designed to record orchestral music, produce a spacious
ambience created by natural reverberation that is carefully calculated during the design of
the studio. Studios designed to record rhythm sections, or smaller instrumental ensembles
generally have a less ambient studio room and the natural sound of the recording has less
reverberation. (This is not to imply that a small studio cannot have natural reverberation.)
Ambient effects are added during the mixing process with the use of signal processing
(e.g., reverberation, delay, and equalization).

Successful producers are detail oriented. This can sometimes be misconstrued as being too
compulsive or too restrictive like areas of a production that some may feel are not significant.
All areas of production are essential. Calculating delay and feedback, compression ratios, the
selection of echo and/or reverberation, the model of a guitar used on a particular song (e.g.,
Fender Stratocaster or Fender Telecaster), the programmed sounds of synthesizers and
samplers, the microphone selection, the choice of an engineer and the selection of musicians,
and many other facets of the production process are substantial concerns of producers.
Producing is a musical and technical potpourri.

Arranging
The sound of the arrangement. The arrangements are crucial to the success of a project. A hit
song will not be a hit record if the arrangement does not complement the music and lyrics.
Producers guide arrangers and help shape and select the most inventive creative path.
Arrangers are composers. They “set” and enhance a basic composition. An arrangement may
be referred to as a “surrounding composition” since the arrangement surrounds the basic song
(instrumental) structure.

Many rock bands prefer to record in large studios to attain a sound similar to the sonic atmosphere of
a large concert venue.

A band has a sound; their arrangements are the sound of the band. If an arranger(s) is
 hired, the producer has to be concerned that the arrangements throughout the album
have a consistent sound. The artist and the producer must agree on the ambience of the
arrangements. The grooves and basic instrumentation should be similar throughout an
album. Naturally, there are exceptions, e.g., The Beatles enhanced instrumentation used on
the Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band album.
To achieve a coherent sonic image, use essentially the same instrumentation,
musicians, engineer(s), and studio(s) throughout the recording of an album. That is not
always possible and most likely not probable. The executive producer is responsible for
overseeing the overall sound of the project and has to coordinate all the musicians and
singers to achieve a sonic image.
Does the arrangement complement the lyric? Does the mood of the arrangement
surround the lyric? Some lyrics can be musically accented, which will enhance the impact
of a song. Experienced arrangers instinctively address these concerns; it is a basic skill of
professional arrangers.
Does the arrangement complement the lead vocal? Consider the sonic quality of the lead
vocalist before writing an arrangement and before choosing the instrumentation. An
arrangement for a powerful voice will differ from an arrangement designed to
complement a softer voice (e.g., Sade as compared to Aretha Franklin). These subjects
are discussed in detail in chapter 5.

Producers must monitor each section of a production to make certain that it does not stray too
far from the desired sonic concept. Since most albums are recorded over an extended time
period, producers should continually listen to rough mixes, analyzing the above-mentioned
concerns.

Song Selection
Producers and artists usually begin an album by selecting songs. If the budget permits, it is
best to record more songs than will actually be used on the final album. Song demos (basic
productions of songs) that sound appropriate for a project or also sound suitable during
rehearsals will not necessarily be included on the album. It is wise to have replacements. For
example, a song might not fit the final creative concept of the album. That might become a
dilemma for a producer, an artist, and the label because a song that sounds like a radio hit
could be out of character with the remainder of the song selection. Therefore, it is wise to keep
the song for a future project rather than risk ruining the album’s overall sonic image. The final
song selection has to work as a unified collection rather than a grouping of individual tracks
that do not musically relate to each other.
The source of future compositions is a primary concern of label executives and producers.
Artists who are also songwriters are appealing to labels. Labels prefer not having to rely on
independent songwriters or music publishers as a source of material. Artists who can write
radio-friendly songs are sought after.
 A rough mix is a mix used for review.

Artist-songwriters are not necessarily “hit” songwriters. Many artists insist on writing their
own material, although the songs are not commercial. Some artists have ruined their careers by
refusing to record songs written by other songwriters. Most successful popular artists record
any appropriate song that has a chance to top the charts. (It is foolish not to record songs from
outside sources, since hits attract concert promoters who hire artists. Besides, one hit song
generates album sales. Most record labels are willing to sell one song from an album via
Internet stores, such as iTunes and Amazon. This has become a paradigm for Internet sales.)
Many producers are also songwriters. They sign artists who will record their songs.
Successful relationships have been built between producer-songwriters and artists; the
songwriter and the interpreter. A stellar example is Dionne Warwick, who recorded multiple
hits by singing the songs of Burt Bacharach and Hal David. It is analogous to a comedian’s
relationship with a joke writer. Some comedians write their own jokes, but many rely on
independent writers to supply them with jokes and routines. The comedian becomes the
interpreter.

The terms song and instrumental are used interchangeably.

Producers are responsible for editing songs (instrumentals) and arrangements prior to
recording. That is done in collaboration with artists. Most new artists need help with song
formats and arrangements. For example, an introduction may become 4 instead of 8 measures;
the second chorus could be sung 2 times instead of once. The editing process is crucial to the
artistic and commercial success of the final product. Skilled producers have an innate ability to
detect creative flaws and experiment with various ways to repair them. It is a form of
coaching, consistent with the importance to success of mutual artistic respect between
producers and artists.

Coaching Singers
Producers coach singers. A producer must “get a performance” from an artist. That is a
complex subject, and there are no concrete methods for guiding artists.

When a producer discovers an artist, he or she usually signs the artist to the producer’s production
company or the producer’s record label. A production company usually “shops” the album or single tracks to
various labels for distribution, or it has an exclusive deal with a label to distribute all of the company’s
productions. A label has a distribution deal (physical and digital) through either a major label or an
independent distributor(s).

Producers develop their own system of working with singers; the modus operandi differs
from artist to artist. Personal relationships affect the interaction between producers and artists.
Trust is the crucial element. If an artist does not have confidence in the producer, the project
is doomed to failure. This subject will be discussed, in detail, later in the book.

Coaching Musicians
Coaching musicians, whether band members or studio musicians, requires the same skills as
coaching a lead vocalist or solo instrumentalist. The psychological approach producers take
with the musicians (and background singers) is vital to drawing out the best possible
performances from artists. Creating a comfortable ambience in the studio relaxes performers,
and in such an environment they will most certainly deliver better performances. A musician
must have confidence in and respect for the producer or it will be difficult for the producer to
coach an artist into achieving a stellar performance.
Certain styles of music sound best when programmed on synthesizers (e.g., trance music)
while other styles sound best performed by live musicians (e.g., rock or traditional jazz). A
producer may choose to combine live musicians with synthesizers or select the most
appropriate instrumental combination to complement a song. When possible, it is advisable to
experiment. Experimentation can produce new sounds and combinations. If a producer coaches
and encourages a programmer to be inventive, a fresh crop of ideas may take a music track in
new directions.

Producers have to be concerned with all aspects of the business of music when conceiving an
album. In addition to a cohesive sonic image, the cover design and graphics should mirror the musical
 content. In retail stores, albums are displayed (racked) in categories—rock, R&B, world music, and so on.
For marketing purposes, the record company targets the proper audience; therefore, the overall sound of the
album should be within a musical genre. That is one of the keys to strategic popular-music marketing. An
artist must focus on his or her image, which, hopefully, will appeal to a targeted demographic.

Engineering
Recording engineers who specialize in music are responsible for the sonic qualities of
albums. Recording engineers are artists. Some have studied music, whereas others developed
musical skills through the process of osmosis. They listen carefully and work with skillful
producers and musicians. Experienced engineers operate recording consoles, both hardware
and software. SSL and Neve consoles interact with computer audio programs, such as Pro
Tools.
Effects, such as reverbs, delays, and compression, enhance the recorded music tracks and
become an intrinsic part of the final sonic image. Psychoacoustics plays an important role in
a listener’s emotional response to recorded music. For instance, a delay behind a lead vocal
adds depth to the sound of the vocal; a long reverb on a snare drum creates a shooting effect
through the track and adds power; a tap echo can add a rhythmic delay to a sound. When
creating a recording, which is a permanent representation of a composition, the effects
become––in some cases––equal in importance to the other components of the arrangement.
Using effects properly is an example of the creative use of technology. Effects are discussed
in a later chapter.

Mixing
Creating the final sonic image is called mixing. A musical sketch has been completed, the
colors have been added (orchestration), and the individual components are ready for assembly
into one complete unit.
Mixing is an art form that is both a technical and creative process. At this phase in the
production process, producers and artists ought to agree that the basic tracks and vocals (or
instrumentals) are acceptable, and the necessary overdubs (additional parts) have been
recorded. Signal processing, such as equalization, compression/limiting, panning, volume
levels, and the balancing of these elements, all contribute to the final sonic image. Mixing is
the artistic blending of these elements. Each of these components is discussed in the
technology section of this book.
Many albums are recorded in multiple studios. Because of the differences in sound, some
producers and engineers choose to mix in one studio, which helps to create sonic continuity.
Since it is commonplace for multiple producers and engineers to work on one album, mixing in
one location can sonically “glue” a project together. An executive producer oversees the
process of the production. (This concept might not be practical.)
In the chapter devoted to the mixing and mastering process, in addition to the information
previously mentioned, the following elements are discussed:

The importance of a sonic concept

Signal processing
Monitor selection
The control room
Console selection
Attention to detail during the original recording sessions
Live tracks that can be fixed only by rerecording, for which the cost might be prohibitive
The placement of the lead and background vocals in the mix
The sonic relationship between the lead and background vocals
The artistic reasons for this relationship

Arrangements are affected by the vocals. If the vocals will be loud in a mix, an arranger has
to design the rhythm track so that it can also be prominent in the mix without masking the
vocals. One technique is to write the arrangement so that the frequency ranges of the
instrumental parts do not conflict with the frequency ranges of the vocals. The same is true of
strings, horns, or additional instrumental parts. Carefully placed fills (e.g., snare-drum fills)
can be prominent in the mix if they surround the vocals and do not cover them. More will be
said about this in the chapters devoted to arranging, mixing, and mastering.

Some engineers only mix and do not record. Some producers do not mix but rely on mixing
engineers. The record label may choose the mixer in consultation with the artist and the producer. It is not
unusual for several producers and engineers to mix one song. Multiple mixes might be included on one
album; most often the additional mixes are dance mixes, e.g., Katy Perry.

Mastering
Mastering is the final creative and technical process before manufacturing. The mix (stereo
or surround sound) receives its final sonic manipulation in the mastering lab (producers
usually oversee mastering sessions). Mastering is a synthesis of art and technology, and
mastering engineers are artists. Although the final sound of a recording is created during the
mixing process, the mastering engineer is responsible for technical excellence (e.g., no
distortion or digital error, and the track levels match throughout the album), and the final
equalization process, which should not drastically change the overall sound of the mixes, adds
a final sonic gloss.
Mastering can be either advantageous or detrimental to the final sonic quality of a
production. For instance, an excess of compression can eliminate the dynamics in a music
track; overemphasizing the higher frequencies can create a piercing sound. Many factors can
either detract from or greatly enhance the final sound. A producer usually attends the mastering
session or approves the mastering before the album is manufactured.
The choice of a mastering engineer and a mastering studio is as essential to the recording
process as the other creative and technical choices typically made by a producer.

Music Videos
A music video is a visual representation of a song or instrumental composition. Not only
must a story be told but the director also has to capture the artist’s image. The director should
be thoroughly familiar with the artist’s persona since the video must capture the essence of the
artist. An ill-conceived video could damage an artist’s image with fans.
The choice of a director is a primary consideration. Some directors specialize in directing
music videos and are also genre-specific in the assignments they accept. Viewing directors’
demonstration reels narrows the selection process.
Record labels are involved in choosing a director, and they have relationships with directors
and video production companies. Since cost is a factor, it is wise for the artist (and sometimes
the producer) to consult with the record label when choosing a director. Hire a director who
will work within the budget and deliver a quality video.
The artist and director must develop a synergy similar to that an artist develops with a music
producer. Trust and mutual respect are primary considerations.

Standards vary according to the musical genre. For example, rock ’n’ roll vocals are usually placed
at a lower level in the mix than R&B vocals. The placement of pop vocals is usually similar to the placement
of R&B vocals.

A creative and contemporary choreographer should be hired. If an artist wants to project a

contemporary image and the dancing is outdated, the artist’s image will appear dated.
Choreographers are also hired to help an artist with movement. Not all artists are competent
dancers, and choreographed movements help keep an artist from appearing static.

Music producers are not always consulted before a music video is shot. If the producer feels that the artist is
being misguided and the music is not being visualized properly, the producer should voice his or her opinion to
the artist and the label. Videos are a significant sales tool, and if a video does not properly represent a song,
 the production may be compromised. (Some labels are charging for the use of videos in venues such as the
Internet.)

The Business of Music

The business of music is the subject of numerous books. Students wishing to become music
executives or informed creatives should study, in depth, each of the subjects noted in this
chapter and the additional chapters dedicated to the business of music.
The contemporary music industry has made it necessary for industry people to think
entrepreneurially. The continuing growth of digital distribution has made it essential to
understand all aspects of the business. New independent labels, managed by two or three
executives, make it necessary for each person to have a working knowledge of all aspects of
the industry.
Producers and executives must comprehend the following subjects:

Negotiating master recording contracts

Negotiating artists’ contracts
Negotiating production contracts
Music distribution contracts
Personal artist management contracts
Talent agent contracts
Production budgets
Securing record deals
Record sales
Music promotions
Music marketing
Music advertising
Studio selection
Engineering
Copyrights and music publishing
Musicians’ union agreement (AFM)
Singers’ union agreements (SAG, AFTRA)
Performance-rights organizations (BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC in the U.S., and similar
organizations throughout the world)
Foreign music licensing

Most major labels spend between $500,000 to $1,000,000 per video for high-profile artists.
 Prior to the rampant illegal downloading and physical pirating that reduced profits, major labels were
spending (infrequently) as much as $2,000,000 to produce a superstar’s video. Small labels spend a
fraction of that cost. Many independent artists produce their own videos and post them on websites
such as YouTube. Videos seen on the Internet have been instrumental in launching careers for artists
such as Justin Bieber.

Conclusion
Music production is a complex topic. Successful producers are knowledgeable in both music
and business. (Iconic producer Quincy Jones is a schooled musician, arranger, and music
executive. The late Arif Mardin had the same background.) They manage production
businesses and not being thoroughly conversant with the subjects discussed in this chapter will
make it difficult for them to sell or negotiate master sound recording licenses. (Production
companies, copyright owners, or record labels that finance and own recordings, often license
the use of those recordings for a time period (term), which is negotiable. The recordings are
referred to as masters or master recordings.)
Familiarity with these topics will help producers develop a modus operandi. It cannot be
stated often enough: The only way to learn music production is by producing music.

Assignment
You are planning to produce an album. Answer the following questions. (Choose a fictitious
artist.)

Describe the artist (solo artist, band, image, performance traits, etc.).
Why do you choose to produce the artist?
What is your production concept? Justify the concept.
What is the title of the album?
Why did you (and the artist) choose the title?
Does the title relate to the songs (instrumentals)?
Describe the graphic design of the cover.
Why is the cover design important?
What style of songs (instrumentals) do you plan to record and why?
You may record in several recording studios. Why did you select those studios?
What are the attributes of your engineer and how will his or her experience directly
enhance your project?
How do you plan to promote and market the album?
These topics, and more, are discussed in the chapters concerning the business of music.
3

The Artist

You have to be singular, instead of saying, “These are the hit records of the moment; how do I make my music
sound like that?”
—Sting, USA Today

Being Good Is Not Good Enough!

Record labels take a considerable financial risk when signing artists. They try to minimize
financial risk by carefully selecting artists and producers. The process is discussed in this
chapter.
A producer’s mission should be to enhance an artist’s musical vision; any attempt to
reinvent a musical image rarely results in success. It is a mistake to try to transform an artist
into a producer’s artistic visualization. If a producer has to perform a “makeover,” the artist is
not ready to begin or sustain a recording career. Artists must have a strong self-image and a
true musical sense about themselves. Most successful performers have a creative vision and an
air of self-confidence. An artist’s “mission” is usually the foundation of a successful career.

Some producers view themselves as artists and the singers or instrumentalists as interpreters. That
formula can be successful if the artistic mission is stated at the outset of the relationship. For instance,
producers of dance music (club music or disco) usually establish this type of relationship.

Artist development is a lengthy and involved process. Talent is only half of the formula
needed to “break” (popularize) a contemporary artist. Producers must carefully consider many
factors before signing an artist to a production contract or agreeing to produce an artist for a
label. Artistry, songwriting ability, quality of live performance, physical appearance, and
charisma are all primary considerations. Because of the competitive nature of the music
business and the financial commitment required to achieve success, close attention to the
overall artistic picture is crucial.
The success of most artists is dependent upon 50% talent and 50% business sense. As a
producer scouting to sign new artists, you must carefully investigate the business executives
who are counseling the artist. If the artist has a manager and/or an agent, do those advisors
have the clout to enhance the artist’s career? For instance, a talent agent might book a new
artist as an opening act on a major tour with a popular artist who is also represented by the
same agent. Such exposure is invaluable when trying to enhance an artist’s career.
Some labels will not sign artists who are represented by powerless business people. Labels
rely on managers and agents to parlay artists’ careers, particularly when the label’s promotion
department has provided radio and television airplay followed by album sales.
In the early stages of most artists’ careers, it is unwise to make long-term business
commitments. Some producers and label executives help artists develop business
relationships, but usually at a time when proper representation will be beneficial.
Artists are discovered in numerous ways. Producers and A&R executives, who sign artists
to recording contracts and labels, develop business relationships with managers, agents, music
publishers, concert promoters, music-business attorneys, and club owners for whom it is
advantageous to expose A&R executives to unsigned artists or signed artists whose contracts
will shortly terminate. Basically, artists are found from various sources. Artists who have been
dropped from labels are often signed to new labels and become stars (e.g., Alicia Keys and
Aretha Franklin).
Established A&R executives, managers, and agents receive an inordinate number of artist
demo (a demonstration CD of songs or instrumentals) submissions. Rarely does an unsolicited
demo fuel a professional relationship. Without a “story,” labels are normally not interested in
artists unless there are unusual circumstances surrounding their careers (e.g., John Lennon’s
son, Julian Lennon) or an artist is extraordinarily gifted. If a manager or agent promotes an
artist to a label and promises that the artist will be touring, be supported by public relations
and additional support services, the label will seriously consider signing the artist—assuming
that the label executives are excited about the artist’s music and performance skills.

Major label executives are instructed not to open unsolicited packages (e.g., containing demos).
They fear lawsuits claiming plagiarism. In most circumstances, reputable personal managers, agents, music
publishers, and music business attorneys submit demos.

The process usually begins by listening to countless demos. A demo (demonstration CD)
consisting of three or four original songs is the most suitable presentation. If a label or
producer becomes interested in the artist he or she will request a submission of additional
material. An experienced A&R executive or producer can judge from the first listening
whether an artist is gifted and fits the label’s creative standards.
 It is rare for a demo to sound as polished as a master sound recording (a completed production), although
many inexperienced artists believe their demos are master quality. Unless an artist is confident that his or her
submission is master quality, it is wiser to represent the recordings as demos.
Affordable technology has made home recording available to artists. Most artists record demos in a home
studio (also called a project studio). Prior to the popularity of project studios, a studio-rental budget was
necessary. Not only was that costly, but creative experimentation was also limited because of the expense.
Digital audio offers unlimited, affordable editing capabilities without loss of audio quality and at a reasonable
cost. On analog audio tape, bouncing (combining tracks) causes a generational loss of audio quality. Digital
technology affords the artist unlimited, nondestructive editing capabilities (all original recorded information can
be recalled) without the loss of audio quality. (Analog audio tape is rarely used with the exception of transferring
final mixes to 2 track audio tape for mastering. Some producers and engineers prefer the sound of audio tape
to the sound of digital audio.)

The professional audio quality of home studio technology has also afforded artists the
opportunity to record either all or part of the master recordings at a considerably reduced cost.
Sizable studios are normally used to record live rhythm sections (e.g., rock bands) or large
ensembles such as orchestras or horn and string sections; sophisticated recording consoles are
sometimes used for mixing, if the budget allows. Most home studio owners can now afford to
purchase outboard gear (reverbs, compressors, etc.) and are able to mix home-studio project
with stellar results. (Music sequencing programs come with most outside gear so it is not
necessary to purchase hardware versions unless the producer/engineer prefers the sound
quality.)
Choosing a suitable record label is crucial to artists’ careers. An artist and a label are
committing to a “marriage,” of sorts, when agreeing to sign a recording contract. Most artists
would prefer to sign with a major label. There are several reasons:

The Foo Fighters album Wasting Light, released April 11, 2011, was recorded on analog tape. They
inserted pieces of the master tape in copies of the album so the fans could own a part of the master. Dave
Grohl of the Foo Fighters said, “We recorded the record in my garage to analog tape, and probably wound up
with 20-30 reels of tapes.”

Financial stability is usually the primary concern. Many independent labels have cash-
flow problems, which may affect financial accountability to artists.
Major labels have the financial resources and the business relationships to market and
promote albums to a greater degree than most independent labels.
Many major labels sign artists to worldwide contracts, which offers artists international
 exposure. That is not always desirable from an artist’s perspective. It does not
necessarily follow that branch territories (e.g., Spain, France, UK) are as productive as
the flagship territory (e.g., U.S.). Some artists prefer to choose multiple distributors, but
most major U.S. labels will sign artists to a worldwide deal only. (Most digital
distribution is global although the clients have the ability to choose in which territories
they want distribution.)

An independent label may not have the same financial resources as a major label, but for
some artists signing with an independent might be wiser than signing with a major.

Major labels have the ability to outsell independents but may not excel in promoting
certain styles of music. A&R executives at boutique labels are usually experts in a
specialized genre of music (e.g., jazz or new age) and become involved in the creative
shaping of an album. They hope to guide artists in a focused direction.
Often an artistic synergy exists between an artist and an independent label, since there is a
mutual passion for a musical style. Similar relationships also exist at major labels but
usually do not develop to the same extent unless there is financial success.

Many successful independent labels specialize in musical genres that are not necessarily of
interest to major labels (e.g., dance music). Small and successful independent labels are able
to operate with 3 or 4 employees, the owner being the CEO. Low overhead enables the labels
to make a profit with relatively inconsequential sales, as compared to major or mini-major
label sales. (Many small labels only sell their music on the Internet. Some labels, such as
beatport.com, are highly successful. As compared to Amazon, which offers only MP3s,
Beatport offers consumers high quality audio files. They sell MP3, MP4, and WAV file
formats.)
Independent labels often start, rather than follow, musical trends. They can afford to
experiment and take risks. The major labels, hoping to piggyback on the success of smaller
labels, emulate most trends started by independents. The independent labels are viewed as
focus groups. If sales do not produce enough income to warrant the financial commitment
needed for a major label to staff and fund the promotion of a specific musical genre, the
offshoots are usually disbanded within several years.

Independent labels usually have sublicensing deals with labels in either territories or individual
countries. Some large independent labels have offices in various territories. Therefore, they might have the
same influence as a major label.
 Some major labels purchase or partner with independent labels rather than start a new
division; BMG bought the new age label, Windham Hill Records. That does not assure the
survival of the former independent. If the smaller label is not generating a profit, the major
often keeps the lucrative artists and returns the remaining ones to the original owners or drops
them from the label.
Before signing an artist, consider the following:

Most successful artists have unique musical personalities. They possess “musical
fingerprints,” which often is a reflection of their lifestyles. They “live” the music (e.g.,
Eminem). Like any artistic endeavor, popular music offers artists opportunities to achieve
international exposure.
Musical trends traditionally dominate the popular-music market. A style develops, and
clones follow. Britney Spears, for example, has been cloned by a series of young female
singers. In the music industry these artists are referred to as “cookie-cutter artists”––all
out of the same mold. Labels tend to flood the marketplace with clones––up to a point.
After a trend has been exhausted and sales decline, labels are no longer interested in
signing clones.
Radio stations always search for something new to program, and trends often begin when
a unique record hits the charts. Popular-music audiences are fickle and are continually
seeking new musical experiences. YouTube has become the outlet where most of the
younger audience discover new artists and listen and watch videos of established artists.
On YouTube, Usher discovered Justin Bieber and the 13 year-old singer Rebecca Black,
also not signed to label, has received 153,653,217 hits on YouTube, as of the writing of
this book. She signed a recording contract after receiving notoriety on YouTube.
Trends translate not only into the cloning of music but also into the “look” (image) and
performance style of popular artists. The cookie-cutter acts usually have a style of dress
and choreography similar to that of their predecessors. Sometimes two or three clones
achieve popularity simultaneously, such as ’N Sync, O-Town, and the Backstreet Boys.
The artists may not be unique, but their recordings are well produced and contain
memorable songs with contemporary rhythmic grooves. Their live performances create
excitement, spectacle, and, of course, sales.

Record labels search for unique artists. Major labels are primarily interested in artists who
have the potential of generating significant sales. It generally takes a minimum investment of
one million U.S. dollars to even attempt to break an act, without any guarantee of sales. The
recordings must be promoted, marketed, and advertised on radio and television stations, in
stores, and on tours; the videos must be shown on television. These endeavors are costly, and
require sizable financial commitments from labels. (Social networking, described later in the
book, is an inexpensive method to gain visibility.)
Charisma is one of the most essential attributes of an artist. Charisma cannot be learned
and can mean the difference between success and failure. The Beatles had it; Mick Jagger and
Lady Gaga have it; Marlon Brando and Cary Grant had it; Mozart and Beethoven had it. The
genre is irrelevant––the gift is the same.

Cloned artists can generate substantial incomes before the public’s interest begins to wane.
Generally, one of the group members initiates a solo career, and the group eventually disbands (e.g., Diana
Ross from Diana Ross and the Supremes and Justin Timberlake from ’N Sync).

It has been my experience that the artists I have known who achieved success and fame had
unique personas prior to achieving success.
Someone asked Louis Armstrong, “What is jazz?” and Louis replied, “Man, if you got to ask,
you’ll never find out!” Charisma is indefinable.

An artist’s image is crucial to his or her success. The backgrounds of superstars in all
artistic endeavors contribute to the artists’ public images. The audience does not usually relate
to a contrived image. The relationships artists build with their fans help them achieve artistic
integrity. In hip-hop music an artist’s image is referred to as his or her “street credibility”;
audiences want to empathize with artists. Frank Sinatra had an image as a great entertainer who
lived a lavish lifestyle. Many rock bands project an image of being unconventional and
rebellious or political, such as Bono of the band U2.

The Grateful Dead is a band that has maintained longevity despite relatively minor record sales compared to
their stature. The group has a loyal and truly fanatical audience. Some fans literally follow the band while they
tour. Jerry Garcia, the deceased lead singer, became a rock icon. The audience identifies with the band’s
overall musical message, which depicts a life of freedom.
Note: Many of the most successful touring artists in the U.S. are established artists (e.g., Cher, Paul
McCartney, Barry Manilow). The more mature audience’s financial ability to purchase pricey tickets partially
contributes to this unusual scenario––unusual because the touring artists may not achieve the same album
sales figures as many younger popular artists who do not necessarily attract sizable concert audiences.

Artist-songwriters are more appealing to labels than artists who do not write. They do not
rely on either producers or independent songwriters to supply songs. (The country-music
market is an exception because most country artists do not generally write the songs they
record.) Producing a hit is the goal of most pop-music producers. Therefore, the songs are the
main ingredient for success.
The songs (instrumentals) should reflect the musical persona of an artist. Artists must remain
true to their artistic sensibilities. It is inherent in the work of artist-songwriters, but artists who
rely on outside sources for songs must assemble a repertoire that defines their musical
personality—as in the case of Frank Sinatra, whose entire public persona emanated from his
music.
Most artists perform new material prior to recording. The reaction of the audience can be
helpful in determining if a composition is “commercial.” This is not to imply that every song
has to be a commercial success, but most artists want audiences to empathize with their music.
A song may require a new arrangement, or the basic rhythmic feel might have to change. The
producer should have the ability to step back and listen to the music not only as a creative
artist but from the audience’s perspective as well. If the song and the production are not well
crafted, the attention span of the audience will wane, and the final production will not be
successful.
Some artists are strictly entertainers and not necessarily trying to “preach” to the audience.
Elvis Presley was an entertainer, while Bruce Springsteen makes a statement in most of his
songs and he entertains.
Generally, artists who achieve career longevity record songs that have a lasting effect on
the public. They are also charismatic and entertaining performers. Trendy artists might have
a contemporary performance style and a modern image, but the songs are poorly constructed.
They may be memorable, but they might also sound like the “flavor of the month.”
Exceptionally talented artists normally achieve longevity with the public. Artists such as
James Taylor, Barry Manilow, Steely Dan, Aretha Franklin, The Eagles, Neil Diamond, and
Willie Nelson will always attract an audience. It is not necessary for them to have a hit single
in order to attract a concert audience. An artist’s career is molded by careful image planning
and intelligent management decisions, combined with a strategic-minded booking agent
concerned with protecting the artist’s image.
It is unusual for a new artist to receive an offer to sign with a label without a live
showcase (audition). For example, labels are usually attracted to artists who sell out clubs in a
regional market since that is often a forecast of the artist’s national or global market potential.
Most music executives are familiar with the nightclubs that showcase new talent, and they are
constantly scouting them for new artists. It is analogous to scouting for athletes; in fact, bidding
wars occur between labels as well as athletic teams. Some executives have strong
relationships with nightclub owners who tout them when a “hot act” is booked to perform.
Pollstar Magazine, a trade publication, tracks most clubs and arenas throughout the United
States. The magazine provides information on the seating capacity of a club or arena and the
percentage of seats sold by the artists. A&R executives and producers use the information in
the magazine to follow an artist’s progress. If the artist has a personal manager and/or agent, a
demo is requested; if not, the artist is contacted directly. This can initiate the process that leads
to a recording contract.
Record labels reward artists who are cooperative and appreciative of the label’s support.
That is an important consideration for a producer because artists have a better opportunity of
achieving success if they cooperate with the label.
 Producers must be concerned with the attributes of a solo artist or band member. There are usually
two categories of popular-music artists: exceptional singer-performers, (e.g., Barbra Streisand, Celine Dion,
Michael Bublé), or singers who are also exceptional writers, such as James Taylor, Elton John, and Billy Joel.
Most band members write the band’s songs. It is unusual for bands to record songs composed by other
writers. (The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and Aerosmith are examples of superstars who have recorded
outside material.)

When an artist generates income for a label, the company’s personnel are obligated to
support that artist. When an uncooperative artist’s popularity diminishes, it is human nature to
do the minimum. The label might appear to be assertive, but it is relatively easy for promotion
and marketing executives to concentrate on artists who welcome and acknowledge the label’s
efforts.
Certain musical genres do not routinely generate sizable sales, such as jazz or classical
music. The A&R executives of jazz and classical labels seek out artists who they feel will
eventually develop a solid fan base and establish a career. That can evolve into almost
guaranteed sales for each new project, consequently lowering the label’s financial risk. Jazz
and classical labels are primarily interested in the artistic attributes of artists, although some
artists have unique personas, such as Louis Armstrong, Leonard Bernstein, and Wynton
Marsalis, who have achieved great popularity. These artists have spawned substantial sales
partially due to their engaging personalities and showmanship.
Career planning is fundamental to success. Managers guide clients’ careers. A&R
executives and producers are directly responsible for artists’ recording careers.
Artists must maintain an image. Some artists might reason that since a current album is
successful the subsequent project should be in the same musical direction. That is not
necessarily accurate. The audience might become bored and think that the artist’s creativity has
declined. This is an inherent problem with popular music. If an artist’s career is based on
current musical trends, there is a great probability that they will not be able to sustain their
popularity unless the artist remains musically current.
Staying current means that a producer must have the production skills to maintain the essence
of the artist and produce music in a contemporary style. That is a difficult task. For instance, if
an artist’s primary audience is teens, it is difficult to appeal to that demographic as the artist
matures. Young artists, such as Justin Bieber, must grow musically to sustain a career. Artists
should continually evolve, as demonstrated by The Beatles and The Beach Boys.

Conclusion
The second album, referred to as the “sophomore jinx” in the record industry, is considered the
most crucial album in an artist’s career. One of the reasons that artists’ second albums are often
not as successful as their first album is because they are usually touring and promoting their
first album, which limits the time they have to prepare for their follow-up effort. All of their
time is devoted to rehearsing and recording their first album. Artists who achieve both critical
and financial success with the second album have an improved chance of achieving career
stability. The albums that follow are crucial and require strategic planning. The people who
surround an artist’s career are both artistic and business advisors; consequently, the choice of
advisors is crucial to achieving continuing success. Many promising careers have been
destroyed by poor planning and misguided advice.
The success of an artist depends on many factors: choice of record company, choice of
producer, choice of songs/instrumentals, performance ability (charisma), personal
management, booking agent, choice of musicians or band members, but most important is the
artist’s commitment to sustaining a career. A career is a potpourri of ideas and ideas emanate
from people. If artists’ advisors have a cordial and professional working relationship, the
artists have an improved chance of achieving success. Artists should maintain a professional
attitude and conduct their careers as a business. Partaking of irresponsible activities is certain
to cause unwanted publicity.
Recording royalties and performance fees can be lucrative, and the business aspects of
artists’ careers must be scrutinized. Guiding an artist’s career is analogous to playing chess.
One wrong move, and you lose!

Assignment
Choose a popular solo artist (or band), and write an essay that analyzes the artist’s career.
Include discussions on the subjects covered in this chapter. Incorporate answers to the
following questions:

What is unique about the artist?

What is the artist’s image?
If the artist is also a songwriter, what “message” is the artist trying to deliver to the
audience? Cite examples.
As a producer, why would you want to produce the artist?
4

Songwriting

Too many pieces of music finish too long after the end.
—Igor Stravinsky

Some composers consider songwriting the most difficult form of composition. Composing a
simple, memorable, and seamless melody coupled with evocative lyrics is a difficult task.
Some composers prefer to set melodies to lyrics, and some lyricists prefer to write lyrics to
melodies. Songwriters who write melodies and lyrics generally write both simultaneously. A
melodic line might trigger a lyric idea and vice versa. Many songwriting teams write together,
feeding on each other’s ideas. Rewriting almost always occurs after the basic song has been
written. There is no answer to the colloquialism, “What comes first, the chicken or the egg?”

The words song and instrumental are used interchangeably.

The foundations of recorded-music productions are the songs, and a considerable amount of
time and consideration should be devoted to the process of writing and/or choosing songs.
Some producers have an instinct for selecting commercial material, and others specialize in
editing and shaping existing material. Producers are artists, and gifted producers are generally
skilled song analysts and/or songwriters.
This chapter addresses the basics of songwriting. All producers, regardless of the their
musical training, should study and analyze well-crafted songs as well as past and present hit
songs. It is also advisable to study music theory and poetry. Answer the following questions
while listening to a song:

How is the lyric expressed? Are the lyrics poetic or conversational?

What is the melodic contour of the melody?
Does the melody complement the lyric? If so, why? If not, why not?

Producers should become familiar with harmonic, rhythmic, lyrical, and melodic structure.
That will enable them to communicate to the songwriters in musical terms and make specific
suggestions. The importance of this process cannot be overstated. Songs are the foundation of
most popular-music albums.

Many record label A&R executives have musical backgrounds. Their job is to sign artists and creatively guide
and oversee the artists’ recordings. They are in constant contact with “song pluggers” who work for music
publishing companies and are also in contact with successful songwriters who often control publishing rights.
Songwriters want successful artists to record the songs they write and generally offer major labels or popular
artists the A-list material before shopping the songs to less commercially successful artists.
Clive Davis, the legendary record executive, built the creative aspect of his career based upon his innate
ability to pick hits. Whitney Houston, Aretha Franklin, Carlos Santana, and Alicia Keys are artists who have
benefited from his inborn talent.

A socially conscious artist-songwriter must be contemporary. Bruce Springsteen

exemplifies a socially conscious artist who has maintained both credibility and a faithful
audience, while changing with the times. Many artists are not songwriters, but they select songs
that are socially relevant.
Socially relevant does not necessarily mean writing about political issues. Country-music
lyrics generally reflect everyday values and concerns of ordinary people. Many hip-hop lyrics
are political in nature, while pop lyrics often deal with relationships that change with the
evolving mores of society.
Do not disregard songs that are written merely as entertainment. Many novelty songs have
sold millions of records and were worldwide hits. They are entertaining and should be
considered a part of the popular-music lexicon.
The majority of popular-music producers vie to produce artistic records by choosing to
work with artists who are serious about developing their craft and by using cutting-edge
technology to achieve sonic proficiency. Producing sheer entertainment is also perfectly
acceptable. Most youth-oriented records are designed to be entertaining and to achieve
profitability. Producers and A&R executives want to capture a large segment of the youth
market, and successful youth-oriented recordings are as skillfully produced as recordings that
are intended to be artistic and reach an older demographic. The early recordings of Britney
Spears and ’N Sync are fine examples of expertly produced records that achieved massive
worldwide commercial success. (Britney Spears’ latest album, Femme Fatale, is an example
of how a young artist matures musically.)
If an artist writes songs, the producer’s job is to shape the material. The audience must
relate to the songs. The production may be immaculate, the engineering superb, the
performance brilliant, but if the foundation—the composition—is weak, the “house will fall.”
Below are some suggestions and guidelines for analyzing songs.

The Songwriting Process

The songs must fit an artist’s musical persona. Obviously that is not a problem if the artist is
the songwriter, but it becomes a major concern when choosing songs submitted by music
publishers, songwriter/producers, or independent songwriters.
Most artist-writers demo a large selection of songs. The producer and A&R people are
concerned not only that the material is well conceived and commercial but also that the songs
suit the concept of the album. Most albums emanate a mood––a musical feeling––that offers an
“experience” to the listener. Albums should be designed so the music flows in the same manner
as words in a well-written book. Novelists hope that readers cannot put their book down;
producers and recording artists hope the audience listens to their album in one sitting. Their
goal is that the audience experiences a “musical novel.”
The song sequence helps create the proper musical mood and maintain a listener’s interest.
Sequencing the song demos––before recording final versions––can be helpful in selecting the
proper song order as well as determining if the song selection works as a unified entity.
Producers and artists must make difficult decisions. If an artist-songwriter writes a song
that sounds like a hit but it is out of character with the other song selections, the choice should
be to eliminate the song from the album. Remain true to the album concept. The other danger
might be that the song is out of character with the artist’s image and may damage the artist’s
credibility. When listeners become fans, they expect a consistency to the artist’s musical
output. A hit record that is out of character with an artist’s persona can be more harmful than
beneficial.
Song structure is important. Popular music normally emulates traditional musical formats.
The study of music history teaches us the importance of musical form. Form means structure,
and form exists in all styles of music as well as the other fine arts.
When listening to music of the classical era, we experience sonata, rondo, and scherzo
forms; the symphony developed during the baroque period, expanded in the classical period,
and took a major leap when Beethoven composed longer and more complex symphonies.
During the Romantic period, new forms developed as well as new harmonic structures, which
included lush melodies and inventive orchestrations. In much of the music of the twentieth
century––in addition to the development of tonal music––we experience dissonance and
atonality. What will be the main characteristics of the music of the twenty-first century? It is
too early to determine. Music, in all forms, keeps evolving.
Since the beginning of the rock ’n’ roll era, a variety of song forms have remained
popular with the public.
In all forms of music, melodic lines, called sentences, are divided into smaller sections
called phrases. The flow of a lyric must correspond to each phrase. If the accents or the word
emphasis does not complement the melody, the song will sound awkward.
To analyze musical form, and specifically song form, an identification system was designed.
(Song form is our focus, but the same principles apply to instrumental compositions.)
 The majority of hit songs follow a variation of the following formats: In popular music, a chorus can
be defined as a section that is usually memorable and easy to sing. A “hook” can be either a chorus or a
catchy instrumental or vocal section used in an arrangement. This system does not indicate the introduction,
prechoruses, or repeats. Sometimes small sections, referred to as interludes, separate various sections.

Most popular songs are written in a 32-measure format. Each section, on average, is eight
measures. This basic format varies. The musical format is expressed in letter names. The
following is the key to understanding the system:

A represents a verse.
A1 represents an alternate version of the A verse. For example, if verse 1 is eight bars
and verse 2 is four bars, verse 2 would correspond to A1. This lettering system would
continue with A2, A3, and so on. The concept applies to all letters.
B represents a new harmonic and melodic section; for example, a bridge or a chorus.
C represents a new melodic section.

Format: ABABCB

Introduction (four or eight bars)

Verse 1 (A)
Prechorus (leads into the chorus and is also called a build)
Chorus (B)
Verse 2 (A)
Prechorus
Either one or two choruses (B)
Sometimes a new section referred to as a C section or a bridge (C)
Chorus and fade-out or an ending (B)

Format: AABA

Introduction
Verse 1 (A)
Verse 2 (A)
Bridge (B)
Verse 3 (A)

Format: ABABA
 Introduction
Verse (A)
Bridge (B)
Verse (A)
Bridge (B)
Verse or variation (A)

Formats work in various combinations. Some additional popular formats are as follows:

ABAB
AAB
ABCABCA
ABAC
B (chorus) A A B C A

Some songs end each section (stanza) with the same lyric, which is called a refrain. The
refrain becomes a hook since the lyric is repeated in much the same manner as the hook of a
chorus.
Songwriters often have a kernel of an idea that could develop into a viable song. Artists
often play a “work in progress” for the producer. Producers make suggestions and guide
songwriters until the song is complete. If the artist and the producer have a congenial artistic
and personal relationship, the process can be fruitful.
Instinct plays an important role in the song-editing process. It is commonplace for
inexperienced songwriters to compose songs that are not in the proper musical form. If the
audience loses concentration when listening to a song, the problem generally lies within the
form of the song or its basic structure.
The following are suggestions for solving some common formatting problems:
In popular music, the chorus or hook is often the section of the song that attracts the
audience. Some songwriters do not reach the chorus quickly enough, presenting a lackluster
experience to the listener. (Thus the popular music publisher’s phrase, “Don’t bore us, get to
the chorus!”)
The following are some suggestions:

Experiment by rearranging sections of a song. A bridge or C-section, rather than the

traditional second chorus, could follow the second verse or the second chorus. The
second chorus could be followed by a repeat of the chorus, but with the addition of some
alternate lyrics.
A section might sound too long. If the second verse sounds too long, one solution is to
use half of the verse––four measures rather than the traditional eight measures––followed
by the prechorus. The lyric might have to be rewritten or condensed so that it flows into
the next section. The same solution may apply to a bridge or a repeat of a bridge.
 If the introduction sounds too long, try cutting it in half or possibly eliminating it.

Introductions can serve a practical purpose. Radio disc jockeys talk while the introduction is playing. On some
stations they announce the artist and song title. A number of station managers do not want the audience to
know the song title or artist; they want the listener to call the station and inquire. That gives the station manager
a barometer for judging the popularity of a song. When “going on” a new song and the phones do not ring,
stations consider not playing it as often or deleting it from the station’s playlist. Research is often used to
select the records played on a station.
The Web has greatly increased the potential to get exposure. YouTube has become the most popular site
where listeners discover new music and listen to established artists. (There are many other websites devoted
to exposing new artists.) The videos have become a crucial component of achieving success, especially for
new artists.

If the ending feels awkward, there are several solutions:

Write a definite ending to the song.

Write a definite ending, but decrease the tempo near the very end.
Try a fade-out ending (the engineer gradually decreases the volume level while the music
continues to play).

Some songwriters take offense when a producer suggests that some of the songs need
rewriting or editing. The artist’s usual counterargument: “When the song is arranged, the
perceived problems will be solved.” The we’ll-fix-it-in-the-mix theory should not be the
proposed cure for inherent compositional and lyric problems. Once trust has been established
between the songwriter and the producer, the songwriter will––at the least––listen to the
producer’s suggestions.
The following are examples of possible changes that a producer might suggest for improving
a song:

Lyric changes: The tenses should match, and the manner in which a thought is stated
should be clear. In most popular music, the audience’s first reaction is the lasting one. If
the lyrical message is not clearly stated, the listener will lose interest.
Melody changes: If the melody does not blend with the lyric, the emotional intent of the
song may be compromised. The melody might ascend rather than descend, the durations of
the notes in melodic phrases could vary, or the notes’ sequential melodic lines could vary.
A seamless blend of lyric and melody creates well-crafted songs.
A section could be repeated or deleted: For example, when the second chorus enters,
repeating the chorus might help solidify the hook’s appeal to the listener. The more often
something is repeated, the easier it is for the listener to remember the phrase. Too much
repetition can also cause boredom. These are both common problems with simple
answers. Deleting or adding a section might improve a song’s format.
 A higher or lower key might better suit the lyric and/or the singer. Many inexperienced
songwriters, producers, and artists do not select the proper key. A half step, in either
direction, can make the difference between a good performance and an excellent one. Ask
the singer if the key is appropriate. If the singer says that the key is fine or he or she can
sing the song in various keys, experiment and choose the key that not only sounds best
from a musical perspective but also enables the singer to give a better interpretation of the
lyric. The key helps the artist “sell the song.”
There is an additional consideration when choosing a key. If the artist is planning to ad-
lib above or below the melody, there must be enough musical space to do so. In R&B
music and pop music, ad-libbing is a common technique and should be considered before
the rhythm tracks are recorded. The best test is through experimentation. It is a simple
problem to solve, but if the issue is not addressed it can be both costly and time
consuming.

The best solution to compositional problems is rewriting or reformatting. If the artist is

recording “songs” as opposed to creating a “record” (technical tricks and a focus on rhythm
are more important than the song), the song should sound complete when accompanied with
only a piano or guitar. That is the concept of the television program MTV UNPLUGGED. The
artists use no electric instruments or mixing technology other than reverb: “The song stands on
its own.”
The proposed solutions to common formatting problems are merely suggestions. There are
no definite rules when dealing with the craft of songwriting. The songwriter’s instinct is
usually correct. Without structure there is musical chaos.
If a melody is problematic, the following suggestions offer possible solutions:

Experiment with the rhythmic values of the melody. Some examples: Two eighth notes
might sound better notated as a dotted eighth note followed by a sixteenth note. Adding a
rest or deleting a rest creates variation. Syncopation generates movement especially in
up-tempo songs. Anticipating a note creates rhythmic variation.
Experiment with the tempo. If the tempo is 120 bpm and a song is played at 115 bpm or
125 bpm, the feel of the song will change. Tempo affects melodic flow. If the tempo is too
fast, the song will sound rushed; if the tempo is too slow, the song will drag. On certain
songs the tempo is crucial to the overall feeling. Some songs will work played in various
tempos. If there is a problem with tempo, it is best to demo a small section of the song in
several tempos and listen repeatedly. Generally, one tempo will feel better than the
others.

Repeatedly listening to a song demo helps to determine if the song will have a lasting
impression. The goal of songwriters is to keep the listener’s interest in a song after repeated
listening. The songs will be greatly enhanced by the final arrangement and production values,
but the best test of a song is to hear it in its simplest form.
 Experiment with alternate chords. Chords known as substitutions (alternative chords)
offer the composer an opportunity to make a melody more interesting. The first verse
might have the original chord structure, and the second verse could contain some
substitutions. If the harmonic structure remains stagnant, experiment with new chords
throughout the song but keep the essence of the original song.
Experiment with inverting melodic phrases. Inverting a phrase, but keeping the same
note values, creates variety and rhythmic continuity. For instance, the eighth notes CBA
would follow eighth notes ABC and so forth.
Experiment with sequential melodic phrases. If the melody seems to ramble, try a series
of phrases that modulate but keep the same relative interval structure. If the notes of the
first phrase are GAB, the second phrase might be ABC and so forth. Sequential phrases are
a standard compositional technique.
Experiment with changing the duration of notes. Some examples: A whole note might be
changed to a half note, a quarter note changed to an eighth note. The diminution or
expansion of phrases greatly affects the melodic contour. Varying durations creates
variety.
Experiment with various forms of modulation. An effective technique that has been used
in popular music for many years is modulating the chorus at the end of a song. Raising the
key by either a half or a full step is standard. Modulating in the middle of the song or
modulating sequential phrases is also a useful technique. Modulation creates musical
excitement and reinvigorates the listening experience.
Experiment with conjunct melodic motion. Conjunct melodic motion is more conducive
to popular melodies than disjunct motion. It is easier for the average listener to remember
melodies constructed with close intervals while remaining within the space of an octave.

The structure and form of the lyrics are as important as the musical form. Well-conceived
lyrics are always clear and keep the audience interested in the message throughout the song.
(The use of the word clear in this context does not necessarily mean that each thought has an
obvious meaning but rather that the lyric has a defined direction.) Some songwriter-poets, such
as Bob Dylan or Jim Morrison, expect the audience to think about the meaning of their songs.
Certain lyrics are meant to trigger a subjective interpretation, and others are meant to be
conversational. The principles of lyric writing apply to all styles.
Conversational lyrics are often the most effective. The test of a skillful conversational lyric
is to read it and feel as though the author is speaking to the reader. Having a vocalist recite the
lyric before singing it has proven to be an effective technique. The lyric should sound as
natural as a conversation.
The audience must relate to the lyric of a song. If listeners do not find the subject matter of
a song interesting, they will not want to listen to it repeatedly. Songs that become standards
have artistic merit, and artists in different musical genres usually record the song in a variety of
arrangements.
 Singers are actors; singers interpret lyrics, and actors interpret words. Great singers and actors
generally choose well-crafted material, and part of singers’ or actors’ success is due to the artistic choices
they make. Most singers are concerned with the message contained in the lyrics. It is difficult for a singer to
deliver a great performance of a lyric when he or she does not empathize with the meaning.

Enticing the listener can be accomplished in several ways:

The song title must catch the attention of the listener. Most thoughtful titles either
explicitly tell the audience what the song is about, such as the Lennon/McCartney song
“Eleanor Rigby” (obviously about the woman) or conjure up an image, like Bob Dylan’s
“Like a Rolling Stone,” which speaks of how fragile life is. Hit songs with clever and/or
meaningful titles have a chance to become standards. They are licensed for use in films,
commercials, and television programs, and numerous artists record the songs (called
covers). Songs can also become evergreens, which is the goal of songwriters. Countless
song titles are taken from either slogans or well-known phrases, such as James Taylor’s
“Fire and Rain” (written about the death of a loved one). Not only are the best titles easy
to remember, but the titles also project various images. A title can conjure up an array of
lyric ideas. Many lyricists arrive at a title and then write the lyric. Movie storylines have
been inspired by song lyrics. The film “Sweet Home Alabama” was inspired by the
classic Lynyrd Skynyrd song. “Sweet Home Alabama” is an example of how a lyric––a
mini story––can be expanded into a full plot.
A lyric must have a central idea that continues to develop without repeating the same
concept. The exception is songs that have choruses. Although a hook line repeats, the
answer lines can change. A chorus in an average pop song repeats at least four times. The
hook line within the chorus becomes embedded in the listener’s mind.
The hook often contains the title of the song. After hearing a song several times, the
audiences will (songwriters hope) sing along. The lyric and melody of the repeated line
have to catch the listener’s attention immediately.
During the chorus of The Rolling Stones’ “You Can’t Always Get What You Want,” the
title line repeats three times ending with a different lyric. The repetition drills the hook
into the listener’s mind and—due to ad-libs by Mick Jagger—does not become boring.
Lyric writing requires great thought; without a significant idea the audience will lose
interest.

Writing lyrics can be taught; “how to say something” cannot be taught. This is the “talent
factor” and is analogous to the talent needed to compose music. Students can learn music
theory, but they must apply their creative juices to composing music that will have originality.
The same concept applies to writing lyrics. A skilled lyricist writes about subjects that people
can relate to and does so in either a poetic or a conversational manner.
A variety of styles are used in lyric writing:

Storyline songs
Chorus or hook songs
Verse-only songs with a refrain
Message songs
Novelty songs

The implication is not that a songwriter “sit down and write a standard.” That, of course, is absurd.
Standards are rare and happen as a result of a hit song that is recorded by numerous artists. Quality songs
have a chance to become standards. The goal of any artistic endeavor is to create something that will last.
The rewards emanate from quality work.

All lyric forms work if the lyricist has a point of view and a well-developed craft. It can be
accomplished by getting to the point without using too many extraneous words. Compress the
lyric as much as possible.

Storyline Songs
Many country songs have storylines. A story lyric is analogous to a condensed short story.
The lyric must have a beginning, middle, and end, and a subject that appeals to a target
demographic. A musical and lyrical hook reels in the listener. The hook could be a chorus, an
instrumental phrase, or riff, a refrain, or even an unusual technical effect, such as the long delay
used on John Lennon’s voice in “Imagine.”
Story lyrics work in a variety of musical forms:

Chorus or Hook Songs

The chorus or hook of a song is what catches the audience’s attention. Repetition with
variation is one of the foremost lyric and musical techniques.
The entire chorus should catch the listener’s ear. If the repeating hook lyric is “Can you feel
the street?” followed by the answer line, “feel that body heat,” followed again by, “Can you
feel the street beat?” and a new answer, “comin’ from the street,” the audience will remember
the words and melody to “Can you feel the street beat?” Since a chorus repeats three or four
times in most popular songs, change the answer lines to avoid boredom. The lead singer’s
interpretation of the lyric, with the inclusion of tasteful melismas, plus variations in the
instrumental and vocal arrangement, adds interest and variety to a song.

If a writer has an idea for a lyric but cannot express it artistically, the lyric is not necessarily a lyric.
That problem is widespread in the advertising industry. Copywriters, who are not traditionally lyricists, write
lyrics for jingles, but most of what they write is not constructed in the same manner as a song lyric. The
composers generally rework the lyrics so the words scan musically.

Verse-Only Songs
Songs written in verse-only form are also referred to as AAA form (each A represents a
verse). Popular songs written in this style usually include a refrain, which is a catchy phrase at
the end of each verse. The refrain is analogous to the hook line of a chorus. The writer hopes
the audience remembers it and is able to sing along.
The Beatles classic “Eleanor Rigby” is written in verse-only form. Some AAA songs have
more than three verses. The melody and the lyric must keep the audience’s attention, or the
song becomes cumbersome after repeated listening. If a verse has four lines, the last line or the
refrain might be, “If we knew then what we know now, we would still be together.” With a
catchy melody, the refrain would become the hook of the song.

Message Songs
The problem with message songs (having an obvious or hidden message) is that they can
become too preachy. Message songs that are written with care can be effective with the
audience. The song “War”––about the horrors of war––although somewhat preachy, is a
message song that became a hit. “Abraham, Martin, and John”––about assassination––is also a
hit message song but is less preachy. Most lyricists who are trying to say something want to
deliver a valid message. Skilled lyricists do that without alienating the audience.

Novelty Songs
Some of the most commercially successful singles are novelty songs. Most novelty songs are
all hook, and many become worldwide hits. The audience is usually capable of singing back
the entire song after listening several times. Writing and recording novelty songs are sheer
entertainment and from a production standpoint should be approached as a track that will be
fun and catchy. Some classic novelty songs are “The Chipmunk Song,” by the Chipmunks,
“Disco Duck,” by radio host Rick Dees, and “Barbie Girl,” by Aqua.
Novelty songs can be lucrative but are rarely followed by another hit in the same genre.
The main objective of a songwriter is to keep the listener’s interest throughout a song.
Some of the basic problems that all songwriters and producers encounter have already been
mentioned. If a song is basically well constructed, there are solutions to most problems.
A producer should provide concrete suggestions to songwriters so they can rewrite or
reformat the sections of a song that are problematic. When the song form and the production
are complete, envision listening to the final mix on the radio. The producer, the engineer, and
the artist experience a feeling of satisfaction when the mix sounds final. Unfortunately, the
feeling occurs only after an unearthly amount of frustration and hard work, but the results are
worth the effort.
Familiarity with the songs of the past and the songs of the present aids producers in their
role as critics. Choosing or recognizing hit songs or hit recordings is not teachable. Most
producers who successfully choose hit songs to record have an innate talent or instinct. In the
music business, this talent is referred to as “having good ears.” Trends can be analyzed, and
although it is not wise to imitate the current market, the overall feel of current music gives
producers a general idea of the music listeners are reacting to.
Generally, it is best to choose songs with an interesting message and a catchy melody. That is
not to insinuate that each song on an album has to sound like a commercial hit; quite the
contrary. Producers should be concerned with the quality of the songs and remaining true to an
artist’s image. Artists who establish a musical persona automatically project an image. The
audience expects high-quality productions and entertaining performances. When James Taylor
or Elton John releases an album, the audience anticipates a certain sound. The audience may
hope for musical surprises and innovative production values, but the overall quality of the
production and the songs will remain at a very high creative level. It is important for producers
and artists to grow so that their music and productions do not become stale and boring. The
public can easily lose interest in artists who do not take creative risks.

The success of “The Chipmunk Song” is based not only on the song but also the use of recording
technology. The voices were manipulated to sound like chipmunks.

Criteria for commercial success differ with musical genres. In country music, the songs are
paramount. In R&B and hip-hop music, the feel of the rhythm tracks, the production values, and
the songs are equally important to the success of a production. In rock ’n’ roll music, the
production values and songs are equal. When listening to heavy metal music, the listener has to
feel the power of the rhythm track and the excitement of the lead vocal. In some instances, the
song becomes secondary. The repertoire and the artists sell classical music. The success of
popular-music recordings generally depends on a combination of all of these factors.
The same basic rules that apply to song structure apply to most instrumentals in the
popular-music style. The composition must flow and keep the audience’s attention.
 Instrumental compositions are popular in the smooth-jazz genre. If lyrics were added to most
of the compositions, the arrangement would basically need very little adjustment.
Many smooth-jazz hits are instrumental arrangements of popular songs. Within the format,
using bits of the lyric is a common device; not only does it add variety to the arrangement, but
it also reminds the audience of the original song. Many instrumentals contain the chorus of the
original song, usually sung by background singers.
“The Lonely Bull” and “Taste of Honey,” by Herb Alpert & The Tijuana Brass, and
“Songbird,” by Kenny G, were instrumental hits that produced sales equivalent to song hits.
Both of these instrumentalists have sold many millions of albums.
Videos play an important role in song promotion; consequently, some lyricists are concerned
that the lyrics lend themselves to visual images. Most songs can easily be transformed into
videos. A lyric that does not have an obvious meaning can still conjure up some abstract and
interesting visual images.

Author’s Opinion: A lyricist should be concerned only with writing a lyric that works best as a
song. Lyrics are supposed to trigger the listener’s imagination. If a lyricist is concerned about
creating a visual image, the lyric could become too literal, and some of the poetic content might
be diluted. A lyric can succeed in both a song form and visually.

Conclusion
Producers and artists discover songs from numerous sources. Publishing companies are in
the business of placing songs with artists. When an artist is planning to record his or her first
album, major publishers might not want to submit A-list material. Publishers are interested in
sales and have a better chance of selling large numbers of albums with artists who have had
past successes.
Publishers and writers will agree to license “A” material to unknown artists for several
reasons:

A major label is committed to promoting the artist and assures the publisher that the song
will receive attention.
The artist or producer might have a personal relationship with the songwriter.
Producers who are “hot” (producing hits) can usually acquire the best songs.

It is wise for a professional lyric writer to study grammar. This is not to imply that all lyrics
have to be grammatically correct. The majority of popular songs are written in the vernacular
of the target audience (e.g., hip-hop). The expressions used in lyrics of most songs are
effective because the lyricist is talking directly to the target demographic; conversational lyrics
are generally the best means of communicating with audiences.
Other styles of music require lyrics that appeal to a general audience, and proper grammar
crafts a more literate and successful lyric. Regardless of the format, a lyric that is confusing or
that rambles is not acceptable.
Most successful producers do not necessarily go into the studio to “record a hit.” Their
goal is to produce artistic recordings; the hits will follow. That means proper song selection.

Author’s Note: I know successful artistic people working in various fields, and they all share the
same goal––to produce creative work.

Artists in various genres climb into the top of the Billboard charts. Among them are some
highly unusual artists whose music does not fit the mold of the general marketplace. Singers
such as Michael Bublé, Josh Groban, and Andrea Bocelli appeal to a mature demographic and
do not receive the same amount of airplay as artists who cater to a younger demographic. That
suggests two scenarios: (1) The older demographic is buying adult music, and (2) The albums
are not driven by a hit single. The albums are selling in the millions and are a testament to the
importance of song selection. (Michael Bublé has been including at least one pop song on his
latest releases and has had pop hits as a result. This has increased his demographic as well as
increased the sales of his albums.)
Many songwriters are also producers. They have a musical vision and consequently want to
produce the first recorded versions of the songs they wrote. The copyright laws provide the
songwriter(s) with the right to assign the first recording of a song to an artist of their choice.
After the first recording has been released, any artist can record the song as long as he or she
applies for a compulsory license. (This subject will be covered in the chapter dealing with
music publishing.)
Songwriters are not necessarily good producers. Songwriting is certainly a good training
ground for production because of the detail and thought that must be applied to writing songs.
Songwriters understand musical structure, but many are not necessarily skilled arrangers; they
find it difficult to guide or write arrangements of the songs. It is wise for songwriters to study
orchestration, arranging, and recording technology if they want to become artful producers.
Songs are the backbone of any production.

Assignment
Choose 3 popular songs (in the styles listed below), and analyze the lyric and the musical
form. Include in your answer the following:

The musical form (example, AABA): Why is the melody holding the audience’s interest?
The lyric format (example, Verse A, Chorus 1 or A, etc.)
The style of lyric (example, message song)

If you choose the third option, explain the content of the lyric and why you feel the audience
will remain interested in the lyric, then choose songs in three of the following styles to analyze:
Storyline song
Chorus or hook song
Verse-only song with a refrain
Message song
Novelty song
5

Arranging and Orchestration

It’s easy to play any musical instrument: all you have to do is touch the right key at the right time and the instrument
will play itself.
—J. S. Bach

This chapter is not intended to teach arranging but rather to discuss arranging concepts that will
aid producers.
To gather an understanding of arranging and orchestration, listen to all genres of music and
study scores. Reviewing the classics as well as the best of commercial-music scoring
(recordings, film scores, commercials, etc.) provides the groundwork that leads to learning
how to arrange and orchestrate. It also provides a foundation that will help producers guide
arrangers and orchestrators. Knowledge of arranging and orchestration is essential to
producing music.
Compositions are the foundation of music productions, and the arrangements and
orchestrations are the interior walls. If the foundation (songs/instrumentals) is weak, the
house falls—if the compositions are “strong” and the interior walls are weak (arrangements),
the house stands, but it is dangerous!
Arranging is the process of choosing a musical environment for a song or instrumental.
One song can be arranged in many styles (e.g., R&B, pop, and rock ’n’ roll). The arranger sets
the tempo, the chord structure, and the feel (mood), usually in conjunction with the producer
and the artist. An arrangement is a detailed piece of music often first written as a condensed
score, such as a piano part. Orchestration is the process of choosing the instruments to play
the notes within the arrangement. Painters choose colors and orchestrators choose
instruments.
Following the selection of songs (instrumentals), conceptualizing the arrangements and
the orchestrations is––arguably––the most important function of music producers.
Producers must communicate their creative visions to artists and arrangers. A thorough
understanding of the musical personality of an artist is essential to accomplishing this goal. An
arrangement sets the mood of a composition, and an inappropriate arrangement and/or
orchestration will project the wrong emotion. Arrangements and orchestrations make
significant contributions to the creative concepts of overall projects.
Most band members arrange the band’s music and the producer helps to rearrange the music
for the studio recording. The main difference between arranging for the recording studio and
arranging for a live performance is the length of the arrangement. Artists usually expand the
compositions when performing. There is more room for improvisation and spontaneity during a
live performance. The audience’s reaction usually dictates the length of the arrangement.
Extended arrangements heard on a recording can sometimes become tedious due to the lack of
visual excitement; listeners can easily become bored. Also, for practical purposes, most radio
stations playing popular music will not play tracks longer than 3 1/2 minutes in length, which is
the average time of a radio single. (If the original recording is over 3:30, record labels usually
offer radio stations one or two shorter radio edits, which are assembled to accommodate the
needs of radio stations.)
In addition, it is easier to feature certain instruments in a studio recording. For example, a
harmonica can be recorded on a separate track and the sound can sail above an orchestra. To
replicate that during a live performance, the sound engineer has to be familiar with the
arrangement and raise the level of the harmonica at the proper time. Also, effects processing is
easier to apply in a recording studio. Both of these examples can be reproduced during a live
performance, but it is more difficult.
It is generally easier for an arranger to use studio technology as an intrinsic part of the
arrangement when specifically arranging for a studio session. For instance, repeated eighth
notes generated by a synthesizer can be created through the use of a digital signal processor
(DSP), such as a tap echo, rather than writing out the notes. The DSP gives the pattern a better
groove. This effect is heard in techno music. The creative use of reverberation creates an
ambience, which directly affects the manner in which the arrangement is written. Studio
arrangers (of popular music) think of technology as a part of the arrangement. Technology is
easier to apply in a studio than during a live performance, although modern technology has
made it simpler to re-create the effects while performing.
The primary objective of an arranger (and producer) is to craft innovative arrangements that
capture the musical persona of an artist. Producing music is making choices. Musically trained
producers can communicate in musical terms, which is valuable when steering an arranger in a
specific artistic direction.
Producers must understand the concept and flow of an arrangement in order to guide or
“produce” the arrangement. They should have the ability to choose the most appropriate
instrumentation, which is the basis for the final orchestration. The instrumentation, or
synthesized sounds, creates a musical soundscape for an artist. Producers must also be certain
that the format of the arrangement is appropriate. For instance, producers might suggest a
musical interlude after the first chorus and prior to the second verse; they may also suggest that
the second chorus repeat before the next section begins. These suggestions are also usually
discussed with the artist.
Consider these ideas, which build on concepts presented earlier, when addressing the
arranging process:

When a band records, the arrangements will be consistent because they are the “sound” of
the band. If a solo artist hires an arranger(s), the producer has to be concerned that a
coherent sound is present throughout the album. The artist and the producer must agree on
the style of the arrangements as well as the instrumentation.
 Using the same instrumentation, musicians, engineer, and studio throughout an album
helps achieve a coherent sonic image. That is not always possible and most likely not
probable. To achieve sonic unity, at the least, it is best to hire one engineer to mix the
album. An engineer can create a consistent sound through the use of a particular recording
console (e.g., SSL or Neve), equalization, reverberation, compression, and additional
signal processing. If this is not feasible, the executive producer’s job is to guide the
various producers and engineers so that the album has sonic unity throughout.
The arrangement should complement the lyric. A skilled arranger captures the emotion
of a lyric. That is accomplished in both the arrangement and the orchestration. A producer
should guide an arranger before the arranger begins work. Certain sections of a lyric
might suggest interesting harmonic variations or obvious accents that will make the
arrangement and orchestration more interesting. Competent producers have definite
arranging ideas, which can be crucial to achieving the album’s overall sound.
The arrangement should complement the lead vocal. If a lead singer does not have a
powerful voice, the arrangement and orchestration should not overpower the vocal. If the
vocals are strong and rhythmic, the arrangement and orchestration can be more flexible.
The choice of instruments must be based on the quality of the vocals or lead instruments
(and also the budget).

The Instruments
The understanding of the range and tessitura (the most effective range of an instrument or
voice) of musical instruments is essential to the study of arranging. It is necessary to think in
terms of the generic sound of each instrument and write the parts accordingly. Without
understanding the fundamental problems and restrictions of each instrument, an arranger cannot
create a well-defined arrangement. One of the foremost problems with novice arrangers is that
they do not understand the breathing problems and additional physical concerns inherent in the
playing of wind and brass instruments. For example, brass players cannot continuously play
high notes. Their lips cannot sustain that kind of abuse. It might sound acceptable played on a
synthesizer or sampler but will certainly not be playable by a musician. Understanding the
physical limitations of all instruments provides a composer with the necessary knowledge to
write parts that will sound generic to the instruments.
It is necessary to understand music theory and harmony before studying arranging. In
addition to traditional training, it is advisable to also study jazz theory and harmony. That
provides a solid background, which enables a student to tackle almost any arranging style.
Without a foundation in the essentials of music, it is difficult to become an accomplished
arranger.
The following are condensed descriptions of the various sections and instruments of the
orchestra and studio bands. The study of arranging and orchestration is a lifetime of work. At
minimum, producers should have the ability to intelligently guide arrangers and orchestrators.
Orchestrators are used extensively in film scoring and for Broadway shows. In most
instances, time does not permit the composers to also orchestrate. (Low budget film scoring
requires the composer to also orchestrate.)

Strings
The string section is the foundation of the orchestra. It comprises violins, violas, cellos,
and double basses. The string section is designed to emulate the traditional range of human
voices: sopranos are the first violins, altos are the second violins, the tenors are violas, the
bass/baritones are the cellos, and the basses are the double basses. (The double basses usually
double the cellos an octave lower in traditional orchestral orchestration.) The string section
provides the bed for the orchestration. The strings also blend well with the other sections of
the orchestra.
Professional string players have remarkable technical dexterity and can perform virtually
anything that is written by a schooled orchestrator. If an arranger feels a passage might not be
playable, he or she is well advised to consult with a string player who plays the instrument in
question.
The string section is the most flexible section of the orchestra. Strings can sound warm as
well as strident and raucous. A large variety of effects can be achieved through the use of
various bowing and fingering techniques. The following is a list of some techniques; consult an
orchestration book to study the symbols used to indicate the effects.

Arco: Playing with a bow.

Pizzicato: Plucking the strings with the player’s fingers rather than using a bow.
Up-bow: Moving the bow in an upward position.
Down-bow: Moving the bow in a downward position.
Slur: A bow marking that connects a series of notes while the bow moves in one
continuous direction.
Staccato: The bow moves in very short strokes, creating a jagged effect.
Spiccato: The bow bounces off the strings.
Jeté: The bow bounces off the strings with the addition of bow markings, which indicates
the direction of the bow.
Detaché: Detaché means detached. Each note that is underlined indicates that the note
must be held for its full value. The bow alternates between up-bow and down-bow.
Louré: Each note is underlined with the same marking used in detaché. The difference is
that there are slur markings over the desired notes. The player must briefly pause between
notes while keeping the bow in one direction.
Tremolo: The bow moves up and back in rapid succession creating a shimmering effect.
Tremolo is indicated by putting a series of lines through the stem of a note.
Sul Ponticello: The bow is placed in close proximity to the bridge of the instrument. The
technique produces a thin, shimmering sound.
Sul Tasto: The bow strikes the string near or over the fingerboard. A very thin tone is
produced. Sur la touché is the French phrase used for the same bowing.
 Col Legno: The player strikes the strings with the wooden part of the bow rather than
traditional bow hairs. The effect is similar to the sound of staccato bowing.
Portamento: The fingers smoothly slide from one note to another.

The following are descriptions of string effects:

Mute: A small piece of wood that is placed on the bridge of the instrument. Mutes
produce an almost muffled effect. The orchestrator marks sordino to indicate the insertion
of the mute; senza sordino means to remove the mute.
Vibrato: The finger vibrating quickly, slightly below a note and quickly returning to the
note produces the most frequently used sound on a stringed instrument. Vibratos vary
between players, and the actual sound can sometimes help the listener identify the
performer. Sometimes a composer does not want to hear vibrato. That is indicated by N.V.
or the words no vibrato on the score.
Trill: A quick movement of the fingers between two notes achieves a trill. The trilled
notes are usually indicated above the note with the symbol tr.
Harmonics: Harmonics produce a very thin and sparkly effect. There are two kinds of
harmonics: (1) Natural harmonics are played on the open strings by barely touching the
string a fourth above the open string. That produces a sound two octaves above the note.
(2) Artificial harmonics are created by placing a finger a fourth above the desired note,
which already has been chosen or stopped by another finger. The resulting note sounds
two octaves above the stopped note. To indicate an artificial harmonic, the
orchestrator/composer places a diamond-shaped note a fourth above the chosen note.
Placing a small circle above a note indicates a natural harmonic.

It is necessary for producers to understand the number of string players needed (in a studio
session) to achieve the rich and lush sound expected of a string section. Budget restrictions
mostly dictate the number of players. This must be established before arranging a song
(instrumental) because the number of musicians dictates the manner in which the parts should
be orchestrated. For example, if there are only six violins playing high divisi (divided) parts
the section will sound very thin. If the parts are played in the midrange with close harmony, the
section will sound full. It is best for a producer to consult with the orchestrator/arranger before
contracting a string section.
String players have the ability to play chords. Since navigating through each stringed
instrument is different, the orchestrator must study each instrument and learn which chords can
be played and how long it takes to change from one chord to another. Chords are mostly used
as an effect rather than as a common compositional tool. Orchestration books cover this subject
in detail.
 String samples are available for both synthesizers and samplers. Because of budget restrictions, string
parts are played on synthesizers or with string samplers. The programmer must be aware of certain
restrictions. For example, some of the bowings are difficult to achieve with samples. If the arranger is not
familiar with scoring for real strings, the parts might not sound generic. The string writing will sound like the
work of a keyboard player trying to emulate a live section without understanding the limitations and/or
technical dexterity available with live string players. Arrangers also combine live strings with synthesized or
sampled strings to enrich the overall sound.

Violin
Violins are divided into two sections: first violins and second violins. The remarkable
technical ability of the players enables a composer to write almost anything that comes to his
or her imagination. Evocative string writing can project virtually any human emotion. The
violin is one of the most popular solo instruments.
Range: The violin is a nontransposing instrument. Notes are written in the treble clef and
sound where written. The highest note is E two octaves above the treble clef. The lowest note
is G below middle C.

Figure 5.1. Violin Open Strings

Figure 5.2. Violin Range

Viola
The viola is a little larger than a violin, and parts are generally written below the violin
parts. Some orchestrators occasionally write viola parts in the middle of the violin parts. The
viola has never achieved the same popularity as the violin because the sound is not as rich, and
the instrument is not as versatile. The sound of the violas blend well with the cellos. Moving
counter lines, sometimes written in unison with the cellos, is a signature sound of the violas.
Range: The viola is a nontransposing instrument. Notes are written in the alto clef and sound
where written. The highest note is E one octave above the treble clef. The lowest note is C one
octave below middle C. When the notes are high, the treble clef can be used.

Figure 5.3. Viola Open Strings

Figure 5.4. Viola Range

Cello (Violincello)
Cellos are the basses of the string section while the double basses are the sub-basses. Cellos
have a rich and beautiful sound and can provide both sweet-sounding passages and deep and
dark passages. The instrument is large, but the players have remarkable technical agility on the
instrument. Cellos blend well with the violas and are capable of playing beautiful solo
passages.
Range: The cello is a nontransposing instrument. The notes are written mostly in the bass
clef and sound where written. The highest note is A above the treble clef. The lowest note is C
two octaves below middle C. When notes are played on the D or A string, parts can be written
in the tenor clef; higher parts can be written in the treble clef.

Figure 5.5. Cello Open Strings

Figure 5.6. Cello Range

Double Bass
The double basses play the lowest notes in the string section. In certain musical styles (e.g.,
baroque) the basses play in octaves with the cellos. Although the parts are notated the same as
the cellos, the double basses sound one octave lower, creating a deep bass, while the cellos
provide the clarity to the sound. Since double basses are larger than other string instruments,
additional strokes are required when bowing.
In traditional jazz performance, pizzicato (finger-plucking) is the most common method of
playing. Rock bass players play electric basses, which look like guitars but are tuned the same
as a four-string double bass. (Some electric basses have more than four strings.)
Range: The double bass is written in the bass clef, tenor clef, and treble clef, and sounds one
octave below the written pitch. The highest sounding note is B above middle C. The lowest
sounding note is E, four ledger lines below the bass clef; some basses have a low C.

Figure 5.7. Double Bass Open Strings

Figure 5.8. Double Bass Range: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Harp
The harp is a unique and complex instrument. It is tuned in the key of C and is played by
plucking the strings. Maneuvering seven pedals, one for each scale note, can change the open
notes upward by two semitones; all octaves of the same note change when a pedal is
depressed. The harp has a range of six octaves (forty-seven strings) and blends especially well
with the strings and woodwinds. The signature sound of the harp is a glissando or gliss. The
orchestrator indicates the beginning note and ending note of a gliss (and the notes in between
or a chord symbol is indicated in place of the interior notes), which the harpist plays by
moving his or her fingers rapidly through the strings. The harp also plays single notes and
chords, but the parts must be written with a minimum of chromatics. If the tempo is too rapid,
the harpist cannot change the pedals quickly enough to play chromatically.

Figure 5.9. Harp

Range: The harp is a nontransposing instrument. Harp notation is written in the treble and
bass clefs; the notes sound where written. The highest note is G (8va) above the treble clef.
The lowest note is C, one octave below the bass clef.

Woodwinds
Woodwinds introduce numerous musical colors to the orchestra. The birdlike sounds of the
piccolo and flute, the “humorous” and haunting bassoon sound––familiar to many in
Prokofiev’s Peter and the Wolf––the open, hollow sound of the clarinets, and the beautiful
nasal sounds of the English horn and the oboe all contribute to the traditional orchestral
woodwind section. Woodwinds blend particularly well with the strings.

Piccolo
The piccolo is a baby flute and is primarily used to create special effects and to play the
highest parts in the orchestra. Flute players double on piccolo. The piccolo is commonly
known for the obbligato parts written for marches.

Figure 5.10. Piccolo: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written
Figure 5.11. C Flute Range

Range: Piccolo parts are written in the treble clef and sound one octave higher than the
written pitch. The highest note is D two octaves above the treble clef. The lowest note is D,
notated directly above middle C.

Flute in C
The C flute plays the highest woodwind parts in an orchestra (piccolo is used sparingly).
The flute has a three-octave range. The low notes are difficult to hear and should therefore be
used only if the orchestration is quiet and sparse; the highest notes can be played only with
force and should be used sparingly. The highest notes are traditionally used when doubled with
other instruments (or played in octaves). The additional instruments lend support to the flute,
which is generally piercing in the upper octave. Flutists have great technical agility, which is
analogous to the technical prowess of string players.
The flute is a popular solo instrument in traditional classical musical styles and is also
popular in jazz and Latin music.
Range: The C flute is a nontransposing instrument. The notes are written in the treble clef
and sound where written. The highest note is C 8va above the treble clef. The lowest note is
middle C.

Figure 5.12. Alto Flute: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Alto Flute
The alto flute is a popular instrument in commercial music. It is used sparingly in traditional
orchestral music. The alto flute produces a warm sound, but because it is inherently quiet it
must sometimes be doubled with an additional alto flute to be heard. The player must force
more air into the instrument than into a C flute; therefore parts should not be written that
require the same technical dexterity as the C flute. The high range of the alto flute is a poor
imitation of the C flute and should be used cautiously. The rich tones are found in the midrange.
Range: Alto flute parts are written in the treble clef and sound a perfect fourth below the
written pitch. The highest sounding note is G, four ledger lines above the treble clef. The
lowest sounding note is G below middle C.

Bass Flute
The bass flute produces a beautiful low sound, which is similar in timbre to that of the alto
flute. The performer must produce a substantial amount of air in order for the instrument to be
heard. Bass flutes are soft; therefore several performers playing in unison might be required to
hear the part in an orchestral setting. The orchestrator should not write technically difficult
parts because of the physical limitations of the instrument; the orchestration surrounding the
bass flute should be sparse for the instrument to be heard. The bass flute is not a traditional
orchestral instrument. It is often used in film scores, where it can be amplified.

Most cultures have endemic flutes made of various materials and containing a variety of tunings.
Many film composers are familiar with the various sounds of ethnic flutes because they can bring a unique
quality to an orchestration, when used effectively.

Range: Bass flute parts are written in the treble clef and sound one octave below the written
pitch. The highest sounding note is F on the top line of the treble clef. The lowest sounding
note is C one octave below middle C.

Double Reeds: Oboe

The oboe uses a double reed as a mouthpiece.

Figure 5.13. Bass Flute: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Oboes have a beautiful nasal, expressive quality, and they are often used to play solos in an
orchestral setting. The double-reeded mouthpiece is made of cane. The nasal sound played
with vibrato can be one of the most effective sounds in the orchestra. Oboists have impressive
technical dexterity, and the sound of the oboe blends perfectly with the other woodwinds and
also with the strings. Flutes and oboes played in unison or in octaves produce an especially
lovely sonority.
Figure 5.14. Oboe

Oboists spend endless hours making reeds, which is an art form. Many oboists make reeds
for certain purposes. For example, some reeds are used for parts played primarily in the upper
registers, while other reeds work more effectively in dry weather.
The oboe is a unique instrument because reed making enables a performer to produce a
unique sound rather than one produced by instruments with standard mouthpieces. (A
performer’s embouchure and training also contribute to the final sound of the instrument.)

Traditionally, the oboe player sounds the concert A, which is used as a benchmark by which the
other orchestral members tune their instruments. The oboe is the only orchestral instrument that cannot be
tuned.

Range: The oboe is a nontransposing instrument. The notes are written in the treble clef and
sound where written. The highest sounding note is F one octave above the treble clef. The
lowest sounding note is B below middle C.

Double Reeds: English Horn

The English horn uses a double reed as a mouthpiece. The English horn is a tenor oboe and
is fingered the way an oboe is. The lower range of the instrument produces a rich and warm
sound that is unique to the instrument. It is frequently used for soloing.
Range: English horn parts are written in the treble clef and sound a perfect fifth below the
written note. The highest sounding note is B directly above the treble clef. The lowest
sounding note is E below middle C.

Double Reeds: Bassoon

The bassoon uses a double reed as a mouthpiece.

Figure 5.15. English Horn: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Bassoons produce what could be characterized as the happiest and most playful sound in the
orchestra; they can also sound warm, sad, or dark. The low, beautiful, and unique sounds blend
beautifully with the low strings. The high sounds are weak but can be useful in specific
circumstances. They can produce an almost comic quality and are often used to create that
effect.
Range: The bassoon is a nontransposing instrument. The notes are written in the bass clef
and sound where written. The highest sounding note is E, notated on the top space of the treble
clef. The lowest sounding note is B below the bass clef. Some players can reach a high E
natural. The tenor clef is often used if notes are high.

Double Reeds: Contrabassoon

The contrabassoon uses a double reed as a mouthpiece. The sound can generate a distinct
low-end sonority. They are rarely used in popular music but can be very effective when used
prudently.

Figure 5.16. Bassoon

Range: Contrabassoon parts are written in the bass clef and sound one octave below where
written. The highest sounding note is F, notated on the third line in the bass clef. The lowest
sounding note is B, notated one octave below the B, which is notated directly below the bass
clef.

Clarinets

Figure 5.17. Contrabassoon: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Clarinets use single reeds and a hard rubber mouthpiece. Because of the round and warm
sound, clarinets blend well with the other woodwinds, as well as with the string section. They
are used equally in classical music, jazz, and all forms of popular music. From the wonderful
obbligatos played in Dixieland music (B clarinet) to the lead clarinet harmonized by
saxophones in the 1940s Glenn Miller Band, the clarinet has proven to be a versatile
instrument.
 Most traditional orchestrations contain two clarinets. Generally, it is not wise to have
clarinets play in unison. Intonation problems can occur, and the sound is not particularly
pleasing. Clarinets are built in various keys.
B clarinet is the most common clarinet used in commercial music. The players have
marvelous technical dexterity and can play almost anything that is generically written for the
instrument. Parts are written in the treble clef and sound one full step below where it is
written. The highest sounding note is F, notated above the treble clef. It is possible to play
higher. The lowest sounding note is D below middle C.
Clarinet in A parts are written in the treble clef and sound a minor third below where
written. The highest sounding note is F, notated on the third ledger line above the treble clef.
It is possible to play higher. The lowest sounding note is D below middle C.
Clarinet in E parts are written in the treble clef and sound a minor third above where
written. The highest sounding note is C, notated one octave above the treble clef. It is possible
to play higher. The lowest sounding note is G below middle C.
Alto clarinet in E parts are written in the treble clef and sound a major sixth lower. The
highest sounding note is G, notated on the first space above the treble clef. The lowest
sounding note is G, notated on the lowest line of the bass clef.

Figure 5.18. B Clarinet: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Figure 5.19. A Clarinet: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Bass clarinet in B sounds one octave below the B clarinet. It produces a beautiful low and
resonant sound. The bass clarinet blends well with other low instruments. Bass clarinet parts
are written in the treble clef and sound a major ninth lower. The highest sounding note is F
above middle C. The lowest sounding note is D below the bass clef.

Saxophones
Saxophones are made of brass but are still considered woodwinds. They are played with a
single reed that is attached to a plastic or rubber mouthpiece.

Figure 5.20. E Clarinet: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Figure 5.21. Alto Clarinet: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Figure 5.22. Bass Clarinet: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Traditionally, saxophones have not been extensively used in orchestral music. Some of the
romantic composers, such as Bizet and Richard Strauss, incorporate saxophones in some
compositions. They are widely used in band music and small ensembles and are periodically
used in compositions by modern orchestral composers.
All forms of popular music have traditionally incorporated saxophones. Jazz musicians have
showcased the saxophone more than any other musical genre. The big-band sound of five
saxophones (two altos, two tenors, and one baritone—the bass saxophone is rarely used) is the
traditional section. The smooth and expressive section sound was showcased during the swing
era. The raw and expressive sound of the tenor saxophone has long been heard in rock ’n’ roll
and R&B bands.
The saxophone is not considered a traditional orchestral instrument, although some
saxophone parts were written in concert music (mostly during the twentieth century).
Saxophones are used in traditional band music and wind symphonies.
The saxophones, as a section, are most recognized as the backbone of a traditional jazz big-
band sound. The players have remarkable technical ability. The saxophone is the most popular
solo instrument in all forms of jazz and popular styles of music (with the exception of the
electric guitar in rock ’n’ roll).
Saxophonists are able to perform music written for virtuosos. Professional players can
perform very difficult passages requiring amazing technical dexterity. Most saxophonists who
play commercial music also play additional woodwinds. Traditional doubles are flute and
clarinet; some saxophonists also play oboe and English horn. Playing multiple woodwinds
affords the instrumentalist more job opportunities. Saxophones blend well with all sections of
the orchestra.
Range: Saxophones are built in various keys, and they all have a written range from B or B
below middle C to E or F above the treble clef.
Soprano saxophone in B has been a popular solo instrument in jazz music. The alto
saxophone is generally used as the top voice in most saxophone sections, but the soprano
saxophone is sometimes added to achieve a higher range. Parts are written in the treble clef
and sound one step lower than where written. The highest sounding note is E above the treble
clef. It is possible to play higher. The lowest sounding note is A below middle C.

Figure 5.23. Saxophones: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Alto saxophone in E is traditionally the top voice in a saxophone section. Many jazz
saxophonists (e.g., Charlie Parker, Paul Desmond) play alto as their primary instrument. Since
a traditional saxophone section has two altos, the second harmony part is usually played by the
second alto, although the tenor saxophone is sometimes written to play the second harmony
part. In this case the second alto plays the part directly below the tenor saxophone. Parts are
written in the treble clef and sound a major sixth below the written note. The highest sounding
note is usually an A above the treble clef. It is possible to play higher. The lowest sounding
note is D below middle C.

Soprano saxophones are built in two different shapes. The most common shape looks like an
oversized clarinet but is longer and wider. Some sopranos have the same shape as the other saxophones.
Both versions sound the same. (Some soprano saxophones are built in E.)
 Tenor saxophone in B is a solo instrument in rock ’n’ roll, rhythm & blues, and jazz, and
has achieved even greater popularity than the alto saxophone. The traditional saxophone
section has two tenors. Parts are written in the treble clef and sound a major ninth below
where written. The highest sounding note is usually an E, notated on the top space of the treble
clef. The lowest sounding note is A, notated on the lowest space of the bass clef.
Baritone saxophone in E, referred to as a bari sax, is traditionally the lowest member of the
commercial saxophone section. Although not normally used as a solo instrument, there have
been some stellar jazz solo performers, such as Gerry Mulligan and Pepper Adams. The
baritone sax was widely used in early rock ’n’ roll, especially in the 1950s. Parts are written
in the treble clef and sound an octave and a major sixth below where written. The highest
sounding note is usually A above middle C. The lowest sounding note is D notated below
the bass clef. It is possible to play higher.
Bass saxophone in B is the largest of the saxophones and is rarely used. It produces a very
low and resonant sound. The bass saxophone is a huge, bulky instrument and difficult to play. It
produces a very low and grand bass in any musical setting. Parts are written in the treble clef
and sound two octaves and a full step below where written. The highest sounding note is
usually E above middle C. The lowest sounding note is A, notated below the bass clef.

Brass
The brass adds both fire and richness to the sound of the orchestra. From the blaring, call-to-
action trumpets to the all-encompassing hunting calls of the French horns and the deep and full-
sounding tubas and the slide trombones, the brass fulfill an array of orchestral duties. Brass
adds excitement and also provides a rich background to the most sensitive passages.
The French horns blend flawlessly with the strings, as do the trombones. The tubas in unison
with the basses provide a perfect blend that enhances the bottom end of the orchestra. Open
trumpets (without mutes) add midrange to high-range passages with a timbre that no other
instrument can provide. Brass instruments are able to incorporate mutes, which change the
sounds of the instruments; mutes are inserted into an instrument’s bell. The orchestrator
indicates when a mute should be used. Muted trumpets are particularly popular in commercial
music. French horn players use the right hand as a standard mute in addition to a traditional
physical mute.
In addition to playing the traditional fanfare parts written by many composers, brass players
have the ability to double- and triple-tongue, creating a sound unique to brass. Brass
instruments also sound good playing in unison, unlike most woodwinds.
Since the embouchure of brass players greatly affects the sound, the composer must be
certain that the player receives enough rest between long passages. When a brass player’s lips
are fatigued, they cannot play, or the intonation might be compromised. The composer should
write within the tessitura of the instrument. Writing long passages that are too high or too low
often causes great fatigue for the performer.
 When a mute is inserted the player has more difficulty inserting air into the instrument. That must
be considered when a composer is writing a passage because the extra air affects the player’s technical
dexterity.

Trumpet in B
The B trumpet is the leader of the brass section in most commercial musical settings.
Traditionally, a big band has three to four trumpets. The B trumpet is the most common kind of
the instrument, although throughout history trumpets have been constructed in many keys.
The cup mute, the harmon mute, and the straight mute are the most common mutes. Sometimes
a rubber plunger is also used as a mute. The arranger/composer should be familiar with the
timbres produced by various mutes.
Trumpets sound best playing in close harmony, in octaves, and in unison.
Range: Trumpet parts are written in the treble clef and sound one step below where written.
The highest sounding note is C above the treble clef. The lowest sounding note is E, notated
below the treble clef. Most professional players can play much higher. (Low E can be played
but is generally not practical unless the composer is trying to write a pedal tone effect.)

Orchestration books provide details on additional trumpets, such as the piccolo trumpet, which
produces a high and unique sound.

French Horn in F
The modern French horn is pitched in the key of F. (Some symphony players prefer to use the
horn in B.) As with other brass instruments, the French hornist changes the natural overtones of
the instrument by changing her embouchure. French horns have three valves, which enable the
player to achieve chromatic tones.
The majestic sound of French horns playing in unison or in fifths cuts through an orchestra
with an important and sometimes soothing sound.
Figure 5.24. Trumpet Range: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

The sound of the instrument is unique. The room seems to be filled with a magnificent sound.
Most orchestras have 3 or 4 French hornists. (Some film scores contain 8 horns.)
French horn players use cup mutes and straight mutes; unlike trumpeters, they cannot use a
harmon mute. Players usually keep one hand over the bell in order to achieve a muffled, distant
sound; they also play with an open bell. Do not write high parts for the French horn that last a
long period of time. It is difficult to perform, and the sound of the horns will seem overused.
There are numerous solo French horn pieces written for orchestra and chamber music. Jazz
French hornist soloists are rare, but French horns are used in jazz orchestras. They blend with
all sections of the orchestra. Arguably, they are best used for legato passages, although staccato
and sforzando passages are part of their signature sound. Arrangers must allow the players
space to rest because the instrument is difficult to play and the performers’ lips can easily
become fatigued.
Range: French horn parts are written primarily in the treble clef and sound a perfect fifth
below where it is written. If notes are written in a low register, the bass clef may be used. The
lowest written note is F, below the bass clef, and the highest written note is D, the fourth line
on the treble clef. Some hornists can play higher.
Many arrangers do not write a key signature and notate the accidentals.

Tenor Trombone (Slide Trombone)

The tenor slide trombone section of a commercial jazz band usually consists of either 3 or 4
players. The bass trombone plays the lowest part.

Figure 5.25. French Horn: Historical Notation, Although Most Contemporary Arrangers Use Key Signatures.

Trombones are unique because of the ability to play portamento passages, which are
achieved by using the slide. Trombones are also known for open and closed individual notes
and musical passages played with plunger mutes. The sound is unique to trombones. They
blend well with strings and also support upper brass passages.
Accomplished trombonists play with remarkable technical dexterity. An arranger must know
the ability of a player before writing parts that are not typically written for the instrument.
Range: The tenor trombone is a nontransposing instrument. Notes are written in the bass clef
and sound where written; parts written in the upper registers are usually notated in the tenor
clef. The highest sounding note is B, notated in the tenor clef. The lowest sounding note is E,
notated below the bass clef. Many professional players can play higher.

Bass Trombone
The bass trombone is one of the most all-consuming sounds heard in both an orchestral
setting and a commercial band or orchestra. It blends well with virtually all of the low-end
instruments. Other orchestral instruments cannot duplicate the bass trombone’s low, resonant
sound.

Valve trombones are rarely used, but some jazz players enjoy playing them because they afford the
performer more opportunities to play with the same dexterity as other instruments with valves. Not all slide
trombonists know how to play valve trombones. Many trumpet players play valve trombones.

Range: The bass trombone is a nontransposing instrument. Parts are written in the bass clef
and sound where written. The highest sounding note is usually B, notated in the tenor clef, and
the higher notes are written in the tenor clef. Professional players can play higher. The lowest
sounding note is B, notated below the bass clef.

Figure 5.26. Tenor Trombone

Tuba

Figure 5.27. Bass Trombone

Tubas blend well with the double basses, bass trombone, cellos, and additional low
instruments. Tubas rarely use mutes because mutes are cumbersome. Tubas are made in various
keys. The most popular tuba, which is used in popular music, is a nontransposing instrument.
Most tubas have four valves, but some have six.
Range: The tuba is a nontransposing instrument. Parts are written in the bass clef and sound
where written. The highest sounding note is usually G above the bass clef. The lowest
sounding note is F, notated one octave below the bass clef. (Some players can play a low D.)

Percussion
Percussion instruments are either struck or shaken. Some have a tone, and others do not.
Since most cultures have indigenous percussion instruments, the instruments are too numerous
to mention.
The orchestral percussion instruments add spice to an orchestration. From the jingling of a
tambourine to the deep roll of the timpani, these special sonorities are unique.

Figure 5.28. Tuba

In popular music, congas, tambourines, shakers, and the standard drum kit have been the
backbone of the rhythm section. Mixing real percussion with synthesized percussive sounds is
commonplace in commercial music.

Timpani
Timpani drums are played by hitting the drumheads with mallets of various sizes and shapes.
Each drum can be tuned by tightening screws; modern timpani can be tuned by using a foot
pedal and by tightening one screw. The pitch can be changed through the use of foot pedals,
which either raises or lowers the pitch. The heads are made of either plastic or calfskin.
Timpani drums provide a unique contribution to the deep sound of the orchestra. Used
sparingly, they provide a percussive bass and sub-bass component to the orchestra. Playing the
same rhythmic patterns as the low brass and low strings is one of the most effective uses of the
timpani. A soft roll provides an eerie or soothing rumble. No other orchestral instrument can
duplicate the sound of timpani.
Although there are four timpani drums, usually only two are used––numbers two and four.
Range: The notes are written in the bass clef and sound where written:

The lowest sounding note of timpani #1 is D, notated below the bass clef. The highest
sounding note is A, notated on the lowest space of the bass clef.
 The lowest sounding note of timpani #2 is F below the bass clef. The highest sounding
note is C, notated within the bass clef.
The lowest sounding note of timpani #3 is B, notated within the bass clef. The highest
sounding note is F, notated within the bass clef.
The lowest sounding note of timpani #4 is D, notated within the bass clef. The highest
sounding note is A, notated within the bass clef.

Drum Kit
The commercial drum kit is the backbone of the commercial music section. The drum kit
consists of the following:

Bass drum (kick drum)

Snare drum

Figure 5.29. Timpani

Tom-toms
Hi-hat cymbals
Various ride and crash cymbals

Latin Percussion Instruments

Following are but a few of the Latin percussion instruments. They mix well with traditional
drums.

Conga drums
Bongo drums
Various shakers
Tambourine
Go-go bells
Cabasa
Claves

Traditional Orchestral Percussion Instruments

The following are the most common orchestral percussion instruments that do not have
definite pitches.

Concert bass drums

Snare drum
 Tenor drum
Wood blocks
Castanets
Tambourine
Tuned boobam drums
Temple blocks
Triangle

Piano
In most traditional music programs, the study of the piano is a necessary component of a
well-rounded music education. It enables a student to see (view the keys) harmony and hear
harmony.
The piano has been popular in all forms of music for centuries. Being polyphonic makes it a
stellar accompanying instrument for small instrumental combinations. Jazz pianists, pop
pianists (Billy Joel and Elton John), and the great classical pianists demonstrate the all-
encompassing versatility of, arguably, the greatest instrument ever invented.
In commercial music, keyboard skills are necessary to play synthesizers. Most commercial
keyboard players have the ability to program synthesizers and engineer productions. It has
become a matter of musical survival in the business of popular music.
Range: The notes are written in the treble and bass clefs and sound where written unless
indicated by a marking that indicates playing the part in a different octave. For example, 8va
means to play the note one octave above the written note. Writing it an octave lower makes
it easier for the performer to decipher the note. The highest sounding note is C (15ma) above
the treble clef. The lowest sounding note is A, notated one octave below the bass clef.

Celesta (Celeste)
The celesta is a small, bell-like keyboard that blends well with strings and woodwinds
because of its ethereal sound. It must be used sparingly, or its effect will not be appreciated.
The celesta provides an orchestral color that creates a soothing sonority.
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound one octave above where written.
The highest sounding note is C (16ma), above the C notated in the treble clef. The lowest
sounding note is middle C.
Figure 5.30. Piano

Glockenspiel
The glockenspiel is a bell-like instrument containing two rows of metal bars that are struck
by various metal mallets. The sound is reminiscent of a celesta but does not sound as delicate.
It adds a sparkling “top end” to the strings and woodwinds and must not be overused. The
glockenspiel does not usually sound good played in harmony or playing durations faster than
eighth notes unless the eighth notes are used infrequently and to produce a desired effect. The
glockenspiel’s harmonics ring and cause a sound of confusion.

Figure 5.31. Celesta: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound two octaves above where written.
The highest sounding note is C two octaves above the treble clef. The lowest sounding note is
G, notated above the treble clef.

Xylophone
The xylophone is an instrument constructed of tuned wooden bars that are hit with mallets.
Xylophones sound percussive. When played in conjunction with various sections of the
orchestra, the sound can be penetrating. The xylophone should be used sparingly to be
effective.
Figure 5.32. Glockenspiel: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound one octave above where written.
The highest sounding note is C two octaves above the treble clef. (Some xylophones go as high
as F or C above the treble clef.) The lowest sounding note is F, notated on the lowest space of
treble clef.

Figure 5.33. Xylophone: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Marimba
The marimba, struck by various kinds of mallets, is similar to a xylophone but does not
sound as piercing. Made in different sizes, a marimba is played with one to four mallets.
Chords are sometimes played with a rhythmic pattern, adding not only a percussive but also a
melodic part.
Range: The notes are written in the treble and bass clefs and sound where written. The
highest note is C two octaves above the treble clef. The lowest note is A, notated on the bottom
space of the bass clef.

Vibraphone
The vibraphone is essentially an electric marimba except that the bars are made of metal and
played with mallets made of various materials. Depressing the sustain pedal on the vibraphone
holds notes, as it does on a piano. The vibrato can be adjusted by turning a switch.

Figure 5.34. Marimba

The vibraphone has been widely used in jazz for many years by luminous vibraphonists, such
as Lionel Hampton, Milt Jackson, and Gary Burton. The vibes blend well with both acoustic
and electric pianos and morph into almost any instrumental setting.
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
F above the treble clef. The lowest note is F, notated below the treble clef. (Vibraphones are
made in various sizes and ranges.)

Guitar
Guitars are either electric or acoustic. The electric guitar is the most popular instrument in
rock ’n’ roll and other forms of popular music. Some acoustic guitars are amplified.

Figure 5.35. Vibraphone

Acoustic guitars have either nylon or metal strings. The choice of strings greatly affects the
sound of the instrument. Some guitars have six strings, while others have twelve; the number of
strings affects the sound. Guitarists use guitar picks or fingers to strike the strings. The use of a
metal or glass bar sliding along the fretboard is the signature sound of the blues.
The sound of electric guitars can vary with the addition of effects through the use of various
guitar-effects units. A large variety of guitar amplifiers and effects are built into certain guitars.
From the pure sound of most jazz guitarists to the raucous sound of heavy metal guitarists, the
instrument can produce a wide range of sounds and effects. A wide variety of guitars are
available.
Register: The guitar is written in the treble clef and sounds one octave below where written.
The highest sounding note is E, notated on the top space of the treble clef. The lowest
sounding note is E two octaves below the treble clef.

Figure 5.36. Guitar Open Strings

Figure 5.37. Guitar Range: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written
Voices
Voices are not traditionally included in orchestration books, but because of the extensive use
of voices in commercial music, the vocal ranges are included for reference.

Soprano I
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
C above the treble clef. The lowest note is B, notated below the treble clef. Some singers can
sing higher or lower.

Soprano II

Figure 5.38. Soprano I

Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
G above the treble clef. The lowest note is A, notated below the treble clef. Some singers can
sing higher or lower.

Figure 5.39. Soprano II

Alto I
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
F, notated on the top line of the treble clef. The lowest note is G, notated below the treble clef.
Some singers can sing higher or lower.
Figure 5.40. Alto I

Alto II
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
E, notated on the top line of the treble clef. The lowest note is F, notated below the treble clef.
Some singers can sing higher or lower.

Figure 5.41. Alto II

Tenor I
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound one octave lower than written. The
highest sounding note is C, notated within the treble clef. The lowest sounding note is middle
C one octave below middle C. Some singers can sing higher or lower.

Tenor II

Figure 5.42. Tenor I: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written

Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound one octave lower than written. The
highest sounding note is A, notated within the treble clef. The lowest sounding note is A,
notated on the last space of the bass clef. Some singers can sing higher or lower.

Figure 5.43. Tenor II: This Staff Indicates Where the Parts Are Written
Bass I
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
F, notated on the bottom space of the treble clef. The lowest note is F, notated on the bottom
space of the bass clef. Some singers can sing higher or lower.

Figure 5.44. Bass I

Bass II
Range: The notes are written in the treble clef and sound where written. The highest note is
E, notated on the first line of the treble clef. The lowest note is C, notated below the bass clef.
Some singers can sing higher or lower.

Figure 5.45. Bass II

Synthesizers and Samplers

The public has become familiar with the sounds of synthesizers and samplers and the
innovative ways in which they are used. Synthesizers and samplers became popular partially
because they are “chameleons.” Tailors tailor custom suits, and programmers tailor custom
sounds. Synthesizers and samplers are reasonably priced; consequently, producers and artists
are able to produce music inexpensively. If a project has a low budget, producers and artists
can create original music (records, film scores, television scores, commercials, etc.) using
synthesizers and samplers for a fraction of the cost of using all live musicians.

Virtual synthesizers and samplers are software versions modeled after analogous hardware
devices. The virtual devices can produce basically the same sounds as their counterparts and also have the
same editing functions. Generally, it is easier to program a virtual device than a hardware device.
 Synthesizers have changed the music industry. A synthesizer is an electronic instrument
containing a keyboard or a rack-mounted version (containing no keyboard and is triggered
by an external keyboard or another device, such as a guitar), which is capable of
producing and editing both analog and/or digital sounds. Analog in music means that a
synthesizer produces sounds that either are analogous to real instruments or can be
programmed to produce innovative sounds. (It is accomplished by creating algorithms.)
Samplers are devices that record and play back digital audio. Some samplers only play
back.
Techno dance music is an example of a musical style that contains mainly analog
synthesis. Programmers specializing in this style are masters of creating sounds.
Programming sounds is artistic more than it is technical.
Tracks containing sampled oboes, flutes, and violins are generally played on synthesizers
or samplers and are usually sampled sounds of real instruments.
Third-party manufacturers record and sell samples of orchestral instruments, band
instruments, percussion grooves, individual percussion instruments, drum kit grooves,
individual drum kit instruments, sound effects, analogue synthesizer sounds, a variety of
loops, and subcategories of all of the above. The sounds can be loaded into synthesizers
and samplers (both hardware versions and software versions).

When synthesizers first became popular, clients viewed the ability to create popular electronic music as a
means of cutting production costs. Since synthesizers were not meant to replace live musicians, the
musicians’ union incorporated new laws by which employers were required to pay the same union scale that a
live player would have received had he or she played each part that was now performed by a synthesist. For
example, if a synthesist played a synthesized piano part, a synthesized drum part, and a synthesized bass
part, in theory, he or she was supposed to be paid for playing three separate parts. The theory was that a live
musician had lost work. Therefore, if the employer had to pay the same wages to a synthesizer player, the
employer would hire additional musicians to play the parts. The purpose of the mandatory scale payments was
to help curb the loss of employment for live musicians.
In reality, synthesizer programmers negotiated (with employers) fees to play all parts required for either
double or triple union scale; it became too costly to pay for each individual part. Eventually, the musicians’
union made concessions and adjusted the pay scale. The popularity of synthesized music obliged the union to
make concessions.

There are several ways to rationalize the union concessions:

The recording label, or production company, might have a small budget and cannot afford
to hire additional musicians; therefore, musicians are not losing work.
When synthesis became popular, the audience became accustomed to listening to the
electronic sounds. Live musicians playing traditional instruments, ironically, cannot
duplicate many of the sounds (e.g., electronica or techno dance music).
The problem escalated with the advent of sampling. Sampling, in lay terms, enables a
programmer to sample (record) real instruments or other sounds and play them back in the
 same manner one would play a real instrument. If the instrument is programmed properly
(and the synthesizer sounds or sampled sounds are of a professional sonic quality) it can
be difficult to tell that the instruments (or the entire track) is synthesized or sampled.

Sampling has caused a drastic loss of income for instrumentalists in most musical genres.
Club date bands used to contain 6 to 8 musicians. Now 3 can almost duplicate the same sound.
For smaller affairs, a synthesizer player who also sings often replaces an entire band.
Synthesizer programming can never replace the feel that live musicians bring to the music.
Many of the technical skills used by live musicians (e.g., various bowings used by string
players, the sounds created by live brass players by varying embouchures) are difficult to
reproduce on a synthesizer or sampler. Even when a skilled musical facsimile of a live band is
reproduced, it does not sound completely realistic. Some instruments, for instance brass and
some stringed instruments, do not sound real on most synthesizers and samplers; often, the
sound is thin and piercing.

The most obvious example of sampling is the realistic string parts that can be played on
synthesizers and samplers. A skilled programmer can combine digital samples with analog synthesis and
create a lush background (a bed) that produces a beautiful timbre. In the United States, other than in film
music, string players, brass players, woodwind players, and percussionists, who were previously employed
as studio musicians, have experienced a drastic reduction in studio work. A select number of rhythm section
players are still working because most synthesizer programmers use some live rhythm players to make
productions sound human.

Musicians who are not trained can create music by learning a music-sequencing program,
such as a computer-based system (e.g., Pro Tools) or recording in self-contained hardware
units (e.g., digital workstations that contains a sequencer). Many novice musicians do not know
the notational ranges of the instruments or the technical capabilities and limitations of the
instruments. Thus they use the instrumental samples in the most basic manner or the samples
are not used generically. For instance, if an arranger does not remain in the tessitura of the real
instruments, the instruments will not sound authentic. If the goal is to replicate an orchestra, the
arranger should write an orchestral arrangement that could be played by a real orchestra. This
means that the arranger-programmer must know the playing style and technical capabilities of
each instrument. It is difficult enough to replicate the sound and feel of authentic instruments on
synthesizers and samplers, but when a novice attempts it, the results are usually substandard.
If an arranger is creating an arrangement using only electronic sounds, it is advisable to think
of the electronic sounds as real instruments. A high-synthesized sound could be associated with
violins, and a low synthesized sound might be equated with a contrabass. Paint a mental
picture of an electronic orchestra. That helps an arranger conceive of the orchestration just as
if he or she was approaching a traditional orchestration performed by a band or an orchestra.

Author’s Opinion: When music industry executives complain that there is nothing musically new
to present to the audience and sales are suffering as a result, the lack of musical knowledge by
a majority of pop musicians is partially to blame. (The main reasons for a diminution of worldwide
sales are illegal peer-2-peer file sharing from the Web and physical CD piracy.) When musical
knowledge is limited, it lessens the creative options available to the music maker. It is
analogous to a carpenter’s having only half the tools necessary to complete a cabinet; yes, the
carpenter can find a shortcut in order to complete a job, but the cabinet will not look as good or
be as sturdy as if the correct tools were available and the cabinet was built by a master
carpenter. The availability of a full tool chest of knowledge is always advantageous. The more
tools available, the more options available.

MIDI and Digital Audio Computer Sequencing

Sequencers have become the mainstay of the contemporary music business. Music-
sequencing programs, of which there are many, contain both a MIDI program and a digital
audio program.
MIDI is an acronym for Musical Instrument Digital Interface. MIDI is an independent
platform that sends information to both analog and digital devices. A computer-sequencing
program such as Digital Performer, Logic Audio, or Pro Tools contains not only MIDI
capabilities but also a digital audio program. The program records in the digital language,
which converts information into a digital code, composed of ones and zeros (the digital
language). The information is displayed by viewing sound waves, which can be edited and
processed in infinite ways.
Most MIDI sequencing programs have notation programs, which enable programmers to
view and edit the musical notes in manuscript form. The notation program helps a
programmer edit in a more musical environment. Notes can be moved to new locations either
by grabbing them with the mouse or by playing in new notes from a keyboard (or other input
device) while viewing the notation window; notes can also be added by selecting notes from a
notation template and dragging them to desired locations.
Editing MIDI can also be accomplished by using a graphic editing system, which is unnatural
from a musical perspective. The graph has lines that correspond to the notes on a keyboard.
There is usually a picture of a miniature keyboard on the side of the graph, and when the mouse
is used to depress the lines, the corresponding note on the keyboard is simultaneously
depressed. Grabbing the graphic lines with a mouse and moving them to other parts of the
graph is a simple way to edit; the duration of the notes can also be altered by shortening or
elongating the graphic lines. Many synthesists use the graphic editing system.
Since almost all commercial-music composers and arrangers (programmers) use
synthesizers and samplers, the producer must have a thorough understanding of the capabilities
of MIDI and digital audio. Numerous manufacturers have developed not only synthesizers and
samplers but also software and sample CDs containing sounds such as orchestral strings,
world music instruments, sound effects, orchestral brass, and more. They can be loaded into
the sequencer.
Plug-ins are digital effects used in music sequencing–audio programs. They replicate
hardware effects such as compressor/limiters, reverberation, echo, mastering programs, and
many additional processors. Producers should become familiar with available plug-ins.
The audience is accustomed to listening to electronic music and, accordingly, accepts the
sounds as a part of the modern musical litany. When producers guide arrangers and/or
synthesizer programmers, they will probably discuss the desired effects they would like to
incorporate in a final mix. The use of plug-ins influences the manner in which an arrangement
is written.

Conclusion
It is advisable for producers to study arranging and orchestration and to also analyze scores.
Listen to a variety of orchestral and synthesized music. Understanding the principles of
arranging greatly enhances a producer’s ability to “shape” music. Experimenting with sampled
orchestral sounds as well as synthesized sounds can also help producers understand musical
sonorities and musical concepts that can be directly applied to productions.

Assignment
Choose three popular songs and write a paper describing some of the concepts discussed in
this chapter. Submit a recording of each song. For example, a track might include numerous
plug-ins, reverb, delay, and so forth. At least one track should be an orchestral track. Site
examples of various bowing techniques.
6

Approaching an Arrangement and

Orchestration

Step by Step
The intention of this chapter is to offer suggestions on how to approach arranging and
orchestration, primarily from a producer’s perspective. Understanding the process is necessary
for producing music.
Arranging is composition. Compositions must have form, and arrangements must also have
form. When beginning the process of arranging a song (instrumental), the song format has
already been established, but the form of the arrangement has not been created. The same
principles that apply to composition apply to arranging.
The following is a list of tools arrangers use to help keep an arrangement interesting:

Variation: Without variety, an arrangement will become boring. For instance, in a song
structure, the first verse and the second verse should differ. If the second verse is exactly
the same as the first, there will be no “surprises” for the listener. That is not meant to
suggest that the second verse has to be drastically different than the first. The first verse
might have only the rhythm section playing behind a lead vocal, and during the second
verse a high string line is added to the same rhythm-section arrangement. Simple additions
add variety. An example of an extreme change would be to begin the third verse with only
an acoustic guitar playing behind the vocal and then build the arrangement in small
increments: The bass enters, followed by the drums, followed by the strings, and so forth.
Variation can be accomplished in multiple ways. If a basic instrument such as a kick drum
is eliminated for several beats, there will be a noticeable difference in the sonority of the
arrangement. If the kick drum reenters, there will be a decisive difference in the feel of
the track. When problems occur, which includes “writer’s block,” experimentation
triggers the best solutions.
Harmony: The basic harmony of a composition is indicated on a lead sheet (a melody
line with chords). Most skilled arrangers use the basic harmonies, but test various
substitution chords, which can add more interest to the harmonic landscape. Since
harmonic change can dramatically alter a composition, an arranger should discuss the
planned substitutions with the producer, artist, and possibly the songwriter. Not all
harmonic substitutions radically change the basic harmony. Subtle changes can add enough
variety to keep the arrangement interesting.
Modulation: One of the most effective harmonic changes is to modulate from one key to
another within a song. For instance, the arranger might suggest that the last chorus
modulate up a half step. The change of key will instantly gain the audience’s attention.
Modulating can be effective if used in moderation. An arranger should not modulate
without permission from the artist and the producer.
Instrumentation: The selection of instrumentation is vital to the creation of an overall
soundscape. If an arrangement is designed to enhance the basic sound of an established
band (e.g., Linkin Park), then the choices are, obviously, less. A typical arranging
assignment might be to write a string or horn arrangement, which will enhance a group’s
rhythm track. If an arranger is creating a complete arrangement, the producer and the artist
must convey the desired emotional impact––what the arrangement should “say” to the
listener.
If the assignment is to write an orchestral arrangement, the arranger must consider the
budget before choosing the instrumentation. If the budget is too small to hire enough
musicians to accomplish the preferred sound, most arrangers add synthesized parts or
sampled sounds of real instruments to enhance the arrangement. If an arrangement is
orchestrated properly, it is difficult to notice that synthesized parts or sampled instruments
have been added to the live instrumentation.
Orchestration: Orchestration is assigning notes to individual instruments. In most forms
of popular music, the arranger also orchestrates. In some instances, the arranger’s duties
are split between arranging and orchestrating. Some rock bands (e.g., The Moody Blues
and The Who) have performed with symphony orchestras. The band’s basic arrangements
are orchestrated, and the arrangements are also augmented. An arranger/orchestrator will
most likely hear a demo of a song. Ideally, the demo will have the basic feel the artist and
the producer are envisioning for the final arrangement. The arranger will then discuss an
orchestration concept with the artist and the producer. For example, the arranger might
suggest using, in addition to the basic rhythm section, a full string section, three trumpets,
two trombones, three woodwinds, orchestral percussion, a tuba, three French horns, and
synthesizer parts. If the instruments are enhancing a band’s basic arrangements, the
arranger/orchestrator will most likely describe specific orchestration ideas. For instance,
an oboe and a flute will play in unison with a lead guitar line, or the strings will double a
specific keyboard part. The orchestration will most likely contain live instruments plus
synthesizers and samplers. Most orchestrators working in popular music are familiar with
the use of electronic instruments in a primarily live orchestral setting.

It is important to note that synthesizers and samplers are not necessarily used in large
orchestrations to fill in parts because of budgetary restrictions. Many arrangers and orchestrators use
 these instruments to create sounds that can be created only on electronic instruments—often the best
use of synthesizers and samplers. Film scores and Broadway shows use orchestrators because the
composer usually does not have the time to orchestrate.

Rhythm: Popular-music arrangers must be adept at writing rhythm-section arrangements.

Certain styles of music (e.g., hip-hop) traditionally use synthesized rhythm sections
(sometimes mixed with live musicians). Other styles of music, such as jazz and rock ’n’
roll, traditionally use live musicians.
Repeated patterns and sequential patterns: Commercial-music arrangers must be
familiar with rhythm patterns, including steady kick drum patterns (rhythms), bass
patterns, keyboard chord- and single-line patterns, and single-line guitar- and guitar chord
patterns. Sequential rhythmic patterns have always been incorporated in all styles of
music. They help to create continuity, and well-designed patterns also develop into hooks
(catchy sections) within the arrangement.
Tempo: To achieve the proper ambience of a song, a suitable tempo must be selected.
Rehearse with the artist and experiment with tempos. The tempo has a direct effect on the
sound of the arrangement.
Time signature: In some styles of music, such as jazz, varying time signatures can be
effective. Time-signature changes can make a dramatic difference in the flow of a song
(instrumental). Therefore, unless time signature changes are endemic to a song, arrangers
should not vary time signatures without first discussing the proposed changes with the
artist and the producer.

Arrangers who primarily arrange synthesized (sampled) tracks are usually referred to as
programmers. Programmers must be aware of the most current sounds and rhythms used in cutting-
edge popular music. Traditional music arrangers are usually more adept at orchestral writing than
programmers.

There are numerous ways to approach an arrangement. The following process will provide a
guide:

Step 1
Be familiar with the marketplace. Study the arrangements and orchestrations heard on
successful albums that are similar in style to the music being produced.

What is the instrumentation? Make certain that it fits the style of music. Instrumentation
 varies according to music style. A traditional orchestral arrangement suggests live
musicians playing, primarily, acoustic instruments; hip-hop, pop, and contemporary R&B
call for a mix of live musicians, samplers, and synthesizers; heavy metal is performed,
mostly, by live musicians. These are generalizations. The arranger must choose the most
suitable instrumentation for the style.
Is the recording a mix of synthesizers, samples, and real instruments, or did the arranger
only use real instruments?
Do the arrangements sound dense or sparse?

For the purpose of this exercise, the discussion will focus on how to approach a fully
orchestrated arrangement that is specifically arranged for the recording studio. Arranging for a live
performance often requires a different method.

Are background vocals included in the arrangement? If background vocals are included,
study the vocal arrangement. Are the background vocalists singing in harmony? Are the
background vocalists singing countermelodies? Are the background vocalists doubling the
lead vocal? Are the background vocals doubled or tripled?
Make certain that the arrangement is written in the most appropriate key for the
vocalist. A vocalist (or instrumentalist) can often sing a song in several keys. The artist,
producer, and arranger should determine the final key. Leave room for improvisation; if
the song is too high or too low, the singer’s improvisational range will be limited.
Make certain that the tempo is appropriate. One metronome marking in either direction
can affect the mood of a song. An artist has to feel comfortable with the tempo or he or
she will not find the “pocket” (the most comfortable rhythmic groove) of the song.

Vocals are an integral part of any vocal arrangement. When writing a song arrangement, at a minimum, the
arranger should hear a demo of the vocals. Ideally, an arranger should have a copy of the lead and background
vocals, which can be imported into a computer-music-sequencing program. That enables him or her to listen
to the vocals while writing the arrangement.
Vocals sung without words, singing vowel sounds—called vocalese—is effective when used with orchestras.
The technique is often used in film scores and sung by large choruses. Solo voice, also singing vocalese, can
be very effective. In most popular music, background vocals incorporate both techniques. Background vocals
are a fundamental ingredient of many arrangements. The arranger might also suggest adding additional vocal
parts.
The arranger should be informed if the lead singer is going to sing harmonies with the prerecorded lead
vocal. The additional harmony can affect contrapuntal parts within an arrangement as well as general
orchestral harmony.
If possible, the arranger should have a version of all recorded vocals.
 Signal processing can affect an arranging concept. If vocals and instruments are going to
be processed with delays, reverberation, echo, or additional processing, the studio arranger
will write fewer notes within the arrangement so that the processing can be heard. For
instance, if a lead vocal is processed with a long delay and feedback, the producer will want
not want the delay to be masked; if a snare drum is processed with a tap echo––creating a
rhythm pattern through the use of in-tempo timing delays––the producer will want the listeners
to experience the effect. Signal processors should be considered “instruments.”

The final movement in “The Planets” by Holst, contains a wordless women’s choir. This is an
example of vocalese.

What “sounds” are currently popular? In hip-hop, R&B, and pop music, certain
synthesized or sampled sounds (e.g., kick drums, snare drums, basses, and assorted
effects) become popular for a short period of time. When producers and arrangers
(programmers) notice that certain sounds are being overused, new ones become popular.
This is an important consideration since most albums are not released immediately upon
completion of a project. Consequently, the sounds used on cutting-edge productions could
be outdated by the date of release.
What average tempos are currently popular? Tempos become trends. For example, at the
beginning of the disco era, the average dance tempo was 120 beats per minute.
Contemporary dance (club) music has a variety of tempos that range between 130 BPM to
160 BPM, depending on the musical style. Hip-hop and R&B tempos are much slower.
The producer and artist have to agree on tempos.
What instruments or vocals are featured in the mix? That depends on the style of music.
For instance, R&B and hip-hop records typically feature the kick drum and bass parts.
Many productions feature a sub-bass and a sub-kick drum, as well as a traditional bass.
Pay particular attention to the choice of sounds (samples) and rhythm patterns played by
instruments or samples.

Rock recordings feature guitars, and the vocals are generally mixed lower than the vocals in
hip-hop, R&B, and pop records.
If an arrangement is more traditional, such as the arrangements written for Andrea Bocelli or
Harry Connick Jr., the rhythm section is not generally featured in the mix. The mixes are
comparable to mixes heard on classical recordings.
 This is not to imply that all mixes should be clones of other mixes. It is difficult to be
completely innovative, so the ideal approach is to attempt to forecast the future—easier said
than done. Experiment; try innovative approaches. Some ideas will work, and others will not,
but one unique arranging and mixing idea can help make a recording creatively and
commercially successful.

Step 2
Before beginning an arrangement (or guiding an arrangement) read the following:

Make certain that the artist and the producer have agreed on a song (instrumental)
format. Listen to a demo prior to writing the arrangement. If possible, the demo should be
in the exact format that has been approved by the artist and the producer. If there is no
demo, ask the artist to record a simple demo. It is important for the arranger to understand
the artist and producer’s artistic vision. Hearing the artist sing (or play) the song will
trigger many arranging ideas.
If an arrangement is going to be synthesized, the choice of a synthesizer programmer is
crucial to the success of the arrangement.

This discussion encompasses a variety of styles; some arranging techniques, such as developing
grooves, will not necessarily apply to all genres of music.

Most programmers specialize in certain styles of music. They must have current sounds and
samples and have the ability to achieve authenticity within a style.
Some traditional arrangers write out their arrangements on score paper and then work with a
programmer. If the arranger is writing a part that is not supposed to sound like a traditional
instrument (e.g., trumpet), specify the characteristics of the desired sound. For instance, the
arranger might indicate that the sound should be percussive, filtered, and resonant, with an
eighth-note delay or a smooth and rich “pad” (chords) that will flow throughout the track and
blend with strings.

When arranging for synthesizers, the arranger should be familiar with the sounds he or
she wants to use. If the arranger is synthesizing the sounds of a real orchestra, the choice
of samples is vital to the final sound of the track. There are literally thousands of samples
available to purchase, and the arranger (and programmer) should listen to demonstration
CDs offered by manufacturers. Many of the manufacturers’ Web sites contain listening
samples.
A synthesizer generally offers sounds that are unique to that particular instrument. (Many
manufacturers produce traditional sounds—analog pads, kick drums, cymbals, and so forth.)
Individual sounds become trends, and the sounds included in certain synthesizers (samplers)
also become trends. With cutting-edge music produced to appeal to the contemporary youth
market, certain synthesizers become overused; the audience begins to hear the same electronic
sounds on numerous recordings, and the producer must be aware of and try to avoid this trap.
Become familiar with the new synthesizers that are released every year. Ask colleagues what
is going to be hot. (Many programmers primarily use software synthesizers and samplers.)
The use of vintage synthesizers has remained popular for many years, and they are still
sonically effective. Because a synthesizer is not the “flavor of the month” does not mean it
should not be used.

Most synthesizer programmers are also arrangers. They own a computer-music-sequencing

program and an array of synthesizers, samplers (software and hardware), and signal processors. Arrangers
who are not programmers hire programmers to program their arrangements. This is common practice in film
scoring.

Step 3
The Rhythm Section
This section discusses one approach that is useful when writing an arrangement grounded by
the rhythm section. It is advisable to work on a sequencer so that melodic, harmonic, and
rhythmic ideas are recorded.

Listen to demo reels before hiring a programmer.

A producer who is not a musician should hire a keyboard player to perform the parts.

Setting the groove establishes the feel of a rhythm-oriented arrangement. Create a drum
and/or percussion loop (a repeated section) that can serve as an anchor for the rest of the
arrangement. This can be a 2- or 4-bar loop.
 Not all grooves are created by drum or percussion patterns. For example, ostinatos
programmed on synthesizers create grooves; catchy background vocal phrasing also
creates grooves.
If a loop feels appropriate, start to play (and record) either a keyboard or a guitar part
along with the loop. It is best to keep looping (repeating) one section of the song to gain
the benefit of this technique. When working on most popular songs, it is often wise to first
begin work on the chorus because the chorus is the section that appeals to the audience.
The following are some suggestions: Compose keyboard or guitar riffs (short repeated
sections) that will become instrumental hooks within the arrangement. This can be
accomplished by using chord patterns or single-line patterns. Sequential patterns are
hooks. Sing the melody (internally or physically) when arranging patterns. Some riffs fit
the groove, but when heard with the melody the riff might sound busy or not match the
arrangement.
Instrumental or rhythmic hooks do not work on all songs or within all arrangements.
Even if repetitive patterns are not appropriate for a song, the keyboard, bass, and drum
parts must still have form. That can be accomplished by developing a pattern that
continues throughout the verse. Let us assume that the kick-drum rhythm is a quarter note
followed by an eighth-note rest, followed by 2 quarter notes. The rhythm will anchor the
drum part throughout the verse. The bass may also play the same rhythm pattern, but by
adding “tasty” fills the part will not sound too “stiff” (rigid). The snare drum might play a
quarter note on the second and fourth beats, and the hi-hat might play eighth notes.
Although this example is simple, it shows the importance of repetition within an
arrangement, as long as it does not become monotonous. Adding fills and other forms of
ear candy helps keep repetitive patterns interesting.

Step 4
String, Woodwind, and Brass Parts
Once the rhythm section has been arranged, begin arranging the string, woodwind, and brass
parts. Since recording budgets do not always allow the arranger to hire a full complement of
musicians, the arranger will most likely enhance the live musicians by writing synthesized and
sampled parts. The arranger will have to program, play, and record the parts into a music-
sequencing program.

It is helpful to record a pilot vocal into an audio-sequencing program. Hearing the vocal makes it
easier to program an arrangement.
 The parts should be played in the generic style of the real instrument. That task will be
relatively easy for an arranger who arranges for live musicians and knows the capabilities of
professional musicians. Understanding bowing techniques used by string players and methods
used by horn players to attack notes and breathe properly, writing parts within the tessitura of
the individual instruments, and composing passages suited to the instruments are all necessary
for an arrangement to sound exceptional.

When arranging for the studio, it is not unusual to wait until after the final vocals and rhythm tracks have been
recorded to write string, woodwind, and brass parts. That enables the artist and producer to have creative
freedom and to experiment when recording the basic tracks. If the entire arrangement is complete––depending
on the style of music––prior to recording the vocals, the artist might feel too restricted.
It is wise for arrangers to own a sequencing program, a sampler, and orchestral samples so they can hear
the arrangement before hiring musicians. That not only helps the arranger but also enables the artist and
producer to preview the sound of the arrangement and make revisions. It can also be a catch-22! If the
samples are of poor quality, the arrangement might not sound good, and the arranger must convince the
producer and artist that with real musicians the arrangement will sound superb.

Sequence the arrangement prior to recording, even if live musicians will perform on
the final recording. Hearing the synthesized and sampled parts makes it easier to write
string and horn parts or any additional parts. The arranger must be concerned that the
writing is generic to the style of music. Generally in popular music, the string and horn
parts are not complicated, and they complement the rhythm arrangements.
That is not to imply that the writing should be trite and uninteresting. In traditional
arrangements the approach is more orchestral, as in the arrangements on a Charlotte
Church or Josh Groban album. A traditional orchestral arrangement sounds much better
with live musicians than on synthesizers and samplers, especially if the arrangement is not
rhythm section–oriented but relies on the sound of the orchestra.
The budget dictates the number of hirable live string players. For a string section to
sound rich and full in the studio, it is best to use approximately 16 violins, 4 to 8 violas, 2
to 4 cellos, and 1 or 2 double basses. Most budgets do not allow for a full section. The
missing parts can be played with samples.
Use of string samples will directly affect the types of bowings that can be used.
Sophisticated string samples offer a programmer a variety of bowings for each stringed
instrument. A problem occurs when trying to play certain bowings on a keyboard. The
keyboard and the samples do not necessarily sound like real musicians. Arco, legato,
marcato, and pizzicato passages sound real when mixed with real strings. Therefore, in
that scenario it is wise to program the parts into a sequencing program and overdub the
real strings while the musicians listen to the sampled strings. If the producer and the
arranger are careful to match the live performance to the prerecorded samples, the results
will be gratifying.
 The budget dictates the number of hirable live brass and woodwind players. If the
arrangement requires a small traditional horn section (such as 2 trumpets, 1 tenor
saxophone, and 1 trombone) the budget will most likely be large enough to absorb the
expense. If the budget is small and allows for only 1 or 2 musicians, program the horn
parts using samples, and then add the live horns.As with strings, horn samples offer the
programmer a variety of dynamic markings, a selection of mutes, and other variations and
effects. Some sound real, and others sound thin and obviously not real.
If using a combination of traditional orchestral woodwind and brass instruments and
samples, choose the best samples available. Record the samples first, and then record
the live musicians while they listen to the prerecorded tracks. Fortunately, there are
many well-sampled traditional orchestral woodwind and brass samples. Oboes, English
horns, flutes, clarinets, French horns, and tubas can sound remarkably real if programmed
properly.
There are many well-sampled traditional orchestral percussion instruments.If the
arranger is writing an arrangement for a full orchestra and the budget does not allow for
all live musicians, using samples in place of orchestral percussion will generally sound
real if realistic samples are selected. Timpani, cymbals, snare drums, world percussion,
and Latin percussion are all represented with fine samples.

Step 5
Recording additional overdubs. Step 5 could easily be step 4. Recording additional
overdubs (additional parts) can take place before recording strings, woodwinds, and brass.

It is wise to solo the sampled and real strings while both recording and listening back. That gives
the producer and the arranger the ability to fix all mistakes while the musicians are in the studio.

Overdubs generally include additional guitar, percussion, keyboard, solos (e.g., saxophone,
guitar), vocals, or other parts that will enhance the final track. Overdubs do not necessarily
have to be recorded during any particular segment of the production process. Most producers
record additional parts, as they are needed. For instance, if the basic rhythm section sounds
incomplete, the producer and arranger might suggest recording a conga part and an additional
guitar part. Quite often a keyboard player is brought in for experimentation purposes. In fact, it
is wise to experiment because the process usually produces usable parts.

General Information
Hire the most qualified musicians for a project. A competent music contractor hires musicians
who are proficient in the style of music being recorded. Being versatile is necessary when
performing film scores and commercials. Some generic musical genres do not necessarily need
musicians who specialize. Some studio musicians become known for specializing in one or
two musical genres—rock guitar players, R&B guitar players, Latin percussion players, Indian
percussion players, and so forth.
Brass and woodwind players also specialize in certain styles, such as jazz or classical.
Most musicians who play classical music usually play too “stiff” (rigidly) to perform on
popular music recordings. All forms of popular music require musicians to feel the groove and
to play in the pocket (playing within the feel of the rhythm section). Studio string players can
play in any style because the parts are written and the playing style is basically the same for
most musical styles. An experienced conductor can guide string players to play with any feel.

Instrumental Combinations for the Recording Studio

The following paragraphs, which are dedicated to instrumental combinations for the recording studio, are taken
from my book Writing Music for Television and Radio Commercials (and more) (Scarecrow Press 2008).

String Combinations for the Studio

Since it is unusual to receive a budget large enough to hire a full string section for most
commercial projects, the arranger must have options. The choice of instruments usually
depends on the demands of the arrangement. Below are some suggestions:

6 first violins, 5 second violins, 4 violas, 2 cellos, and 1 double bass (if needed.) This is
a large section for most records. Most of the time, the budget does not allow for so large a
section.
8 violins, 2 violas, and 2 cellos will sound good in the studio as long as the violins are
not written too high. Experimentation and experience help the arranger learn which
studio combinations sound best for certain types of arrangements.
Some arrangers only use violins, violas, or cellos. In the heyday of disco, almost all of
the records had live violin parts. Many arrangers would use only 6 or 8 live violins
augmented by synthesizers.

Brass Combinations for the Studio

Budget is a consideration in choosing the right instrumental combination. With a modest
budget, 2 trumpets, 1 tenor trombone, and a bass trombone will sound full if scored properly. If
the assignment requires a small orchestra, try to budget for one or two French horns. No other
instrument can produce its sound.
 The tuba is usually the last to be added. Most of the time a tuba player is hired because the
arrangement specifically needs that sound, as in Dixieland. A tuba cannot replace the job of a
double bass in a typical orchestra setting.

Woodwind Combinations for the Studio

Many woodwind combinations work well. The following are some suggestions:

Flutes and clarinets playing in octaves

Clarinet, oboe, and C flute playing in unison
C flute and oboe in unison and/or playing harmony
Flute, oboe, clarinet, and bassoon or bass clarinet playing in harmony
Oboe and clarinet in octaves
Clarinet with bass clarinet or bassoon playing one octave below
2 flutes playing in harmony
2 oboes playing in harmony
2 bassoons and 2 clarinets playing in harmony
Flute playing the highest octave, oboe playing one octave below, and a clarinet one
octave below the oboe

There are several nontraditional uses of strings. The fiddle (violin) has been a mainstay of
country and Irish music for many years. The style is very specialized. Many of the players cannot read
music. In this case, the producer guides them. The solo violin has also been popular as a jazz solo
instrument. The solo cello is used in rock ’n’ roll bands as well as with pop and folk artists. The arranger
should be aware of the various styles and techniques and learn how to write in these styles.

Almost any combination will sound good. Many of these instruments blend well with other
sections of the orchestra. For example:

Flutes with violins

Bassoons with cellos
Bassoons and bass clarinet with bass trombone and tuba
Clarinets are compatible with almost any instrument.
Muted trumpets and flutes

Saxophone Combinations for the Studio

If there is a limited budget, 1 alto and 2 tenors or 2 altos and 1 tenor will have a good blend.
Generally, a baritone will be the last saxophone to be added unless that particular sound is
generic to the style of arrangement, such as with ’50s rock ’n’ roll. Saxophones are pliable
instruments and work with almost any orchestral or band combination.

General Combinations for the Studio

Some budgets only allow for a small horn section. The following are some examples of
sections that blend well.

2 trumpets, 1 tenor sax, and 1 baritone sax

1 trumpet, 1 tenor playing in octaves or in unison
2 trumpets and 2 trombones
1 trumpet, 1 alto sax, and 1 tenor sax
3 trumpets, 1 tenor sax, and 1 tenor trombone

If a part is well written, various combinations will sound good.

Conclusion
All producers should listen to—and study—arrangements and orchestrations of all musical
styles. Following the scores and listening to the music of the great composers, arrangers, and
orchestrators, in all musical genres, is the preeminent learning tool. Some of the premier jazz
and popular-music arrangers have written arranging books, including Nelson Riddle and Don
Sebesky. Many traditional orchestration and arranging books are also worthy of study.
A producer must be concerned that an arrangement is not over-arranged. Arrangements that
are cluttered destroy the feeling of a song. Arrangements should breathe, so the listener can
hear all of the parts. In rhythm-oriented arrangements, nothing should mask the rhythm.

Assignment
Choose a song or instrumental.

Write and program (in a music-sequencing program) a rhythm-section arrangement.

Add string parts.
Add brass and woodwind parts.
Add additional overdubs, such as percussion, guitar, and keyboard parts.
Balance the parts and mix and burn a CD for review.

Students should attempt to hear their work performed by live musicians. If that is not possible, they
should use synthesizers and samplers.
7

Coaching Singers and Musicians

The thing that influenced me most was the way Tommy played his trombone. It was my idea to make my voice
work in the same way as a trombone or violin—not sounding like them, but “playing” the voice like those
instrumentalists.
—Frank Sinatra

Coaching Singers
Music producers have to be amateur psychologists. Coaching singers can be a difficult task.
Most singers have inflated egos and do not want to be corrected or coached, but with mutual
respect between singers and producers, the coaching process becomes easier.
A producer and a singer generally have the same creative goals for a song, and most
experienced singers welcome a producer’s suggestions. It is rare that a producer and an artist
disagree when a quality performance has been achieved.
In popular music, the most important goal of a producer is to capture the essence of a song.
Technical mistakes have to be corrected, but some producers push a vocalist to achieve
technical perfection while ignoring the emotional impact of a performance. That is a
formidable task, and producers should attempt to capture both creative goals.
Music producers are not singing teachers. Singing teachers work with vocal exercises,
interpretation, and vocal health; producers help singers interpret songs in the recording studio.
Naturally, they also want the performer to achieve technical excellence. A recording is a
permanent record of a performance and it is a producer’s responsibility to coax the
performance from the artist.

Lead Singers
The vocal and tone quality of a lead singer should be considered when selecting songs.
This is easily discernible by hearing the singer sing a song. The singer will tell the producer if
a song feels comfortable, but the producer must also decide if a song fits the singer. If there is a
conflict of opinions, it is best to record a simple demo and then make a decision.

It is wise for singers to attend ongoing coaching lessons for vocal-health reasons. Professional
 singers can easily damage their vocal chords if they are not properly trained. Vocal training is analogous to
athletic training. Without training, performers cannot be in shape.

When the artist is also a songwriter, this problem is usually not an issue. If a group has
multiple lead singers, the singers usually decide which singer or singers will sing or share the
lead vocal. If the group is undecided, the producer usually suggests who should sing the lead
vocal.
The key is crucial to the final success of the production. In popular music, singers must
have enough room to improvise. If a key is too high or too low, the ability to improvise will be
limited; if a key is too low, the song will sound dark and lifeless, and if a key is too high, the
vocal will sound too strained and unnatural. One half step raised or lowered can affect the
outcome of a performance. A singer will often be able to determine the most comfortable key.
Recording a simple demo in several keys can sometimes be the best method of choosing the
proper key. A singer might consider several keys vocally comfortable, but one key will
generally sound best overall.
Coaching begins in rehearsals. Once songs have been selected and the arrangements have
been solidified, it is time to schedule vocal rehearsals. Since most singers are involved in the
song-selection process, the producer knows that the singer can identify with the message of the
song or the song would not have been selected. During the rehearsal process, the singer’s
interpretation of the lyric and the vocal performance are the primary concerns of the producer.
Singers will most likely achieve the best performance if they memorize the lyrics. It allows
them to concentrate on the performance.
It is important not to overrehearse. Overrehearsing can take the freshness out of the final
recorded performance and also strain the singer’s voice. Look for spontaneity in a
performance. It is the unexpected that brings excitement. Record all performances, including
the warm-ups. A surprise can occur at any time, and if the record button is not on, it is too late
to capture the moment.
If a singer recites a lyric in a conversational manner, the meaning of the lyric should
become immediately clear. Lyrics are meant to communicate a message, and a producer’s goal
is to help a vocalist interpret the message. Directors direct actors, and music producers direct
singers. A lyric can be sung in numerous ways just as an actor can interpret a speaking line in
various ways. A singer has the advantage of a singing voice, which aids in the interpretation.
The use of a melisma, a change in tone quality, breathing methods, and a variation of the
dynamics all affect a vocal performance. If a vocal performance is conversational, the listeners
will generally become more involved in the performance.
A producer might suggest that a singer listen to Broadway cast albums, not because actor-
singers are necessarily fine singers, but because they are trained to further the story of the show
with song. Broadway songs are direct extensions of the dialogue, and an actor goes from a
speaking line directly into singing a song, which is merely an extension of what the actor has
been saying. This is not to suggest that a popular singer use the same singing techniques that are
used in musical theater, which often can be overly theatrical. What can be learned is how to
interpret a lyric.
Producers must be concerned that singers do not abuse their vocal chords. Some singers
have extraordinary technique and tend to engage in vocal acrobatics. The technique is often
heard in R&B music. Most R&B vocalists have roots in church music, where expressive
singing is part of the curriculum. Singers must be concerned with vocal health. Serious
physical problems can occur if vocal chords are abused. It is wise for singers to study with
teachers who assign vocal exercises, which help to keep the voices healthy.
Vocal acrobatics must be limited, or the listener will not bond with the melody because it
can be covered by the excessive use of improvisation. Vocal acrobatics are overused in all
styles of popular music and producers must carefully guide singers to apply this technique only
when it is most appropriate.
A producer can coach a singer in the studio, and the singer will accomplish a well-crafted
performance. That is done in several ways:

Record multiple versions of a song. Surprisingly, the first performance often becomes the
final version. When singers are warming up, they are frequently relaxed and not aware
that the performance is being recorded. That is one more reason to always record the
warm-up.
After recording multiple performances, if one overall version is excellent but can be
improved, “punch-in” the lines that need improvement. The producer instructs the
engineer to hit the record button in certain sections. The singer should sing along with his
or her recorded vocal prior to the punch-in so that the flow of the vocal continues after it.
The producer must also tell the engineer where to punch-out so that the remainder of the
performance in not erased.
Create a composite vocal. Some producers select the best lines from various vocal
performances and create a final composite vocal track. If the performances were
recorded on different days, the tone quality, volume levels, and energy of the performance
must be adjusted to match. This can be accomplished in a couple of ways: Adjust the
levels when automating the tracks during the mixing process or normalize the waveforms.
Normalizing (which may have other names) increases the volume levels to peak levels
without causing distortion. Normalizing is an automatic process that can be selected in
most digital-sequencing programs. The engineer may still have to adjust levels during the
mix. Not all engineers or programmers normalize.
Ask the lead singer to double the entire vocal or sections of the vocal, or add
harmonies. Since the goal is to record the best possible performance, it is important to
understand that certain production techniques can enhance a performance. Doubling a lead
vocal can create the feeling of a more powerful performance. It is rare to double the
entire lead vocal, but selective doubling will emphasize certain lyrics.

The following are ways to double the lead vocal:

 One advantage of using a digital-sequencing program is that all performances are kept unless the
programmer erases the parent, also referred to as the original, file. Even if the engineer erases part of the
vocal because of a misguided punch-out, the remainder of the performance can easily be restored.

Ask the singer the desired earphone balance between the recorded vocal and the live
doubling vocal being recorded. Some singers do not want to hear the live vocal and
others want to hear an equal balance of either vocals or a variation thereof.
The producer should solo both vocal tracks to make certain that the phrasing and the
intonation match. Some producers solo the vocals while the singer is recording the double
or solo the vocals after the doubled performance is complete. It is most important that the
doubled vocal has the same feeling as the

original vocal.If the intonation on certain lines does not exactly match the original vocal, it
may not affect the mix. Vocals sound doubled because of a slight variation in the intonation,
which adds depth to the final vocal sound. Make certain that the intonation does not vary
excessively.Using the plug-in auto-tune, or a similar pitch-correction program, can repair
certain intonation problems.

In rare instances, vocals of the same song are created in different studios. Make certain that the
same microphones are used. If the performances are recorded with different microphones and the overall
sound of the vocals varies, it is possible for an engineer to equalize the performances and adjust the volume
levels so that the vocals sound as if they were recorded during one performance. This is a difficult task, but it
can be accomplished.

When blending the doubled vocal into the final mix, consider lowering the level of the
doubled vocal and making it a shadow of the lead vocal. If the double sits behind the lead
vocal, it may not be noticeable unless the double is muted. The producer is trying to add
depth to the vocal sound by using this technique.
Adding signal processing to the doubled vocal can also be effective. Reverberation, echo,
filtering, and delay are some of the effects that enhance the vocal sound.
Doubling or tripling a lead vocal can also create “stiffness” to the performance. A vocal
that is conversational and sometimes emotional will relate best to the listener. Any
 production techniques that detract from that bonding are detrimental to the overall
production.
It is rare to double a vocal that contains vocal acrobatics or that has a non-metered vocal
interpretation. The vocals will tend to sound overproduced.

Background Singers
Producers hire the most appropriate background singers for a project. In major recording
markets, background vocalists usually specialize in musical genres. Only hire singers who sing
competently in a particular style. The singers’ voices must blend with one another and have
flawless intonation, interpretation, and phrasing. Background vocalists work as a group, and
individual voices should not stand out. Some are not solo singers but blend well with other
singers. Solo artists and producers treasure seasoned background vocalists. They are
specialists and deserve more recognition than they are generally afforded. A producer who
does not know whom to hire has several choices:

Some producers add additional unison or octave parts. It depends on the desired effect, and the
technique should be used selectively.

Hire a singing contractor. Most singing contractors are professional singers and know
how to mix and match background singers. Certain background singers tend to regularly
work with particular singers because they have developed a blend. This saves rehearsal
time in the recording studio and they achieve better results than a group of random singers
trying to achieve a blend.
Use a large chorus who performs for film scores. Many choruses perform as
professional organizations, led by choral conductors. To achieve the proper sound, it is
best to hire professional choruses because it will save time in the studio, and their voices
will automatically blend with each other. Large choral parts are written for sopranos,
altos, tenors, and bass/baritones. To achieve the best balance, each part should have an
equal number of singers. It is wise to plan rehearsal time if the score is complicated. The
producer should inform the contractor that all of the singers must be proficient in sight-
reading, especially if rehearsal time is not possible.
Ask background singers for recommendations. Most background singers readily
recommend singing colleagues. They know singers who will blend well with the other
singers and also use vibrato selectively. If one singer has a vibrato that does not blend
with the other singers, the overall sound of the background vocals will be awkward; if
 singers do not feel the music in the same way, it will be impossible to attain an excellent
performance. Personalities also play an important role. Not blending on a personal level
can affect the final performance. If a problem occurs, the producer must change hats and
become an amateur psychologist. Solving problems is part of the producer’s
responsibility.

Some instrumental arrangers also arrange the background vocals. Many background singers
in popular music do not read music but learn the parts quickly. The arranger teaches the singers
the arrangement during the recording session. If a score is complicated and the background
singers are required to read music, the contractor should, obviously, hire singers who cannot
only read music but also perform the parts with a minimum of rehearsal.
If the background arrangements are not written, the background singers, in tandem with
the artist and producer, arrange the parts. This is the norm in popular music. Often the
background vocal arrangement is part of the song, and the background part is written on the
lead sheet or heard on the song demo. The background part is usually expanded during the
recording session. It is wise to leave time for experimentation. Professional background
singers bring innovative ideas to a session. In popular music, as in acting, the performers are
innovators as well as interpreters.
Most popular music recordings use 3 or 4 background vocalists. The percentage of male to
female singers depends on the song. The producer and the artist usually have a sonic concept
for the sound of the background vocals. Smooth and silky or hard and funky, professional
background singers will deliver the proper performance. Several methods are used to record
background vocals:

Most background vocals are, at the least, doubled. Doubling the vocals not only creates
a rich sound but also offers the producer an opportunity to create an effective stereo
image in the mix. (A surround sound mix leaves room for a more enhanced sonic image.)
When doubling, the singers will sometimes exchange parts. For example, the lead
background singer might sing the second harmony part on the overdub rather than doubling
his or her original vocal; the second background singer might sing the third background
part during the overdub, and so forth. This process creates a more interesting final blend
than having each singer double his or her original part.
In addition to singing harmonies in the choruses, singing counter lines, with and
without lyrics, creates new colors within an arrangement. Not all singers necessarily
sing in all sections of a song. They can be divided by gender or mixed in various
combinations, which will achieve various sonorities.
Some producers record one part at a time, and each singer in the group sings the same
part in unison. Each harmony part is usually doubled or tripled. Recording with this
method creates a distinct blend; singing group harmonies simultaneously also creates a
unique blend. Both recording methods are acceptable.
Doubling instrumental parts with vocals can be very effective. The technique is used
 frequently in film scores. For instance, the baritones might double a cello or viola part;
the altos might double the second-violin part.The producer should feature the instrumental
section (being doubled) in the headphone mix so that the singers can clearly hear the part
they are doubling. Before concluding the recording session, solo the vocal and
instrumental sections to make certain that the blend and the intonation is correct. It can be
difficult to hear mistakes when listening to the full track.
After the initial background vocals have been recorded, an individual singer might add
a very high or very low part. This part is not usually doubled. A very high vocal line can
add brightness to the overall sound, and a low part can add resonance to the low end.

Some instrumental arrangers do not complete arrangements until all of the vocals have been
recorded. The vocal counter lines and harmonies are a part of the final arrangement, and
arrangers prefer to surround the vocals with instrumental parts rather than expecting the vocal
parts to accommodate the final instrumental track.

Additional Concerns
A producer must be concerned with the intonation of all vocal performances. Intonation
problems occur when recording vocals. It is best for a producer not to stop the take
(performance), or recording process, because of faulty intonation. Producers have the option to
punch-in and ask the vocalist to re-sing a section. They may also choose to use a signal
processing device that pitch-corrects (e.g., auto-tune), although it is preferable to correct
intonation problems by rerecording the section that is problematic. (There are numerous plug-
ins that can be used to correct intonations problems or create innovative effects.)
Select a suitable microphone(s). Some experienced singers prefer to use a specific
microphone. It is best to select a series of microphones and listen to each before making a
choice. The microphone(s) used on one song might change on the next.
Miking techniques affect the sound of the vocalists. The following are some of the
engineering techniques:

The figure-8 pattern. A figure-8 enables the vocalists to stand on either side of a
microphone, and the sides will not pick up any undesired sound. The producer and the
engineer decide on the position of the singers around the microphone. The positioning
depends on the desired sound. For instance, to hear room ambience, the singers are
placed further back from the microphone(s) than if a closer, more intimate sound is
desired. Assuming there are 2 male and 2 female singers, the 2 males might stand on one
side of the microphone and the 2 females on the opposite side.
 Microphone cost should not be an issue. Some of the least expensive microphones sound
best for certain singers.

The XY pattern. The XY pattern looks like 2 microphones creating an X, and the
microphones are positioned in front of the singers. Placing the microphones in that
position creates a stereo image. Most engineers record each microphone on a separate
track.
MS (midside) miking, similar to XY miking. One microphone has a cardioid (heart-
shaped) pattern that is pointed on-axis; the other microphone has a figure-8 pattern and
faces sideways picking up the ambient sound. The engineer can create various sounds by
mixing the two microphones together.
Stereo microphones contain two diaphragms housed in the same case. One diaphragm
can generally rotate by 180 degrees.
For large groups, the microphones are usually omnidirectional. The microphone is
opened all around, and the vocalists can stand in a circle.
Each singer might have a separate microphone. This technique is normally used if the
engineer is having a difficulty blending the sound. Each singer is recorded on a separate
track, and the tracks are mixed together to create a blend. That is not usually the preferred
miking technique when recording group singers. To create an appealing overall sound,
professional background singers or professional choruses blend by adjusting tonal quality.
In addition to the techniques just mentioned, a way for a producer to create an ambient
sound is to hang ambience microphones from the ceiling or place microphones on very
high microphone stands. During the mixing process, the ambient sounds are mixed with
the direct sound.
Some background vocalists record ad-lib parts after the initial background parts have
been recorded, a common technique in R&B records. A producer might ask for ad-libs
sung with words, or without words using vowel sounds. Most of the ad-lib tracks are not
used, but a producer might select certain ad-libs to be used sparingly. (Sometimes, certain
phrases are repeated throughout a song, creating a hook.)

When the microphones are placed as close together as possible, they are called coincident
microphones or a coincident pair. The engineer must be aware of any phase cancellation.
 Musicians
Coaching musicians is analogous to coaching singers. Producers are more apt to experience
ego problems coaching bands than when coaching hired studio musicians. Creating a relaxed
and creative atmosphere in the studio relieves tension; tension establishes a negative creative
environment. As mentioned, successful coaches are amateur psychologists.
A producer engages a musicians’ contractor to hire large ensembles for recordings.
Contractors know which musicians will collaborate well. The producer describes the desired
sound and the contractor hires an appropriate orchestra or band.
Most producers who work with studio rhythm sections develop relationships with rhythm-
section musicians. In major recording markets there is a large selection of musicians who
perform in specific styles. In smaller markets it will be more difficult to find musicians who
perform in esoteric styles. In this scenario, it might be necessary to seek out musicians in major
music markets.

Background singers who sing additional solo parts receive additional compensation.

Technology has solved the potential problem of not finding the most appropriate musicians
for a particular project, such as an Indian tabla player. Send a MIDI and/or audio file(s), in a
specified format (e.g., Pro Tools or Logic Pro) to the musicians. The musicians record and
send the MIDI and/or audio files back either by mail or over the Internet. The collaborators
make comments and revisions can be instantly made. (One of the disadvantages with this
system is that there is no interaction during the session.)
Producing studio musicians is analogous to producing studio singers. The producer has to
“get” an acceptable performance. There are several methods used to record basic tracks:

If the basic track is synthesized, the synthesizers and sampled parts are recorded prior
to overdubbing live musicians. The producer approves the overall feel of the track
before beginning the overdub process. The overdubs are usually recorded with one
musician at a time unless instrumental sections perform the overdubs. This enables the
producer to experiment and not feel pressured.
 In states that require musician’s union membership, a contractor must be hired if the
ensemble exceeds a certain number of musicians. (Read the American Federation of Musicians
agreement for detailed information.) Contractors are paid double scale.

Overdubbing Guitar Parts

Guitar players usually record multiple parts. All parts are not necessarily used, but portions
of the performances can be utilized. The following are examples of playing styles used in most
popular-music recordings:

Rhythm-guitar parts. The basic rhythm part is usually recorded first. The producer must
be concerned that the feel of the part fits with the rest of the track. The best performances
are usually achieved through experimentation. Once a performance is acceptable, the
producer might choose to double the part. That enables the mixer to create a stereo image
in the mix. Doubling is not always beneficial because the track might sound too cluttered
and could mask other instrumental parts.
Single-line guitar parts. Single-line hooks are effective. The parts are usually
constructed by inventing sequential passages that will catch the listener’s attention. For
instance, guitar players use a muted sound for this style because it provides a hook that is
not only melodic but also percussive. The plucking sound usually blends with the drum
and percussion patterns.
It is wise to record more guitar tracks than will actually be used in the final mix.
Recording three or four extra tracks enables the producer to choose patterns and hooks
that can be placed in various sections of the track. For instance, a guitar pattern performed
in the first chorus may be copied and pasted each time the chorus is performed.
Sometimes the final track comprises a combination of all tracks. Experimentation is
usually beneficial.

If the file is being sent via the Internet, it must be sent on an FTP site, which can hold much
more data and a better-quality digital file than regular e-mail. Professional-quality audio is too large to be
attached to a regular e-mail account.

Overdubbing Bass Parts

 If the producer plans to overdub a live bass player, it is helpful to record a synthesized
bass when designing the basic track. That helps the programmer get the feel and serves
as a demo for the live player. The reason for hiring a live bass player is to obtain a
“human” feel. Bass players, like guitar players, have individual styles, and each musician
will bring something unique to a track. If the basic feel of the synthesized bass is
appropriate, the producer will generally ask the live player to play a similar part, but
with a looser approach. Bass players can use a thumb for a percussive effect, slide up and
down the strings, bend strings, and adjust their sound, in addition to creating numerous
intangible subtle effects that only a live musician can achieve.
A live bass is sometimes added in addition to a synthesized bass part. Once again, a live
player is added to play “licks,” or fills that not only add a live feeling but also enhance
the final track.
Studio bass players usually offer the producer a selection of basses to choose from.
There are many manufacturers of basses, just as there are numerous manufacturers of
guitars. The various basses produce a variety of tonalities. If the producer is not familiar
with the differences in sounds, it is best to ask the player to send a sample CD or MP3 or
ask him or her to demonstrate the differences in sounds. Some bass players bring 2 or 3
instruments to the studio, offering the producer choices.

Overdubbing Percussion for Popular-Music Tracks

Overdubbing live percussion on a synthesized or sampled drum track can make the
entire track sound live. In general, adding live instruments to a track humanizes the
sound, if that is the desired result (techno music is intrinsically robotic). Hire a
percussionist who specializes in the style of music being recorded. Some percussionists
specialize in Latin music, while others play R&B, rock, and so forth. It is advisable to
record more overdubbing-percussion tracks than will actually be used. That affords the
producer an opportunity to add additional parts during the mixing process.
Inform the percussionist which instruments to bring to the session. Studio
percussionists bring a large variety of instruments to sessions. If a specific instrument is
required, the producer should inform the percussionist prior to the session. If the
instrument is unusual, rent the instrument from an instrument rental service.

Instrument-rental services are located in all major recording markets.

Most percussionists want to record a solid, steady groove that mixes well with the rest of the
rhythm track. It is usually the first part recorded. Instruments such as conga drums, bongos,
tambourines, and shakers are traditionally used to accomplish that. Additional parts are then
added. The producer should request fills and ear candy that can either be used or deleted after
the track is completed. Unusual sounds––doctored with such signal processors as EQ, delays,
etc.––make unique contributions to the final mix.
If extra percussion is planned, make certain the original trap-drum part leaves room for
additional parts. It is best to advise the trap drummer or the drum programmer that percussion
will be added; the objective of the trap drummer or drum programmer is to record a solid
groove.

Overdubbing Keyboards

Keyboards can be programmed to accomplish almost any musical goals, ranging from
string pads to the most complex rhythmic sonorities. It is wise to book an extended
session so that the programmer has enough time to edit and create the desired sounds. It is
beneficial for the programmer to have a copy of the basic track prior to the session. That
enables him or her to prepare sound patches or at least to know what is expected at the
session. (The programmer will also know which synthesizers and samplers to bring.)
Because of budget restrictions on most recording sessions, synthesizers and samplers
have become intrinsic parts of the recording process. Electronic instruments can fill in
missing parts. The producer must make certain that the proper sonorities are used and that
they blend with both the real instruments and the other electronic sounds.
When recording contemporary popular music, the producer should be aware of the
current sounds being used. The production must not sound dated. Kick drums, basses,
and percussion are most often the trendiest timbres. (This can be a double-edged sword:
If an album is in production for a year or longer, those timbres might be replaced with the
new flavors of the month by the time the album is released. This is not meant to
discourage programmers and producers from being creative, but a producer must be
aware of the marketplace and cannot ignore what listeners are reacting to.)

Overdubbing Strings

The producer should know the string sound that will match the track. The selection and
placement of microphones have a profound effect on the overall ambience that the string
section will have when mixed with the final track. Strings can sound piercing or warm
and mellow. Most producers opt for the strings to sound “real.”
Excessive equalizing can create a harsh sonority; accordingly, it is critical to achieve
a natural sound during the recording process. Some engineers specialize in recording
live instruments, and it is wise to hire an engineer who is experienced in recording
strings.
Record the violins, violas, cellos, and basses onto separate tracks. (If the section is
large, the producer may suggest recording some of the individual sections, like violins, on
stereo tracks.) In addition, request that ambience microphones be placed in the room so
that the room sound is recorded. That offers the producer an opportunity to use as much or
as little room ambience as needed in the final mix.
Prior to overdubbing strings, carefully scrutinize the entire track, searching for
harmonic or rhythmic mistakes. When overdubbing strings––either during the recording
or before completing the strings session––solo each string part, solo the entire section,
 and also listen to the string parts soloed only with either a keyboard or another chord
instrument. That is the only method of catching the subtlest mistakes. It is very difficult to
hear certain mistakes when listening to the entire track.

Overdubbing Horns (Trumpets, Saxes, and Trombones)

Producing a horn section is analogous to producing background vocals or a string

section. The producer must be certain that the overall “feel” of the performance matches
the ambience of the track. Each player can use many subtle techniques to create sounds.
Brass and woodwind players can “scoop” a note up or down by manipulating their
embouchures. Muted brass instruments create new sonorities; the choice of mute also
alters the timbre of the instrument.

We have discussed how important it is for background singers to blend with each other.
The same principle applies to horn sections. Some horn sections have become famous, such
as the Tower of Power or the Memphis Horns. Because they perform as a unit, they have
created a unique sound. It is best to hire a horn contractor––usually one of the section
members––to hire the additional horn players. That person knows who will blend well
with the rest of the section.

Use the same process as for recording strings. When recording popular music, doubling
small horn sections creates a powerful sonority. Pay particular attention to possible
intonation problems. Overblowing can affect intonation.

If, for example, a section consists of 2 trumpets, 1 tenor saxophone, 1 tenor trombone,
and 1 baritone saxophone, the producer might choose to record each instrument on separate
tracks and later combine the tracks to create a stereo mix. Producers generally use this
method so they have control of the blend during the mix. For instance, during the chorus
sections, the baritone saxophone might sound better if the level is louder than in the verses.

It is important to state that if a part would sound better played by a live musician, it is always
preferable to hire the musician rather than play the part on a synthesizer or a sampler.
 Most independent recording engineers travel with an array of microphones and racks of electronic
equipment, such as compressor/limiters, preamps, and so forth. The equipment, plus musicality, contributes
to the final sound of the recording. Listen to engineers’ strings recordings. They have individual styles, and
selecting the proper engineer is subjective.

If the studio has a pleasing natural reverberation and echo, that sound is preferred to using a signal
processor to create a room ambience.

If the budget allows, double the strings playing the exact same parts. The overall sound will be
richer.

Overdubbing Solos

Solos are generally overdubbed. Working with soloists should be approached in the same
manner as working with lead singers. A performance is the same, whether it is
instrumental or vocal. Recording multiple solos helps the player feel relaxed and
contributes to recording a better performance. It is most desirable to record a solo during
one performance, but a final track can be edited together if there are multiple
performances to choose from.

The producer normally has a creative vision of what the solo should accomplish within
the context of a song. With that in mind, the producer should hire a musician whose past
work displays the ability to achieve the producer’s creative goal (e.g., saxophonist
Clarence Clemons, who played in a rock ’n’ roll style, or Kenny G, who plays in a smooth
jazz style). Most accomplished musicians offer the producer a variety of performances, one
of which will be used on the final track.

Choosing the most appropriate microphone(s) is an important consideration. When

 recording singers, it is difficult to determine which microphone(s) will sound best
without experimentation. The same is true of recording an instrumental soloist. Select a
variety of microphones, and have the soloist record a small section of a solo. It is usually
obvious which microphone sounds best. If several microphones sound good, record the
solo simultaneously on a number of microphones, and make a choice during the mixing
process.

Dan Warner Interview

Dan Warner is a studio guitarist who has played on recordings by Barbra Streisand,
Timbaland, Celine Dion, Shakira, Cristina Aguilera, Pink, Madonna, Justin Timberlake, Barry
Gibb, Alicia Keys, Kelly Clarkson, Enrique Iglesias, and many more. He is also a record
producer.
MZ: What skills are necessary to become a studio musician?
DW: Reading music is helpful, having a great ear, being musically flexible . . . being able to
adapt to any kind of track…find a spot were you can make the track better . . . knowledge of
styles and past styles . . . find your space where you are going to be valuable and not get in the
way [of the vocals]. Know what kinds of sounds work [for various styles] . . . for a guitar
player, know what sound [choice of guitar and effects] works on a certain kind of track. Now
[unlike the past], you also have to be an engineer. I’m [had to become] a great engineer when it
comes to recording guitars. A lot of the young engineers [even in major studios] don’t know
how to record a drum set, much less even seen [drums] recorded . . . or guitar amps.
Everything is either plug-ins or plug in directly [to the console or sequencing program]. [It is
necessary to have technical skills.] Being a great player is not the most important thing. It’s
figuring out how you fit on a song.
MZ: What percentages of tracks are sent to you via the Internet so that you can record the
guitar parts in your studio rather than going to a major studio?
DW: I rarely leave my studio. I don’t leave my studio unless (I have to). About 60–70% of the
tracks [I work on] are sent to me online. Many people, even those that live locally, upload files
and never [come to the session]. . . . Frequently [I receive] an MP3 and a BPM [tempo
marking], I play my part [with the proper quality such as 24/48 WAVE], and the producer [just]
adds my tracks to the original session. The quality of their tracks doesn’t matter for what I’m
doing.
MZ: Do you normally send back several guitar tracks for the producer or artist to choose
from?
DW: I do not. Maybe with guitar solos, I will give 2 or 3 options. I try to get as much
information before I start. . . . I try to find the direction the producer or artist is going for . . .
[do they have any] specific references [where they want a specific sound]. Sometimes I get
very specific references and [often] no direction . . . sometimes [a client] will ask me to add an
extra solo for a reintroduction or add something to a little part or something like that. I don’t
have a problem doing that . . . if there is something I can do kind of easily, I will do it. [He
tells his clients to send the finished track before he plays on it. Otherwise, it is too time
consuming.]

Once a solo has been chosen, consider overdubbing some harmonies and/or doubling certain
sections of the solo.

MZ: With the decline in music sales, have the record labels reduced their budgets, and if so,
how does it affect you?
DW: I think it’s affected everybody. I am fortunate enough to have a lot of work. Because the
budgets have gotten smaller, I think the people are a lot more careful about whom they hire . . .
and that’s actually helped me. They don’t have a lot of money or time so they want to make sure
that it’s as good as possible right off the bat. As a player, I’ve stayed static. In a lot of
instances, I’m charging what I was charging 10 or 15 years ago to play on a song or an album.
The difference is now I have a studio, I’m the engineer, I have a mortgage on the studio . . . so
I’m making the same money, on average, per song as I may have made 10 years ago. I’ve
managed to maintain some high-end clients where the money is great, which it should be but for
[average work] the [clients] are just getting a lot for their money. It is [now] necessary to wear
a lot more hats [being able to arrange, produce, engineer, edit, etc.]. We are maximizing our
budgets even when they are not great.
MZ: How often do you receive music from producers?
DW: 10% (of the time). . . . I write a chart about 90% of the time. I literally write about 500
plus charts a year.
MZ: Have you been playing live?
DW: Very rarely. I would say between 5 and 10 (gigs) a year. Half of them are for charity.
MZ: How many guitars do you have in your studio?
DW: Somewhere around 25.
MZ: Out of the 25, how many do you actually use?
DW: (I use) about 12 to 14 that are in heavy rotation.
MZ: So, you can get any sound that a client requests?
DW: Yes. I only buy guitars that would make my job easier . . . sometimes the artist or
producer says that, “They have never heard anything like that before.” . . . they are getting
something unique.
MZ: Do you have any final words of advice?
DW: Hard work. Nobody’s going to make your bed. Learn how to be a professional. Know
what to bring to a session . . . show up on time . . . one of the most important things is being a
good guy. People want to be around people that they like.

Conclusion
A music producer is a coach. If a producer has a clear artistic vision, he or she will convey
confidence to an artist; that is beneficial when coaching performances.
Prepare to experience problems with multiple egos and the subjective opinions of the
performers. If an overall production concept is not solid, problems will arise, making it
difficult for all artistic collaborators to be satisfied. Preproduction preparation and respectful
personal relationships contribute to creating a successful project.
Coaching singers and musicians requires practice. The best training ground is producing
demos, which affords a producer an opportunity to experiment and apply the studio techniques
discussed in this chapter.

Assignment
Choose a song for the exercise. Design a full arrangement:

Assume you will hire 4 background vocalists. Record and arrange a background vocal
part. Experiment with the various recording techniques discussed in this chapter. In
writing, explain the various techniques applied.
Assume you will be working with a small horn section. (If you cannot use real horn
players, use samples.) Record and arrange a horn-section part. Use the recording
techniques discussed in this chapter. In writing, explain the various techniques applied.
Assume you will be working with a small string section. (If you cannot use real string
players, use samples.) Record and arrange a string-section part. Use the recording
techniques discussed in this chapter. In writing, explain the various techniques used.
8

Mixing and Mastering

You do not want to hear the following phrase: “We’ll fix it in the mix!”

Mastering is a process-Not a magic box of some sort. It doesn’t come in a bottle or a set of plug-ins. If it did,
everyone’s recordings would sound the same.
—John Scrip (mastering engineer)

Note: Audio engineering and the engineering terms used in this chapter are explained in the
technology section.

Mixing
Mixing is the penultimate stage of the recording process. After all of the tracks have been
recorded, the producer and the engineer begin the long and arduous process of creating the
final sonic image––the mix. Just as a film director and editor sculpt the final film during the
editing process, the music producer and audio engineer create the final album during the mixing
process. Since the purpose of a mix is to create a sonic picture, it is suggested that student
producers and engineers attend live concerts. Observe the stereo image heard during a live
concert. Bands position themselves in a variety of ways, but an orchestral setup is mostly
traditional. When producers and engineers are trying to recreate a live performance in the
recording studio, attentive listening will help them develop a realistic sonic image.
What is the album going to “say” to the listener? That is the question that should be asked
at the beginning of a production. Did the producer and the artist remain true to the original
creative and sonic concept? A music producer’s goal is to enhance an artist’s creative vision
and must be the primary objective of producers and engineers during the mixing process.
Each stage of the mixing process is essential to the final sonic picture. Is the album
supposed to sound intimate (as if the artist is performing in a small club) or live (as if he or
she is performing in a concert hall)? Is the album supposed to sound like a studio creation,
with the help of technology for the purpose of creating an electronic soundscape? Can the
sound of the final mix be reproduced during concert performances? That might be of concern to
the artist. Each scenario must be taken into consideration before mixing.
Most of these considerations have been addressed for the prerecording stage, but the
concepts must once again be discussed. Mixing is the blending of technology and art, and art
is ever changing. Accidents constantly occur during the mixing process, and many of them
remain on the album. The actual creation of the album continues throughout the mix.
It is relatively easy to physically describe the elements of a mix, but it is not easy to describe
the art of the mix. Obviously, a producer’s knowledge of recording technology, discussed in
the next section of the book, must become second nature, just as music theory is second nature
to musicians. A musician has to know how to play his or her instrument before being able to
interpret music and create a performance. The manner in which a producer uses studio
technology is a creative decision and a matter of taste. If a musician randomly plays myriad
fast passages, the audience hears groups of fast notes with no structure. If the notes are
carefully selected, however, the audience is rewarded with an interesting surprise when the
passage occurs. The producer and the engineer have to make choices analogous to the example
just cited. If the producer adds excessive reverberation and feedback to every part, the listener
will experience nothing but a cloud of sound. The mix will have no definition. If the producer
and engineer selectively add reverberation and feedback, the listener will experience a well-
thought-out ambient effect. Painters choose colors and decide how to blend them; orchestrators
color arrangements with instruments; producers must decide how to blend an infinite variety of
signal processing to color the final sonic image.
The minutest change in any form of signal processing or level control shapes the entire
mix. When does the producer complete the final mix? In my view, the answer is never! If that
statement sounds ridiculous, ask most producers whether they are ever satisfied with their final
mixes or, in general, with the creative content of an album. They will most likely respond by
saying, “If I had only…” That is the nature of most artists and also the healthiest attitude an
artist can have. Producers are artists, just as movie directors are artists. They must continually
seek new ways to improve and create artistic visions. It is not creatively healthy to feel
completely satisfied with anything that is artistic, and it is the excitement of the process that
encourages an artist to create. There is a time when the artist, the producer, and the engineer
must approve the final mixes and deliver the album to the record label for distribution.
Creative people sometimes experience the equivalent of postpartum depression. The baby has
been delivered and, along with a feeling of exhilaration, the creative team realizes that the
process is complete and that it is time to move on to a new experience.
Before beginning the mixing process, listen carefully to each track, and eliminate any
audio problems. Subtle distortion can be difficult to hear when listening to an entire track. If
working in a digital-audio program (e.g., Pro Tools), listen to each track soloed,
simultaneously viewing the waveform. If the sound is distorting, first see if the waveform is
too “hot” (industry term for too loud). If the waveform is peaking, rerecord the track. An
effects processor can cause a normal-looking waveform to distort. For instance, over-
compressing a track will distort the sound; the same is true of using a trim, which increases the
level of a track. Almost any effects processor, used in excess, can cause the audio signal to
distort.
Unwanted material can be on tracks when the main audio signal is not playing. For example,
the space between electric guitar parts can sound noisy. The noise can emanate from multiple
sources: The amplifier might have a hum; string noise might be recorded while the guitarist is
resting before making an entrance; quiet talking might be on the track. There are two ways of
eliminating these and similar problems: Erase the unwanted noise, or use a noise gate on the
guitar. (The function of a noise gate is described later in this chapter.)
The producers and engineers should scrutinize the tracks before beginning the mixing
process. Preparation in the analog domain is similar. Solo each track and erase the unwanted
material. That is sometimes not a suitable option because once a track has been erased on
audiotape it cannot be recalled. There are two options:

Automate the track. Automation enables the engineer to mute the unwanted portions of the
track.
Make a safety copy of the tape before attempting to erase the unwanted material.

Before mixing, the producer and the artist should make certain the performances and
arrangements are acceptable. When listening back to a rough mix, the producer and the artist
may decide to add, delete, or rerecord tracks. Try not to initiate the mixing process until all
tracks are acceptable.
When working in the digital domain, which is the preferred format by most producers, the
process of preparing for the mix is much simpler than working with audio tape. Digital
editing allows recalling material that was eliminated, if the audio is properly saved; editing is
also simpler than editing audiotape. Always backup your files at least 2 times. It is common to
experience problems.
Engineers and producers have individual styles of working, but the common goal is to
create a sonic image!
The following are the main elements of a mix:

Balancing levels
Equalization
Panning (spatial relationships)
Signal processing

Balancing Levels
Balancing the levels of the vocals, the instruments, and the effects processors is vital to
the design of a mix. Most genres of popular music have distinct mixing styles. Producers are
attuned to the marketplace and know the sound of the current musical trends in the genre of the
music they are producing. That knowledge applies directly to the balancing process. For
instance, in R&B music, the kick drum and the bass are important elements in most mixes.
Therefore, the loudest instruments in the mix are the kick drum and the bass. Guitar is the most
prominent instrument in rock ’n’ roll mixes.
Producers and engineers try to be innovative when mixing, but competing in a contemporary
marketplace requires the mixes to sound competitive. The audience might not accept anything
that does not conform to the style of music currently being played on the radio. For example,
most hip-hop records are mixed with loud bass and drum parts; if the producer did not create
the typical hard-driving rhythm heard on most hip-hop records, it is possible that the listeners
might not react to the record because hip-hop recordings are designed to be rhythmic. If the
public accepts an inventive mixing approach, other producers and engineers might emulate the
style of mixing, and a new trend could emerge.
Most music productions contain numerous tracks, and balancing them is a difficult task.
That becomes a complicated subject because each new element that is introduced into the mix
affects the balance. If a bass has a desirable sonic quality and three new instruments—in the
middle and/or lower registers—are added to the mix, not only will the balance of the bass
change, but the engineer will also most likely have to re-equalize, or change the sonic quality
of the bass so it can be heard. That is but one example of complications that occur during the
mixing process.
Most producers begin the mixing process by listening to the vocals and the basic rhythm
section. That gives the producer a basic balance to build on. In most vocal mixes, the vocals
are the most prominent element. The remaining tracks surround the lead vocal and most likely
the background vocals as well. After achieving an acceptable balance, most producers and
engineers begin to process the tracks with EQ (equalization), level, reverberation, and
additional signal processing for the vocals, kick drum, snare drum, hi-hat, tom-toms,
percussion instruments, keyboards, guitars, and bass. It is the foundation of the recording. The
producer hopes by the time this process has begun that he or she is already satisfied with the
basic sounds of the individual instruments and the vocal tracks. If a producer is working with
samples, any of the sounds can be changed quickly. When working with live musicians, it is
vital that the producer communicate to the engineer the technical objective of the session. The
engineer must plan how to capture the producer’s sonic goal (most engineers have a sonic plan
prior to the mixing session). Because it is costly to rerecord live musicians, problems should
be repaired during the recording sessions, not during the mixing sessions.

Equalization (EQ)
Equalizing (EQ, or equalization) is usually the next step in the mixing process. EQ
enables the producer and the engineer to boost or cut the frequencies of each audio track.
Equalization can dramatically affect the sound of each instrument and vocal. The producer and
engineer have to be careful not to either distort a sound or use excessive equalization on an
audio signal. Excessive equalization can make a recording sound unrealistic, piercing, dark,
lifeless, heavy, light, or basically any other negative adjective that can be applied to sound.
Using equalization carefully can accomplish just the opposite. EQ can enhance certain audio
frequencies that sound too dark and make them sound more pleasant; it can add clarity to a
vocal or an instrument; applied to a completed mix, EQ can help achieve an overall well-
balanced sonic image. Equalizing is probably the most effective form of signal processing
because if the basic sound is not right, adding additional processing will not be as helpful to
the final sound. Used properly, EQ is a creative tool.
It is the unwritten code of most audio engineers to record the most natural sound during a
recording session and try not to rely on using EQ. Engineers would rather not use equalization
to fix sonic problems, although it is rare when EQ is not used to some degree. Sometimes, it
cannot be avoided. As instruments and effects are added, most sounds need some signal
processing to help achieve a blend, but a producer always hopes for limited EQ.
In some instances, the drastic use of EQ is planned. For instance, there might be a section of
the vocal where the singer is supposed to sound as if he or she is talking on a telephone. A
drastic filtering process is used to achieve the sound. The kick drum might not sound “punchy”
enough––even during the recording process––but the engineer knows that adding EQ to certain
frequencies will accomplish the desired sound.
Most engineers who record live orchestras or bands use a minimum of equalization. It is
achieved through the proper selection and placement of microphones, the acoustics of the
studio, the selection of the recording console, and additional elements used in the recording
process. Keep in mind that although we are talking about the individual components of the
recording process––both technical and creative––they all blend together when the mixing
process begins.
Engineers and producers think about the mix while they are recording. If any sound (e.g.,
synthesizer) or part (e.g., guitar, bass) is not meeting the standards of the producer or engineer
during the recording session, an attempt to fix the problem is made during the mix. The one
phrase that is not welcome is this: “We’ll fix it in the mix.” Certain problems can be fixed in
the mix, but studio time should be devoted to recording the best possible performance––
creatively and technically. Fixing it in the mix is a last resort.
Most engineers do not record using EQ, for once equalization has been added to the
recorded signal, it cannot be deleted. Equalization, like additional signal processing, is
generally added during the mix. Add signal processing during the recording only if the
processing will not be available during the mix. That will not occur in professional recording
studios, but many home-studio computers have limited memory and cannot process numerous
signal processors simultaneously.
A variety of equalizers are discussed in the technology section of the book.

Panning
Panning is the process of creating spatial relationships. Decorators look at an empty space
and decide where the furniture will look its best. If the job is to place furniture in a bedroom,
the dresser will normally be against the wall with a painting or a mirror above it, a chair
farther out and to the side. On the opposite side of the dresser might be the bed with paintings
above it, a bookcase on one side wall, and a long table on the opposite wall. Each piece of
furniture and decoration has a place in the overall decorative plan.
Decorators deal in spatial relationships, and music producers deal in sonic decoration.
Placing each instrument and effect in the stereo image is called panning. Not only does
panning an instrument to the left, center, or right (or in between) in the mix create a place for
each vocal and instrument, but the level (volume) of the sound contributes to the overall effect
experienced by the listener as well. The producer and engineer must decorate the empty sonic
canvas.
Once again, we are dealing with the art of the mix. Panning is a creative function of the
mixing process. A producer and engineer have many choices when deciding where to place
certain instruments in the stereo image, and in most instances it is a matter of taste and not a
question of right or wrong. It is helpful to think of the musical canvas as a clock. The producer
and engineer can plan where to place each vocal, instrument, and effect within the sonic image,
which can be thought of as a clock. For instance, the kick drum is placed at 12:00; the
background vocals are spread from 11:45 to 12:15; the snare drum is placed at 11:55 and so
forth. Once the assignments have been made, it is relatively easy to make slight changes
without disrupting the entire mix. Panning a signal slightly left or right on the clock can make a
dramatic difference in the sonic image. For instance, if the lead vocal is not placed at 12:00
but is placed at 12:10, the relationships within the entire sonic image will change. Just as level
adjustments (volume) are a difficult task within the process, so is panning. Each time a new
element is panned, the entire mix is affected. Experimentation is the only means of arriving at
an acceptable sonic image.
One strategy is to think of the orchestra or band as being on a stage and to pan the
instruments so that they resemble the positioning of a live performance (e.g., violins on the left
at 11:45, cellos on the right at 12:15, trumpets coming from the right rear at 12:20). When
dealing with electronic sounds, the producer and engineer have to invent an imaginary image of
a live orchestra since the sounds do not really exist as instruments.
Certain practices are standard in specific musical genres. The following are standard:

In rhythm-oriented tracks, the kick drum and the bass are usually panned to twelve
o’clock.
The snare drum might be slightly to the right of the kick at 12:05, with the hi-hat panned
slightly to the left at 11:55, and so on.
Percussion is usually spread throughout the sonic image. Bongos might be on the left at
11:50, the shaker might be at 12:00, and the claves at 11:45.
If there are 2 guitars, they will usually be placed on opposite sides of the clock; 1 guitar
might be at 1:45 and the other guitar at 12:15. The positioning of additional guitar parts is
usually arrived at through experimentation.
Do not spread the stereo image of keyboards to the extreme left and right; for example, the
left side of the keyboard placed at 11:35 and the right side of the keyboard at 12:35. They
will not sound realistic. As the panning is being adjusted, listen carefully to the stereo
image until the spread sounds natural.
Strings are normally spread in a realistic live performance image. Imagine viewing the
stage from the audience’s perspective: violins to left (11:50), violas slightly right of
center (12:10), cellos to the right (12:15), and double basses on the far right (12:25).
A small horn section, playing in harmony, should have a realistic stereo spread. If the
section is playing mostly unison lines, the stereo image does not have to be as wide.
When recording an orchestra, try to place the instruments in a realistic live-performance
setting. Draw a diagram of the orchestral setup and sonically reproduce it. The producer
and engineer should envision themselves in the audience, sitting directly behind the
 conductor. That will help determine the correct sonic image.

Signal Processing
Signal processing helps create an ambience for the overall sound. Most signal processing
is accomplished in the digital domain and is referred to as digital signal processing, or DSP.
Producers and engineers use hardware or software versions of either the same processors or
processors that accomplish the same sonic goal. Some engineers use a combination of DSPs
and analog processors. During analog processing the signal remains in the analog domain
without being converted to the digital domain.
Many forms of processing can affect a chosen sound(s). It is the producer and engineer’s
mission to selectively choose from the tool chest of processors. Signal processing is complex,
since each added processor can change the overall ambience of the track.
Working in the box (in the computer) has become the most widely used recording method.
Most engineers either work exclusively in the computer or use a combination of a computer
and a recording console. If the signal processing is accomplished in the computer, the signal
processors are referred to as plug-ins. Plug-ins (used to enhance digital audio programs) are
virtual signal processors and are made by a variety of third-party manufacturers. Most digital-
sequencing programs provide the user with a basic set of plug-ins (e.g., reverbs, compressors).
Buying plug-ins can be pricey, but not nearly as costly as purchasing hardware. The quality of
virtual signal processors is equal to most hardware versions, and in general plug-ins are easier
to edit. The processing is automated, which affords an engineer the unlimited ability to change
the sound, and the edited sound will be perfectly reproduced by the computer. With hardware,
once the settings have been chosen, the engineer has to physically change the settings in order
to edit the sound. Most professional recording consoles have some built-in signal processing,
but it is limited when compared to DSPs available for a computer. Plug-ins can be easily
loaded into a computer and are available with one click of the mouse.
We have discussed achieving relative balances prior to incorporating signal processing. It is
important to note that adding processing can affect the overall balance of the mix. As
processors are added, balances have to be adjusted. Relative level balancing, equalization,
and panning are continually adjusted throughout the mixing process: Mixing is making a sonic
stew. You keep adding spices until the taste is acceptable, and processors are the producers’
and engineers’ spices. It takes years for a cook to become a chef; it takes years for a fledgling
producer to become a producer and for an assistant engineer to become an engineer.
Producers and engineers have recipes for sound, and it takes years to develop individual
mixing styles. Some engineers do not record tracks but mix only. Producers should carefully
listen to their recordings before hiring them. Engineering styles vary, and so do their artistic
abilities.
The basics of signal processing include equalization, reverberation, compression,
limiting, and gating. They are the most frequently used signal processors. (It is advisable to
study audio engineering as a separate subject.)
Reverberation. Reverberation (reverb) creates a special ambience. It is generally defined
as the sound heard within 30-50-milliseconds after the direct sound has occurred. Without
either natural reverberation or reverb created with a reverberation device, all recordings
would sound dry and most likely lifeless. Reverberation communicates space to the listener. It
is the most important factor in psychoacoustics. A large room, a concert hall, a small room, or
variations thereof can be created with a twist of a dial. DSPs (plug-ins) are generally the most
popular devices used to create reverberation. Various reverb settings can “transport” listeners
to an environment. There is a large selection of hardware and software reverb devices. An
engineer can edit a device’s parameters to create both interesting and complex algorithms.
Choosing standard or newly created reverberation algorithms is a creative decision. Because
most mixes are composed of multiple tracks, the producer and the engineer mix and match
various reverb settings. If not handled properly, that can create musical chaos. Too much
reverb will wash out a track, causing no definition between instruments, and too little reverb
can cause a track to sound dull and lifeless. Experimentation is the only method of arriving at
the correct blend.
Echo. Echo is an extreme form of reverberation. After the direct sound hits, echo is the
sound that occurs after at least a 30-50-millisecond delay. Echo is used to create a cavernous
effect, such as the echo heard in the Grand Canyon.
Compressor. In lay terms, a compressor (also referred to as a compressor/limiter) is used
to lower a signal when it reaches a threshold, which is set by the engineer. It enables the
engineer to raise the overall level of the track without experiencing distortion. For instance, if
the producer wants the bass and kick drum to be prominent in the mix, a compressor is used to
reduce the dynamic range of the signal and enable it to be pushed to the limit.
Overloading a compressor can cause distortion. In popular music, vocals are often
compressed, as are bass, guitar, and drum parts. Many producers and engineers compress an
entire mix. It is risky if the music contains dynamics, such as pp, ff, crescendos, diminuendos,
and the like. Compression reduces the impact of dynamics. For that reason it is rare to use
compressors in classical music.
Limiter. Limiting is an extreme form of compression. It is normally used to avoid high
peaks, which can cause distortion. Limiting should be used judicially and is often applied
during the mastering process.
Noise Gate. A noise gate is used to allow selected signals to pass through a threshold
determined by the engineer. For instance, noise gates are normally used on snare drums or
guitar tracks. A properly set noise gate will attenuate the noise between audible information.
Scenario: A guitar plays (records) for 4 bars, rests for 2 bars (e.g., unwanted guitar noise is
heard during the 2 bar rest), and continues to play for another 4 bars. If the recorded signal is
gated properly, the noise gate, eliminating the unwanted noise, will attenuate the 2 bar rest.
Gating is also used to create interesting effects. Excessive gating will cause signals to be cut
off.
Delay Units. Most delay units are digital and, therefore, referred to as digital delay units.
Delays, which are calculated in milliseconds, are added to audio tracks to let a signal “trail
off” over a selected time period. Delays help create an illusion of space. They are often used
on vocals, snare drums, solo instruments, and so forth. A delay administered at the end of a
phrase is referred to as a “tail” because the sound of the delay trails off to infinity. Slight
delays used on certain instruments create a “live” sound similar to a slight echo in an
auditorium.
Delay units afford a producer and an engineer the opportunity to choose a delay that is based
on a musical duration. For example, an engineer can place an eighth-note delay on a snare
drum. Listeners will hear a slight delay on the snare drum, but they will probably not realize
that the delay is in perfect time with the remainder of the track. Creative uses of delays create
complex rhythm patterns.
Chorusing. Adding a chorus (hardware or software processor) makes an instrument or
instrumental section, or vocals sound doubled. The device creates delays of the original
signal, which are manipulated to slightly alter the frequencies. The resulting effect is a
unique sound, which has been popular for many years.
Flanging. Flanging is the process of mixing 2 identical signals and adding a minimal delay
to the original signal. This creates a doubling effect without creating a need to rerecord the
original track.
Microphone Modeling. Microphone modeling is used to recreate the sound of a particular
microphone, although that microphone was not used to record the original audio. For instance,
the signal from a dynamic microphone could be modeled to sound like a ribbon microphone.
Auto-Tune. Auto-tune helps pitch-correct a track. For example, if a vocal performance has
intonation problems, place the audio signal through auto-tune and (with the proper settings) the
intonation will be corrected. (Auto-tune is very sensitive and must be carefully programmed,
or the vocal will sound unnatural.) There are other pitch-correctors.

Flanging was partially developed by John Lennon and used on The Beatles’ albums.

Monitoring
Make certain that the control room has a flat frequency response. (A flat frequency
response is when none of the frequencies are enhanced or attenuated.) This helps assure the
producer and the engineer that the music played on the control room monitors (speakers) will
sound the same on consumer sound systems.
Many mixes are not recorded in professional studios. If recording and mixing in a home
studio, the producer and the engineer must adapt to the sound of the room. The most efficient
way to accomplish that is to listen to recordings that have been tested on a variety of speakers
and compare the sound outside the studio to the sound in the studio. It is best to use recordings
that have been produced by the producer. It is also advisable to listen to mixes on headphones
because the sound of the room will not color the sound of the earphones. The producer and
engineer must be familiar with the sound characteristics of the earphones, for all earphones
differ.
After a mix has been completed, listen to the mix on various speakers—car radio,
inexpensive portable CD player, iPod, midline home system, computer, and so forth. The mix
should sound relatively the same on all systems, or there is a problem with the mix. If the
producer and the engineer are not familiar with the mixing room, anticipate remixing tracks
several times. It is difficult to become familiar with the sound of a room without
experimentation.
The selection of studio monitors affects the mixing process. Many engineers bring signal-
processing devices and personal speakers to the mix. If the producer or engineer does not bring
monitors, become familiar with the studio speakers. All professional studios have far-field
monitors and near-field monitors. Far-field monitors are large and mounted on the wall in
front of the recording console. Near-field monitors are small speakers that are mounted on a
shelf that usually sits directly in front of the engineer above the recording console. As the name
implies, the speakers are close to the engineer. Near-field monitors are preferred when mixing
most musical styles because they closely replicate home speakers. Far-field monitors are used
primarily for mixing dance music, film music, or any music that will be played on large
speaker systems. If the producer and the engineer prefer to mix and record on far-field
monitors, it is advisable to also listen on near-field speakers. Large monitors generally
enhance almost any recording, but when the mix is played on a home system, it might not sound
the same.
With either monitoring system, the producer and the engineer should sit in the center of both
speakers and listen at a medium to low volume level. Listening at excessive levels can
contribute to hearing loss and hearing fatigue.

Surround Sound Mixing

Surround sound mixing, also called 5.1 surround sound, has been the standard in the film
industry for many years. In recent years, record labels have been remixing popular surround-
sound versions of popular archived recordings. Some new albums are being mixed in surround
sound, but sales have not warranted a general attraction to the process. (More advanced
surround sound formats exist but are rarely used.)
Surround sound comprises five speaker outputs: left, right, center, surround left, surround
right, and subwoofer (bass speaker). The producer and engineer must choose how to pan
(distribute) the sound, and the choices are usually made based on the general concepts used in
stereo mixing. Surround mixing can become complex because it is not as natural as mixing in
stereo.
 Some surround-sound mixes are created artificially, and although they give the listener a sense of
surround sound, it is not the same effect as actually mixing in the medium.

Automation
Mixing requires a complex series of adjustments and editing within the workings of an
audio console, whether the console is virtual or physical. Automation enables an engineer
to automate panning, EQ, level, signal processing, and so on. Most consoles allow an
engineer to automate all parameters of the mix. For instance, panning, reverberation, levels,
and equalization can be adjusted throughout the mix, and the automation program memorizes
the changes and plays them back. The engineer also has the option of adjusting the levels of all
audio information, including plug-ins, which avoids having to use the faders to automate the
mix. Automation is one of the most important functions of a recording console and is
indispensable to the creative process of mixing. Automation enables producers and engineers
the opportunity to experiment with multiple mixes and never erase a mix. Updates can be
infinite. The process also affords a producer and an engineer the luxury of taking several days
to complete a mix without resetting the console each time parameters are updated.
Just slightly adjusting the volume levels, one fader at a time, can make a dramatic difference
in the sound of the mix; increasing and decreasing reverberation levels can also dramatically
affect the ambience of a track.
Some producers submit stems to the mastering engineer. Stems are individual tracks (stereo
or mono) such as brass, drum kit and percussion, strings and so forth. If the mastering engineer
adjusts the level of the stems, he or she becomes a “second mix engineer.” Many producers and
engineers do not like to submit stems because the approved final mix will change. If the
producer(s) and mix engineer(s) submit stems, many prefer to attend the mixing sessions so that
their mixes are not changed without their approval.

Conclusion of Mixing
Prior to booking a mixing room, request a list of the equipment that will be available.
Normally engineers prefer to mix in a studio they are familiar with and feel certain they will
achieve the best results for their clients. The use of non-traditional equipment may not be
included in the quoted studio rental fee. The producer must be aware of this, for budgetary
reasons.
Some studios gain reputations for having superior-sounding mix rooms. For example, studios
specialize in dance mixing because the sound of the room is designed to simulate an average
club. Mixing studios become popular when hits are mixed in the room.
Countless effects processors are available, and they are mostly variations of the
processors discussed. Plug-ins, designed for digital-audio programs, are popular and have
become standard signal processors. It is surprising that a minimum of processing is needed for
certain styles of mixing. Home (project) studio recording is popular, and many hits have been
created using basic equipment. Pro Tools is the most popular digital-audio program. An array
of high-quality third-party plug-ins is available. When working in a Pro Tools room, ask which
plug-ins are included in the rental fee.
It is preferable to use one mixing engineer so that the album has a consistent sound. Many
albums have multiple producers who record in different studios. Choosing a mixing engineer is
usually the decision of the executive producer, who often works for the record label. The
executive producer is responsible for the producers and must also communicate the production
concept and the sonic image to the mixing engineer. The final mixes are crucial to the success
of the album. It is often necessary to either completely remix tracks or to update mixes.

Mastering
Mastering is the final step before manufacturing. Mixing is the final creative endeavor in
music producing, but it would be unfair not to include mastering as both a creative and a
technical process. Digital audio editors are the most used devices for editing.
After the producer and the record label have accepted the mixes, the producer books a
mastering session, which is conducted by a mastering engineer. The final mastered sound
recording goes to the manufacturer for replication or is uploaded for digital distribution and
streaming.
Mastering is a creative process since the sound of the album can change during the process.
The following are some responsibilities of a mastering engineer:

The mastering engineer assembles an album in the correct listening order.

The producer tells the mastering engineer the number of seconds to leave blank
between songs. The average is 2 to 3 seconds. The concept of the album might be to not
have space between songs, e.g., some tracks on The Beatles Abbey Road album.
During the mixing process, the producer and the engineer are concerned that the mixes
sound the same on speakers of all sizes.
The level (volume) of each song must be evenly matched. It is rare that the levels on an
album match; one song might be very loud and another 25% softer. If the levels are not
adjusted, the album will not sound as loud as it should when played at low levels. The
engineer carefully adjusts the level of each track.
Pops, digital errors (distortion), and clicks are removed.
In the world of popular music, producers and mastering engineers always try to make the
master recording sound as hot (loud) as possible. “Hot” means that at a low level, the
recording still projects a feeling of being energetic. The mastering engineer often pushes
the levels just short of distortion.
If the tracks are mastered in different studios, the sampling rate and bit rates of the
 recording could vary. The mastering engineer converts all tracks to a sampling rate of
44.1 and 16 bits to meet CD standards. A variety of parameters exist for DVD mastering.
(Bit rates and sampling rates affect the sonic quality of a CD.)
If the dynamics of the music are not important, the producer and/or mastering engineer
might suggest compressing the overall album. Compression will help make the album
sound “punchy” (louder). Mastering engineers use multiband compressors and limiters to
adjust the overall sound.
Adjusting EQ is also a possibility.
The mastering engineer listens for any extraneous noises. Listen for clicks, pops, and
other forms of distortion. Software programs can eliminate some forms of distortion
(digital error) and extraneous noise. The engineer must have the ability to adjust the
parameters of the software properly, or the software can cause additional damage to the
existing problems.The problems should not occur if the producer and the engineer are
careful during the recording and mixing process. If a mastering engineer is assembling an
array of tracks from different producers working in various studios or if the tracks are old
and have to be remastered, the engineer will most likely experience some of these
problems.
Some mastering engineers equalize each track. There are several reasons to apply EQ to
the final tracks: The audio quality of each track must match so that the tracks relate to
one another sonically. Adding high or low frequencies will either make the track
“sparkle” or add extra bottom end. Adding low end is almost standard when mastering
tracks designed for dance clubs. High end is added mostly to tracks that sound too dark.
Some mastering engineers add overall EQ to the album. This is a rare occurrence and
should be used only if there is no other way to solve a problem.
Mastering can be engineered in a multimillion-dollar mastering studio (lab) or with
software designed for use in a home (project) studio. The choice usually depends on the
budget. Inexpensive software programs can produce favorable results. Unfortunately,
using mastering software designed for a project studio does not include the talent of a
mastering engineer.

Classical-music recordings use the least compression—if any—because hearing the dynamic
range of the music is important. Compression creates less dynamic range, which, in most forms of
popular music, is not as important as in classical music.

The mastering process is complex, and producers should listen to the work of numerous
mastering engineers before choosing one. Many recording engineers specialize in one or two
musical styles, as do mastering engineers. They must be familiar with the general sound of the
marketplace and know how to master an album with the proper sonic quality. For instance,
mastering engineers who specialize in dance music (club music) know that the CD or the vinyl
record will be played on very expensive loudspeaker systems, that the bottom end of the
record has to “jump out,” and the tracks, in general, have to sound energetic. In this musical
genre, the mastering engineer can literally be responsible for making the record a success or
vice versa. In some instances, the sound of the final recording can be as important as the mix.
(Naturally, the song has to be well produced.)
Some labels master special albums for distribution to the radio stations, and the albums are
not for sale to the public. Mixes are also designed only for the radio. Since radio signals
change the sound of recordings, the mastering engineer and mixing engineer tailor the
recordings to meet the sonic restrictions. Engineers and producers of popular music address
the sonic needs of the medium.
Some producers plan on adjusting certain parameters during the mastering process and
design the mixes with mastering as a part of the overall sonic plan.

Conclusion
Mastering is not generally considered the most exciting step in the recording process, but it
certainly is equal in importance to any event within the process. Mastering engineers are
creative artists. The choices of a mastering engineer and a mastering studio are crucial to the
final stage of any recording project. Make certain that the mastering studio has state-of-the art
equipment and also that successful recordings have been mastered in that studio. A mastering
studio has a sound, just as recording studios and control rooms have individual sonic qualities.
Listen to recordings mastered in several studios before contracting with a studio. Mastering
engineers also produce a sound; listen to an engineer’s work prior to hiring him or her.

Many classical-music listeners are audiophiles and enjoy high-quality digital surround-sound recordings. The
DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) and SACD (Super Audio CD, a high-resolution, multichannel audio format) audio
formats have become popular with audiophiles because of the exceptional clarity of sound. Although the
market is small for these formats, most record labels distributing classical and jazz music reproduce some of
the recordings using cutting-edge technology. Many older classic recordings have been remastered and
converted to the above-mentioned formats so that the listener can enjoy an enhanced audio experience.

Assignment
Program 32 bars of a song or instrumental:

Mix the track applying signal processing and automation.

Write a detailed report on the process. For example, “balanced track levels, panned the
snare drum slightly to right of center, applied X percent of reverberation to the violins,
 etc.”

Call several mastering labs and compare prices and equipment included in the mastering fee.
Devise a budget detailing the differences in equipment and costs. There may be extra charges
for the use of certain equipment.

The mastering engineer could be hired as an independent contractor. That means the budget must
include a fee separate from the studio fee and supplies.
9

Music Videos, Video Games, and Film and

Television Trailers

Music Videos
Music videos are first and foremost promotional tools. They are played on a variety of
television stations (mostly cable stations), some specializing in a musical genre—country,
rock, R&B, and so forth. The Internet is also now the primary source for viewing music
videos, e.g., YouTube, MySpace, Hulu, and more. YouTube has become the number-one source
for discovering new music. MTV started the craze in the United States but in recent years has
concentrated on original programming geared to its core youth-oriented audience. MTV
affiliated stations play music videos and live concerts. Music videos have, once again, become
necessary promotional tools, even for unsigned artists.

As discussed in chapter 3, 13-year-old singer Rebecca Black, an unknown artist, has received
153,653,217 hits on YouTube as of the writing of this book (2011). This is a remarkable example of the power
of social networking. Current technology affords artists the opportunity to produce music videos at a
reasonable cost. Black’s video was produced for $2,000.

Record labels have lowered production budgets. Labels have spent millions of dollars for
certain superstar videos, and the income generated has not warranted the return on investment.
Approximately 50% of a video budget is charged against an artist’s record royalties. Since
music videos have generated traditionally poor sales but are essential for exposure, most
artists would prefer to receive higher artist’s royalties on record sales and produce videos for
a reasonable budget.
Music videos enable artists to solidify images with the public. Cutting-edge contemporary
film directors direct music videos. They specialize in reaching the youth and young-adult
audiences. Videos provide artists with visual exposure and the exposure helps record labels
sell albums. Touring artists usually perform in a city once a year or once every several years.
Radio airplay exposes their music but does not expose an artist’s persona. A combination of
music videos and radio play is the ideal promotional tool.
Video subject matter can produce a negative effect. Madonna’s “Like a Prayer” is an
example of a video that caused criticism—in that case from the Catholic Church. “There is no
such thing as bad publicity” is not necessarily true. Many careers have been ruined because of
controversy, for example Michael Jackson. (Although his record sales catapulted after his
death in 2009.) Artists must be concerned with how artists’ songs and visual images are
portrayed.

Music videos can be costly to produce and traditionally have not been a profit center for the labels.
There is an effort to reverse that trend and generate a profit from sales. Universal Music Group is charging
online companies for the use of its videos. In the past videos were supplied as promotional tools, but once
again they are considered essential to marketing and promoting an artist. (Product placement in videos by
high-profile stars can garner substantial revenue.) Cable stations such a Palladia, owned by MTV Networks,
show live performances as well as music videos. They also program interviews with notable artists. This
format provides audience members with further insight into their favorite artists.

Established artists usually work with directors to develop video concepts. New artists, who
are signed to labels or production companies, rarely control the video content. If the content is
offensive or can damage the artist’s image, an artist can refuse to appear in the video. Video
production is most effective as a collaborative process.
Videos have been popular for many years in foreign territories, especially in Europe.
Websites, MTV Television Networks, and independent stations play music videos throughout
the world. The videos provide exposure for artists who are not touring. A video is the fastest
and most effective means for an artist to create a public image. A video can instantly reach a
worldwide audience.

Although artists have generated hundreds of millions of Internet video impressions (e.g., YouTube), a formula
for determining how to fairly distribute the income has not yet been determined. On average, one million
streams will produce $1,000 to $5,000. Advertising rates for video ads online are determined on a cost per
thousand impressions (views). This helps to establish the revenue. Advertisers pay more to advertise on a
superstar’s video than for an artist who has not achieved the same level of success.
The website presenting the video usually takes 30% of the gross revenue, and the label and the site receive
the remaining 70%—out of which the label pays the artists’ and mechanical royalties. The performance
royalties for official videos are paid by the performance rights societies, BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC in the U.S.
Depending upon an artist’s contract, the act either receives a 50%/50% split or the artist receives a standard
artist’s royalty, which averages around 12%. A proper formula for how to distribute this revenue stream will
most likely take several years to sort out.
Conclusion to Music Videos
Music-video directors have influenced feature-film directors. Fast editing, unique camera
angles, and interesting storytelling have had a lasting effect on segments of the movie industry.
MTV-style direction is also popular in commercials. When films are being made to appeal to
the younger demographics, the expression “It should look like MTV” is analogous to asking for
Kleenex (a brand name) when actually referring to a generic tissue. The Beatles’ feature film A
Hard Day’s Night is essentially a long-form music video. In addition to promoting the music,
the popular MTV Music Awards promotes awareness of the craft of producing and directing
music videos. Used properly, music videos can help create careers.

Assignment
Select 3 hit songs and their accompanying videos. Compare the storyline of each song to its
video portrayal. Answer the following questions:

Does the storyline in the video accurately portray the song lyric? If so, why? If not,
explain.
Does the video complement the persona of the artist? If so, why? If not, explain.

Video Games
Video-game content sales were $15.4 billion to $15.6 billion for 2010 (market researchers
NPD Group Inc).
Video game music has become a major source of income for music producers, composers,
arrangers, recording engineers, and Foley artists. Games are played on video game consoles,
computers (social networks), handheld game devices, and mobile smart phones (apps).

Parents’ organizations have objected to the use of alcohol, sex, tobacco, and violence in some
music videos. Many social-science studies have investigated the effects of music videos. These
organizations have little effect because the Internet, the primary source for viewing videos, cannot, in general,
be controlled.

Video games are interactive and, obviously, have to be entertaining.

They are often developed to target a specific demographic.
Game developers are concerned about the price-point of a game. (It is costly to develop a
 video game and this cost is passed on to the consumer.)

Video game music is as essential to video games as film scoring is to films. Music, for both
mediums, should have a common tone that connects the score and makes it a cohesive score,
rather than random compositions without a musical thread. This can be accomplished through
orchestration, the tone of the music, theme and variation, and other traditional compositional
techniques.
Although there are similarities, conceiving video game scores differs from approaching film
scores. Film composers view a film while composing the music. In most instances, game
composers receive sketches of the game characters and/or storyboards (cartoon-like
characters), a description of the characters and how the game will be played. Game companies
employ music supervisors who oversee the sound designer(s) (sound effects). As in films, the
composer is also the music producer; therefore, the information in this book applies to
producing music for games.
Versatility is an asset for a game composer. One game might require music composed and
arranged in numerous musical genres. The ability to compose memorable thematic material and
motifs in addition to arranging and orchestration skills are essential to achieve a successful
career.
The executive producers and music supervisors usually play musical examples of the
style(s) of music that will appropriately accompany the game. Some composers begin the
process by composing thematic material. After recording a mockup (synthesized version) of the
material, the supervisors will, hopefully, choose one or several themes. Game music must be
composed so that the themes and motifs can be “dissected.” If a theme is composed in musical
phrases (sections), those phrases can be extracted from the complete theme and the phrase can
use the basic material to develop a new section. This process is effective because the game
player will still associate the music with the theme.
Since games are interactive, the player can manipulate the direction of the game. This
means that the music will change as the game progresses. From a compositional viewpoint, the
music should make a seamless transition between scenes. One technique is to keep a theme or
motif in one key or a related key, e.g., A minor and C, so if the game player quickly changes
scenes the musical transition is not jarring. Using musical motifs is also a skillful technique
since composers can easily modulate, change the duration of the notes, and invert the notes, as
well as use other compositional techniques, while the motif(s) keeps its basic musical
character.
Another approach is for the composer to create a theme and/or motif for each character
in the game. The audience will subliminally associate the theme or motif with that character. A
common technique is to create various mixes of the themes and motifs. For example, one mix
consists of a full orchestra, in the 2nd mix the strings are deleted, in the 3rd mix only the
rhythm section is used, in the 4th mix the theme or motif is removed, and so forth. This
technique creates multiple options for the music director.
Creating a musical loop, which is a section that keeps repeating, is a compositional
technique that keeps the musical momentum without sounding disruptive. Composers have
the option to overdub new parts while keeping the loop as the underlying element that “sews”
the musical section together.
Some composers create a music library comprised of multiple moods. For instance, a
number of compositions create the following moods: sadness, triumph, humor, tension, and so
forth. The composer and sound designers can choose the proper moods to fit the various
situations created in the game.

Sound Effects
As in film sound, sound effects are crucial to creating an ambience to the complete
soundtrack, which includes music, dialog, and sound effects. Games that have substantial
budgets hire synthesists or Foley artists who specialize in sound effects, called sound
designers, to create the effects. If a game’s budget is relatively small, the composer is required
to construct the sound effects. Most composers either create an original sound effects library or
purchase sound effects libraries. A composer must understand that in most games, the sound
effects are going to be loud; therefore, the composer must include the sound effects as an
integral part of their compositions. This is a difficult task because the sound effects might not
be added until after the music is composed. Ask the executive producer or music producer of
samples of effects they plan into the game.
Games are mixed in 5.1. surround sound so the final mix is crucial to the overall
ambience of the game.

Voice-Over Actors
Voice-over actors are usually auditioned and chosen by the game’s producer. Obviously, the
character of the voices is crucial to a game’s success. In low-budget games, the composer
might be asked to audition and record the actors. Make certain that the game producer
approves the actors.

Scoring Time
Developing games is time consuming; hence, it might take a composer for a game several
years to complete composing the music. This does not imply that the game is the only project a
composer works on during the development period. He or she might work for several months,
be off for 3 months, work for 2 months, and the cycle continues. The amount of time a
composer devotes to composing the music is included in the composer’s contract. He is
permitted to work on other projects during this time period with permission of the production
company.
Game music is a substantial source of income for music producers, record labels,
composers, music publishers, arrangers, recording engineers, and sound designers. Songs are
licensed for use in video games and certain games allow the player to replace the existing
music by downloading new music.
Conclusion to Video Games
Music production provides a good background to become a video game soundtrack
supervisor. The position entails licensing songs for the company’s games, licensing original
music composed for the company’s games for use in motion picture trailers, commercials, etc.,
and supervising the sound design and original music for the company’s games. Game
development is an involved undertaking and also requires a large financial investment by the
developer. The music, sound effects, and actors, as well as the graphics are equally important
in achieving success with consumers.

Assignment
Select a game, mute the sound, and compose multiple themes and motifs that will
appropriately accompany the game. Use the musical techniques discussed in this chapter to
create several versions of each theme and motif.

Some video game companies have music budgets which allow composers to use 70–90 piece
orchestras.

Film and Television Trailers

A film (video) trailer (aka theatrical or movie trailer, or television program trailer) is an
advertisement for a motion picture or television program. Film trailers are viewed primarily in
movie theaters but are seen on television, the Internet, DVDs, airplane entertainment systems,
and mobile devices. Basically, they can be seen in any format that supports video advertising.
(HBO creates exceptional trailers for their miniseries presentations as well as their weekly
programs.)
The reason this subject is addressed is because trailers usually contain a considerable
amount of music; most often there is continuous music and sound effects throughout most
trailers. This requires music supervision and music production skills. There are
producer/composers who specialize in this discipline.
Clearly, the purpose of a trailer is to attract an audience for the film. Since a trailer is a
commercial, the visual content and sound must maintain the audience’s attention. The trailer
can be crucial to the success or failure of a film or television program. (Social networking
(word of mouth) is, most likely, even more essential to a film’s or television program’s
success.)
The trailer film/video editor must create footage that will “whet the appetite” of the
audience, yet not reveal too much about the plot. The same is true of the music and the sound
effects.
Multiple trailers are created for films with a generous marketing budget. There is always a
“general audience” trailer. In addition, trailers are also designed to appeal to a specific
demographic. For example, one trailer might appeal to a young male demographic while
another is edited to appeal to a mature female demographic. Since as many as 30 trailers might
be created for a big-budget feature film, the music differs on many of the versions. The music
is designed to appeal to the targeted demographic.
Most trailer music is licensed from music libraries or record companies. Some of the music
is used from other films. It is rare to use music from the actual film unless there is a known
theme, or theme that will be used repeatedly in the film, such as the theme from Star Wars.
Approximately 10% to 20% of a trailer contains original music. The music supervisor
(discussed later in this book) chooses the library music, or music from other sources, and also
supervises the producer/composer who writes the original music. Executives at the studio who
specialize in creating trailers supervise the editing of the film and the selection of music.
Television networks often create their own trailers. Sometimes advertising agencies are hired
to create television trailers.
The average feature film trailer is between 2 and 2.5 minutes and is released just prior to the
film’s release. Major studios usually release shorter trailers, referred to as “teasers,” 3 to 6
months prior to a film’s release; they are usually 60 to 90 seconds.
Theatrical trailers created for television are usually 30 seconds, with 15- and 10-second
versions. For a “blockbuster” film, the studio may create a 1-minute version. The music for the
television versions usually differs from the music used in a theatrical trailer unless there is an
identifiable theme such as the theme from Superman. If a film is successful at the box office,
the studio might create new trailers, which are called “refreshed” trailers. For instance, the
trailer might promote the fact that the film was nominated for certain awards or that the DVD is
being released.
Trailers designed for the international market generally contain music that differs from the
music used in the U.S. The music usually fits the “culture” of the market. This concept also
applies to the film clips; some clips used in the U.S. might not be acceptable in another culture.

Conclusion to Film and Television Trailers

Music production is an excellent background for producing music for trailers. It is essential
for trailer music producers to become familiar with creating and/or choosing sound effects that
may not be provided by the studio. Most producers have extensive sound effects libraries or
they create the effects.

Assignment
Compare a 2- or 2 1/2-minute theatrical trailer to a 30-second trailer for the same film. In your
analysis, include the following information:
 Does the music differ?
Describe the target demographic.
How is the same interest in a film generated in 30 seconds as compared to the long 2 1/2-
minute version?

Include any additional pertinent differences.

10

The Production Process

Assignment
We have discussed the concerns producers must cope with before signing an artist to a
production agreement and/or agreeing to produce an artist. This section is intended to serve as
a practical exercise. Answer the following questions in detail.

You have just been hired as an A&R executive at a record label and the label is
considering signing an artist. Describe the process of signing an artist, and compile a list
of questions that pertain to understanding the artist’s persona and artist’s artistic
intentions.
Describe the preproduction process.
Describe the production process.
Describe the mixing process.
Describe the mastering process.
Design and produce a project, which is based upon all areas studied thus far.
11

Producing Music for Film and Classical

Recordings

When I am, as it were, completely myself, entirely alone, and of good cheer—say traveling in a carriage, or walking
after a good meal, or during the night when I cannot sleep—it is on such occasions that my ideas flow best, and
most abundantly. Whence and how they come, I know not, nor can I force them.
—Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

Music for Film

Producing music for films differs from producing music for records. There are no
“producers” of movie music. The composer is the producer. It is helpful for a composer to
study music production and the basics of audio engineering.
The majority of film scores are orchestrated for large orchestras; therefore, recording the
ambience of a live room becomes a primary consideration. Recording in the proper studio—
called a scoring stage when recording film music—with an experienced engineer—called a
mixer or sound mixer—who specializes in recording film music is essential to capturing the
proper sound.

On December 28, 1895, the Lumiere family of France used music to accompany several films
produced by the family’s film company. The score, performed on a piano, was presented at the Grand Café,
in Paris. That is the first known use of music accompanying films. The event was so successful with the
public that theater owners began hiring orchestras to accompany the films.
In 1908, the noted French composer Camille Saint-Saens composed the first film score for the film
L’Assassinat du Duc de Guise.

There are a number of differences between recording music for films and recording music
for records:

Since most film scores are written for a full orchestra the engineer must have a
thorough knowledge of microphone placement and selection. Very few pop records are
recorded with a large orchestra; therefore, engineers who specialize in pop recording
may not be familiar with miking techniques used for recording large ensembles. Record
engineers are primarily concerned with being on the cutting edge of recorded sound and
consequently become masters of current recording and mixing techniques. They use the
latest effects devices and are concerned about the most contemporary overall sounds
popular at a particular time. Generally, a film engineer has recorded more orchestral
music than studio-oriented popular styles of music. (Some engineers are proficient in both
styles.) Their orientation is that of a more classic approach to recording. They try to
recreate the sound of a live orchestra as opposed to recording a track guided by signal
processing and synthesizers.
Film music is mixed so that it will sound spacious and has an impact when heard on a
surround sound speaker system in a movie theater. Films are mixed in 5.1 surround
sound; therefore, the composer and the engineer must assign the instruments within the
sonic image of the surround-sound format.
Speaker outputs in surround sound: left, right, center, surround left, surround right, and
subwoofer (bass speaker).
When an audience listens to a symphony orchestra, the violins are on the left, the cellos on
the right, the percussion in the rear left, and so forth. That is generally the blueprint for
panning a surround-sound mix. Sometimes the composer will ask for an unusual sonic
placement of instruments or instrumental sections. Experiment with panning positions to
determine the most effective sonic results. For instance, if the first and second violins are
separated instead of remaining in their traditional live orchestral seating position to the
audience’s left (facing the stage)—the first violins panned to the left speaker and the
second violins panned to the right speaker—the orchestral balance will be disrupted, and
the orchestra will not sound balanced.
Experienced film engineers are aware of the problem and convey potential drawbacks to
the composer prior to the recording session. It is costly to make changes while in the
studio; therefore, the sonic plan should be decided before the session.
The engineer usually records ambient tracks, which helps create a feeling of space
when they are mixed with the traditionally recorded tracks. Ambient microphones are
usually hung very high above the orchestra and are used to record the natural room sound
of the orchestra. The ambient tracks help create the sound of a concert hall. Most film
engineers and composers are attempting to replicate the sound of a live performance.
When sitting in a concert hall, the audience experiences the natural ambience in the hall.
The sound of an orchestra will vary in different venues. The composer must have a sonic
image, which the engineer will be asked to replicate. For instance, the composer may
request the sound of a large concert hall, a medium-size venue, or an intimate, small
orchestral sound, such as that of a classical orchestra.
When working on major films, the final sound engineer(s) is not usually the music
engineer. There are usually 3 engineers in a dubbing session, which is the process of
blending the music, sound effects, and dialogue. For independent films and films with
 limited budgets, there will most likely be one engineer.
Mixing film music differs from mixing a record. Scoring mixers (recording engineers)
record and mix film music. They must consider that the final mix will consist of music,
sound effects, and dialogue. These elements affect the manner in which the music is
mixed; the sonic image must leave space for dialogue and effects. All of the elements are
combined to form the final 5.1 surround-sound theater mix.

The following information should clarify some of the differences between record production
and film music production.

Music Supervision for Film

Music supervisors, in the film industry, perform a pivotal role shaping the final musical
landscape of a film. In the past, their primary function was to select songs for a motion picture;
their role has since been greatly expanded. Independent music supervisors and in-house studio
music supervisors provide a myriad of services for both major studio productions and for
independent production companies. They help directors develop a musical concept for a film,
assuming that the director does not have a clear musical vision, which would be unusual. Even
if a director has a clear musical vision, a music supervisor might help the director expand his
or her vision. The job requires supervisors to be knowledgeable in both the creative and
business areas of the film and music businesses.
In addition to helping select a composer to write a score, a well-versed musical supervisor
must also have the aptitude to select a song that is appropriate for a scene and to possess the
business acumen to negotiate the rights to license not only the song from the music publisher(s)
but also the master sound recording from the rights holder(s) such as a record label(s) or an
independent artist(s). (Each song and master sound recording might have multiple rights
holders.) The negotiations can become rather complex because each usage has to be negotiated
separately with each rights holder. For example, negotiating the right to use a song and the
master sound recording during the opening (main) title of a film differs from using that same
song in the trailers, during the closing (end) title, or in a specific scene. Also, a song cannot be
used on a soundtrack album without a separate negotiation. The negotiations are referred to as
clearances: “clearing the song(s) and/or sound recording(s).”
Music supervisors can hire composers to write songs specifically for a film. Since some
music supervisors are also record producers, they might produce the original songs and also
help the composer produce the score music. They attend spotting sessions, which is the
process of choosing the scenes to be scored or scenes that might require songs. Another
responsibility is to oversee the entire music budget, which is an intricate process. Unexpected
occurrences, such as a publisher increasing the cost of a licensing fee, must always be
considered when assembling a music budget. Supervisors attend dubbing sessions, which is
the process of combining the dialogue, music, and sound effects. They assemble cue sheets,
which list the background music and songs, the composers, music publishers, performance
rights societies, and timing of each musical cue.
Licenses
To use a song or master sound recording in a film, music supervisors must obtain 2 types of
licenses. The first is a synchronization license, commonly referred to as a “sync license.” A
synchronization license means that the song can be used with a timed visual image. Music
publishers grant synch licenses. It is not unusual for a song to be published by multiple
publishers and written by several writers. This requires negotiating with each entity. If a
master sound recording of a song is used, the supervisor must negotiate a master use license.
This grants the film company the right to use the master sound recording in the film. Both
licenses are required if the song and the master recording are going to be used. Transcription
licenses are issued to use a song on the radio for commercial purposes, e.g., a radio
commercial. (This does not refer to radio play of a sound recording that is used to promote an
artist.)

Clearing and licensing music is a time-consuming effort. The following is a list of some of the usages that
require licenses:

Use of non-profit and for-profit documentaries

Short subject films
Trailer music
Source music
Corporate and in-house videos
New technology projects
All digital media projects
Soundtrack licenses
Compilation album
Video licenses, e.g., YouTube and Hulu
All mobile phone content
Theatrical productions
Commercials
Television programs
Feature films
In-store promotions
Infomercials
Film festival rights

The only music that does not require clearance is music in the public domain. Determining if a composition is
in the public domain often requires hiring a qualified musicologist. A composition may appear to be in the public
domain but it is actually an arrangement of a public domain composition and the arrangement is copywritten.

The most efficient means to identify the music publisher and/or copyright owner of a song is to
contact the performance rights societies, which are BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC in the U.S. Enter
the name of the song and other pertinent information and the publisher’s information should
appear.
To find master sound recording information, read CD covers or search websites such as
Amazon.com. Most information can be found on the Internet. They want to know all
information that is connected to the project; for instance, the territory, length of the agreement,
the quote, and so forth. Most often, if a song is being used in a scene, the script of that scene is
sent to the potential licensor for approval.

Some publishers request a “most favored nation clause,” which means that all licensees receive
the same terms. This might be difficult to negotiate if a film company is willing to pay a substantial fee for a
popular song and not pay the same fee for other songs.

To obtain a synchronization license and a master use license, contact the publisher and the
owner of the master sound recording (if the sound recording is being used). All publishers and
labels (copyright owners) have departments, or an independent music supervisor, that
negotiates licensing.

Music Samples
Music samples are sections of existing recordings, or other sources, which are included in a
new sound recording. It can be a drum sound, a portion of an entire recording, a voice, and so
on. Both the sampled sound recording and the publishing rights to the composition have to be
cleared to legally use a sample.

Darren Higman Interview

Darren Higman is the executive vice president of music at Warner Bros. Pictures
MZ: What are the responsibilities of a music supervisor?
DH: The main responsibility is to oversee all of the music in the film. If there are songs to be
written, you go to songwriters and/or artists. If there are songs to be licensed you oversee the
process of licensing. You spot the film with the composer and director. [Spotting is choosing
the scenes to be scored or where source music should be licensed such as a popular song.]You
are responsible for gathering composer choices and presenting them to the director if they
don’t already have a composer that they work with. You work along side of a music editor to
temp the score, as well. [A temp/temporary score is adding existing underscoring and/or songs
against a film to offer the director and composer a musical direction.] That is when you
experiment and find the tone and the voice of the music in the film. This is probably the most
creative part of the process. Then you can publicly start showing the film. [Many films are
shown to audiences with temporary music tracks, which will be replaced by original scores.
These screenings are called recruited audience screenings. After analyzing the audience’s
reaction, the editing might change, song choices might change, the composer begins to write the
score, etc.] There is an administrative side to music supervision, which is a lot of details. You
are licensing songs, adhering to a music budget, which includes a composer fee, recording
costs, and all of the songs whether they are newly written or licensed. When you temp the film,
you have to be careful not to put in songs you can’t afford . . . songs that can’t be cleared. You
deal with music publishers, lawyers, record labels, and managers. In the recording process,
there is a thing called the final dub, which is where all of the final music is placed into the
picture. The score is generally handled by the composer, who records the music, mixes the
music, and then has a music editor of his own cutting the score into the movie. The music
supervisor will be working with another music editor who will primarily be cutting the songs .
. . making sure that you have the correct versions of the songs . . . , [the correct] masters [sound
recordings], and the right mixes. [Original mixes recorded specifically for a film are mixed in
5.1 surround sound.] The final dub process is about a two-week period. [The final dub process
is mixing the music, sound effects, and dialogue together.] [Sometimes] a music supervisor is
involved from the time a script is written because if there is anything that is written into the
movie that is performed on camera or if a particular song is being listened to on the radio
(called source music) . . . all of that needs to be figured out and finished before the film shoots,
particularly if they perform anything on camera. It is called prerecords.
MZ: How close should the composer’s score sound like the music in the temp track?
DH: It really depends on the project. The music of the composer is often used for the temp
track. So it is in a style that they are probably familiar with. But sometimes, the actual score is
wildly different. Composers do mockups (synthesizer demos) of different cues because it is
hard sometimes to imagine what the score will sound like. They want to hear stuff before it is
actually recorded.
MZ: Is the music supervisor generally involved in the spotting sessions?
DH: I’ve experienced both. If there is an emphasis on songs or source cues, it is a good idea to
have a music supervisor involved. However, the flip side of that is that composers sometimes
think that supervisors try to jam too many songs into a movie. I always think the spotting
session is helpful because it is pretty apparent where songs would go. But sometimes, when
you do the entire spotting session and then you attempt to temp the movie in that fashion, in
many cases I’ve found there are way too many songs. I firmly believe that if the music in the
film is good, and part of the fabric of the film, it will make an impression on people who will
want to experience that via a soundtrack (album).
MZ: Does the music supervisor usually go to the dub mix?
DH: Generally, yes. The music supervisor usually goes to the playback [after the dialogue,
music, and sound effects have been added to a reel]. And then all of the different departments
would have their say . . . the director would be there, the producers would be there, the film
executive, the music supervisor, the sound people . . . [they all make suggestions]. [After all the
reels are complete] there is a final playback of the film. [This is the last opportunity to suggest
changes.]
MZ: Are you involved with administering the cue sheets? [A cue sheet is a list of compositions
or songs used in the scenes of a film.]
DH: Cue sheets are sometimes done by music supervisors but generally for smaller
independent films. Our licensing department and our legal team mostly handles the cue sheets.
It is the last part of the process. They will watch the film with a stop watch and time every cue
[scene] and generate the cue sheet. Cue sheets are also generated from music editors.
MZ: What is the difference between a music executive and a music supervisor at a film studio?
DH: As time goes by, there is less and less difference at all. [Most music executives are also
music supervisors. Most music executives oversee many projects and do not have the time to
also supervise the music.]
MZ: What percentages of directors have a clear vision of what the tone of the music should be
for their films?
DH: I would say most. Directors have an idea of what they want in all aspects of the film.
Even if they have a clear idea of want they want, and you don’t agree [the music supervisor],
then you have to sort of persuade them that there may be a different approach that might work
better.
MZ: Are most directors open to suggestion?
DH: Yes, by and large. Films, in general, are a big collaborative effort. Sometimes, it is just an
execution of what they [the directors] want. Helping them execute is exactly what we want to
do.
MZ: Are most of the music publishing rights owned by the studio?
DH: Yes. Composers stand a better chance of retaining part of their publishing, if not all of it,
with an independent film. They [independent film makers] don’t have a lot of money to pay you
[the composer], so they are not gonna insist on ownership.
MZ: Do you ever view the dailies? [Each day’s filming.]
DH: We get digital dailies. It is on your computer. In dailies you might find that they had a
great idea on the set to sing a song or they had a great idea to play back something or perform a
dance to a song. For us it is more informational to make sure there aren’t any big music things
being done that we are not necessarily aware of.
MZ: Do you attend most of the scoring sessions?
DH: Yes. We attend most of the recording sessions of all the movies we are overseeing.
[During a] recording session, in theory, the music should be to such a state that there shouldn’t
be a lot of changes during the scoring session. It should be straightforward recording.
Occasionally, certain cues are not working in the way they imagined. [The director and
composer discuss the cue.] As a music person [supervisor], you are there to represent the
interest of the music and any kind of decision-making that would go along with that . . . i.e.,
extra recording sessions.
MZ: Do composers generally have 6 to 8 weeks to compose a score?
DH: Sometimes it is less but sometimes it is a lot more. Like in animation, not that it is a
complete full-time job, but is not unusual for a composer to be on a film for 3 years. They do
demos . . . it is a work in progress.
MZ: What percentages of songs that you license are from unknown artists?
DH: I would say 25 to 30 percent. [From a financial standpoint, it saves the studio money to
license music by unknown artists and the artists gain exposure.]

Doug Frank Interview

Doug Frank is the former president of music operations for Warner Bros. Pictures. He is
currently a consultant in the film industry.
MZ: What does a music supervisor do? Is the job similar to that of a record producer?
DF: The music supervisor at one point, going back ten, fifteen years ago, was the go-between
[for] the film industry and the record business. That person would explain to the record
business how the film business operates and vice versa. They served a very useful purpose of
marrying the film company and the record company and having one goal, which is for the music
to (1) enhance the film and make it a better picture; (2) promote the film, by way of a single on
the radio, music video on MTV, and advertising; and (3) add additional revenue with record
royalties and publishing income. As the years have gone by, record companies have become
more sophisticated in the ways of film companies, and film companies have learned about
record companies, and they have hired their own in-house people. The independent music
supervisor isn’t a dinosaur per se but doesn’t necessarily perform the same function they used
to. Now they are more of a babysitter or hand-holder of directors and producers. I often hire
them because they serve as buffers. I don’t have to necessarily deal directly with the
filmmakers 100 percent of the time, especially when you have a large volume of films that you
are responsible for on a daily basis. The independent music supervisors will be attached to
one project and should be working on one project at a time. Again, they are functioning in this
liaison role, where they are bringing music to the film, suggesting songs, suggesting composers,
and dealing with whatever soundtrack label is releasing the record.
MZ: Do music supervisors produce film scores?
DF: There are a few that are qualified to do so because they were music producers in a
previous career; but generally speaking, no. Producers are producers, and supervisors are
supervisors. Most of the time the score is produced by the composer. Some composers actually
work with people to produce their score in a more of a record fashion.
MZ: How much actual mixing is done with a film score?
DF: You may record the orchestra for five days and then mix (music) for a day or two. But the
other term mixing may refer to dubbing the various elements into the film, and those elements
are music, effects, and dialogue. That process goes on for several weeks.
MZ: What are the differences between a record engineer and a scoring mixer (engineer) who
specializes in recording film scores?
DF: Many record engineers have never had the experience of miking a full orchestra. They
haven’t had the experience of working with room sound, which is an art in itself. So there is a
big difference. Sometimes you want a record sound for your score, and you may opt for record-
type mixing.
MZ: Do you mix only in 5.1 surround sound?
DF: Yes.
MZ: Have you been hiring record producers to work with composers on scores?
DF: It’s been a fascination of mine to combine people to score a film. We have done this
successfully at times because you want certain flavors. You may want the uniqueness of a
certain recording artist. I can recall on all the Lethal Weapon movies, when Michael Kamin
was the chief composer, but he also brought in David Sandborn and Eric Clapton. You got
some unique artistry adding those kinds of sounds on that score. Since then, and this is not in
any kind of chronological order, we did a film called Queen of the Damned, where we had the
lead singer of the band Korn, Jonathan Davis, work on the score and songs on the film with his
writing partner, Richard Gibbs. That was a very successful project. It starred Aaliyah.
Unfortunately, she died before the film came out. The album went gold. With the
collaborations, we put DJs with the composers. We are coming up with different ways of
approaching film scoring. In my mind there are a couple of different ways of looking at a film
score. One is “What you see is what you hear.” The musical underscore of the action and the
picture change, and things happen on screen; the music will change with that. Another approach
is just an environmental approach to film scoring, where you don’t deal so much with the
action itself. You create an environment of music that goes along with the look and sound of the
film. That puts you in the frame of mind. And some filmmakers like this approach because you
are not leading the viewer that much. The music score can tell the viewers exactly how they
are supposed to feel: Be afraid, don’t be afraid, laugh, don’t laugh. Somehow when the score
is just environmental the viewer treats the experience as seeing the movie on a very personal
level. We put Paul Oakenfold (DJ) together with a composer named Christopher Young. We put
Stanley Clark, the bassist, with Timberland, the hip-hop producer. We come up with all
different types of combinations: Some work, and some don’t work as well.
MZ: What is the ideal background for a music supervisor?
DF: Music supervisors, for the most part, were people that came from record companies, and
the truth of the matter is the best music supervisors have the best Rolodexes in this business,
which is built on relationships. The ability to deliver people is really what is crucial. People
think music supervisors sit with the film all day long and they keep throwing songs up against
the picture, and they do that, but that’s not where the job is. The job is: Can you get me Bruce
Springsteen? Can you get me an artist that matters?
MZ: Would you advise a young person to get a job in a record company before applying for a
music supervisor’s job at a film company?
DF: Young persons just need to get into the flow. The flow refers to the flow of information
(they receive) if they are working for a music publisher, record company, or a film company.
Who are they talking to during the day? Are they talking to the movers and the shakers,
regardless of the industry? They are able to establish a relationship with these people, and they
are in a flow of information. They see what is going on. In Hollywood, people started in the
mailroom. The reason they started people in the mailroom is because when you deliver their
mail you get to know whom everybody is, and more important you get to know what everybody
does. That’s how you learn how the business functions. So any job that puts you in the flow of
information, that gets you in a position of dealing directly with creative types and executives,
is a good job to have.
MZ: Is there anything else you would like to mention concerning the production of music for
film?
DF: Be knowledgeable about editing systems, software, and try to stay very current. I think that
colleges and universities really need to look at that in their communications programs and
music programs, to invest in the kind of equipment that will allow their students to be armed
and equipped for the real world when they get out of school. Most of the major universities are
seeing the wisdom in this. My pet peeve in life is that students and graduates come to me, and
they don’t have a clue how to approach this business, either as a composer, orchestrator,
arranger, or executive. They just have no idea. To sum it up, there is the old joke about the five
stages of your career. I’ll use myself: “Who is Doug Frank? Get me Doug Frank. Oh, Doug
Frank’s not available; get me somebody like Doug Frank. Get me a younger version of Doug
Frank. Who is Doug Frank?” I know for me in this job, it’s the time I spent with you [DF was
signed to my music publishing company as a songwriter] and other things that I did helped me
enormously in this job, in my ability to relate directly to the writer and producer—having an
understanding for the process and not just being a businessman. It’s like building blocks,
everything you do in your life. You do this now, and you’ll do something else, and you’ll take
from those experiences and build upon them.

Additional Comment by Doug Frank

The downfall of the record industry has made the film business more creative . . . we’re not
looking for the hit single as much or looking for the major artist to cover . . . radio has gone
away for a lot of people . . . unless you’re a major artist radio is not available . . . I think we’re
in an age of discovery . . . the audiences for our motion pictures, for the most part, are the same
people that congregate at different websites . . . it’s a community of people out there . . . I don’t
want to say there’s a backlash if we have a soundtrack featuring major artists but we’re more
better off with that than we are with a soundtrack of emerging artists. It’s all about making
these films as good as we can make them with music. Because radio has gone away for so
many people, we’re experiencing a time where we’ve never had so many artists come in to see
us with hopes that we would use their material in film . . . these are major artists, emerging
artists . . . everyone is trying to hitch a ride on this vehicle known as film or television and
engage in lots of Internet strategies . . . that’s pretty much of what the effect of the music
business has been. Also, (film studios) are much more into ownership of the songs and the
recordings and not necessarily licensing so much. I think the soundtrack business is fairly
healthy. When people want to live the experience of a motion picture . . . you get that with High
School Musical, you get that with Twilight, you get that with Juno when there is a deep
appreciation for the music and an even deeper appreciation for the film itself. I think if you
have the right product, you will sell some records and get some downloads. It’s nothing like it
was 10 years ago and it will never be that way again . . . but at least it’s somewhat healthy. If
you look at the top 40 albums—the top 100 albums—there is always some representation as
far as soundtracks are concerned . . . studios don’t depend on music . . . we are looked upon as
a service division. Publishing income is up because of performance royalties (from television
and film).

Kevin Gershan
The following information is based on an interview with Kevin Gershan. Kevin Gershan is a
television music supervisor at Paramount Pictures, in Los Angeles.

Music supervisors supervise original-soundtrack music and license recordings for

motion pictures and television programs. Many have backgrounds in the record business.
Some music supervisors also produce or coproduce the music with the composer.

Music supervisors should have extensive knowledge of music history. It is helpful to be a

musician and to be technically savvy. They supervise the following:

Union payments
Contracting musicians
Planning recording sessions
Music-publishing issues
Music clearances
Master recording clearances
Synchronization licensing
Music-production issues
Legal issues

Television is a “one-composer” medium. Most television composers record primarily with

synthesizers; not many television programs have a budget to hire a small orchestra. They build
cues (music pieces of various lengths) beginning with the first episode; they create a music
library that will be used in numerous episodes. The composers edit and produce the music.
Some music supervisors also produce or coproduce the music.
Music jobs at film companies: A music coordinator is a clerical person who logs the cue
sheets, which are music selections used on television programs or in films. Cue sheets are
submitted to the performance-rights organizations so that composers and music publishers can
receive proper performance royalties. Music clearance supervisors are liaisons between
production companies and music publishers. They process the cue sheets. The vice-president
in charge of music oversees all programs at a studio or production company. Part of the job is
to hire the composers.

Conclusion: Music for the Film Industry

The film industry offers opportunities for music producers interested in film music. Skills
learned as a composer, music producer, music publisher, and recording engineer are applied in
creative and executive positions. Working in any area of the record industry serves as
preparation.
Music supervision is the closest position linked directly to music production. Some music
supervisors––especially those working for independent filmmakers––produce soundtrack
music; they also often coproduce soundtrack albums with the composer.

Classical Recordings
Producing classical music is similar to producing film music. Producers who produce
classical music are called classical record producers. In most traditional film music, the
composer, music supervisor, and engineer are trying to capture a live performance. Classical-
record producers are also striving to capture a live performance. It is rare that overdubs are
requested. In place of overdubs, inserts are recorded and edited into the preferred overall
performance. For instance, if mistakes are made between bar 20 and bar 30, the artist will
rerecord only those bars. The newly recorded section is edited (inserted) into the selected
performance.
Classical record producers should be trained musicians. The prerequisites for classical
production are familiarity with the traditional music repertoire and familiarity with the scores.
In addition to musical training, it is necessary to understand the engineering process. A
classical producer’s knowledge should equal that of a popular-music producer. Specializing in
live recording techniques, having extensive knowledge of microphones, microphone
placement, recording systems, and recording consoles is a necessary skill.

In this context, the term classical music is being used as a generic term meaning concert music,
not music from the Classical period.

Classical record producers are critics. Most popular music albums contain new music, and
the producer is generally creating a new product. Most classical music has been recorded
numerous times; therefore, the producer’s job is to help the artist and/or conductor interpret the
music and achieve a high performance level. Most musicians adhere to unwritten standards
when interpreting historical genres of music, and the producer must be familiar with those
practices. Some artists experiment with unusual interpretations, and they are either criticized
or praised by the critics.
A producer follows the score and points out possible discrepancies between the score and
the performance. It is less costly and less time consuming to fix problems during rehearsals
than during the recording sessions. The artist must have a clearly defined understanding of the
music and how he or she wants to interpret the music, before rehearsals and recording
commence.
Interpreting music is subjective. Question: If interpretation is subjective, how do a
performer and a music producer determine the proper interpretation, especially in the
traditional Baroque, Classical, or Romantic repertoire? One answer is for the performer and
producer to understand the historical time period during which a composition was written. For
example, if a composition was written during Bach’s or Beethoven’s time, the instruments on
which the pieces were performed sounded differently than when they are played on modern
instruments; consequently, what is reflected in the score (e.g., dynamics) might not sound the
same when played on a modern instrument. For instance, pedaling on an old keyboard
instrument would not necessarily translate to a modern keyboard. In this example, the
performer must choose an interpretation based on historical knowledge of how the music
sounded. One might ask, “How is it possible to know how music sounded when performed on
period instruments?” The answer is that many serious musicians play the composition(s) on
period instruments (instruments of a historical period) and then translate the sound to a modern
instrument by adjusting the various musical indications on the original score. An additional
answer is to carefully listen to recordings of critically acclaimed performances and then
compare the newly recorded performance. This is not to suggest that the artist copy another
artist’s interpretation, but that it can be used as a guideline.
A producer is always listening for something unique within a performance. Without a
distinctive interpretation, the recording will not be considered worthy of competing in a highly
competitive market.
There are differences between recording performances in a concert hall and a studio. A
producer has one or two performances to choose from when recording a live performance.
Studio recordings enable a producer to record multiple takes and edit sections together.
Editing classical music is more difficult than editing most popular music. The majority of
popular music has a definite tempo, which eases the process of creating acceptable edits. Most
classical music has variable tempos, which makes the editing process more difficult;
producers and engineers are skillful at performing difficult edits.
Recording live performances has inherent problems. There is usually unwanted noise from
the audience, page turning, foot tapping, and myriad other acoustical distractions. Some of the
issues can be corrected by using special miking techniques and various forms of noise
reduction. It is often difficult to filter out unwanted noise. The audience has become
accustomed to listening to live recordings, and unwanted noise is expected. Some producers
believe that the noise adds to the ambience of a live performance.
 Author’s Opinion: Some classic recordings (in all genres) have been “cleaned up” to the point
of losing the excitement of the original performance. An attempt should be made to eliminate
any distracting noises but not to make the recording sound unnatural.

Work with an engineer who specializes in recording classical music. Engineers generally
own an array of microphones and other recording equipment. Their goal is to record the
instruments so that they sound realistic. Inferior microphones used for recording classical
music are generally not adequate.
Since recording quality is important, the choice of a recording console is significant.
Selecting a console is a matter of taste, and the choice is usually the decision of the producer
and the engineer. Producers and engineers usually have working relationships and work as a
team. Their sonic personalities are normally compatible.
Most classical music is recorded digitally at a sampling rate of 96kHz and a sampling
width of 24 bits. Most classical record producers value the clarity of digital recording and the
ease of editing in the digital domain with a program such as Pro Tools.

Conclusion: Classical Music Production

Students interested in producing classical music should be proficient in score reading, the
concepts of audio engineering, and musicology. Study the performances of the great concert
artists and conductors, and analyze the reasons their performances are considered exceptional.
Some classical music producers specialize in opera, orchestral works, or chamber music.
Most producers are capable of producing all genres of concert music, but they are usually more
familiar with the repertoire of one style.
The following is a statement by Edward Turgeon, who earned a Doctor of Musical Arts
Degree (D.M.A.) from Yale University. He is a performing artist and a member of the piano
faculty at Florida Atlantic University.
Through various techniques, a production/engineering team can determine in advance the sonic personality of the
musician(s), e.g., What kind of recorded instrumental sound they prefer.
I have often thought that before beginning a recording, it would be interesting for the production/engineering team to
confer with the musician(s) as much as is feasible. A possible procedure might be for the musician(s) to provide three CD
examples, which, in their opinion, feature unacceptable instrumental sonority, as well as three example CDs which feature
ideal sonority. In each case, the musician(s) would explain why, and through this process, the production/engineering team
could identify the artists’ sonic sensibility before recording actually begins.
I have noticed that the more post recording communication between producer/engineer and musician(s), the better. This
is perhaps most crucial and intense in the case of classical recording, since there are often many takes, with only the most
subtle differences between good and bad takes. The musicians’ likes are often very different compared to those of the
production/engineering team. Therefore, all parties must effectively manage different artistic visions, in order to come up
with a final product that meets the satisfaction of all involved.

Assignment
Watch a film of your choice. The director wants to add 3 songs to 3 scenes. Each song must
relate to the storyline of that scene.
 Choose 3 scenes from 1 more film. Select a song for each scene. Write an explanation of
why you chose each song.
Select a title song (opening) and a closing song. Write an explanation of why you chose
each song.

The director wants your input on how the film music should be scored.

Watch a film of your choice and write an outline of suggestions you would make to a
composer. (The direction of the music should not be the same as the score composed for
the original film.)
In addition to the question above, select 3 scenes and write detailed comments to the
composer. These comments should include the placement of musical “hits” (“hits” are
musical accents), and where specific mood changes should occur.

Record a simple piano sonata or trio multiple times. Produce the recording; make
interpretative suggestions to the pianist.

Correct mistakes.
Experiment with various miking techniques.
Edit pieces together.

Submit a CD and a written outline of the assignment.

12

Producing Library Music

Library music, also called production or needle-drop music, is specifically composed and
arranged with the intention of licensing it on a nonexclusive basis. Often it is designed to
enhance visual and audio productions, such as television programs, television and radio
commercials, documentaries, training videos, low-budget film productions, and additional
multimedia formats. The licenses are generally issued as synchronization licenses, which
means the music must be used in an audio and/or visual project and cannot be used without
negotiating a synchronization fee. The advantage to the consumer is that the licensing fees are
reasonable because they are nonexclusive. The disadvantage is that the music is not
specifically composed for a particular project, and the music does not match the action as well
as customized music. It is rare to hear an extensive use of library music in high budget projects.

Some directors and editors edit the film to the music.

Many of the large music library companies hire composers to write music in almost every
style. Some of the companies hire music producers to produce numerous hours of production
music per year. The company generally markets thousands of titles that are filed under album
names; the album titles describe an emotional response expected from the audience. Jazz,
Smooth Jazz, Traditional Jazz, Pop, World, Novelty, Dramatic, Horror, Lush, and Emotional
are examples of album titles. Many of the companies also produce sound-effects albums.
Producing library music is a competitive business. The music can be costly to produce,
advertise, and promote. Production music is a niche business and can be lucrative for a
versatile composer/producer. Many composers also produce their music. Some large
companies hire music producers to act as both producers and executive producers. Executive
producing for a large music library company can be a complex job. Versatility, for both a
producer and an executive producer, is an advantage because of the variety of music most
companies produce.
The larger library companies produce albums with orchestras and small combos, as well as
synthesized music. The musicians and singers are normally paid on a work-for-hire basis,
which means they do not receive mechanical- or performance royalties (under the terms of a
work-for-hire agreement, the company becomes the author). Some composers are able to
negotiate a mechanical royalty (a percentage of albums sold). If the author is the production
company (e.g., under a work-for-hire agreement), 100% of the income generated by
performances will be paid to the music library production company. If the composer shares in
the royalty split, the composer receives 50% of the performance royalties. In the United States
the performance royalties are tracked, collected, and paid by BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC.
For a fee, a composer agrees to write and record a predetermined number of minutes of
music. A majority of the music is produced in states or countries (U.S.) where union
membership is not mandatory. (The company usually establishes session fees for the musicians
and the singers.) The production company owns the music in perpetuity and has no further
financial obligations to the composers, musicians, or singers.

The Business of Library Music

The licensing of production music (library music) varies according to use. Each company
requires the licensee to sign agreements that specifically cover the usage of the music. The
following is a description of some of the terms and agreements used in negotiations:

Buyout––Some companies offer a “buyout” (a one-time fee for the nonexclusive,

worldwide, unlimited use of the music in perpetuity); however, those rights are non-
assignable to a third party. The contractual agreements specifically detail the rights of the
licensee but also detail the restrictions on the licensee.
Audio-Only––Certain companies license music to be used only on audio productions. Any
additional usage requires permission from the licensor and usually an additional fee. The
music must be used without alteration––most licensors do not allow the licensees to alter
the music in any way. For example, many hip-hop producers use prerecorded tracks, add
drum and percussion parts, add lyrics, and alter the tempo of the original track. These
changes are not allowed without permission from the licensor and most likely would
require an additional fee, if permission were granted.
Additional fees are charged if the music is used for motion pictures, television programs,
or commercials.
The fees (U.S.) for commercials are usually based on the size of a territory. For
instance, if a commercial were broadcast in the southeast United States, the fee would be
lower than if it were broadcast nationally.
The usage might be granted for a specified period of time and not in perpetuity. For
example, if a composition were licensed for a one-year usage in a commercial, the
licensor might agree to pay additional fees if the licensee decided to extend the time
period. Most extensions and additions are negotiated at the time of the initial agreement.
The music cannot be sold or licensed to a third-party. For example, the track cannot be
 included on an album that is for sale; it cannot be licensed to a third-party through a Web
site, and so forth.
A derivative work cannot be created using the licensed music. For instance, a composer
cannot write a saxophone melody, record it with the licensed track in the background and
rename the track. However, the music can be edited to fit the purpose of the music,
assuming the work remains the licensed work.
The music can be used in music videos that can be viewed on Web sites such as YouTube
and Hulu. If the licensed music is used, the title of the composition, the composer, and the
publisher must be credited when completing an information form provided by the website.
The author(s) should receive credit unless it is not possible.

Conclusion
Licensing library music is a multifaceted business. Carefully read the licensing agreements,
and make certain not to use the music in any unauthorized manner. If necessary, retain an
entertainment attorney to review the contract.

Assignment
Contact several music library companies to request demo reels; most demo reels can be found
online. Licensing information can be obtained on Web sites. Write a report based on the
following:
Scenario: You plan to use 5 pieces of library music in a corporate video. The video will be
used as a non-broadcast training tool and shown to employees of a corporation for 1 year.
Select the music you plan to use. Also assume that the length of track 1 has to be 34 seconds,
track 2, 2 minutes, track 3, 1 minute and 47 seconds, track 4, 3 minutes and 4 seconds, and
track 5, 2 minutes and 50 seconds. Answer the following questions:

What type of license will you request?

Determine the cost of the licensing fees for a 1 year period.
Do you have the rights to use the music in perpetuity? If not, how much will it cost to
extend the use of the music for 6 months?

Create an intricate scenario so that you are able to practice “negotiating” a complex
agreement.

Your report should include any possible extenuating circumstances (e.g., the licensor might
want to extend the agreement for an additional year).
13

Producing Advertising Music, Television

Music, and Corporate Music

It’s taken me all my life to learn what not to play.

—Dizzy Gillespie

Advertising Music
Television Advertising
Advertising is a major source of revenue for composers and music producers. Some major
advertising agencies retain staff music producers who oversee the production of the music. All
advertising music companies have either a staff music producer or the composers (music
company) produce the music. The average television commercial is 30 seconds, usually
notated as :30. In addition, some commercials are :45, :15, :10, and in rare instances 1:00.
Working in short form is difficult and requires composers to give the illusion that the music is
written in long form. Creating a smooth transition between scenes and addressing the emotional
impact of a commercial is both the job of the composer and the responsibility of an advertising
music producer.
In addition to traditional production skills, advertising music producers must understand the
specific needs of advertisers. The production of advertising music differs from record
production in the following ways:

An understanding of the advertising business is essential. Clients are only interested in

selling their products. For most clients, the artistic value of the commercial is second in
importance. The music designed for each commercial must, therefore, appeal to a target
audience.
The writer, art director (the creatives), and advertising producer convey to the music
producer the musical direction for either a commercial campaign or an individual
commercial.
The music producer asks music houses (companies) to submit demos containing material
similar in nature to the style of music required for the commercial. Most music houses
assemble special demo reels specifically geared to the needs of the assignment. In
addition, a general reel is submitted to show the quality of the work.
The music producer “spots” the film with the music company representative. The style of
music is discussed and the placement of the musical hits (accents) are determined.
Large agencies usually hire 3 music houses to compete for a job. Each company submits
at least 3 demos. When the final selection is chosen, the music producer suggests changes
to the demo and arranges for the final recording session.

Hits are actions or emotions that have to be musically emphasized.

Agency music producers must be familiar with the union agreements: AFM (American
Federation of Musicians), SAG (Screen Actors Guild), and AFTRA (American
Federation of Television and Radio Artists). The unions will be discussed in the business
section of this book.
During the recording session, the music producer makes certain that the timings are
correct and that the music addresses all concerns of the creative team. The music
producer is also responsible for the overall technical sound quality of the production.
The message of the commercial is of primary importance. The music can never mask the
sound of the actors and/or voiceovers. Mixing a record affords the producer and engineer
more artistic freedom than mixing commercials. In commercial mixes, the vocals and
dialogue are mixed louder than the music. The advertiser’s message is paramount. The
advertising music producer coaches the singers to enunciate each word and make the lyric
believable. Agency executives make comments such as, “I can’t hear the T in the word
the!” They are literally that particular.
The producer often hires the musicians and singers. In major markets, many musicians and
singers specialize in performing commercials. They are versatile artists who have the
ability to perform in many styles and at a high level of competency. Vocalists readily
accept direction and understand the importance of selling the product. The musicians and
singers work quickly. Studio time and fees are costly in major markets, and overtime
sessions can be pricey.
In major markets, budgets are affected by the residual payments that are paid to musicians
and singers. If the payments will be high, the agency may restrict the number of musicians
and singers who can perform on a commercial. This formula that determines the cost of
paying residuals is based upon the amount of airplay, the region or regions in the United
States that are covered, the number of months or years the commercial is played, and
additional considerations. This can be difficult to calculate. Some agencies require the
music producer to project future residual payments.
 Many engineers specialize in recording commercials. They have to work quickly and must
have the temperament to deal with extraordinary pressure.

Advertising music producers are not only producers but also music supervisors. Songs or
other music (e.g., soundtracks) are licensed for use on commercials. Music producers,
copywriters, and art directors might suggest songs or instrumentals that are suitable, and
the music producer’s job is to negotiate a possible synchronization and/or transcription
fee. Licenses must be obtained from both the music publisher(s) and the rights holder(s)
(e.g., record company) if the master sound recording is used. The negotiations can
become complex; therefore, the agency attorney is always involved.
The music must end at least a 1/2 second before the picture ends. The music should not
begin until between 5 to 7 frames after the picture has started. Each agency has different
requirements. With digital technology, the composer may be able to compose music for
the full length of the commercial.

The producer must be thoroughly familiar with the union agreements to perform these
calculations.

The producer should separate the effects from the music by keeping the elements on
separate tracks. Make a Pro Tools (or another audio program) file. Lead and background
vocals should also be separated. Separation gives the mixer more options.

Radio Advertising
Producing and composing radio music for commercials is, arguably, more difficult than
producing music for television commercials. There are no visuals, which implies that the
music has to “help” tell the story; possibly more so than when there are pictures. Many
television campaigns are also designed for the radio. Often, the music is not the same, and if it
is the same, it generally has to be expanded to 1:00. The music producer supervises all
revisions and expansions.
The average radio commercial is 1:00, which allows the composer more time to develop a
composition. (The music can run the full length of each radio commercial.) Some composers
feel designing music for radio commercials gives them more freedom than composing for
television commercials, which in turn makes it easier than composing music for television.
 If the music is underscoring voices (actors and/or announcers), the music cannot mask the
words. In some instances, the emotional impact of the music might have to be exaggerated
since there is no picture for the audience to relate to. If the music is a song (jingle), the
production is similar to a record production, with the exception of the volume level of the
vocals. Each word must be clear and the vocals should always be the loudest element in the
mix.
In addition to coaching the musicians and singers, some music producers also coach the
actors’ and announcers’ performances. This is usually done in conjunction with the copywriter.
It is advisable for the music producer to give the composer a copy of the script and the
actors’ and/or announcers’ recorded tracks. The composer uses the script and the audio tracks
for reference while composing. If the final voice track is not complete, it can be helpful to ask
the copywriter to record the script and make certain that the reading coincides with the correct
timings. Hearing the copywriter read the script with the proper inflections illustrates the
writer’s intentions; merely reading a script will not necessarily convey the true intent of the
writer. This makes it difficult for a composer to create the proper musical mood. Often, this
process is used for the composer to compose a demo. The demo is then revised to fit the final
script.

Conclusion: Advertising Music

Most advertising music producers have a background in record production. They should
have eclectic musical taste and extensive knowledge of music history, particularly of popular
music.
Advertisers generally want original jingles (songs written for advertising) to sound like hit
songs. Underscoring (instrumental music) has to mirror the emotions of a commercial without
being obtrusive. Music producers have to understand the advertising business and modern
recording technology, as well as the technical requirements of writing to visual images.
Producing music for advertising agencies is a high-pressure business. There are almost
always rigid time restraints. Time buys (airtime) on broadcast, Internet, Satellite, and cable
stations or other outlets (e.g., Hulu videos) are usually made in advance of the production
schedule; consequently, the commercials have to be sent to the stations and posted on the
Internet within a specific schedule. (The delivery might be digital or physical.) It is common to
revise the music, script, and video. It appears as though each job is completed at the last
possible moment—standard operating procedure in the advertising business.
Advertising music production is a stimulating and exciting vocation. The music producers
and composers work with the finest musicians, singers, and technicians. (Engineers are artists.)

Television Music
Most composers produce the music they write for television programs. The producer or
director of the program usually serves as the executive music producer. The main differences
between television music and film music are as follows:
 The producer of a television series makes the final music choices; in feature films, the
director makes the final decisions.
Television music has to be composed in shorter time periods, and the budgets are lower.
More electronic music is used in television than in feature films.
A studio music supervisor may coproduce or supervise the music.
Music supervisors select songs and library music that is used on national and nationally
syndicated television programs. Many music supervisors are also music producers.
Music for situation comedies (sitcoms) is usually produced as a music library, which is
specifically composed for a program. At the beginning of the season, the composer
records and produces numerous cues (musical selections) of varying lengths. The music
supervisor selects the music for each episode and synchronizes it with the video. Some
episodes require newly scored music.
Music for dramatic shows is usually created and recorded in 7 to 10 days. The composer
writes and orchestrates the music. In feature-film writing, funds to hire an orchestrator are
usually included in the budget. Some national television programs have a budget to hire a
small orchestra. Some small orchestras are used in addition to synthesized tracks.
Individual television stations use music for local news programs, station identifications,
and similar presentations. Television networks also commission music to help create a
musical identity, such as the “NBC News Theme” by John Williams. Music houses
(companies) that primarily record advertising music also provide music for television
stations and television networks. Music producers who work for music houses guide the
process.

Small-budget feature films usually do not have funds to hire an orchestrator.

Mixing music for television and radio differs from mixing music that will be heard on a
theater or home audio system. The music has to sound its best on a television speaker or
on a radio being played through average car or home speakers. The low frequencies and
some of the very high frequencies will generally not be heard (unless the transmission is
in the high-definition digital domain). That affects not only how the music is mixed but
also how the music should be composed. For example, very low or very high notes should
be avoided.

Conclusion: Television Music

Most flourishing composers have been weaned on electronic music and also have the ability
to produce and engineer their own projects. These skills are necessary for survival in the
competitive television music industry.

Music for Corporate Videos

Advertising agencies and independent production companies produce corporate videos. A
music house or individual composer who mostly produces music for commercials usually
produces corporate music. Advertising-agency music producers oversee agency projects and
film producers oversee the music produced by independent companies.
Corporate video is an umbrella term because of the wide range of subjects covered in the
videos, everything from training to in-house information to in-store promotions. The music
producer analyzes the needs of the client and suggests the most appropriate music. Often, the
music has to appeal to a wide demographic, which implies that the music cannot “offend” any
particular group. Most corporate videos have wall-to-wall music containing a variety of
musical moods.
Corporate videos vary in length. The music producer or composer usually spots the film
with the producer and/or director. The important musical hits are targeted, and the overall
mood of the music for each cue is chosen. The process is similar to working on a television
program, except that most corporate videos are trying to sell something, such as enticing a
prospective job recruit to work for a certain company. The music producer must be aware of
the scenes that require a sell musically. There might be a musical logo at the beginning and end
of the video or there might be product shots throughout the video that have to be addressed
musically; it is analogous to composing and producing music for commercials.
The budgets are relatively small compared to the budgets for commercials or television
programs; consequently, the music is primarily synthesized, possibly involving 3 or 4 live
musicians.

Conclusion: Corporate Videos

Advertising-music producers apply the same skills to overseeing corporate videos as they
do to guiding commercials. Understanding a client’s needs, selecting the appropriate music,
and completing the project on time and within a budget are part of a music producer’s
responsibilities. The music must clearly define the corporate message and depict a
corporation’s image. Poorly conceived music can damage the image of a corporation.

Music for Infomercials

Infomercials are long-form commercials, which are viewed primarily on cable stations and on
broadcast stations at off-peak hours. Infomercials can also be viewed on the Internet. The
average length of each program is 30 minutes; some are 1 hour and some are quite short.
(Short-form infomercials can be viewed on YouTube.) Infomercials are produced by
advertising agencies or by production companies that specialize in infomercials.
Infomercials are designed to generate immediate viewer response. The producers expect
viewers to call in and order the product. If a program does not test well, the airplay schedule
is usually cancelled immediately.
Direct Response Television (DRTV) is a short form of an infomercial, averaging 1 to 2
minutes in length. DRTV is also designed to generate immediate viewer response.
The music is produced by an advertising music producer, the producer of an independent
production company, or by the composer. The composer spots the video, and the producer
and/or music producer decides on the style of music and where the musical hits should occur.
Infomercials follow a format, which must be addressed musically.

The host is usually a celebrity or someone associated with the product—the inventor, for
example. The host must be believable. Host celebrities often share in the profits generated
by the infomercial.
The music producer should direct the composer to write a memorable theme for the
opening and closing of the program. The closing is normally shorter than the opening and
requires the composer to compress the thematic material. The opening and closing parts
of the video usually contain a logo, which should be addressed musically, since the logo
music also helps to establish the product.
Call-to-Action (CTA) segments, repeated numerous times throughout the program, are the
actual sell—the “pitch.” The phone number is displayed on the screen and an announcer
or the host reads the copy, which is designed to encourage the viewer to call in and order
the product.
The CTA is actually a commercial within the infomercial. The music producer generally
directs the composer to approach the CTA as a separate commercial. Each time the CTA
appears, the music is usually a variation of the first CTA music, or it may be a direct
repeat of the original music. CTA music generally is a variation of the original theme
because CTAs vary in time and content, so the audience does not lose interest. It is wise
to direct the composer to write something memorable so the audience subliminally relates
the CTA theme to the product.
Testimonials—Testimonials from satisfied customers are sprinkled throughout the
program. The testimonials should be addressed musically. The composer may possibly
write a testimonial theme and vary the orchestration and tempo for the various testimonial
sections. The music producer’s job is to encourage the composer to write music that will
help entice the audience to order the product. Uplifting music is usually most appropriate.
Bumpers—Bumpers are short interludes that normally run 3 to 5 seconds and are
designed to separate the various sections of the program. Bumpers are usually catchy, and
the bumper music is often repeated throughout the program. The length and orchestration
of the bumpers may vary, but the basic theme remains the same.

Conclusion: Infomercials
Infomercials are designed to create the illusion that viewers are watching an entertaining
television program. When the Call-to-Action appears, the advertisers hope, the sales begin.
Composers who write music for commercials and advertising-music producers are usually the
best people to produce music for infomercials, since the ultimate goal of an infomercial is to
sell a product.

Some infomercials are produced for the radio, but that is rare.

Music for Documentaries

The composer usually produces the music for documentaries. Either the producer and/or the
director serve as the executive music producer. Documentaries usually contain music
throughout the entire video, and the scoring procedure is similar to the one for scoring
television programs. The budgets are normally modest; therefore, synthesizers and samplers
are extensively used. The budget might allow for 2 or 3 live musicians. In unusual
circumstances—such as for IMAX productions—documentaries have budgets sizeable enough
to hire an orchestra.
The composer spots the video with the producer and/or director. The style of music is
chosen and the musical hit points established. Documentaries can be as dramatic as a scripted
drama and require the composer to possess the same musical sensibilities. Unless a
documentary is targeted to a specific demographic, most documentaries require generic music
because the music must appeal to a diverse audience. The composer is often the music
producer, arranger, and engineer.

Conclusion: Music for Documentaries

In 1952, famed Broadway composer Richard Rodgers wrote the music for the television
series Victory at Sea, which encompasses 26 episodes about World War II. The RCA Victor
Symphony Orchestra performed the score. It was an unusual project for the 1950s, and it
remains uncommon. Major documentaries, such as some of the films shown in the IMAX
theaters, might contain scores performed by live ensembles, but the scores are more likely to
be performed on synthesizers and samplers and supplemented by live musicians.
Composing music for documentaries can be a rewarding and interesting experience. A
composer/producer should have eclectic taste and the ability to compose in various musical
styles.
***
For detailed information on this subject, read Writing Music for Television and Radio
Commercials (and more) Second Edition by Michael Zager. (Scarecrow Press, Inc.)
14

A Brief History of Popular Music, Part I

The Blues had a baby, and they called it rock and roll.
—Muddy Waters

Pop, country, dance, gospel, R&B, hip-hop, rock, world music, and jazz are the main genres of
popular music today. Each of these categories has subgenres: contemporary country (Taylor
Swift), smooth jazz (Kenny G), traditional jazz (Miles Davis), modern rock (Green Day), hard
rock (Led Zeppelin), alternative rock (Kings of Leon), and heavy metal (Metallica).

Many interesting books have been written about popular music, and one intention of this book is to
encourage readers to do further research, if needed. This chapter is simply a brief overview.

It can be helpful to understand the background—the roots—of musical genres. It can be

especially beneficial when producing music for film. If a film calls for a re-creation of music
from a historical period, an accurate musical interpretation is necessary. The importance of
musical authenticity, in all styles, cannot be stressed enough. Understanding the history of the
music is essential when producing film music, advertising music, or various genres of listening
music.

Production Elements
An understanding of historical musical styles and recording technology helps expand a
producer’s creative palette. Producers can benefit from past ideas, which may be updated and
applied to contemporary music production. The expression everything old is new again
applies to music production. The production techniques used on landmark albums, such as The
Beatles’ Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band and Pet Sounds by The Beach Boys, are still
used. Eric Clapton currently represents the original style of blues guitar playing, and the
original nuances of blues vocals are still heard in the vocals of Mick Jagger.
Several important general observations can be made about the historical aspects of all
popular styles of music:
The lyrics of many popular songs reflect historical time periods, as well as the mores of
the societies. Further research into each genre could, for example, help a music supervisor
select music for a film or aid a music producer in authentically re-creating a style and sound.
Playing Baroque instruments to perform music from the Baroque period, performing on
instruments used during the Civil War to re-create marching-band music of the period, or
writing lyrics that simulate the syntax of a historical time period are helpful production
techniques.
Below is a brief timeline of the general lyrical content of some historical periods:

Negro spirituals reflect on the life of slavery in the U.S.

The blues, developed after the Civil War, reflect primarily on black southern rural life,
but went urban when blacks moved to Chicago, mostly after World War II.
The roaring ’20s is depicted with “good-time” dance music, such as the Charleston dance
style and the development of jazz. The Great Depression of the 1930s is portrayed in
songs such as “Brother, Can You Spare a Dime,” while the wartime songs of the 1940s
were patriotic, e.g., “Boogie Woogie Bugle Boy.”

“Corn Ditties,” sung at the end of the 1700s, preceded Negro Spirituals.

Beginning in the late 1930s, jazz ballads echoed sexuality and sensuality; torch songs are
sexy and fun, and rhythmic virtuosity is portrayed in the more upbeat songs sung by artists
such as Lambert, Hendricks, and Ross, a 1950s vocal group that emulated big band
instrumentalists with lighting-fast rhythmic lyrics and inventive harmonies.
Country music has always reflected the American southern rural lifestyle. Beginning with
hillbilly music, the lyric content of country music has dealt with rural life and/or the
common problems and mores of everyday people. This is the predominant reason for its
continued popularity. People can associate not only with specific situations and emotions
described in lyrics but with the demeanor of most of the performers as well. Many
country-music performers have credibility with the public, since many of the fans come
from similar backgrounds. As pop/country became popular, the lyrical content, in many
songs, became more “suburban” in subject matter.
The rock ’n’ roll music of the 1950s reflects the mores of young people and also a cultural
rebellion. The young audience wanted a musical identity that differed from the music
listened to by their elders. The lyrics reflected freedom, fun, and love.
 Rock ’n’ roll played an eminent role in the civil rights movement. The races united in a love of
“the devil’s music” and remain united. This angered southern (and northern) racists.

In the middle 1960s, rock ’n’ roll developed into rock. The message (lyric) became
significant. Escapism, countercultural ideals, and violence were depicted in the various
subgenres of rock music.
Some heavy metal music has been, arguably, highly destructive. Suicides have been
blamed on listeners’ reaction to lyrics. This is a controversial issue among psychologists.
Folk artists, such as Bob Dylan and Joan Baez, reflect the times and generational mores.
Anti–Vietnam War songs were reflective of an unpopular war.

When studying the evolution of rock ’n’ roll, one element that performers share is their
admiration, and in some cases idolization, of the artists who preceded them. Many also greatly admire
their contemporaries.
The most revered artists, who have had the greatest influence on rock ’n’ roll, are the classic blues
singers. Since popular music is a direct descendant of the blues (and black music in general), it is rare
not to hear the originators of rock refer to popular blues singers such as Howlin’ Wolf and John Lee
Hooker. Music has always evolved from one musical style to another. Rock ’n’ roll continues in that
tradition. New names and subgenres are given to various musical styles but the underlying basis of the
music remains the same.

Popular culture was permanently changed not only by the lyric content of The Beatles’
music (which became popular in the United States in 1964) but also by the lifestyle of The
Beatles. Their long hair was a sign of nonconformity. A fascination with Indian culture,
and specifically with Indian music, introduced world music to popular music audiences.
Their use of the sitar, an Indian guitarlike instrument, was the first use of an ethnic
instrument in popular music that received global acceptance. The Beatles’ lyrics run the
gamut from silly to thoughtful.

Author’s Opinion: There are only two kinds of music—good and bad.

Hip-hop is the most socially relevant and influential music since rock ’n’ roll. The roots
of hip-hop originate with the Griots (storytellers) of West Africa. Much of their culture
entered the United States with the slaves.
Hip-hop (rap) is based upon music from Jamaica called dub. The dub artists kept
repeating the “hottest” sections of records because dancers reacted. They also began
repeating short vocal phrases, which morphed into rapping. Scratching (rhythmic record
turntable manipulation), DJs, breakdancing, and graffiti art became a part of the hip-hop
culture.
Rap surfaced in the South Bronx, New York, in the 1970s and was originally recorded by
small independent labels. These boutique labels were trying to appeal to the “street
culture.” The music eventually spread globally and is now performed and recorded in
almost every language.
Hip-hop lyrics reflect lifestyle, violence, and entertainment. A variety of lyrical messages
has had a profound influence on the listeners and has made a major sociological impact
on society.
A hip-hop producer must be aware of evolving trends, both from a technological
standpoint and from the ever-changing mores of the hip-hop community.
In the middle to late 1970s, disco music triggered a lifestyle change for the gay
community. The disco (nightclub) became a prime meeting place not only for gays but also
for the Hispanic community and other party people of all races who loved to dance in a
glitzy and exciting atmosphere.
Most disco songs reflected the club scene or love, or espoused social commentary. Songs
such as Gloria Gaynor’s “I Will Survive” and “Ain’t No Stoppin’ Us Now,” by
McFadden and Whitehead, became anthems. The Bee Gees’ soundtrack album Saturday
Night Fever was an international sensation and brought disco to the forefront of popular
music.
During the late 1970s, punk was disco’s nemesis. Many punk lyrics were political in
nature, and some were racist, associated with common use of the swastika (Hitler’s logo,
which symbolized Nazi Germany). The music never gained mainstream acceptance in the
United States.

The Berklee College of Music, in Boston, Massachusetts, offers a course called Turntable
Techniques. The students learn the craft of rhythmically scratching vinyl records to create percussive
effects.

The year 1981 marked a transformation in the music industry, with the introduction of
MTV (Music Television) in the United States. (Music videos had been popular in Europe
prior to the introduction of MTV.) The audience was now able to see an artist’s visual
conception of a recording. Music videos were considered promotional and marketing
tools and did not generate profits for the labels. Video airplay became almost as
important as radio airplay. Listeners heard songs more often on the radio than they viewed
videos because of the amount of time they spent in cars. Music became a benchmark for a
new breed of film—video direction. The directing style became popular and inspired
many feature film directors to capture an MTV look. Some examples:
Michael Jackson’s album Thriller became the largest-selling album in history. The
exposure of Jackson’s music videos on MTV was crucial to the album’s success. The
songs were in the black-pop genre (funky rhythms with pop vocals). Jackson
continued the Motown concept of black music that appealed to all races.
Whitney Houston is another example of an artist who became a superstar partially
due to her ability to crossover to a universal audience. (Here music videos allowed
the world to see her.) There was a backlash from the black community since she
recorded pop songs rather than R&B–based material. Her future attempts to sing
more R&B–oriented songs never gave her the same level of success as her pop
songs. Singing love ballads made her one of the greatest stars in the history of
commercial music.

Punk music originated in the UK and reached its popularity between 1976 and 1981.

Madonna, a disco diva, achieved worldwide popularity. The forerunner of the

Britney Spears style of pop, Madonna’s career is based on her brilliant marketing
abilities and her controversial lyrics, represented by songs such as “Like a Prayer.”
(“Like a Prayer” was a groundbreaking video and caused much controversy.) Her
dancing and sexy image is pure entertainment and she continues to be an international
superstar.
Bruce Springsteen represented (and still represents) blue-collar workers. His
socially conscious lyrics have helped politicians attract voters. His persona is
clearly visualized in his music videos. He performed and campaigned for John Kerry
in the presidential election of 2004.
Hip-hop (rap) continued to develop. When the “genre barrier” was eventually broken on
MTV, hip-hop videos became a staple.
During the 1980s, musicians used celebrity status to raise money and awareness for
causes, such as Live Aid and Band Aid.
During the 1990s, hip-hop grew in popularity and remained, primarily, socially conscious
music. The alternative bands, such as Nirvana and Pearl Jam, were popular; the dance
music market also continued to grow by dividing into multiple subgenres. The Latin
 market crossed over to the pop market with artists such as Santana and Ricky Martin;
country music also crossed over to the pop market.
Political and lifestyle lyrics remained popular but the decade was not as distinctive as
some others.
From the turn of the century to the present, the music industry has experienced a rebirth
and reformation by having to address major issues, such as illegal peer-2-peer file
sharing, the Internet as a major source of revenue, substantial income from music used as
ringtones and ringbacks, artist controlled sound recordings, and the consolidation of
major record labels.
Hip-hop has consistently populated the top 10; adult contemporary artists, such as Andrea
Bocelli and Josh Groban, achieved top 10 successes and country artists are continually
represented on the top 10 pop charts. The music business is more amalgamated and it is
difficult to indicate a specific cultural trend in the first decade of the 21st century. Country
musicians continue to sing about blue-collar issues, hip-hop artists continue to rhyme
about socially relevant issues, and many artists have continued to provide unadulterated
entertainment.
The public has varied tastes, which are reflected in the diverse range of musical genres
represented on the sales charts. As the primary point of purchase switches to Internet
stores, the public can select a greater variety of music than in most brick-and-mortar
stores; consumers can also assemble personalized compilation albums on services such
as iTunes. The Internet stores compile information on customers’ buying habits and the
information is analyzed by the industry. The music business is perpetually evolving and
“where it will stop, nobody knows!”

Conclusion
Popular music continues to reflect the lifestyles of many performers. Therefore, be concerned
with the images that artists portray to the public. This is not a reference to cookie-cutter acts
but to performers who have the potential of achieving career longevity. Thoughtful career
planning and artistic achievement and development are the best weapons against contracting
“artistic antiquity.” Attention to song choice, arrangements, stage performance, interview
techniques, image building (including videos), artist management, booking agent
representation, production achievement, and label commitment all contribute to artists’
successes or lack of successes.

Overview of Musical Genres

The following is a brief overview of the various popular music genres. Numerous books have
been written about each of the following subjects and it behooves a conscientious music
producer to become familiar with the historical aspects of the genre of music he or she is
producing. Not only should the history be studied but also the production techniques used to
create the earliest recordings. For example, the simple technique of recording an orchestra
with two microphones is still used (in conjunction with modern microphone techniques) by
many classical and film-scoring engineers. The sonic images in many old recordings are
benchmarks by which to judge modern recordings. Skilled producers are good listeners and
observers.

A Brief History of Country Music

The musical roots of country music stem from the British Isles. The British, who immigrated
to America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, brought their musical culture with them.
Country music was defined by a style of fiddle playing and song lyrics. The fiddle (and later
the banjo) was used to surround or replace the vocals. As the genre progressed and became
popular in the 1920s, the lyrics became the property of the southern “working man” much the
way hip-hop (rap) lyrics have influenced contemporary African-American society.
Country music was also influenced by the music of the American slaves and later by the
American black culture. The black rhythms and the dancing had a direct effect on the
development of the music.
Country music was initially most popular in the southern agricultural areas. The music
spread with the traveling medicine shows, which were similar to vaudeville shows. With the
advent of the railroad, music and culture were able to spread at a faster pace.
Country music has remained the working person’s music. If the audience can empathize with
the lyrics, songs will remain popular. The music is traditional American music. Since country
music is tied to American southern culture, it has not achieved acceptance in other cultures.
Only in the United Kingdom, and to a smaller degree France, has country music realized
success out of the United States. Other European countries have a small country music market.
Subgenres of country music include country-rock, bluegrass, honky tonk, and Texas swing.
Their roots remain deeply tied to traditional country music.

The following section discusses some of the major highlights of popular music.

Country and pop music have much in common. Most of the songs contain simple, memorable
melodies, which enable the audience to effortlessly sing-along. The repeated sections called
hooks or choruses are catchy and ‘hook’ the audience into wanting to hear the songs again.
In the 1920s radio achieved popularity. The Grand Ole Opry (a country-music radio
program) did more to help spread country music than any other source at that time. It was
founded and hosted by George D. Hay, who said, “The principal appeal of the Opry is a homey
one. It sends forth the aroma of bacon and eggs frying on the kitchen stove on a bright spring
morning.” Country music remains popular and has an ever-growing crossover audience.

A Brief History of Negro Spirituals

African-American slaves—brought to the United States mainly from West Africa—were
mostly converted to Christianity. The slaves attended church services and also worshiped in
“praise houses,” which were makeshift, informal churches. They morphed African musical
language with Protestant hymns to form what became known as Negro spirituals. The songs
spoke of love of Jesus Christ who was looked upon as a savior from the miseries of slavery.
Many of the songs were sad and referred to as “sorrow songs.” Additional songs, called
“jubilees,” had faster tempos and the lyrics were not as depressing as the “sorrow songs.”
At first the slaves were not permitted to sing and dance while working on the plantations, so
they met in remote locations to do so. Eventually, they were allowed to sing while working.
The songs were called “work songs” because the slaves sang to pass the time while working
on the plantations. The lyrics dealt with enduring pain and suffering. “Pick a Bale of Cotton”
was one of the most popular work songs.
Spirituals were sung in the call-and-response musical form, which is accomplished by
alternating lines between a soloist and the congregation. The music was filled with improvised
vocal lines called melismas, which are a group of notes usually sung around one syllable (later
known as blue notes). Also included were hand clapping and syncopated rhythms, transplanted
from African music.
The Underground Railroad was an organization that helped slaves escape to the North. This
institution became a source of lyrical ideas for spirituals. To avoid being tracked by hounds,
slaves periodically walked in water to interrupt the scent. The classic spiritual “Wade in the
Water” deals with the plight of the slaves. Another classic spiritual, “Swing Low, Sweet
Chariot,” referred directly to the Underground Railroad and was considered a code for escape
to the North. Spirituals were first brought to international prominence by a group of college
students called the Jubilee Singers. In 1871, they began touring for the purpose of raising
money for Fisk University in Nashville, Tennessee, an African-American institution.
Numerous recordings of spirituals were made between 1933 and 1942. They are housed in
the Archive of Folk Songs in the Library of Congress. The archive is one of the most important
historical documentations of the most shameful period in American history. All American
popular music stems from the music developed by the slaves.

A Brief History of Gospel Music

At the end of the nineteenth century, spirituals were replaced by the singing of the gospel (the
story of Jesus Christ), referred to as gospel music. The end of slavery propelled the decline of
spirituals. The lyrics were no longer of interest in the black churches, although the music was
performed in concerts, also called revivals.
Gospel music is a direct descendant of the spirituals. The lyrics praise God and Jesus in a
more upbeat manner than spirituals. Each church had a choir that performed in the call-and-
response tradition, a continuation of the basic musical style of the spirituals. Gospel developed
at the same time as jazz, ragtime, and blues. The musical elements were incorporated into the
gospel style.
Thomas A. Dorsey (this is not the famous Tommy Dorsey, a trombonist and bandleader who
was a mainstay of the American big band era in the 1940s and 1950s) is considered to be the
father of gospel music. He formed the first music-publishing company devoted to black gospel
music. Traditional gospel incorporates hand-clapping, organ accompaniment, large choruses
and harmonies, and lyrics that praise the Lord. Artists such as Mahalia Jackson and James
Cleveland sang in the traditional style.
As the music developed, so did the form of accompaniment. A banjo, fife, and drums often
accompanied spirituals. In the 1930s, the piano and guitar were the primary accompanying
instruments for gospel music.
In recent years, contemporary gospel has become popular. Artists such as Kirk Franklin have
proven that contemporary gospel music can sell millions of albums. This can be partly
attributed to the close musical alliance that gospel has with the musical styles of contemporary
R&B and hip-hop—especially the use of rhythm. The only difference is the content of the
lyrics.

A Brief History of the Blues

The blues is an outgrowth of the music of the slaves in the United States. While working in
the fields they sang songs called field hollers, which reflected the abhorrent living conditions
and the horrific life of slavery. The songs were sung in a call-and-response style. A soloist
sang, and the rest of the field hands answered. Singing served two purposes:

It gave the slaves a way to communicate with each other. The slave owners were
interested only in work and not social interaction.
Working in the cotton fields and other fieldwork was boring and tedious. Singing helped
to pass the time.

This music developed into spirituals and gospel music. At the end of the nineteenth century the
blues, a direct descendant of spirituals and gospel music, was born. Rhythm & blues and rock
music are direct descendants of the blues.
The blues (in some instances) mimicked the call-and-response of the field holler; a soloist
was the leader and the guitar and/or banjo (sometimes harmonica) answered. The bending of
the “blue notes” is the signature sound of the blues. Because the original blues singers actually
lived the lives they were singing about, the music had an authenticity not found in many musical
styles.

Author’s Opinion: Rock ’n’ roll is based on the blues, and rock guitar playing is blues based.
Rock players play electric guitars instead of acoustic guitars, and they use electronic effects to
alter the guitar sound. The Rolling Stones, The Beatles, Eric Clapton, and Bob Dylan are artists
directly influenced by the old blues singers.
The Rolling Stones and Eric Clapton were directly influenced by bluesman Robert Johnson,
who made his final recordings in 1937. When Eric Clapton was in the rock group Cream, they
 recorded Crossroads, a Robert Johnson composition. (Clapton’s album Me and Mr. Johnson is a
tribute to Robert Johnson.)
Muddy Waters, Howlin’ Wolf, John Lee Hooker, Robert Johnson, and BB King are some of the
blues musicians who are revered by many great rock musicians. They set an example for young
contemporary singers. The goal is not for younger singers to mimic the styles of those artists
but to understand what made those artists iconic. The audience knows when a performer
“lives” the music.
W. C. Handy is credited with being the father of the blues. His classic song “St. Louis Blues”
was recorded in 1914, and it has been recorded numerous times since. He was the first person
to codify the blues. In addition to being a musician and a songwriter, he owned a music
publishing company that published sheet music.
Blues singers influenced many of the great jazz singers, notably Bessie Smith, Billie Holiday,
and Joe Williams.

Blues: Essential Elements

Early recordings permanently documented live performances. Review the reasons blues was
such a significant element in the development of popular music.

In some of the earlier recordings, the singer played the melody while singing. The
combination of a steel string guitar and voices singing in unison was a unique sound.
Holding a “bottleneck” (a piece of a bottle’s neck was worn on a finger) or a small, metal
bar in the guitar player’s left hand and sliding it across the strings often defined the sound
of the blues acoustic guitar. This device, along with “blue notes” and call-and-response
singing, gave the blues its signature sound. (Blue notes can be defined as notes that are
slightly lower than, or flat of, the normal pitch, and produce a sliding effect. Blue notes
can also “bend up”—mostly to a minor third or perfect fifth. This style of playing is still
the most definitive element in any form of popular guitar playing.)
The Mississippi Delta region was the home of many original blues musicians. Since most
of them were black and lived a hard life, the authenticity of the lyrics provided the
audience with an unusual musical experience. This was not just entertainment; it was
“real life,” and the audience related to the artists.
This style of guitar playing and singing is closely related to country music. Country music,
blues, and rhythm & blues are relatives.

Listen closely to the essence of some of the original blues artists. Classic blues performers,
such as Muddy Waters and Howlin’ Wolf, possessed believability, which translated into public
acceptance.
Credibility is the one element shared by most superstars.
The public will continue to support artists who “speak to them.” Although this quality is
rare, most successful music artists believe in their craft. (Their level of artistic skill may not
be as distinctive as artists who reach legendary status.) Many cookie-cutter acts are highly
professional and achieve substantial record sales. Since they are not unique, however, many
cookie-cutter acts have a brief professional life span.
 It is important to include recording engineers in the above discussion. Their contributions to recorded music
are often overlooked. Exceptional recording engineers have a highly developed musical sensibility and an
incredible ability to sonically reproduce and augment a performance in the most creative manner. Not only
must they be sensitive listeners, but they must also have the technical knowledge and ability to achieve the
sonic goals of producers and artists. Many engineers are also successful producers.

A Brief History of Jazz

Jazz, America’s native art form, began to develop at the end of the nineteenth century. Jazz
was born in New Orleans. The roots of jazz are found in spiritual and gospel music. African
rhythms were combined with European musical influences—brought to the South by Creole
musicians—to form the foundation of jazz. Jazz is a highly sophisticated, improvisational art
form; it is art created at the moment.

There is a direct parallel between a truly gifted jazz musician and a gifted vocalist. Both “feel” the
music.

Jazz became popular beginning with the great Louis Armstrong and has continued with the
multitalented Wynton Marsalis and many other educator-musicians. Jazz has experienced an
ever-changing development. From the minstrel shows—the first national form of entertainment
—came Dixieland, blues, swing, bop, modern jazz, fusion, and the current crossover music,
smooth jazz. Traditionally, musicians have drawn on the past to reach the future.
Many contemporary jazz producers have roots in R&B and hip-hop music. They combine the
sophistication of jazz improvisation and harmonies with the rhythms of R&B and hip-hop.
Herb Alpert has been credited with creating smooth jazz.

Author’s Opinion: American universities should be credited with keeping Traditional Jazz alive.
They offer jazz programs within the music departments, which include workshops with great
jazz musicians. Exposing listeners to jazz music is essential to the historical preservation of
American music.

Jazz album sales in the United States are minimal compared to sales of other musical styles,
but the international market continues to flourish. Many jazz musicians perform and record in
Europe and Japan, where jazz remains popular.
 In 2002, Norah Jones, a Blue Note label artist, won the Grammy award for Best Album. Although
Jones is not a traditional jazz artist, it is interesting to note that a jazz label signed her. Diana Krall, a
traditional jazz artist, has experienced impressive international success. This is an indication that what many
consider to be a dying art form is still a popular, viable musical genre.

A Brief History of Rhythm & Blues (R&B)

R&B (soul)—originally referred to as “race music”—is an offshoot of the blues, which
emanates from spirituals and gospel music. The African rhythms continued to develop. So did
improvisational vocalizing, which has remained a defining trait of African American–based
music. Rhythm & Blues, developed in the late 1940s, has continued to advance artistically and
remain popular in the marketplace. Artists such as Ray Charles, James Brown, Aretha
Franklin, and Prince are some of the most important proponents of traditional R&B and funk
music. Contemporary artists Luther Vandross, Brian McKnight, Alicia Keys, and Beyoncé have
continued the tradition.
Electronics have influenced all genres of popular music. Many contemporary R&B and hip-
hop records contain hypnotic rhythm patterns and sounds that cannot be performed by a live
musician. Combined with traditional R&B rhythms, the grooves have become more infectious
and more inventive. Live musicians, mixed with synthesizers and samplers, usually perform on
contemporary R&B records.

Motown
Traditional Rhythm & Blues was geared toward black audiences. Berry Gordy, the founder
of Motown Records, had a different idea. He wanted to record R&B–oriented records that
would crossover to the white audience.
Gordy lived in Detroit, which had a large black population and no major record companies.
The church proved to be a gold mine of talent.
The “Motown sound”—also called the “sound of young America”—comprised catchy
melodies, universally accepted lyrics, and great R&B arrangements. The tracks were soulful
but differed from the James Brown school of funk. The audience could dance and feel the
backbeat but the sound and feel of the music appealed to all ethnicities. Many of Brown’s
original songs were designed around a repetitive rhythm pattern (mostly four-bar patterns) and
rhythmic vocal lines. The Motown songs were fully developed pop songs but surrounded by
the elements of soul music. This musical hybrid made Motown unique.
In 1960, Gordy founded Tamla Records, followed by Motown, Gordy, and Soul Records. He
experienced unprecedented success in a short period of time. Motown was outselling the major
labels. Gordy developed a formula that consistently worked. The Motown “creatives” worked
for the record label.
 A core group of songwriters and producers wrote for and produced the artists. The staff
personnel included Smokey Robinson, Norman Whitfield, and Holland, Dozier, and
Holland. They created the Motown sound.
Staff engineers recorded the records in the Motown studios. This gave the recordings a
sonic consistency.
The original studio was called Hitsville U.S.A, which is currently a museum in Detroit.
The Funk Brothers were the in-house rhythm section. They recorded rhythm tracks that
had the feel and sound that defined Motown.
Cholly Atkins choreographed every act. His unique choreography helped create
Motown’s visual image.
Paul Riser, the principal arranger, complemented the rhythm tracks by also bringing a
unique sound to the arrangements.
The artists were taught etiquette, which included training in how to respond to the press
and respect their fans.
The performance wardrobes were carefully selected.
Motown was not only a record label but also an image. The audience knew when they
were listening to or watching a Motown artist. The sound of the records and the visual
images of the artists were distinct.

Some of the Motown artists in the 1960s were as follows:

Smokey Robinson and The Miracles

Diana Ross and The Supremes
Stevie Wonder
The Jackson 5
Marvin Gaye
The Temptations
The Four Tops
The Spinners
Martha and The Vandellas
The Marvelettes

From a sociological perspective, one might wonder why Detroit contained so many
extraordinary musical artists. Detroit is the home of the automobile industry, and during the 1940s and
1950s labor was needed for the assembly plants. Southern African Americans relocated to Detroit from
the South, where jobs were scarce. Attending church on a regular basis was part of the culture. Gospel
music and participation in church choirs was, and still is, the training ground for many rhythm & blues
artists.
Berry Gordy and his staff literally changed pop music during that time period. The influence
that the Motown sound had on pop music still continues.

Author’s Opinion: The success of the Motown sound is unique in the music industry; very few
labels before or after the heyday of Motown had their own identity. The Chess and Vee-Jay
recordings were associated with R&B and blues, but the Motown records were produced in-
house, creating a central musical identity. Herb Alpert, Louis Armstrong, Miles Davis, Frank
Sinatra, and Nat “King” Cole are examples of artists who are or were so unique that after the
first few notes of a recording, listeners recognized them. The same was true of the Motown
artists during that historic time period.

Motown: Production Elements

Gordy’s approach to record production still remains the most important factor in the
production process—The song is the foundation.
Since the mission of Motown was to achieve crossover records (appealing to all
ethnicities) the lyrics were not standard R&B lyrics, which dealt with the black
experience in the United States. Motown lyrics dealt with subjects that had universal
appeal.

Booker T. and the MG’s were the equivalent of The Funk Brothers for Stax Records in
Memphis, Tennessee. Stax was a highly successful Rhythm & Blues label.

The songwriters generally produced the songs they wrote. They had a clear creative
vision, which was the sound of Motown. Because the songwriters, producers, musicians,
and engineers were part of the Motown family, a mutual trust developed, which made the
creative objectives easier to achieve. The production and writing teams were well-oiled
creative machines. All parts worked smoothly.
The backbeat of the rhythm section was featured in the mix. Nothing cluttered the strength
of the rhythm section. The string and horn parts were most often sparse and complemented
the arrangements rather than overcrowding them. The producers knew that the audience
liked to “groove” to the beat, and the nature of the music enabled them to feature the basic
feel on the records. This still holds true of most popular-music recordings. If the audience
cannot get into the “pocket” of a rhythm-oriented recording, it is virtually impossible to
achieve a hit record. (This concept applies to all styles of popular music.)
 The background vocal arrangements made major contributions to the sound of the records.
Most of the background vocals had a gospel feel. In fact, if only one Rhythm & Blues
component could be extracted from the general sound of a Motown artist, it would be the
background vocals.
Vibraphone and a low baritone saxophone were signature sounds used on many Motown
recordings. An example is Diana Ross and the Supremes’ recording of “Where Did Our
Love Go.” Those instruments became associated with the Motown sound.
The lead vocalists did not sing in a standard Rhythm & Blues style. (They did not scream
and were not as powerful as many soul singers.) The melodies were clearly stated (not
many melismas); therefore, the audiences could easily sing along. The typical
improvisational style of most Rhythm & Blues singers did not exist at Motown. Some of
the early records were remarkably close to the sound of the 1950s, such as “Mr.
Postman,” by The Marvelettes.
Hand claps were prominently featured. This was a remnant from gospel music. (Finger
snaps frequently took the place of hand claps.)
Piano tracks often resembled the honky-tonk style that was not only used on rock ’n’ roll
records but also displayed on many of The Beatles’ recordings. The rock ’n’ roll piano
style, which developed from the gospel and boogie-woogie style of playing, continues to
be emulated by many contemporary pianists, such as Elton John and Dr. John. (Boogie-
woogie was a form of blues usually played with a shuffle beat.)
The piano parts were prominent in the mixes. Most were gospel tinged and some tracks
retained a 1950s pop feel.
Signal processing aided in creating an ambience for the records. Extensive use of
equalization, compression, and limiting shaped the recorded sound, which made the
records sound exciting on the radio.

Motown’s Success
The height of the Motown era was between 1964 and 1967. In 1 year, the company charted 5
records in the top 10. The following are some of the relevant statistics:

14 #1 charted pop singles

20 #1 R&B chart hits
46 additional singles were in the top 15 on the pop charts
75 additional singles were in the top 15 on the R&B charts

From a sociological viewpoint, such statistics prove that there were no racial barriers in
popular music. Rock ’n’ roll helped break down racial barriers and so did the sound of
Motown.
 Gordy’s attention to the song helped him create one of the most successful publishing catalogues
in the history of popular music. The company is called Jobete Music. In 1997, EMI Music publishing bought
50% of Jobete and Stone Diamond Music Corporation, Jobete’s sister company.

Motown’s Demise
In 1967 some of the performers were unhappy, and group members changed. Motown never
agreed to certify records gold, which would have confirmed a minimum number of units sold
and required royalty payments. The artists and the songwriters did not feel that they were being
paid the proper royalties. The star songwriting team of Holland, Dozier, and Holland left
Motown and sued the company for back royalties.
In 1971 Motown moved from Detroit to Los Angeles, which in my opinion also contributed
to the downfall of the original Motown Records concept. Most of the talent signed to Motown
was from Detroit, and Motown had a sound unique to the city, partially due to the geographical
location and partially due to the family atmosphere that Gordy created within the company. The
Motown ambience was destroyed. As the formula began to decompose, so did the Motown
sound. The records were no longer distinctive. They lost the identity that Motown had
established with the public.

Since Motown artists were recording and performing acts, dancing, appearance, and interplay
among the members of the act made equal contributions to the ultimate success of the artists. All of the
Motown artists during this time period can be cited as examples. If an artist did not fit the Motown profile, he,
she, or they were not signed to the label.

In 1988 Motown was sold to Boston Ventures and MCA for a reported $61 million. Boston
Ventures bought MCA’s interest and in 1993 sold the company to PolyGram for a reported
$325 million.
The publishing company, Jobete Music, has been valued at hundreds of millions of dollars.
Some of Jobete’s copyrights include the following:

“Three Times a Lady”

“I Heard It Through the Grapevine”
 “Stop! In the Name of Love”
“Tracks of My Tears”
“What’s Going On”
“Dancin’ in the Streets”
“Reach Out, I’ll Be There”
“My Girl”
“Superstition”

Conclusion
The creativity of the producers, songwriters, and musicians was the key to Motown’s success.
One of Motown’s major contributions to popular music was the universal appeal of the music.
In the beginning of rock ’n’ roll, Caucasian artists rerecorded black music. They attempted to
make the songs more appealing to white audiences. Gordy’s formula was to appeal to all
groups, thereafter breaking down musical racial barriers. It is highly unlikely that another
Motown will ever exist.

Listen to the early Stevie Wonder records compared to his later work. The melody was simply
defined, allowing the audience to immediately grasp the song. He later sang with more melismas, some of
which he wrote as part of his melodies. Diana Ross, Marvin Gaye, Smokey Robinson, and other Motown
artists took the same approach.

James Brown
James Brown virtually invented what now is categorized as funk. Called the “Godfather of
Soul,” and “the hardest-working man in show business,” Brown had a concept of rhythm that
made his recordings the most sampled in the music business. Funk and rhythm-based artists
who have followed in Brown’s footsteps have incorporated his musical feel in their styles. Just
as jazz trumpet players credit Louis Armstrong as the innovator, James Brown has influenced
artists who either consciously or subconsciously steeped their music in rhythm.

Radio mixes are an essential element in the creation of hit records.

 Author’s Note: James Brown is another example of a unique talent. As a producer, one is always
searching for artists who have “their own voice.” Musicians I know who have worked with
James Brown have all said that he knew exactly what he wanted and knew how to get it. Brown
was musically demanding and was known for fining musicians who made mistakes during a live
performance.
James Brown’s influence on music is attributable to his distinctive interpretation of rhythm and
also his exceptional performance skills. James Brown was one of a kind.

Songs
In 1956, “Please, Please, Please,” by James Brown and The Famous Flames, was his first
hit. It went to number five on the R&B chart. Among his numerous hits under his name only are
these:

“Papa’s Got a Brand New Bag” reached #8 on August 7, 1965, on the Billboard pop
chart.
“I Got You (I Feel Good)” reached #3 on November 20, 1965, on the Billboard pop chart.
“It’s a Man’s Man’s Man’s World” reached #8 on May 7, 1966, on the Billboard pop
chart.

James Brown: Production Elements

The most important element to analyze is James Brown’s style of arranging. The components
are as follows:

A very strong backbeat, created by the drums and guitar.

Infectious rhythm riffs are anchored in the guitar, bass, and drum parts, with catchy
answers and fills from the horns. (Brown developed his rhythmic style by eliminating any
parts that interrupted the rhythm. He wanted the audience to feel every beat.)
Most of the songs do not have background vocals.
He had a unique style of singing. (He began his career singing in a gospel group.)
The recordings are not slickly produced. His voice is mixed louder than the instrumental
tracks and the audience always feels the groove.
There is limited reverberation. The tracks contain minimal reverberation.

Author’s Note: It is important to consider the musical format of most of James Brown’s hit songs.
The funk songs have long passages that remain on one chord. This allowed the groove to
develop and also allowed the audience to really feel the funk (rhythm). There is a musical relief
by going to the bridge and then returning to the main groove. All R&B and hip-hop groove-
oriented songs follow James Brown’s example. Many hip-hop songs have only one chord and
achieve variety by changing melodies, instrumental riffs, and background vocals, while riffing
over the same basic groove.
Sly and The Family Stone
Sly and The Family Stone was one of the most rhythmically infectious bands in the history of
popular music. They peaked between 1969 and 1971. There were no racial barriers with the
audience, which contributed to Sly’s enormous popularity.
The group was unique because of the cross-pollination of rock-pop and R&B. Since all rock
is anchored in black music, the musical potpourri Sly created enabled the group to crossover to
pop. They were not considered a Rhythm & Blues band but rather an “everyman or
everywoman” act.
Sly was the next step in the development of funk, started by James Brown. (It is important to
mention the stellar contribution to the genre from George Clinton & Parliament Funkadelic.)
The main difference between James Brown and Sly was that Sly wrote pop songs with a
funk/pop/rock rhythm section while James Brown wrote and recorded primarily groove-
oriented songs. “I Want to Take You Higher” is the closest Sly came to a song that could be
considered reminiscent of James Brown.
In addition to a string of hits, the band’s live show was one of the best in the music industry.
They sold out the largest venues in the United States. When the group began to perform, the
audience stood up and never sat down.

Author’s Opinion: The author was co-leader (with partner Aram Schefrin) of Ten Wheel Drive.
TWD toured with Sly & The Family Stone. Sly performed the best live show of any band at that
time and one of the best live shows in the history of pop music. “I Want to Take You Higher,” a
signature song in concert, reached only #38 on the Billboard chart.

The songs are a combination of message songs and entertainment. The audience connected
with the universal messages, the catchy sing-along tunes, and the infectious rhythms. The
combination of these elements made Sly and the Family Stone superstars.

“Papa’s Got a Brand New Bag” reached #25 on the UK Charts on September 23, 1965

“I Got You (I Feel Good)” reached #29 on the UK chart on February 24, 1966.
 “It’s a Man’s Man’s Man’s World” reached #13 on the UK chart on June 16, 1966.

Message Songs

“Everybody Is a Star” reached #1 on January 10, 1970, on the Billboard pop chart.
“Stand” reached #33 on April 22, 1969 on the Billboard pop chart.
“You Can Make It If You Try” was a popular message song in concert although it never
became a chart hit.
“Everyday People” reached #1 on the Billboard pop chart on January 4, 1969.
“Thank You” reached #1 on the Billboard pop chart on January 10, 1970.
“If You Want Me to Stay” reached #12 on July 14, 1973 on the Billboard pop chart.
“Life” was a popular message song in concert, although it never became a chart hit.

Entertainment Songs:

“Dance to the Music” reached #8 on the Billboard pop chart on March 2, 1968.
“I Want To Take You Higher” reached #38 on the Billboard pop chart on June 20, 1970.
“Hot Fun in the Summertime” reached #2 on the Billboard pop chart on August 30, 1969.
“Family Affair” reached #1 on the Billboard pop chart on November 13, 1971.
“M’Lady” reached #32 on the UK singles chart on October 2, 1968.
“Sing A Simple Song” did not chart but was popular with his audience.

Sly & The Family Stone: Production Elements

The vocals are rooted in gospel music and typical of the R&B singing style of that era.
Instead of featuring one lead vocalist, the vocals were divided between members of the
band, who sang antiphonal lines.
As was typical of the time period, the vocals are mixed low in the track, although the
lyrics are easy to understand. (The vocals in rock records of that time are mixed lower
than Sly’s vocals.)
Sly & The Family Stone was unique because the backbeat—the primary rhythmic element
in R&B—was not the driving force in Sly’s music. The upbeat bass patterns, half-rock
and half-funk guitar parts, and percussive background vocals, are the main rhythm section
components.
The background vocals resemble updated doo-wop parts. The parts are not typical of
background vocals sung by Rhythm & Blues groups. The vocals are used to propel the
 rhythm—they can be considered additional percussion elements.
The tracks are mixed in a clear stereo field. Each vocal is panned to a space in the stereo
spectrum, while the bass and guitar are more prominent than the drums. Although the
backbeat is not featured in the mixes, the simple drum parts fit perfectly and propel the
band.
The 2 horn players (trumpet and saxophone) play jazzy riffs mixed with James Brown’s
style of funk.

Aretha Franklin
Aretha Franklin is called the Queen of Soul and Lady Soul. Legendary producer John
Hammond signed her to Columbia Records in 1960. She started her recording career as a pop
artist but she was not successful. In 1966, Jerry Wexler signed her to Atlantic Records where
she achieved legendary status by recording rhythm & blues music. In 1979, Clive Davis signed
her to Arista Records.
Like many R&B artists, Aretha sang in her church, located in Detroit, Michigan. Her father,
C. L. Franklin, was the preacher. Aretha’s inspiration came from two great gospel singers who
also sang in her father’s church—Clara Ward and Mahalia Jackson. She developed a virtuosity
paralleled by few commercial singers. Her singing style is steeped in tasty melismatic turns.
(Many of her clones overuse this vocal technique, causing the audience to lose contact with the
melody.) Her feeling for the lyric is expressed with her magnificent voice, which remains
under control at all times. She uses her God-given talent in a refined and thoughtful way.
Aretha Franklin and Ray Charles are icons of Rhythm & Blues. Both artists crossed racial
barriers to become international superstars and legends. Aretha is the recipient of 15 Grammy
Awards and 39 nominations. She has reached the top 10 of the Billboard pop chart 17 times
and has entered the Billboard top-200 album chart 22 times. She has achieved 21 R&B chart
entries for hit singles and 10 #1 R&B albums.

Aretha Franklin: Production Elements

Atlantic Records, in many ways, had a production process similar to that of Motown.
Atlantic’s resident rhythm section played on most of the R&B tracks during the late 1960s
through the 1970s. Richard Tee (keyboards), Bernard Purdy (drums), Cornell Dupree (guitar),
and Jerry Jemmott (bass) were the mainstays of the rhythm section. These great musicians (and
others) created a sound that defined Rhythm & Blues of that period. They performed on many
of Aretha’s recordings.

“Everyday People” reached #36 on the UK chart on March 19, 1969.

 The rhythm section was very funky and did not attempt to appeal to a white audience,
although all races embraced the records.
As a result of this process, the background vocals have a distinct sound. They are based
in the gospel tradition, which, in a secular setting, makes them funky. The background
vocals were at all times prominent in her earlier records.
Most of the songs Aretha chose to record have a message—“Respect,” “A Natural
Woman,” “Think,” and “Bridge over Troubled Water.”

“Dance to the Music” reached #7 on the UK charts on July 10, 1968.

Great singers would not have achieved success without believing in the message of the
songs they recorded.
Many of Aretha’s records contain traditional R&B horn parts. The horns added
excitement that was part of the signature R&B sound during that time period. Some of her
recordings also contained strings.

“Family Affair” reached #15 on the UK charts on January 8, 1972.

Aretha’s first album for Atlantic Records was recorded in Muscle Shoals, Alabama. Muscle Shoals was known
for a specific southern soul sound, which was defined by what became known as the Muscle Shoals Rhythm
Section. Many hits were recorded in Muscle Shoals. The famous Memphis horns also performed on her
album. The album I Never Loved a Man reached #1 on the singles chart.

Philadelphia International Records

Philadelphia International Records was formed in the early 1970s by songwriters Kenny
Gamble and Leon Huff. They had a close relationship with composer, arranger, and producer
Thom Bell, who was in many ways a third partner.
They emulated Motown with the exception of distribution. Motown was independently
distributed, and Columbia Records distributed Philadelphia International.

Similarities to Motown

The music crossed all racial barriers. The artists were primarily African American, but
even the music by the Caucasian artists was R&B oriented. This genre was known as
blue-eyed soul.
Staff writers wrote most of the songs. Many of the hits were written by Gamble and Huff
(a team) and also by Thom Bell.
Philadelphia International had the equivalent of a resident rhythm section, which gave the
records a distinctive sound.
Resident arrangers provided the label with an identity. For example, master arranger
Thom Bell arranged the tracks for the artists he produced for other labels, such as The
Spinners (Atlantic Records) and The Stylistics (Avco Records). The songs were richly
orchestrated and performed by consummate musicians.
Most recordings were tracked at Sigma Sound Studios in Philadelphia. (Motown
recordings were recorded at Motown’s Hitsville Studios in Detroit.) The recording and
mixing process had a significant effect on the overall sound and feel of the records. The
engineering—precise and clean—was a crucial element in manufacturing the Philadelphia
Sound.
Gamble and Huff maintained the publishing rights to the songs. The catalogue became
extremely valuable and was eventually sold.

Some of the artists signed to Philadelphia International Records were as follows:

Billy Paul
MFSB
Jerry Butler
The O’Jays
Teddy Pendergrass

Differences between Philadelphia International and Motown

The artists were not controlled to the same degree as they were at Motown.

The artists’ performance styles were similar to those of the Motown artists, but they were
not as homogeneous.
Each act worked with different choreographers and bandleaders.
Most of the Philadelphia International artists had separate managers and agents.

A Brief History of Rockabilly

In the early 1950s—before rock ’n’ roll—rockabilly was popular. Most rockabilly singers
were from the South or Southwestern part of the United States.

Aretha had an unusual way of working. She played the song on the piano, and the rhythm section
followed, working out and refining each individual part. She followed the same procedure with the background
singers.

The music was based on rhythms taken from early race music, blues, and white southern
rhythms used in country music, Appalachian music, and western swing music. Gospel influence
can be heard in standard background vocal parts and hand clapping that accompanied
numerous songs.
Many of the up-tempo songs were constructed in a standard twelve-bar blues pattern. Like
most popular-music genres, rockabilly was dance and party music. During and after World War
II people wanted to escape and music was a release. The lyrics and the music were
entertaining. Rockabilly remained popular for only approximately two years. It had a great
influence on rock ’n’ roll, which started between 1954 and 1955.

“Respect,” which was released in 1967, became a popular civil rights song and a song that also
helped to promote women’s rights. The legendary singing group The Sweet Inspirations, led by Cissy
Houston, performed on many of Aretha’s recordings. The Sweet Inspirations also performed with Elvis
Presley. (The Sweet Inspirations did not sing on “Respect.”)

Elvis Presley was one of the first rockabilly singers and is considered—along with Carl
Perkins—the definitive rockabilly artist. Carl Perkins recorded “Blue Suede Shoes” before
Elvis. Elvis developed into one of the first rock ’n’ roll stars and the most successful and
influential individual rock singer of our time. (Listen to Gene Vincent sing “Woman Love,”
Tommy Sands sing “The Worry Kind,” and Bobby Lee Trammell sing “You Mostest Girl.”)
There is a remarkable similarity to Elvis Presley, in both production and vocal style. John
Lennon, of The Beatles, said, “There would be no Beatles without Elvis Presley.”
The first rockabilly recordings were produced in the legendary Sun Studios in Memphis,
Tennessee. Sam Phillips, who originally discovered Elvis Presley, was directly responsible
for helping to invent the sound of rockabilly, which was primarily defined by using a tape
delay on the lead vocals and the guitar.
Bill Haley and Buddy Holly began as rockabilly singers and were among the first rock ’n’
roll stars.

Rockabilly: Production Elements

Popular record-production techniques were an intrinsic part of the sound of rockabilly:

The vocal styling was rooted in country music. In numerous recordings, a tape delay was
applied to the vocals. The unique sound helped to define the genre. (Distinctive tape
delay was used on several of John Lennon’s records.)
The twangy electric guitar sound, based on the blues and country style of playing, gave the
music a distinguishing sound. Many of the guitar parts were processed with tape delay
similar to the delay used on rockabilly vocals. Some guitar sounds were bordering on
distortion, which became the predominant sound of rock ’n’ roll. The almost nasal quality
mixed with rhythmic playing helped to give the music a special feel.
The hard, honky tenor saxophone sound, which had its roots in jazz, became part of the
signature sound of many rockabilly recordings. (The tenor saxophone and baritone
saxophone became more prevalent in the middle to late 1950s, when rock ’n’ roll became
popular.) The basic bluesy, raspy saxophone sound is still used today.
The style of background singing was a direct descendant of the gospel vocal style.
The slap-bass technique was heard on various rockabilly recordings. The bass player
slapped the neck of the instrument after playing a note. The slap added a percussive effect
and enhanced the rhythmic groove. This distinctive playing style helped define the
backing tracks.
Rockabilly piano parts often contained triplets, which became a signature sound on many
1950s rock ’n’ roll recordings.
The bands generally comprised a piano, drums, bass, and electric guitar. The tenor
saxophone and a limited use of the country fiddle were also included in rockabilly bands.

I’m the originator, the emancipator, and the architect of rock ’n’ roll.—Little Richard

When disco became popular in the middle of the 1970s, Philadelphia International was at the
forefront of R&B disco.

A Brief History of Rock ’n’ Roll

Early Rock ‘n ’Roll
 Rock ’n’ roll was born in the American south, in the mid 1950s; its roots are in “race
music” (black music). The segregationists publicly denounced the music due to racial hatred.
In their view, bringing black music to the general public was abhorrent. Throughout the
country, many people thought the music was overtly sexual, and, therefore, denigrated society.
Until the 1960s, rock ’n’ roll was generally considered distasteful. This is probably the
definitive reason for its success. The youth aligned themselves with a unique genre of music, as
well as a culture. The music was raw and loose, mirroring a lifestyle that was appealing to a
large segment of the adolescent population. Their parents were fond of a different style of
music. Dress codes changed, mores changed, and the dances changed. Rock ’n’ roll was a
cultural revolution.
Rock ’n’ roll had as much to do with helping integration in the United States as did
marching and protesting. That was the sentiment held by Chuck Berry and Little Richard. The
segregationists hated rock ’n’ roll because of the effect the music had on society. This was a
revolution of the youth against adult mores. Racial barriers were broken and young people had
their own music.
Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis were recording and performing black music, which
brought race music to the general public. Chuck Berry is considered the father of rock ’n’ roll
and the first rock ’n’ roll guitar player. Little Richard was also considered a founder of rock
’n’ roll.
Little Richard, Fats Domino, and Jerry Lee Lewis were the first rock ’n’ roll piano players.
Rock ’n’ roll piano playing is a combination of boogie-woogie and the blues. Chuck Berry
incorporated the boogie-woogie piano style into his guitar playing. That became the basis for
all rock ’n’ roll guitar playing.
White artists began covering (rerecording) songs written and recorded by black artists and
achieving greater success than the original recordings. For instance, Pat Boone’s recording of
“Tutti Frutti” outsold and garnered more airplay than the original record, recorded and written
by Little Richard. Radio stations were segregated; some stations played race music and others
played white music. Alan Freed, a popular Cleveland disc jockey, coined the name rock ’n’
roll, which was a reference to sexual activity. Freed refused to play watered-down cover
versions by white performers; he played the original recordings by black artists. This was a
revolution for the music industry. There were no racial barriers in popular music. Rock ’n’ roll
belonged to the American youth. Adults publicly railed against what they referred to as sexual
promiscuity, which they considered detrimental to society.

Elvis Presley used background singers to help define his musical style. His background group was
called The Jordanaires. Although The Jordanaires were Caucasian, the sound was derivative of traditional
black gospel groups. It is interesting to note that one of Elvis’s vocal groups, near the end of his life, was
Cissy Houston’s African-American vocal group, The Sweet Inspirations.
 Young people were subjected to dress codes and mores that emanated from the music.
Leather jackets and tight skirts were forbidden dress in some school systems. Movies such as
Blackboard Jungle associated juvenile delinquents (called hoods) with rock ’n’ roll. When
Elvis Presley appeared on television wiggling his hips, thousands of letters were written in
protest. Rock ’n’ roll was like a locomotive barreling down the tracks with no way to stop it.
It continued to grow by fueling its growth with the creative juices of the young musicians and
singers who followed in the founders’ footsteps.
Rock ’n’ roll is the direct descendant of rockabilly music. In 1955, Bill Haley and His
Comets recorded the first major rock ’n’ roll hit, “Rock Around the Clock.” It was the first
rock ’n’ roll hit published on the Billboard Magazine chart. When “Rock Around the Clock”
was a hit, no other records on the charts resembled its sound. Rock ’n’ roll was youth-oriented
party music that offered relief from the horrors of World War II and the Korean conflict.
“Rock Around the Clock” has a shuffle rhythm, repeated melodic patterns (emulated in other
records), a prominent electric guitar sound, and a slapped upright bass sound that is similar to
the bass parts used in many rockabilly records.
Rock ’n’ roll—like rockabilly—is rooted in black American music. The music is a
combination of blues, boogie-woogie, and gospel, and influenced by country music. Rock ’n’
roll was a natural progression from rockabilly.
Rock ’n’ roll, jam-packed with sexual innuendoes, was designed as party or dancing music.
The Everly Brothers, Elvis Presley, Little Richard, Fats Domino, Jerry Lee Lewis, Buddy
Holly, and Chuck Berry were some of rock’s first superstars, and all varied in style and
performing presentation. Elvis, Little Richard, and Jerry Lee Lewis were energetic; The
Everly Brothers, Fats Domino, and Buddy Holly were more subdued.
The guitar, piano, and saxophone were the prominent instruments used in rock ’n’ roll bands.
A distinct rock ’n’ roll style of guitar playing was born. As the genre progressed, the
overdriven (distorted) guitar sound became the norm and rock’s defining “sound.” Great
saxophone players like Red Prysock and Louis Jordon developed a raw, honky, soulful tenor
saxophone style, which also was indicative of the sound. That basic style is still used in all
genres of popular music and contemporary jazz, with artists such as Kenny G and David
Sandborn carrying on the tradition.
Rock ’n’ roll was popular with all ethnicities. The music had a positive impact on the
promotion of desegregation.
Many rock ’n’ roll songs were based on the twelve-bar blues format and signature playing
style of blues musicians. The bent blue notes have remained the most quoted and expressive
playing element in rock ’n’ roll.
Rock ’n’ roll soloing techniques are based on the improvisational styling of jazz. It is
interesting to note that music in the jazz era was technically difficult to play. Rock ’n’ roll was
much looser-sounding music and did not require the same technical ability. The simplicity of
early rock ’n’ roll is most likely what appealed to young listeners. They could relate to the
basic feel of the music. Dancing and partying are antidotes to the stresses of daily strife.

Technology is an intrinsic part of the continuing development of popular music. The electric guitar was
invented in the 1930s. Prior to the electric guitar, certain instruments masked the sound of the acoustic guitar.
In 1951, Leo Fender invented the electric bass, primarily for the same reason.
The sound of the electric guitar became the most prominent instrument in rock ’n’ roll. The invention of
effects, which offered a player the opportunity to vary the tonal quality of the guitar sound, has enabled
guitarists to create infinite musical moods. The sound of distortion, which started to become prominent in the
1950s, eventually dominated rock in the 1960s and continues through today’s music.

Little Richard, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Fats Domino defined the rock ’n’ roll piano style. It was based
on the gospel style of piano playing, as is the piano style of traditional R&B. (Ray Charles was one of the
greatest influences of the piano style used in rhythm & blues.) Elton John, Billy Joel, and Billy Preston are
direct descendants.

American Bandstand and The Ed Sullivan Show

Dick Clark, host of the television program American Bandstand, played the latest hits while teenagers danced.
Each day recording artists performed and also promoted new recordings. No other show had the hit-making
ability of American Bandstand, with the exception of The Ed Sullivan Show, which was on the CBS Television
Network on Sunday nights. Elvis Presley, The Beatles, and The Rolling Stones performed on The Ed Sullivan
Show. The audience’s reaction was staggering. The artists’ careers soared after their appearances.

Rock ’n’ roll is a generic term for multiple musical styles. Some of the subgenres are doo-wop,
heavy metal, punk rock, soft rock, and progressive rock.

The business of rock ’n’ roll flourished because of television exposure but radio airplay has always been, and
remains, the best promotional tool for breaking a record. This now includes exposure on the Internet and
Satellite radio
Radio’s impact has expanded with the addition of Internet radio, streaming and Satellite radio, and video sites
such as YouTube.
Elvis Presley
Elvis Presley recorded 30 #1 hits. “Heartbreak Hotel” (released on January 17, 1956) was
his first rock ’n’ roll hit, as well as his first record as an artist on the RCA record label. Elvis
was the first artist to cross the racial musical barrier. He made his first recording in 1954 for
Sun Records, in Memphis, Tennessee. Because his musical style was steeped in white and
black gospel music, he musically represented both ethnic groups. His recordings sold in three
markets: pop, country, and R&B. This accounted for his unprecedented success.
Just as Beethoven propelled classical music into the Romantic musical period, Elvis Presley
not only was the bridge from rockabilly to rock ’n’ roll, but he also became the genre’s model
pop star as well as a movie star. His appearance (sideburns and flashy outfits) and stage
presence (hips wiggling and facial expressions) were as much a part of his success as his
music. This was Elvis’s natural way of expressing his musical emotions. Gospel music was his
passion, and it is documented that the same body movements he made as a pop star were also
used when singing gospel music before becoming a pop icon. Elvis received 3 Grammy
Awards for singing gospel music.
Singers such as Frank Sinatra were pop idols in the 1940s, but they did not define a
generation as Elvis did. (The only other pop artists to have the same sociological influence on
society were The Beatles.)
In 1956, Sam Phillips—owner of Sun Records, Elvis Presley’s first record label—sold
Elvis’s contract and his master recordings to RCA. His rockabilly-country-gospel style of
singing developed into what would later be called rock ’n’ roll. Elvis retained his country
music and gospel roots, although his records for RCA were produced in a more contemporary
style. Elvis was known for trying to achieve perfection and he recorded as many as 30 takes of
a song before he was satisfied.

Fats Domino hails from New Orleans and brought the true and distinctive New Orleans piano style
to rock ’n’ roll. He began as a Rhythm & Blues singer and pianist. His unique style catapulted him into the role
of one of the most important and influential rock ’n’ roll stars.
The rhythmic patterns Fats played with his left hand made his piano playing unique. It produced a distinct
sound that became associated with other New Orleans pianists, who have emulated his style, notably Dr.
John.

Elvis Presley: Production Elements

Most popular music recordings of 1950s had a time length of between 2:00 and 2:30.
Radio stations would not play a song that was too lengthy.
The songs were recorded in mono and Elvis’s voice was the loudest element on the track.
(Stereo was not released to the public until 1958.)
Elvis recorded songs that had commercial appeal. They were melodic and suited his
vocal style. Dedication to his craft is evident in everything he recorded.
Most of Elvis’s hits were recorded with a basic rhythm section and background vocals.
His band consisted of piano, bass, drums, and guitar. Later in his career, orchestral
instruments were added; for example, “In the Ghetto” has a string section added to a basic
track, which was dominated by acoustic guitar, a marching-style snare drum, and a sparse
bass part. It is a simple arrangement that is effective because of Elvis’s extraordinary
delivery of a meaningful lyric.
The arrangements and performances were tailored for each song. Much care was given to
the structure of the arrangements, which included the carefully crafted background vocal
arrangements.
In rockabilly music, an excessive amount of delay was used on vocals. Not as much was
incorporated into most rock ’n’ roll records, although reverberation was a signature in
most rhythmic tracks. Many of Elvis’s ballads were mixed with less reverberation than
his rhythmic songs.
Elvis’s background singers were a four-man gospel quartet called The Jordanaires. On
many of his recordings the background vocals provided a cushion, endemic to most white
gospel music. They sang few words but the harmonies were smooth and distinct. (Elvis
spent most of his leisure time singing gospel music, which was his true love. “Crying in
the Chapel,” a gospel song became a hit.)

Author’s Note: Cissy Houston, leader of the vocal group called the Sweet Inspirations, told me
that Elvis would break into a gospel song (for fun) in the middle of rehearsals, when they were
performing in Las Vegas.

Some of his early hits did not sound like the new rock ’n’ roll but retained the influence of
the rockabilly style. Gone was the slap-echo delay prevalent in so many rockabilly
recordings, although “Heartbreak Hotel” had a slight delay on the vocal, which was
reminiscent of some of his earlier recordings.
Surprisingly, many of Elvis’s hits did not have a driving rhythm. The drums were mostly
understated. The bass player slapped the bass, which created an additional percussive
sound; Elvis often slapped his guitar to also help create rhythm. Much of the rhythm was
created by Elvis’s vocal inflections and the rhythmic patterns sung by the background
vocals. (This technique is still used in contemporary popular music.)
The bass and the left hand of the piano part often played the same notes. The piano parts
were frequently patterned after the boogie-woogie style. The honky-tonk piano style was
also prevalent in his rhythmic songs.
“Hound Dog”—recorded in New York and released on July 13, 1956—was truly a rock
 ’n’ roll production. The song has a strong backbeat (a defining element of rock ’n’ roll), a
distorted electric guitar, and a bass pattern used on many rock ’n’ roll recordings of the
1950s. Elvis’s vocal was usually powerful and driving.
“Love Me Tender,” released on September 28, 1956, was a simple, mellow acoustic
guitar–driven production. Elvis admired ballad singers, such as Bing Crosby, and he
wanted to be considered a competent balladeer.
Elvis was not one singer. The production elements of each song changed according to
what was appropriate for the song. Elvis’s constancy was his individuality as an artist.
He was dedicated and original. Elvis said, “I don’t sound like nobody.”

Although there could not be a more eclectic group, an uncanny similarity exists between the music and
production techniques used by such diverse artists as Elvis Presley, The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, and
Steely Dan. These artists are unique even within the musical genres they represent.

No other popular rock ’n’ roll artist sounded like Elvis or performed in exactly the same style. (Of course,
there have been imitators, but imitation rarely brings equivalent success.) Compared to almost all other hits
of that era, Elvis’s records are unique. This is analogous to the raw, bluesy quality of The Rolling Stones,
the distinctive and ever-changing style of The Beatles, who brought an unusual approach to each song (in
their later recordings), and the extraordinarily clear and precise production techniques used on the Steely
Dan recordings.
The arrangements on The Beatles and Steely Dan recordings are meticulous and innovative. All parts fit
together like a complex riddle. The Beatles and Steely Dan recordings illustrate the importance of
scrutinizing the minutest arranging and production details.
Creating a sonic ambience has much to do with forming an artist’s musical image. The Beatles, especially
on the Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Heart Club Band album, created an almost incomparable and idiosyncratic
ambience to the recording. That was accomplished by months of experimentation, as well as the
extraordinary creative ability of producer George Martin and engineer Geoff Emerick.
The Rolling Stones have been able to capture a “live” quality on their recordings, which is a difficult task.
Many artists need a live audience to keep adrenaline pumping. The excitement of a live performance
partially accounts for the success of live concert recordings. The Stones have been able to transport this
energy to the recording studio.

Trivia

Johnny Cash, Jerry Lee Lewis, and Elvis Presley all recorded for Sun Records.
Payola (illegal payment for airplay) almost destroyed the popular-music industry in the United States.
Lieber and Stoller, two of the most successful songwriters in pop-music history, immersed themselves in
the black culture. Their lyrics and songs reflected the roots of R&B and, therefore, the mores of African
Americans.
Eric Clapton’s favorite singer was blues singer Muddy Waters.
Chuck Berry sang “Maybelline,” which is truly a country song. This shows the influence of country music on
a gospel singer, who became a rock ’n’ roll singer.
There was an accordion in the Bill Haley and His Comets version of “Rock around the Clock.”
Joe Turner recorded “Shake, Rattle, and Roll” before Bill Haley recorded it.
Louis Jordan was the first crossover R&B artist who became known as a rock ’n’ roll artist.
15

A Brief History of Popular Music, Part II

Production
In 1930, guitarist Les Paul developed the first recording process that allowed additional
music (sound) to be added to an existing recorded track; the process is now referred to as
overdubbing. This was the beginning of multitrack recording and record production.
The above paragraph is a repeat of the same statement made earlier in the book. The A&R
executives at record labels were responsible for discovering and signing artists, selecting
songs, and guiding artists through the recording process. Since recording techniques were
limited, the initial A&R executives acted similar to contemporary record producers without
necessarily having the same technical expertise required of today’s producers. Their goal was
to capture a live performance. Prior to the invention of tape and multitrack recording, all
recording was direct to disc (no overdubbing). With the invention of tape, producers were able
to record multiple takes (performances) and edit them to assemble the best possible
performance.
Preproduction is the most important stage of the music-production process. Selecting the
songs, choosing an album concept and a sonic image, and crafting the arrangements are the
basis of producing recordings. Without this foundation, it is irrelevant whether the performance
is emotionally and technically proficient.
Achieving commercially and creatively successful recordings begins with the song or
instrumental. Listeners react to music that causes them to experience an emotional reaction,
such as in a love song or a dance song.
As recording technology became more sophisticated, its effect greatly influenced the sound
of recordings, particularly of popular music. Hundreds of effects processors are available, and
each one has an infinite number of settings that can affect the overall sound of each recorded
track. The producer and the engineer use the devices to create an overall ambience, which
ultimately affects the listener’s response.
In the next section, we will discuss some of the artists and producers who pushed the
envelope and influenced the development of contemporary record production. Listen to the
songs and follow the analysis. The purpose of the analysis is to study how the recordings were
musically arranged and sonically developed. The basic approach to production is timeless and
the reader will benefit by listening to some of the classic recordings by The Beach Boys and
The Beatles.
 The Beach Boys and The Beatles
If you had to give rock ’n’ roll another name, it would have to be Chuck Berry.—John Lennon

The Beach Boys’ album Pet Sounds and The Beatles’ album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club
Band are considered seminal albums in the craft of music production and classics in the history
of rock ’n’ roll. Both groups took a remarkable creative leap from their earlier albums. The
Beatles’ previous album was Revolver (released in 1966), which included “Eleanor Rigby,”
“Here There and Everywhere,” “Yellow Submarine,” and “Got to Get You into My Life.” It is
interesting to note that Beach Boys Party (released in 1965), the album prior to Pet Sounds,
contained three Lennon/McCartney songs; “I Should Have Known Better,” “Tell Me Why,” and
“You’ve Got to Hide Your Love Away.”
Sgt. Pepper was recorded on a 4 track tape recorder. Brian Wilson, of the Beach Boys,
recorded the instrumental tracks for Pet Sounds on 3 or 4 tracks and proceeded to create a
mono mix. The instrumental backing track was recorded on 1 track of an 8 rack machine, which
left 7 tracks to record vocals.
On both albums, the producers bounced tracks together, which allowed them to overdub
additional parts over previously recorded tracks. Because they were working in analog
technology, the more tracks that were bounced together the more hiss (noise) remained on the
tape. Both albums have been “cleaned up” (using digital recording technology) for rerelease in
the CD format and the Internet. It is remarkable that the quality of the vocals and the backing
instrumental tracks remains clear and relatively unaffected by the bouncing process.
Three brothers and a cousin formed The Beach Boys in 1961. Brian Wilson was the main
writer and arranger and also played piano and bass, and sang. Dennis Wilson played drums
and sang; Carl Wilson played guitar and sang; cousin Mike Love also played drums and sang.
Additional members were Al Jardine, who played guitar and sang, and Bruce Johnson, who
joined the band after 1965.
The Wilson brothers and Mike Love were born in California and were pioneers in the
development of surfing music. At the beginning, their lyrics catered to the youth culture.
“California Girls,” “I Get Around,” “Surfin’ Safari,” and “Surfin’ U.S.A.” were hits, along
with many more. The Beach Boys were called the “American Beatles.” The Beatles
progressed artistically with each album, as did The Beach Boys.
Brian Wilson created The Beach Boys’ vocal sound based on his admiration of the jazz
vocal group The Four Freshmen. He also admired the production techniques of famed producer
Phil Spector. Spector pioneered what is referred to as the “Wall of Sound.” There was no
separation of instruments in the studio; the instruments “bled” into the sonic space of the other
instruments, creating a huge mass of sound. The Wall of Sound was enhanced by an unusual
amount of echo and reverberation.
 Trivia: During the 1960s Brian Wilson worked with Jan and Dean, who were also pioneers of surfing
music. Also, The Beatles and The Beach Boys were on EMI-owned labels; The Beach Boys recorded for
Capitol Records and The Beatles were signed to Parlophone in the UK (The Beatles were first released on
Vee-Jay Records in the United States. They later switched to (EMI) Capitol Records.)

The following are some of the records produced by Spector:

“You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feelin,” by The Righteous Brothers, reached #2 on the
Billboard pop chart on December 26, 1964.
“River Deep, Mountain High,” by Ike and Tina Turner, reached #3 on the UK charts on
June 9, 1966.
“Imagine,” by John Lennon, reached #3 on the Billboard pop chart on October 23, 1971.
“All Things Must Pass,” by George Harrison, reached #1 on the UK charts on November
1, 1975.
“Let It Be,” by The Beatles, reached #1 on the Billboard pop chart on March 21, 1970.

“You’ve Lost That Lovin’ Feeling” reached #1 on the UK charts on January 14, 1965.

“Imagine” reached #1 on the UK charts on November 1, 1975.

“Let It Be” reached #1 on the UK charts on May 23, 1970.

 The only track that George Martin did not produce for The Beatles was “Let It Be,” which was produced by Phil
Spector. There has been great criticism of this track because the production techniques used by Spector
varied from the precise and tasty productions associated with George Martin. In spite of the criticism, “Let It
Be” became a standard.

The Beach Boys combined jazz vocal harmonies with Spector’s ‘Wall of Sound’ technique,
coupled with the influence of surfing music. Earlier Beach Boys productions were also
influenced by 1950s doo-wop music. Their background vocal arrangements resembled doo-
wop backgrounds.
The Beatles’ album Rubber Soul triggered Brian Wilson’s creative juices. Brian was
highly competitive, and although he admired The Beatles, his ambition was to top them.
Unusual circumstances surrounded the production of Pet Sounds:

Brian Wilson wrote most of the songs with independent lyricist Tony Asher rather than
writing with members of The Beach Boys or with writers he had collaborated with in the
past. Tony was an advertising-jingle lyricist, which made the collaboration even more
unusual. They worked for several months writing the songs. Brian wanted the lyrics to
reflect his feelings and state of mind at that time. He viewed the project as a labor of
love.
In place of The Beach Boys playing on the recording sessions, Brian hired Los Angeles
studio musicians.
Brian’s arrangements are orchestral, rather than the standard rhythm-section arrangements
of the past.
The vocal arrangements—their signature sound—remained consistent with their previous
work.

The Beach Boys charted a #5 hit in 1976 with a remake of the Chuck Berry hit “Rock ’n’ Roll
Music.” The Beatles were greatly influenced by Chuck Berry. It is interesting to observe that neither
group had an R&B musical flavor, although both groups had a love for the music.

Note: Ironically, the Pet Sounds album inspired The Beatles to write and create the album Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.
 Note: Brian stopped touring with the band in 1965, after suffering a nervous breakdown
(associated with his use of drugs—primarily LSD). He completely devoted himself to working in the
studio, which became his passion.

The Beach Boys and The Beatles: Production Elements

The album Pet Sounds, by The Beach Boys, was released in May 1966. The Beatles’ Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band was released in June 1967. Both albums are universally
considered to be two of the most celebrated pop albums ever recorded.
When listening to The Beatles’ Rubber Soul album, it is difficult to hear much of the
songwriting and production techniques used in Pet Sounds. It appears as though Brian Wilson
was attracted to Rubber Soul due to the quality of the songwriting and the pristine production.
Sgt. Pepper was never intended to be a concept album. Pet Sounds was intended to be a
concept album. Throughout the album, lyricist Tony Asher documented Brian Wilson’s most
inner feelings. (Asher did not write all of the lyrics for Pet Sounds.)

Author’s Opinion: The quality of the melodies that Brian Wilson wrote for Pet Sounds was a
major creative leap for him. Wilson’s goal of making a better album than The Beatles influenced
his melodic and production skills.

One of the main differences between The Beatles and The Beach Boys was that The Beatles’
recordings were more of a collaborative effort. Brian Wilson was clearly the driving creative
force behind The Beach Boys. The following are some similarities between the two albums:

The Beatles’ “You Won’t See Me” has background parts similar to those used by The
Beach Boys.
“God Only Knows,” on the Pet Sounds album, uses the signature quarter-note feel made
famous by Ringo Starr (drummer) and The Beatles.
The use of studio musicians was unusual for an established band. The Beach Boys did not
play on Pet Sounds. The Beatles did not play on some tracks on Sgt. Pepper, and several
tracks were greatly enhanced by studio musicians. Brian Wilson arranged Pet Sounds.
The Beatles arranged the rhythm tracks on Sgt. Pepper and producer George Martin
arranged the orchestral parts.
The sound effects used on Sgt. Pepper were clearly influenced by Pet Sounds.
 Author’s Opinion: It was the overall quality of The Beatles’ Rubber Soul that influenced Brain
Wilson. Wilson was not trying to imitate The Beatles but rather to attain the same artistic quality.

Pet Sounds—The Beach Boys: Production Elements

The Beatles’ Rubber Soul album was the inspiration for Pet Sounds, although the album is
more reminiscent of the productions of Phil Spector. The use of the “Wall of Sound’s”
overabundance of echo and heavy use of timpani were production watermarks of Spector’s.

Analysis
Pet Sounds reached the #10 position on the Billboard chart on July 2, 1966. On July 9,
1966, it attained the #2 position on the British chart.
Listen to the song being analyzed while reading the analysis. The following is an analysis of
some of the songs from Pet Sounds:
“Wouldn’t It Be Nice” reached # 8 on the Billboard chart on August 20, 1966. Brian said that
the lyric was about “the need to have the freedom to live with somebody.” (Brian guided
almost all of the lyrics on the album, but Tony Asher wrote the lyrics.) The production is
greatly influenced by Phil Spector’s “Wall of Sound” production technique.

The song starts with a short introduction featuring a harp surrounded by an excess of echo.
During the first verse, the lead vocal is doubled, and the keyboard part is played in the
triplet style of 1950s rock ’n’ roll.
The second verse continues with a lead vocal doubled, and the background vocals are
performed in the standard Beach Boys style.
The bridge reintroduces the harp from the introduction with the same ambient sound. The
section has a dreamlike quality.
The next section uses a Beatles’ technique; the tempo slows down. It is unexpected and
refreshing.
There is a smooth transition back into the original tempo. The fade-out does not have
lyrics but the signature Beach Boys nonlyrical vocal parts.

“God Only Knows” reached #39 on the Billboard chart on September 17, 1966. It achieved
the #2 position on the UK chart on July 28, 1966. The lyric speaks of the importance of a
lasting relationship. “God only knows what I would be without you” is the crux of the lyric.

This track is the closest comparison to a Beatles’ track. The introduction has the signature
Beatles rhythm pattern with an emphasis on each quarter-note. The track is the sparsest on
the album, which suggests a Beatles influence.
The French horn melody in the introduction is suggestive of tracks on the Sgt. Pepper
album.
The unusual percussion track, which remains throughout the first verse, is reminiscent of
 The Beatles’ “Looking through You,” on the Rubber Soul album.
A refreshing modulation creates a bridge leading into the second verse. The arrangement
remains basically the same as the one in the first verse.
An abrupt transition into a new section is reminiscent of The Beatles. The track remains
the same as the preceding verse, but the chorus vocals (without lyrics) become more
contrapuntal and interwoven.
A reprise of the second verse leads to a vocal round. The song fades out with a simple
snare drum pattern creating fills around the vocals.
The vocal arrangement remains purely in The Beach Boys’ style. The contrapuntal moving
parts and the jazz harmonies remain throughout. (Listen to “You Won’t See Me” on the
Rubber Soul album. The Beatles’ vocal parts were slightly influenced by The Beach
Boys.)

“Caroline, No” reached #32 on the Billboard chart on April 23, 1966. This was the only
record released from Pet Sounds under Brian Wilson’s and not The Beach Boys’ name.
Brian Wilson said that “Caroline No” is about growing up and the loss of innocence. Brian
considers this song one of his best and contains one of his most beautiful melodies. The melody
has interesting chord progressions and is well constructed. It sounds like a standard.
The instrumental arrangement remains consistent throughout the song. It is spiced with sparse
percussion fills. (There are no background vocals.)

The song opens with a short and unexpected percussive introduction. The drummer played
an empty water bottle to achieve a unique percussive effect.
The first verse features a doubled lead vocal singing against a mellow, pretty instrumental
track.
The second verse replicates the first verse.
The bridge has standard jazz-oriented chords that move smoothly into the third verse. The
instrumental background remains the same as the verses.
A short third verse is followed by an instrumental verse with the melody played by a
flute. The song fades out.

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band—The Beatles: Production Elements

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band was a musical fragmentation grenade, exploding with a force that is still being
felt . . . it changed the entire nature of the recording game for keeps.—George Martin

The masterful producer George Martin was The Beatles’ producer and helped to shape their
sound. Martin was the head of A&R for a small UK label called Parlophone, which is owned
by the conglomerate EMI. Parlophone’s biggest sellers were comedy albums, but Martin
wanted to expand into the rock market. Virtually every desirable label had turned down Brian
Epstein, the Beatles’ tenacious manager. Martin thought the original demos were horrible but
heard some potential. He auditioned the band in January of 1962. Under his guidance, they
recorded new demos in the famous Abbey Road Studios.
 The Beatles’ original songs were the primary reason for their unprecedented success.
Hailing from Liverpool, England, they began as a “copy band” (playing popular songs
recorded by other artists). They were untrained musicians who had a great love for American
rock ’n’ roll and played the music of American artists they admired. After weeding out several
members, the “Fab Four” that remained were John Lennon, Paul McCartney, George Harrison,
and Ringo Starr.
Subsequent to achieving local success, they lived and worked in Hamburg, Germany.
Between 1960 and 1962 they made 5 trips to Hamburg. Most evenings, they performed in a
nightclub playing between 5 and 8 hours a night. During this period, The Beatles developed a
sound. Their popularity grew throughout Europe, but it was not until 1964 that they toured
America. They agreed not to cross the ocean until they had a #1 hit in America—and that is
what they did. “I Want to Hold Your Hand” reached # 1 on the Billboard chart on January 25,
1964, and it reached #1 on the British chart on December 3, 1963.

The Abbey Road Studios became a landmark because of The Beatles’ album cover for the Abbey
Road album, which is a photograph of The Beatles crossing the street in front of the Abbey Road Studios.
There is a similar story about the signing of the group U2 to Island Records. Label owner Chris Blackwell
did not like them on first hearing. But he felt that they had something, so he signed them.

The Beatles achieved remarkable creative growth. They began as a cover band and in a
short time period wrote and recorded some of the greatest records in the history of popular
music.

Author’s Note: The Beatles’ development, beginning with recordings such as “Love Me Do”
(1962) to the concept album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (1967), is a remarkable
achievement in a relatively short period of time. A great deal of their success is due to “the fifth
Beatle,” producer George Martin. His guidance, both in the studio as a record producer and as
a record executive, made him the 5th Beatle.
The Beatles’ unparalleled success, both commercially and artistically could not be predicted.
Viewing old film and video clips at the beginning of the band’s public exposure merely shows an
energetic young group of musicians who obviously had commercial appeal. Their artistic values
matured, and The Beatles matured. Exploring new musical options was a modus operandi for
the group. Creative curiosity and extraordinary songwriting—encouraged and nurtured by
George Martin—are the primary reasons for the extraordinary artistic and commercial success
they achieved. The audience tires of artists who do not continue to grow artistically. Many artists
in popular music have short careers because they become artistically stagnant.
Artistic growth is necessary in all forms of creative endeavors. Most painters are judged by
various artistic “creative periods” (e.g., Picasso). The same is true for writers, (e.g.,
Hemingway), composers (e.g., Mozart), and playwrights (e.g., Shakespeare).
 From the simple production of their first hit single “Love Me Do” (released in the UK on
October 5, 1962, and in the United States on April 27, 1964) to the much more sophisticated
music contained in the album Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band, the development of
innovative production techniques and the unusual pop/rock arrangements helped keep the sound
of The Beatles fresh to the public. Martin and the group continually experimented with unusual
sounds and developed some production techniques that are still used today, such as flanging.
Flanging (which creates almost a doubling effect) came about because John Lennon did not
want to double his vocals.
Pet Sounds, by The Beach Boys (released on May 16, 1966, on Capitol Records), was the
benchmark for The Beatles; Pet Sounds was Paul McCartney’s favorite album. The Beatles
were striving to reach that level of production. They were also greatly influenced by 1950s
rock ’n’ roll and the Motown sound of the 1960s.

Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band (Released in 1967)

We don’t like their sound, and guitar music is on the way out.—Decca Recording Company rejecting The Beatles, 1962

Many music fans and critics consider Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band to be the
greatest pop album ever recorded. The album was not designed to be a concept album, even
though one song leads directly into the next without a pause, lending the work a cohesive
quality.
The Beatles had a sharp wit (as a group and as individuals) and they enjoyed having fun.
Their sense of humor is revealed in the lyrics and orchestrations. The full band did not perform
on each song; instead, a variety of arrangements and styles were used on many of the songs.
Sgt. Pepper contains backing tracks with instrumentation as diverse as a string quartet, Indian
instrumentation, and a brass band. That a rock band would take the musical chance of
developing highly uncharacteristic, nonpop arrangements and orchestrations made The Beatles
unique. In a musical climate made up of clones, no other band or solo artist sounded like The
Beatles. Why did such an eclectic album hold together as a concept album and why is the
album considered a landmark? Several observations follow:

Brian Wilson said, “In December of 1966, I heard the album Rubber Soul by The Beatles. It was
definitely a challenge for me. I saw that every cut was very artistically interesting and stimulating. I
immediately went to work on the songs for Pet Sounds.”

First and foremost, the superb quality of the songs. The nonrestrictive approach in the
 songwriting created highly innovative work. Their audience can either relate to the
proprietary lyrics in a subjective manner or be curious enough to try to decipher the
metaphors. Some of the songs leave interpretation to the listener.
The Beatles progressed with each album, in both songwriting and production concepts.
They were interested in the recording process, and along with producer George Martin
and engineer Geoff Emerick, they continually experimented.

The following is a comment by Geoff Emerick from the liner notes on the digitally remastered
version of the album:
The Beatles insisted that everything on Sgt. Pepper had to be different . . . so everything was distorted, limited, heavily
compressed or treated with excessive equalization . . . we plastered vast amounts of echo onto vocals and sent them
through the circuitry of the revolving Leslie speaker inside a Hammond organ. We used giant primitive oscillators to vary
the speed of instruments and vocals and we had tapes chopped to pieces and stuck together upside down and the wrong
way around.

Author’s Note: With digital technology and hard-disk recording and editing, the process Emerick
describes could have been accomplished in a comparatively short time. Contemporary
technology also enables an engineer and a producer to perform infinite edits without any loss of
audio quality. The technical experimentation used on Sgt. Pepper was an unprecedented
accomplishment at the time, and the quality of the production has continued to set an example
for technical creativity.

The Beatles achieved creative individuality. The album set a new production standard.

Author’s Note: The album was so influential that The Rolling Stones recorded an album called
Their Satanic Majesties Request, which was released in 1967. They were trying to record a
landmark album; the album cover overtly resembled The Beatles’ cover of Sgt. Pepper. Even
though the album became an artistic success (there were many bad reviews), the audience did
not accept The Stones’ departure from their traditional R&B and blues-based music. Following
this album, The Stones returned to the original musical roots that brought them success.

The Sgt. Pepper arrangements are innovative. Each part fits the sonic puzzle; there is no
clutter. The arrangements encompass the lyrics, which is the mark of fine arrangements.

Analysis
Try listening to the album—with earphones—while reading the following analysis. It is not
my intention to analyze the songs from a traditional musical perspective but rather to emphasize
the production elements that contributed to making this album a benchmark in popular-music
production. It is essential to understand how the record was built. All producers are not
arrangers but they must understand the arranging process. One of the primary functions of a
producer is to guide the arranger or artist. Without this understanding one cannot produce
music.
“Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band.” The lyric sets up the album by introducing Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band to the listener. “Sit back and let the evening go” is the lyric
that informs the listeners what they are going to experience.

It took 700 hours to complete the album.

The opening track sets up the premise of the album. Crowd sound effects and marching-
band brass parts are mixed with a rock rhythm section.
The introduction contains a distorted lead guitar playing a melody, which leads into the
first verse.
The lead vocal is almost screamed, heavily processed, and low in the mix.
As the brass “circus” band enters, a crowd is heard cheering. The band is playing a
melodic line set in a circus-band arrangement. There are no drums; the bass is used to
anchor the track.
The chorus follows with the lyric, “We’re Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band,” sung
in harmony. The band track contains distorted rhythm and lead guitar, and the arrangement
switches from a circus to a rock arrangement. Only one horn phrase is performed.
The bridge contains a rock rhythm section and held sustained chords in the brass.
The crowd reenters, and Paul McCartney’s high-energy vocal carries the second verse.
This is followed by what is expected to be a reprise of the brass-band section, but instead
it segues into the next song, “With a Little Help from My Friends.”
“With a Little Help from My Friends”

The song is about relationships and love. Note: The song was originally going to be entitled
“Badfinger Boogie.” Ringo sings the lead vocal.

The production has a very simple rhythm section arrangement, with the addition of a
shaker part.
The track has a strong backbeat. The rhythm section (including a piano part played by
Paul) emphasizes the quarter note, which supports the signature quarter-note rhythm feel
made popular by Ringo.
The bass has a clear sound and plays an interesting and simplistic part. The fills and the
rhythms work well within the framework of the arrangement.
 Note: Allegedly, the real Sgt. Pepper was a Canadian police officer who met The Beatles while
they were touring Canada in 1965.

Paul had a knack for playing simple but interesting bass parts. Having been primarily a guitar player, his unique
style of bass playing probably developed from a guitarist’s perspective, making his bass parts unique.
One of the reasons this song works well within a simple framework is that the song itself is well defined. That
is not unusual. One of the tests of a well-written song is to sing it, or play it, using either a piano or a guitar; a
well-constructed song will still sound great without a band arrangement.

Note: Near the end of the song the lyric says, “so let me introduce to you the one and only Billy
Spears, “who is going to sing a song.” It is a mystery whether the Billy Spears character is supposed to
be Ringo, who sings the lead vocal on “With a Little Help from My Friends.”

A segue from “Sgt. Pepper” into “With a Little Help from My Friends” replaces what
would traditionally have been a standard introduction. (Ringo, although not a singer, has a
believable quality.)
The rhythmic feel of the chorus is the same as that of the verse, but with the addition of a
tambourine.
Background vocals enter near the end of the chorus.
Following the backgrounds is a “tasty” electric-guitar fill.
The addition of alternate background vocals adds variety to the second verse.
Background vocals, in harmony, are added to the second chorus.
The bridge continues with the same format as the second chorus.
The third verse begins with the backgrounds singing in harmony, answered by the lead
vocal (antiphonal singing prevails throughout the song).
The third and second choruses are basically the same.
The second bridge contains the backgrounds singing in harmony, answered by the lead
vocal.
The last chorus follows basically the same format as the previous choruses.
The song ends with a short coda and a held chord.
“Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.” It would be logical to think that the lyric was inspired by
The Beatles’ well-publicized use of psychedelic drugs. Maybe some of the images were
inspired by John Lennon’s use of LSD, but the following are direct quotes from Lennon.
”My son came in one day with a picture he painted about a school friend of his named Lucy. He had sketched in some
stars in the sky and called it Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.
The images of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds” were from Alice in Wonderland. It was Alice in the boat. She is
buying an egg, and it turns into Humpty Dumpty. The woman serving in the shop turns into a sheep, and the next minute
they are rowing in a rowing boat somewhere, and I was visualizing that. “Picture yourself in a boat on a river with
tangerine trees and marmalade skies.” There was also the image of the female who would someday come save me—“a
girl with kaleidoscope eyes” who would come out of the sky. It turned out to be Yoko, though I hadn’t met Yoko yet. So
maybe it should be “Yoko in the Sky with Diamonds.” [Note: Lewis Carroll, author of Alice in Wonderland, is one of the
people depicted in the famous collage used on the cover of Sgt. Pepper.]

“Lucy In the Sky with Diamonds” is in 3/4 time for the verses and goes into 4/4 time for
the choruses. This alternation of meter was unusual for a rock song.
The introduction begins with a distant and processed (effects) harpsichord sound, which
continues throughout the first verse.
There is a solo lead vocal with no reverberation.
A bass is the only other prominent instrument playing.
Near the end of the section, effects are gradually added and the vocal is doubled. This
section serves as a transition into the prechorus.
When the lyric says “cellophane flowers of yellow and green,” the entire ambience of the
track changes. This section (prechorus) contains numerous effects, which creates a
musical dreamlike state. The vocal melody is doubled with a processed electric guitar.
A short, simple drum fill is used as a transition to the chorus, “Lucy in the Sky with
Diamonds,” which is in 4/4 time. The guitar has been routed through a Leslie speaker,
which is normally used only with a Hammond organ.
The second verse returns to 3/4 time. The harpsichordlike obbligato plays behind the solo
lead vocal, which is doubled on the last line. There are no drums—only a simple bass
part.
The second prechorus is similar in effects and style to the first prechorus.
The second chorus is similar to the first chorus (4/4 time).
The third verse is similar to the first two verses (3/4 time).
The third chorus, which keeps repeating to create a fade-out, sounds basically the same as
the other choruses, with the addition of drum and guitar fills (4/4 time). The guitar
answers following the word “diamonds,” becomes a musical hook.

“Getting Better.” The song is about the positive effect love has when helping to combat
anger.

Extraordinary production skills are displayed. The quarter-note-accented guitar pattern—

mirrored in the drum pattern—is similar to “With a Little Help from My Friends.”
The 4 bar introduction is unusual.
 The first verse is 8 bars and sounds as if it should continue into a prechorus, but instead
moves directly into the chorus.
During the chorus, the quarter-note rhythm groove continues, and the background vocals
answer the lead vocal, which sounds doubled.
The second verse is similar to the first with the addition of claps on the backbeat. The
lead vocal is sung in thirds.
The second chorus is similar to the first chorus.
A catchy vocal interlude leads into a new section.
The C-section (new section) is defined by a radical change. A sitar, the Indian guitarlike
instrument, enters. Additional percussion is added by including Indian tabla drums and
finger snaps.
The chorus returns and retains a processed sitar and tabla drums.
During the end chorus, the bass changes to a reprise of a rhythmically free-sounding part
introduced earlier.
An unusual fade-out follows, with a highly processed sitar, guitar line, or a tabla drum
beat (because of the signal processing it is difficult to decipher the instruments).

This section alone was a remarkable technical achievement, considering the limitations of a
four-track tape recorder and the limited effects available then compared to today’s technology. With
modern recording technology, these effects could be duplicated in a fraction of the time.

“Fixing a Hole.” The lyric is self-analytical and leaves interpretation to the listener.

Note: Allegedly, the song is about drugs. Another theory is that the images emanate from an old house that
Paul bought in Scotland. Some people think that the deeper meaning had to do with heroin addiction. Here is
Paul McCartney’s response:
”If you’re a junkie sitting in a room and fixing a hole then that’s what it’ll mean to you, but when I wrote it, I
meant if there’s a crack, or the room is uncolourful, then I’ll paint it.”

The introduction features a harpsichord. The tempo of this short intro is faster than the
first verse. A new hi-hat pattern introduces the first verse, playing a simple swing pattern.
 Note: Paul used the phrase “it’s getting better” to a reporter while talking about the weather.
This triggered the idea for the lyric.

The first verse establishes the tempo for the remainder of the song.
Electric-guitar fills tastefully interrupt the basic acoustic-guitar rhythm pattern.
The bass plays a simple pattern.
The solo lead vocal is doubled with the line “where it will go,” which refers to
character’s mind. A smooth reverberation is set behind the voice.
An effective use of silence introduces the beginning of the chorus.
The basic rhythm and acoustic-guitar pattern continues until another surprise—the electric
guitar plays an old 1950s rock ’n’ roll riff.
The lead vocal is doubled.
The third verse is similar to the first verse.
The same electric-guitar fill enters, but with the addition of the lead vocal singing on top
of the line.
A solo guitar enters.

There is an effect on the ride cymbal, which plays only on the upbeat of the third beat for the
first half of the first verse. The influence of The Beach Boys is heard in the background vocal.

The backing track in the second chorus is basically the same as the one in the first chorus.
To help build the production, vowel sounds are sung by the background vocals. The
backing track basically mimics the first chorus.
The fourth verse contains the continuation of the “oos” sung by the background vocals
during the preceding chorus.
A melodic variation in the last chorus is followed by a quick fade.

“She’s Leaving Home.” The lyric tells the story of a daughter leaving home after being lonely
for many years, and the guilt and hurt felt by her parents.

Note: The content of the song comes from a newspaper article read by Paul.
 “That was a Daily Mirror story again: this girl left home and her father said, ‘We gave her everything, I
don’t know why she left home.’”—Paul McCartney
This song runs almost 1 minute longer than the previous songs. Most pop records during that time period had
an average length of 2½ minutes; the shorter length accommodated radio station formats.

The hi-hat rhythm pattern is an updated old jazz, swing rhythm. The rhythm eventually goes
into the quarter-note feel heard on some of the songs already mentioned.

“She’s Leaving Home” begins with a 2-bar introduction, featuring a harp with a slight
delay. The harp part is notated with a traditional Beatles’ quarter-note-accented rhythm
pattern, also heard in “Getting Better” and “With a Little Help from My Friends.”
The song is performed in 3/4 time, similar to parts of “Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds.”
The first verse begins by telling a sad story, which is depicted musically with a poignant
sounding background track, containing only a harp with the addition of a melodic cello
line and a high, simple solo violin part.
A staccato violin chord, containing three quarter notes, provides an abrupt transition.
High, doubled falsetto background vocals enter in the chorus. The background vocals
represent the sad thoughts of subject’s parents.
The second verse continues with the same instrumentation as the chorus. As the verse
progresses, the strings play a more complex part, which complements the lyric.
The second chorus is similar in feel to the first chorus, but with the addition of several
background parts.
The third verse and the following chorus provide a development in all sections of the
arrangement, by adding additional strings and vocal patterns.
The song ends with a coda.

The song is yet another example of a basically simple arrangement that completely envelops
the lyric, as well as the delicate vocal performance by John Lennon.
“Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite.” In keeping with the music-hall ambience of most of the
album, “Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite” is a look into the circus world. Whether the lyric is
a metaphor is difficult to determine.

The short introduction sets up a circus atmosphere. An accordion is the dominant

instrument.
The first verse begins with an accordion background; the open-close hi-hat cymbal is
 playing on the second and fourth beats, and a simple but “tasty” bass part adds rhythm.
The drums switch into a tom-tom rhythm pattern.
A short, calliope-oriented, electronically processed, circuslike section transitions into the
second verse.
The arrangement of the second verse is the same as verse one.
Vocal harmonies lead into the next surreal, calliope-style section, which is in 3/4 time. It
is much longer than the first section, yet similar in style and sound, and contains many
interesting effects. Various instruments are processed through a Leslie speaker.
An abrupt transition catapults us into the third verse, where the time signature returns to
4/4.
The third verse is once again followed by a surreal, calliope-style interlude, filled with a
cacophony of circus-music references; the verse melody continues instrumentally
throughout this section.
At the very end, the circus music briefly continues at an increased tempo, and the song
abruptly ends.

“Within You Without You.” This is the only song on the album written by George Harrison. It
is a landmark in popular music because the backing track, performed by Indian musicians,
continued to promote world music to the popular-music audience.

World music—in today’s vernacular—refers to elements of folk music from various countries, mixed with
contemporary music. This can be a mixture of pop, jazz, or other musical genres. (Billboard Magazine
publishes a world music chart.)
Note: The song is about meditation. The lyric is basically saying that the world would be a better place
without self-indulgence.
Harrison wrote the Indian-based song “Love You To” for the Revolver album (1966). The level of playing was
far below “Within You Without You.” “Tomorrow Never Knows” (Lennon/McCartney), also from the Revolver
album, has a hybrid of Indian and Western instruments in a pop-music setting.

“When I’m Sixty-Four” is an unconventional pop song. The lyric is whimsical and deals with
aging. The subject is unexpected since The Beatles were a young band.

The simple orchestration is performed by two clarinets—including the low bass clarinet
—an oompah bass part (circus), a processed piano (e.g., honky-tonk piano), a two-beat
drum part, “oos” in the background vocals, short chime passages, and several guitar parts.
The first verse is very simple. Clarinets outline the chord structure; bass and drums play
on the second and fourth beats; the drummer plays with brushes instead of sticks. The song
has an almost vaudevillian flavor.
 Note: Most of the lyric was taken from an 1843 circus poster.

A 4-bar introduction leads to the bridge. The bridge introduces the backgrounds singing
vowels and has a processed piano part. Chimes enter near the end of the section.
A brief interlude introduces the second chorus.
The beginning of the second verse is the same as the first verse. In the second section, the
“piano-like” sound enters for several bars.
The second bridge does not have an introduction, as does the first bridge. The addition of
a filtered background part makes this bridge different from the first one. The chimes
reenter near the end of the section; the character names his grandchildren, creating a
humorous ending.
The third verse is richer than the previous verses, by the addition of a country-flavored
guitar part. A clarinet plays harmony with the lead vocal.
The ending is a reprise of the clarinet melody used in the introduction.

“Lovely Rita” is a meter maid who awards parking tickets. The Beatles continue with
whimsical fun.

The introduction consists of a standard 4-bar instrumental, enhanced with a simple,

doubled background part, sung without words.
The band consists of a guitar with a chorus-type effect, a lead guitar, a piano (mostly
honky-tonk style), bass, and drums.
Following the introduction is a harmonized first chorus rather than the traditional first
verse.
The first verse, sung with a tongue-in-cheek attitude, has a doubled effect, which creates a
slight delay. The bass is playing a stilted, quarter-note feel.
The acoustic guitar plays a standard rhythm pattern.
An electric guitar, with a playful effect, sounds almost like a pedal steel guitar.
Vocal percussion enters near the end of the verse. After the lyric, “military man,” there is
a cartoonish, kazoo-type effect.
The second verse, which contains just a portion of the first verse format, is enhanced by
background vocals. This is followed by a completely different section of harmony vocals.
This section leads into a honky-tonk piano solo.
The second half of the verse format follows. This leads back into a harmonized chorus
and lead vocal ad-libs.
A new, bizarre section follows the chorus. It consists of playful and percussive vocal
effects, and a piano part consisting of a harmonic pattern not before heard.
 The song abruptly ends.

Note: Paul said he wrote the melody when he was 15 years old. This was the first song
recorded for the album.

“Good Morning, Good Morning.” Continuing with the overall lighthearted ambience of the
album, “Good Morning, Good Morning,” is sprinkled with animal sounds. (This is clearly a
reference to The Beach Boys’ Pet Sounds album.)
The song is about a typical day in an apparently just “okay” life.

The first sound is that of a rooster, which represents reveille, the traditional army bugle
call to wake up.
The introduction consists of a distorted rhythmic guitar, processed background vocals
singing “good morning, good morning,” and a disjointed, almost disoriented-sounding
rhythm pattern.
The first verse has an unusual meter: 2 bars of 3/4 time followed by a 4/4 measure.
Variations of this quirky and jarring meter pattern continue.
The distorted rhythm guitar continues but is periodically interrupted by a distorted lead-
guitar line.
Once again, the background vocals sing “good morning, good morning, good morning,” as
a transition to the second verse.
The shortened second verse continues with the meter changes.
The distorted rhythm guitar plays sustained chords, which complement the lead guitar
lines.
This leads to a rock ’n’ roll section highlighted with a typical 1950s guitar and bass
octave signature line. (Baritone saxophone, guitar, and bass parts in many ’50s records
typically played this pattern.)
An abrupt drum fill is used as a transition to the third verse.
The third verse is basically the same as verse one.
A raw, distorted guitar solo follows.
The next section is a repeat of the rock section but with the addition of lead guitar fills.
The fourth verse closely follows verse one.
The opening rooster sound effect begins the outro (ending).
The song fades out.
 Note: Allegedly, Paul read an article about American parking meter maids.

“Sgt. Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band” (Reprise). The first time we hear this song (at the
beginning of the album), the lyric introduces the band to the audience; during the reprise, the
band thanks the audience for attending.

The reprise starts with a voice counting off the song, crowd noise, and a faster tempo than
the opening. The arrangement has a completely different feel and song format from the
first “Sgt. Pepper” track; it is rockier and contains an active lead-guitar part.
The first vocal entrance is during the chorus, and the vocals are sung in harmony. The
chorus modulates.
The song segues into “A Day In The Life.”

“A Day in the Life.” The lyric to “A Day in the Life” is a combination of 2 separate songs.
John wrote one song, and Paul wrote the other. Paul’s song refers to his school days, and
John’s song refers to the film How I Won the War. Included in the lyric are references to other
events, which are represented in a fictional account.

The introduction starts with an acoustic guitar, piano, and bass.

During the first verse John’s voice is processed with reverberation and delay. A shaker is
the only percussion instrument, and the piano and acoustic-guitar parts continue playing.
The second verse continues with the shaker keeping the rhythm anchored, and drum fills,
which emphasize significant lyrics. The drums morph into a regular rhythm part.
The third verse continues with the same feel and instrumentation as the first verse, with
the addition of a full drum set playing with the shaker. Strategic drum fills continue.
The next section is a completely bizarre grouping of tape loops and effects, containing
everything but the kitchen sink. The main effect sounds as if a spacecraft is taking off.
The next section is the second of the two songs that have been combined to make “A Day
in the Life.” The band begins by playing all quarter notes, relieved by a syncopated
melody line. The rhythm feel is—once again—that of a vaudeville or English music-hall
song.

Note: John got the idea from a Kellogg’s Cereal commercial. The Beach Boys’ Pet Sounds
album probably inspired the animal sounds.
 After Paul sings the lyric “I went into a dream,” the background vocals answer with a
highly processed dreamlike vocal line without words.
The orchestration expands during the end of the dream sequence; strings and brass are
added.
The strings and horns drop out. The fourth verse melody is the same as the first verse, but
the mood of the track remains the same as that of the previous section; the track does not
return to the original rhythmic feel. The drum fills continue to emphasize important lyrics.
The song proceeds to restate the space launch, by using the same basic effects.
The section ends with a high orchestra octave hit (a powerful orchestral sound) followed
by a processed piano chord with an endless echo delay.

Author’s Opinion: Since most of The Beatles’ early influences were African-American artists,
such as Chuck Berry, Fats Domino, and Little Richard (John Lennon’s earliest influence was
Elvis Presley, who was influenced by black gospel music), it is puzzling that The Beatles’
rhythmic feel was anything but loose and funky. Ringo’s basic drumming style, plus the raw,
untrained guitar playing (during the formation of the band) became a magical hybrid that
probably developed accidentally. There were endless hours playing in clubs, which helped to
form the sound of The Beatles. The “Liverpudlian” accents, of course, became a trademark.
The brotherhood that developed between the Fab Four greatly contributed to their artistic and
commercial success. They became one artistic entity—the sum of all parts equaled the whole.
With the influence of George Martin (the 5th Beatle) a completely unique sound was born. The
future of pop music was born with the unprecedented artistic growth of The Beatles.

Extra
The following is an analysis of some of The Beatles’ greatest hits:

Note: This is the only song on the album that does not have a lead vocal; the vocals are in harmony
and sung by a group.

“I Want to Hold Your Hand,” recorded in October of 1963, was The Beatles’ first song
recorded on a 4 track tape recorder. George Martin bounced tracks together to make room for
additional overdubbing and experimentation.
“Eight Days a Week,” recorded in 1964, is reminiscent of the vocal styling of the Everly
Brothers, and retained a somewhat rockabilly sound. The hand clapping is directly related to
the hand-clapping rhythms used in the records of the 1950s. (The hand clapping was taken from
black gospel music.) The bass pattern, derived from early rock ’n’ roll, differed from most
early rock ’n’ roll only because it was played on an electric bass. (The electric bass was
invented in 1951 but was not popular in the earliest rock ’n’ roll records.)
Ringo’s drum playing was unique. He created a rhythm pattern and style that has been
emulated on countless recordings.
“Yesterday,” recorded in June of 1965, was recorded with acoustic guitar and a string quartet.
The instrumentation was highly unusual for a rock group.
“Let It Be,” recorded in 1969, had a church-music quality to the production.

It begins with a tamed gospel style piano part and a solo voice. (The piano continues to
set the church ambience throughout the production.)
High, “angel-like” vocals enter with the chorus.
A subdued bass and sparse drum part (playing a backbeat) enter as part of a buildup.
The next chorus contains the “angel-like” background vocals in addition to a more
pronounced bass and drum part. An organ pad is added to define the church image.
An unusual rock-style electric guitar solo enters. The sound of the guitar is an excellent
example of the painstaking attention both George Martin and The Beatles paid to
experimentation. They were always striving to be fresh when approaching each song.
The ride cymbal is used in place of the expected hi-hat. This becomes the height of the
song rhythmically.
The next verse is more subdued but builds in the next chorus, with the drummer once
again playing the ride cymbal.
The ending is composed of a riff-style figure. All musicians played the same rhythm
pattern.

“Come Together,” recorded in July of 1969, was released in the UK on October 31, 1969,
and also released in the United States on October 6, 1969, and was an innovative production.

The vocals are mixed relatively low in the track, and contain a slight delay.
A vocal percussion part, composed only of a shush sound, adds a unique quality.
Unusual percussive parts are added, including a distinctive and unexpected muted tom-
tom sound.

The arrangement is divided into numerous sections, each with a unique quality:

Throughout the song, the drums are interrupted with a repeat of the opening riff, which
creates the signature sound of the production.
A distorted guitar plays the same rhythm pattern as the bass.
 An electric piano part enters in the middle of the song, playing with an almost pedal
steel–sounding guitar solo.
A second, simple guitar solo has a lonely sound and is surrounded by a rhythmic pattern
played by the electric piano, bass, and a new rhythm guitar part. The guitar melody line,
also a signature sound, continues throughout the fade-out.

What is remarkable about these recordings is that it is difficult to discern any loss of audio
quality, which is a problem when combining and bouncing tracks on analog tape. When listening to the
remastered tracks, which have been cleaned up in the digital format, it sounds as if they were recently
recorded.

Extra
Excerpts from the following article written by David Dermon III should be of interest to any
student fascinated by the music business. The story of The Beatles’ breakthrough in the United
States is not unusual. (Vee-Jay Records was a successful independent label based in Chicago.)
EMI, the British record company with ties to the U.S. Capitol label, approached Vee-Jay in Summer 1962, after Capitol
had used their right of first refusal to turn down a couple of artists EMI had offered. The Beatles at that time had yet to
record “Love Me Do,” which was their first real British hit, and the decision to pass them up was made on the strength of
several German recordings with Tony Sheridan, and a few items like “Ain’t She Sweet” and “My Bonnie.”
According to Calvin Carter (vice president of A&R and publishing), “At the time, we were pretty hot. We had the Four
Seasons and we got a lot of airplay. There was a number one record over in England at the time, and our lawyer, who
represented us in other countries, was Paul Marshall. Trans-Global (an EMI affiliate), a company over there had a
number one record and they asked us if we wanted it, and of course we wanted it. It was ‘I Remember You’ by Frank
Ifield. We took the record, and as a throw-in, they had a group and asked us if we would take them, too. The group turned
out to be The Beatles, and we got a five-year contract on The Beatles as a pickup on the Frank Ifield contract.”

Ringo did not play on all of The Beatles’ records. This was not divulged for many years. My
colleague Bernard Purdy played drums on several of the hits.

“She’s Leaving Home,” recorded on March 31, 1967, was recorded using only a string quartet and
 vocals.

The Rolling Stones

The members of The Rolling Stones are Mick Jagger (rhythm guitar, harmonica, and
percussion), Keith Richards (lead and rhythm guitar, background vocals, and infrequent lead
vocals), Charlie Watts (drums and percussion), and Ron Wood (guitar and background vocals).
Former members were Bill Wyman (bass), Brian Jones (guitar), and Mick Taylor (guitar).
Their first recording contract was with Decca Records (UK) in 1963. They are essentially a
blues band heavily influenced by American blues singers like Muddy Waters, 1950s rock ’n’
roll, and American country music. The blues influence can be heard in tracks such as “Honky
Tonk Women,” and the country influence can be heard in “Wild Horses” and “It’s All Over
Now.” Mick Jagger summed up the sound of The Stones in a song—“It’s Only Rock & Roll.”
Their musical style went through periodic transformations. The Rolling Stones released
“Ruby Tuesday” in 1967, the same year The Beatles released the Sgt. Pepper album. “Ruby
Tuesday” sounds heavily influenced by The Beatles. The album, Their Satanic Majesties
Request, was a blatant attempt to compete with The Beatles’ seminal recording of Sgt. Pepper.
Even with forays into other styles of music, The Rolling Stones have always returned to their
roots—and what the audience wants to hear—blues-influenced rock ’n’ roll. Their first hit in
the United States, “Tell Me (You’re Coming Back),” reached number 24 on August 1, 1964, on
the Billboard pop chart.
Their first #1 hit in the United States (Billboard chart) was “(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction.”
It hit the chart on June 19, 1965.

The Rolling Stones: Production Elements

Blues-oriented chord progressions.

Distinctive guitar riffs set the harmonic structure and the groove for an entire song, as in
“(I Can’t Get No) Satisfaction.” Keith Richards—lead guitar player and cowriter (with
Mick Jagger) of most of the songs—has a unique guitar style. He plays catchy riffs
combined with tasty blues-related fills. His rhythmic playing complements Jagger’s
vocals.
Jagger sings in a raw blues style. He also plays blues harmonica with the feel of a
traditional blues musician.
Jagger, who is more a stylist than a singer, has the one characteristic that cannot be taught
—charisma. He sings with an honesty that is conveyed to the audience on recordings as
well as during live performance. His superb stage presence is one of the key reasons for
The Stones’ longevity. They created an image, which is portrayed on records and seen
during concerts.
Although their recordings have a live feel, some of the guitar parts are processed with
additional reverberation, which is reminiscent of the sound of early rock ’n’ roll.
 The audience relates to most of The Stones’ lyrics. Many are clever, and the imagery is
unusual.
A number of songs are augmented with horn arrangements. (Horn sections are typical of
1960s R&B records.)
Blues and early rock-oriented piano parts are featured on many of the songs.
Some tracks have additional background vocals, performed by studio singers.
Throughout the Stones’ long career, the one element that has remained constant is the raw
quality of their music. The “rawness” is captured on the studio recordings, as well as
heard during their concert performances.
Most of the vocals are mixed at a low level.
The audience has witnessed an eclectic array of song styles, but The Rolling Stones have
always remained “true to their roots,” performing songs as diverse as “Jumpin’ Jack
Flash” and “Symphony for the Devil.”
The drum patterns are simple and strong and create solid grooves. This simplicity is the
rhythmic foundation for each song.

Author’s Note: Drummer Charlie Watts is an example of an accomplished musician who never
loses the basic groove of a song. Often, drummers with superior technique want to display their
“chops” (technique). This quite often disrupts a groove. Simplicity creates grooves in pop
music, and The Rolling Stones are a groove-oriented band.

When producing a group whose recorded presence should replicate a live performance, the
producer must be concerned with maintaining the essence of the artist. The studio offers many
opportunities to enhance recordings—to a point of destruction. (This refers to “sanitizing” the
feel by trying to attain perfection.) For some bands, such as Steely Dan, perfection works and
in fact has been a studio trademark. That style of production would not work for The Rolling
Stones. Their signature sound is raw and bluesy, and the music is also based on retaining a
“garage feel.”
The Rolling Stones have become the most successful rock band in history. They perform to
sold-out concerts throughout the world.

Bob Dylan
Many consider Bob Dylan the poet laureate of rock ’n’ roll. He started as a folk singer and
progressed into his own niche within the broader concept of rock. Dylan eventually used
electric guitars and performed and recorded with rock-oriented musicians, but his style
remained rooted in folk music.
Dylan has been a major influence for some of the premier artists in the music business, such
as The Beatles and Eric Clapton. His innovative lyrics are thought provoking and original. His
state-of-consciousness melodies sometimes seem to ramble, but with time and attention the
audience is drawn into the messages and the songs begin to flow.
 “Come On” was the first hit in the UK. It reached #21 on July 25, 1963.

“It’s All Over Now” was their first #1 hit in the UK. It reached #1 on July 2, 1964.

Dylan’s limited vocal ability does not hinder his power to communicate. The production
values of his recordings are minimal because the focus of the recordings is not technological
but performance based. The surrounding elements of a Dylan performance are merely that—
surrounding. His longevity is due to the substance of his songs. Some of the lyrics are difficult
to analyze, but there is something intriguing that makes the listener want to understand his
intentions. This mystery also adds to Dylan’s appeal and his unique persona.

Analyze Dylan’s work and other stylists. Why are they popular? In Dylan’s case, it is more obvious than with
other artists. It is also interesting to observe the audience’s reaction to artists who are not musically proficient
but who possess a raw artistic demeanor. In my view individuality is attractive to the audience. There is an
audience for Bob Dylan and Bruce Springsteen, and there is also an audience for Take 5 and Barbra
Streisand. Dylan and Springsteen sing from the gut, while Take 5 and Streisand are not only technically
proficient but concerned with immaculate production values as well. An audience exists for both types of
performers.

Many bands, known as consummate performers, cannot capture the same performance energy in
the studio. The Stones have been able to transfer a live feel to their recordings.
 Billy Preston played on some of the recordings. He also played on some of The Beatles’ records,
including “Let It Be.”

Horns, piano, and background vocalists augment the band during live performances. They also
perform with a bass player, who is not a member of the group.

In the 1960s and 1970s this style of production was heard on most rock ’n’ roll records.

Dylan’s move into electric music was not unusual. As a youngster, he was influenced by rock
’n’ roll acts. His thought-provoking lyrics and vocal style fit perfectly into the folk movement
of the 1960s, but as the folk movement dwindled, he had to change in order to survive in a
business that continually evolves. He did not change his music; he altered the manner in which
his music was presented. Incorporating electric instruments in the folk genre, which was
rejected by most traditional folk artists, changed the manner in which alternative rock ’n’ roll
was presented. Dylan started a new form of rock—folk rock.
Some of Dylan’s lyrics are accessible and straightforward, while others have hidden
significance. Understanding the meaning of each song is essential for a producer/arranger
because the lyric must be accompanied with the appropriate arrangement and production
techniques.
A music production is a creative venture that contributes to the audience’s perception of a
song. A mood must be created for each song/instrumental, and an overall vibe is fundamental
when trying to create a cohesive album.
Many artists have recorded Dylan’s songs:
“The Times They Are A-Changing” (1963). The lyric speaks about the need to change with
the times. People who do not understand change and the need for change become stagnant.
Ignoring change is impossible. “The Times They Are A-Changing” is a protest song.
“Blowin’ in the Wind” was recorded by Peter, Paul, & Mary. It reached #2 on the Billboard
chart on July 13, 1965. Stevie Wonder reached #9 on the same chart on July 30, 1966.
The lyric speaks of unconscionable sociological issues and deals with Dylan’s frustration
with bigotry and a lack of social consciousness. Dylan says that the answer (to these problems)
is “blowin’ in the wind.” This song became associated with the civil rights movement.
“Like a Rolling Stone” was a hit for Dylan. It reached #2 on the Billboard pop chart on
August 14, 1965. The lyric warns that anyone can fall from his or her position in life. Life is
fragile, so do not look down on less fortunate people.
“Mr. Tambourine Man” was a hit for the British group The Byrds. It reached #1 on the
Billboard chart on June 5, 1965. Allegedly, this is a drug song. Mr. Tambourine Man is a drug
dealer, and the images are psychedelic in nature. Dylan denied this allegation. Other analyses
claim that Mr. Tambourine Man is the drug itself.
“Lay, Lady, Lay” reached #7 on the Billboard pop chart on August 2, 1969.

Bob Dylan: Production Elements

Dylan’s earlier productions had few production elements that are worthy of study. Many
of the tracks are shabbily performed. Dylan would basically begin playing in the studio,
and the band followed. The production values of his latter recordings improved, but the
productions are not worthy of discussion.
Dylan has great influence as a songwriter with a social conscience. A producer or A&R
person at a label continually auditions artists. Some artists have a dynamic presence and
slick performance skills, and other artists are more artistic. A producer should
concentrate on “what the artist has to say.” It is easy to miss an artist, such as Dylan, who
is not a dynamic performer. Singer-songwriters have always been a major force in the
record industry and always will be. To find a talent as unique as Dylan’s is rare. His
career began in the early 1960s, and his concert performances still sell out.

1970s
In addition to the various artists who made a mark in the 1970s, there were two important
factors that changed popular music. One was the advent of FM radio, and the other was the
introduction of disco in the United States.
Receiving airplay on FM radio stations meant that artists could achieve popularity without
realizing a hit single. “Underground” radio stations played album tracks containing meaningful
lyrics and/or imaginative arrangements and inventive productions. The artists were concerned
with recording an artistically acclaimed album rather than producing a top 10 single. Some
artists were able to produce hit singles without compromising artistic integrity. Many of the
artists became superstars.
Two examples of bands that defined the 1970s were Black Sabbath and Led Zeppelin; both
were heavy metal acts, and both truly identified the genre. They achieved popularity because of
FM radio airplay.
The English band Queen, formed in 1970, personified theatrical rock. Their concept was to
sing tight harmonies over a heavy-rock rhythm section. They became one of the most successful
bands in the world. Lead singer Freddie Mercury was a flamboyant dresser, and he kept
“metamorphosing” his stage persona. Queen had a visual image that complemented their
musical style.
Some of Queen’s hits:

“Bohemian Rhapsody” reached #9 on the Billboard pop chart on February 7, 1976.

“Bohemian Rhapsody” reached #1 on the UK charts on November 8, 1975.
“We Are the Champions” reached #4 on the Billboard pop chart on November 26, 1977.
“We Are the Champions” reached #2 on the UK charts on October 22, 1977.
“Another One Bites the Dust” reached #1 on the Billboard pop chart on August 30, 1980.
“Another One Bites the Dust” reached #5 on the UK charts on November 14, 1998.

Disco
Disco began in New York in the early 1970s. New York is traditionally a late-night town,
and discos afforded the partygoer an opportunity to hear exciting and creative music, and to
dance until the wee hours. Socially, it established the first opportunity for gays to congregate
openly. Discos helped create a gay and lesbian culture—a lifestyle. Additionally, discos were,
and still are, popular with Latinos and African Americans.

Dylan’s recording reached number 9 on the British charts on March 25, 1965.

From a sociological viewpoint, there was and still is a disco (dance) subculture. Many
subgroups such as homosexuals, who were considered outcasts in traditional society, found a
home—a comfortable atmosphere where they were not judged by their lifestyle. The audience
related not only to the feeling of the beats—emanating from state-of-the-art sound systems—but
also to some of the socially relevant lyrics, such as Gloria Gaynor’s “I Will Survive,” or The
Village People’s “Macho Man,” “Y.M.C.A.,” and “In the Navy.” (The Village People’s songs
appear to be lighthearted but have deeper meanings.)

Today, disco is called dance/electronic music. The only difference between disco and dance music is the
natural evolution of the music. The word dance is used because of the negative connotation that disco
 assumed. Many journalists and music critics defamed disco music, and, in addition, discos became known as
“drugstores.” Clubs were and often still are associated with drugs. This unfortunately has marred the creative
aspects of the music, from a production viewpoint. Dance music has been dominating the pop charts, as of
the writing of this book, e.g., Lady Gaga and Katy Perry.

“Like a Rolling Stone” reached #4 on the British chart on August 19, 1965.

“Mr. Tambourine Man” reached #1 on the British charts on June 17,1965.

“Lay, Lady, Lay” reached #5 on the British charts on September 13, 1969.

Disco bashing became rampant within the music industry. The music was designed to be
lighthearted, fun, and entertaining. What has rarely been touted is the extraordinary
musicianship and creativity displayed in dance music. Many artists in other genres have
borrowed the production techniques used in dance music.
The film Saturday Night Fever (1977) catapulted the genre into worldwide popularity and
gave dance music legitimacy. The album is one of the best-selling of all time. The Bee Gees
wrote the most popular songs from the film; many became not only hits but also standards:
“Stayin’ Alive,” “How Deep Is Your Love,” “Night Fever,” and “More Than a Woman.”
The popularity of the songs opened the doors of top 40 radio stations, which basically
blackballed disco music from playlists. Radio stations, such as WKTU in New York,
programmed disco music twenty-four hours a day. The trend was mirrored in dance-oriented
cities throughout the United States. In general, there was always resistance from mainstream
radio to playing disco music. The main cities in the United States with a large dance culture
are New York, Miami, Chicago, San Francisco, Los Angeles, and Atlanta. Radio stations there
played dance music on the radio, but as with any trend that gains massive popularity in a brief
period of time, the level of public acceptance waned, and most of the stations changed formats.
Today, numerous hip-hop and pop stations have weekend dance music (club music)
programs called mix shows; they begin at midnight and broadcast throughout the night. Many
emanate from local dance clubs, which adds to the excitement of the music.

The Remix
The club DJ’s job is to keep the dancers on the dance floor, by sequencing records in a fluid
rotation. “Playing” has become a craft because of the extraordinary skill developed by some
DJs. A DJ’s musical taste separates the superstar from the average spinner. The most popular
DJs can attract an audience of 15,000 patrons in one night. They bring a unique perspective to
the music, by mixing in new beats, combining several records by manipulating the recordings,
and by choosing a selection of music that is distinctive. Successful DJs are popular artists and
can command very large fees. DJing on a regular basis affords them the opportunity to observe
dancers and their reactions to the production qualities of remixed recordings. They learn what
makes people dance. For example, a track might build to a musical climax, break down to only
a kick drum and vocal, and then slowly build to a full, throbbing groove; the dancers react to
the changes. Many DJs become competent remix producers due to their exposure to the music
in a club setting.
Since the average single ran an average of 3½ minutes, it was not long enough for the
dancers to “get into the groove.” The purpose of remixing a track was to extend the length to an
average time of 6 minutes. This format became so successful that labels began remixing
records that were not necessarily dance records. Rock records, for example, were remixed for
the clubs to help expose an artist to a more diverse audience. A successful remix afforded a
label additional sales opportunities and airplay on radio stations that normally would not have
played the original record.

Listen to Black Sabbath, Led Zeppelin, and Queen. Their songwriting ability and musicality define
this time period. They were conscious of creating a defining sound on records and are instantly recognizable.
Layered vocals, creative guitar playing, and unique songs made these bands distinctive.

The cultivation of the remix was revolutionary for the craft of record production. New stars
were born—the producers and the DJs. Many DJs became producers since the training of a DJ
gave them the opportunity to reconstruct records, which taught them the craft of music
production. The original multitrack recording was stripped down to only vocals. Under the
guidance of a remixer, the arranger and/or synthesizer-programmer wrote and recorded a new
arrangement, using only the original vocal parts; sometimes, additional vocals were added.
Many club records contain 4 to 6 different remixes. Each mix is usually geared to appeal to a
different genre of dance-music audience, such as house, techno, garage, and so forth. Many
records that debuted in the clubs became hit pop records. In fact, if a record did not achieve a
strong audience reaction in the clubs, labels would sometimes not promote them to traditional
radio stations.

The “Death of Disco”

In the late 1970s, disco was a phenomenon. The “death of disco” never occurred. Disco
music merely assumed a new name—dance music. In Europe, dance music and the dance
lifestyle are a main part of the popular culture. A hit dance record in Europe can sell more than
a million copies. The songs are continually on the pop charts, and dance compilations,
containing classic songs, can sell several hundred thousand copies.

Disco: Production Elements

Disco was the first area of recorded music where the producer, arguably, became more
important than the artist. Some singers, such as Madonna, Gloria Gaynor (“I Will Survive”),
and Donna Summers (“Love to Love You Baby”), blossomed because of the exposure they
received in the clubs, but many singers were merely vehicles for producers. In fact, many
producers became artists.
A well-constructed remix will keep the dancers on the dance floor throughout an entire song.
If the floor clears, the remix is a failure. The dancers listen to the music on superb sound
systems, and the lighting is sometimes equivalent to that of theatrical productions. The
audience is thrown into a surreal atmosphere that is controlled by the ability of the DJ to blend
hours of recordings. In addition to merely mixing the records, the most skilled DJs add beats
(with drum machines) and mix in loops and effects from other records.
Individual clubs became known for playing certain styles of dance music—garage, house,
techno, and an array of subgenres. Since much of the music was not considered mainstream,
only specialty retail stores sold dance music. Dance music has always been and still is an
industry—a subgenre within the music industry. Many dance labels only record and distribute
dance music. Most of the labels are not full-service independent dance labels but specialize in
certain styles of dance music. Many of them are small, but over the years, mini-majors have
developed from successful dance-oriented labels, notably Edel in Germany, and Tommy Boy
and Strictly Rhythm in the United States. The success of dance labels has been cyclical. The
genre has continued to be relatively healthy even with worldwide piracy problems.

Dance music is experiencing the same piracy and illegal-downloading problems that other forms of music are
experiencing. The remixers are receiving one-fourth of a traditional fee, and sales are dramatically lower. Many
of the dance labels are selling directly from Web sites and hoping to curb some of the peer-2-peer illegal file
sharing by offering a price lower than traditional retail prices. The labels have no manufacturing cost on the
 Web and can, therefore, afford to offer a more attractive price to the consumer.

Discos became so popular that patrons stood on line for hours just to be admitted into the hottest
clubs in New York City. Studio 54, the most famous club, was the height of glamour. The most popular stars
in all areas of entertainment sat in the VIP section each evening, and danced most of the night.

Disco had a distinctive sound. The most important difference between mixing a disco record
and mixing music in almost any genre—with the exception of music for films—was that the
music was primarily played on large sound systems. Consequently, the music had to be mixed
so it sounded best on large audio systems. This principle still applies to today’s dance music.
When mixing almost any other genre of music, the mix must sound best on an elemental sound
system, since most listeners own basic systems. The mix must also sound balanced when heard
on the radio. Most dance records sound best in clubs; consequently, separate radio mixes are
produced. Dance labels usually record more than one style of remix. That helps the promotion
team receive performances in clubs playing various styles of dance music; it also helps them
get airplay on radio programs (Internet and Satellite radio) playing various styles of dance
music.
The following were typical elements of the disco sound of the 1970s:

The average tempo was 120 beats per minute.

Many tracks were orchestrated with strings and brass. Certain rhythm patterns, played by
the strings and brass, became endemic to the disco sound.
The bass drum (kick drum) played four quarter notes per bar. The bass drum was usually
the loudest instrument in the mix.
The bass parts were locked with the kick drum part to form a strong, pounding bottom end
(low frequencies).
Guitar parts comprised rhythmic single-line picking on muted strings and also playing
rhythmic chord parts. All of the patterns were “catchy” rhythm patterns.
Background singers were often featured performers. The background vocalists, singing in
unison, often performed the lead vocal.
Many of the lead vocalists were excellent singers and were prominently featured in the
mix.
The various instrumental parts were based on sequential patterns that gave the track a
variety of hooks. For example, 2 hi-hat patterns were used on most disco records: (1)
Four 16th notes per beat, or (2) an 8th note and two 16th notes per beat.
 When remixes first surfaced, the remixer merely muted various sections of the original
production and created essentially rhythm-oriented loops (repeated sections). The original kick drum
rhythm pattern was replaced with four quarter notes, essentially creating a metronome for the dancers.
As remixing progressed, the remixers generally began creating new tracks, using only the original
vocals.

I produced many disco records during the heyday of the late 1970s. One such record is “Let’s All
Chant,” by The Michael Zager Band, with worldwide sales reaching 5 million copies. From the
standpoint of a music producer, it is important to try and retain both the publishing rights and
the master sound recording rights of as many productions as possible. The publishing rights
and the master sound recordings continually generate income derived from commercials, films,
television, new recordings, digital sales, and compilation albums.

Pink Floyd
Pink Floyd formed in London in 1965. (The name was taken from the first names of 2 blues
singers.) The original members were leader Syd Barrett (guitar and vocals), Roger Waters
(bass and vocals), Nick Mason (drums and percussion), and Rick Wright (keyboards and
vocals). In 1968, Syd was forced out of the band because of attitude problems. In 1968, Rick
Gilmore (guitar and vocals) permanently replaced Syd.
Although this British progressive rock band started in the mid-1960s, the band’s seminal
album Dark Side of the Moon charted in 1973 and remained an unprecedented 27 years on the
U.S. album charts—the longest tenure of any act since the charts were invented.

Dark Side of the Moon: Production Elements

The album was produced by Pink Floyd and engineered by Alan Parsons, one of the most
respected engineers.
The album is overflowing with electronic effects and unusual sounds, creating a theatrical
ambience. Spaceship effects and electronica were created with synthesizers and tape.
The musicianship is precise, and the arrangements are meticulous. This production can be
compared to George Martin’s productions of The Beatles. Each part fits and the recorded
sound is impeccable.

The album is somewhat unusual because of the number of instrumental sections included.
Most are long introductions that have become mini-compositions, which eventually lead
into a song.
The lead vocals are frequently doubled.
Most of the background vocals are ethereal and electronically processed. Four studio
background singers enhance the band. An eclectic mixture of Rhythm & Blues, rock, and
 electronica is included throughout the album. A saxophone part is featured on 2 songs
(“Money” and “Us and Them”) and R&B vocals sprinkled throughout the album. “The
Great Gig in the Sky” has a soaring R&B styled vocal, backed by a prominent organ part,
which fades into a gospel-tinged piano before the song fades out. The album is truly a
concept album and has a cohesive quality. The tracks were, obviously, designed to flow
into one another.
“Money” is a polyrhythmic song enhanced with sound effects and a hard-sounding R&B
saxophone solo, which leads into a high-energy guitar solo. The song goes into a funky
rhythm break that leads back into another high-energy guitar solo. The vocals reenter, and
the song fades out with talking in the background of the track. The song achieved the #13
position on the Billboard pop chart on June 23, 1973.
“Eclipse,” the final song on the album, sums up its overall message: “Everything under the
sun is in tune, but the sun is eclipsed by the moon.”

A Brief History of Hip-Hop

The complex and inventive sounds and rhythms of contemporary R&B have made a major
contribution to the newest form of African American music—hip-hop. Hip-hop began near the
end of the 1970s. Hip-hop is, arguably, the most socially relevant music since the slaves sang
spirituals. Some of the lyrics’ messages, such as gansta rap, have a detrimental effect on
society and the mores of young people. Other forms of rap send a positive message, such as the
rhymes of Will Smith.

House music was the most popular style of disco music throughout the decade.

One form of hip-hop, called rap, is made up strictly of rappers who rap (talk in a rhythmic
style) in rhymes; DMX is an example. Another form of rap includes singing and rapping, as
done by Nelly and Jay-Z.
Rap rhythm songs have distinct rhythmic grooves and characteristic sounds. Many rap tracks
have included old recordings and/or beats—these are the samples—as a basic element of the
rhythm track. The signature sound of many recordings is a DJ scratching vinyl records on a
turntable in time with the rhythmic groove. This creates inventive, percussive beats, which
have become the defining element in many hip-hop tracks.
As with other popular music styles, there are subgenres, such as East Coast, West Cost, and
Miami rap.
 Author’s Note: I worked with Grandmaster Flash, one of hip-hop’s pioneer artists and producers.
As is the case with many DJs who specialize in this genre, his uncanny ability to create inventive
rhythms helped to define it.
In working with many other DJ musicians, I have seen that the DJ’s ability to scratch has
developed into an art form. Showcases are held to display individual scratching styles. DJ
scratchers have distinct styles and individual traits similar to those of drummers. Scratching is
the newest form of percussion.

1980s
Just as free-style FM radio made a major mark on the music industry in the 1970s, the
introduction of MTV (Music Video Television) in 1981 made a similar, perhaps greater
contribution to the music industry. (This subject was discussed in chapter 14.)
For musicians, the technological advance of the 1980s that had the most prominent and
permanent effect on the music industry was the advent of MIDI—an acronym for Musical
Instrument Digital Interface. Sequencer programs, which are housed in either stand-alone units
or as software sequencing programs, can trigger synthesizer sounds with perfect rhythmic and
dynamic perfection. Today, a large majority of commercial recordings are either fully or
partially programmed using a sequencer.
Digital sampling is equal in importance to MIDI. Programmers can digitally record anything
and play it back by triggering the sample on a keyboard or another controller. Violins, drums,
brass, woodwinds, pianos, percussion, and sound effects are just some of the sampled libraries
available to music programmers. (Rap records are usually filled with sampled drum and
percussion loops.) Like MIDI, this subject will be covered in more detail later in the book.
The introduction of the Sony Walkman (cassette and portable radio player), and later the
Song Walkman CD player, afforded the listener a portable means of listening to music with
audio quality equal to that heard on home systems. The Sony Walkman was partially
responsible for the large increase in worldwide music sales throughout the 1980s.

Michael Jackson
Thriller, released in 1982 and produced by Quincy Jones, became the best-selling album in
recorded music history. With Thriller selling more than 40 million copies, Michael Jackson
became a megastar.
Not since The Beatles released the Sgt. Pepper album had there been a production
achievement the magnitude of Thriller.

Pink Floyd’s biggest U.S. hit was “Another Brick in the Wall” from the album The Wall. It reached the
#1 position on the Billboard pop chart on December 8, 1979. It reached the #2 position in the UK on March
31, 1973. The album has sold more than 23 million copies.
 Alan Parsons worked at Abbey Road Studios in London, where The Beatles recorded.

Quincy Jones had a well-established reputation as a jazz arranger and film composer. He
brought his masterful skills to Thriller. It was the perfect partnership between a former child
star (The Jackson 5) and an accomplished musician. The album spawned such hits as “Beat It,”
“Billie Jean,” and “Thriller.” The trend-setting videos from the album awakened MTV, which
began playing R&B videos as well as rock videos. Thriller opened the door for black artists.
In 1987 Thriller was followed by another blockbuster album titled Bad. Bad generated
seven hit singles and remained in the #1 chart position for 8 consecutive weeks.
Today, given the popularity of hip-hop and R&B, one could argue that MTV Neworks,
owned by Viacom, is playing an excessive amount of black music and that the rock audience is
not receiving enough attention. BET (Black Entertainment Television) is a major force in the
promotion of black music in the United States. In reality, whatever generates an audience gets
the airplay! The consumers of hip-hop and R&B are colorblind.

Thriller: Production Elements

Combining R&B with a jazz flavor provided Thriller with a unique sound. Outstanding
arrangements, performed by the finest studio musicians, laid the groundwork for the
exceptional talent of Michael Jackson. The superb engineering of multiple Grammy Award-
winning Bruce Swedien made Thriller one of the best-sounding albums of all time. The hit
songs, hit videos, production values, and engineering expertise made Thriller a benchmark.
Most producers working in this genre wanted to attain the same standards set by Quincy
Jones. Quincy Jones is the quintessential musician and producer. The advantages of being a
well-trained musician are exemplified in all of Quincy’s productions.
The ability to specifically guide every element of a production and to shape it like a
sculpture is the job of a producer.

“Thriller”: Production Analysis

The song “Thriller” is a combination of theatrics, R&B, and jazz. The voice of Vincent
Price—the master of horror—adds an element of the bizarre.
The song begins with ambient sounds of a creaking door, followed by footsteps and a
howling animal.
The rhythmic groove enters as more animals howl. A pulsating bass ostinato is the most
prominent musical element.
The track builds with the addition of a funky guitar riff and background vocal harmonies.
 The track builds with the addition of a synthesizer pad, horn accents, claps, and sound
effects.
The bridge provides a temporary respite from the groove. A synthesizer pad combined
with horns creates a sonic smoothness.
The original groove returns, propelled by the bass and guitar ostinatos. Sound effects are
lightly sprinkled throughout the song.
The chorus repeats and then leads into a C-section, with Vincent Price’s menacing voice
re-creating portions of what could be construed as a scene from a horror movie. The
music track effectively enhances every word.

The slogan “Rap the Vote” was used to help attract young voters for the 2004 presidential
election. The recording credited with being the first rap hit was released in 1979 and called “Rapper’s
Delight,” by The Sugar Hill Gang.

The song ends with Price’s famous “horror” laugh and a slamming door.

Listen to the placement of sounds throughout the track. The panning, effects processing, EQ,
and level (volume) of each track enables the listener to clearly hear each musical component.

Madonna
In 1983 Madonna launched her first album, which landed in the top 10. Madonna’s success
in the dance market carried into the dance-pop market creating the first superstar from the
disco era. Donna Summers was also able to cross markets, but her career dwindled, whereas
Madonna has remained popular.
It is important to study Madonna’s rise to fame because Madonna is a chameleon. The
audience has remained curious about her persona. Her hair, clothes, and even her demeanor
have continually changed. She is the ultimate marketer—marketing herself. Her intelligence
and her marketing ability have served her well. (She also launched a successful record label
called Maverick.)
An artist’s image and image-building abilities are important factors in helping the sale of
albums. Even though the record label, the artist’s manager, and the booking agent assist in the
process, an artist must ultimately create an identity for himself or herself. All concerned hope
the image will be a natural outgrowth of the music. The group KISS is an extreme example of a
calculated image. They have created a marketing empire based upon the band’s image.

1990s
The most important technological achievement in the 1990s occurred in 1991, with the
introduction of SoundScan, “an information system that tracks sales of music and music
video products throughout the United States and Canada.” When a consumer purchases an
album in a retail store, an online store, or other sales outlets, the clerk scans the CD, or the
online store automatically reports the sale. The information travels directly to SoundScan.
Information is compiled from more than 14,000 sources, and the results are published weekly.
Billboard uses the results to compile the charts.

A sequencer is a digital “tape” recorder (without the tape). After being programmed, the information
is stored on a hard drive. (The editing capabilities are infinite because digital editing in nonlinear.) Another
advantage is that, since it is digital technology, there is no quality loss, an issue that will be discussed later in
the book.

CDs eventually outsold vinyl and cassettes, becoming the most popular music format.
Downloading is quickly making CDs obsolete. DVD audio and DualDisc have not attracted an audience. Will
the consumer purchase new equipment? Will surround sound (used in movie theaters and also available for
home use) take the place of stereo? As of the writing of this book, the answer is no.

Prior to SoundScan, it was rumored that there were ways to achieve chart positions that
were not warranted. SoundScan changed that. Atypical albums began to achieve high pop-chart
positions. The industry became healthier as a result of the information obtained from
SoundScan. The reports help producers and industry people in general analyze the music
market.
It is advisable for producers to be aware of trends. If a large segment of the record-buying
public reacts to a certain sound, it can and often does influence a producer’s approach to a
recording project. (Smart producers use their awareness of trends merely as a guideline and
not as a formula.)

The Music
The greatest effect that SoundScan has on the pop charts is the recognition of country
music on a wider scale. Garth Brooks became one of the most successful record sellers, in any
music genre, attaining sales of more than 65 million units. Country music radio stations now
number more than 2,460, and the Country Music Association Awards television program is
viewed on a worldwide basis.
Crossover country music has become increasingly popular. The music became more
accessible to the pop music listener because of the rock elements mixed with traditional
country music instrumentation and rhythms. The best example of a country-rock artist is Shania
Twain. Her ex-husband, master producer Mutt Lange, achieved success as a rock, pop, and
heavy metal producer. He produced megaselling albums for artists as diverse as Def Leppard,
ACDC, Foreigner, and Bryan Adams. Shania’s collaboration with Mutt brought glamour to
country music and made Shania an international superstar, producing sales in the millions.
From a production perspective, Shania’s albums are some of the best produced in any
musical genre. Lange’s impeccable taste is showcased in all of her productions.
Alternative rock was the most significant musical development in the 1990s. Nirvana and
Pearl Jam both sold more than 10 million albums.
Raves (drug-infested dance parties) took place in dance clubs, with Ecstasy being the drug
of choice. The high-energy dance music (mainly techno) never achieved mainstream sales
figures but retained a core audience. Raves with large numbers of people are called massives.
At massives there are multiple rooms where different styles of dance music are played in each
room. In addition to techno, some of the styles played are house, trance, drum and bass,
ambient, and IDM.
Grunge, an amalgamation of many styles, found an audience.
From a sales perspective, Europe became the primary home of dance music. Although there
has always been a dance-music culture in the United States, the European market allowed the
music to become mainstream radio fare. Many dance tracks became pop hits, with sales figures
to support the airplay. The Chemical Brothers, one of the most influential dance-oriented acts,
combined traditional dance music with rock ’n’ roll. Subgenres continued to develop.
Hip-hop continued to grow in popularity. Disruptive lyrics were heard in a subgenre of hip-
hop called gangsta rap. A rivalry developed between West Coast and East Coast rappers,
resulting in violent deaths.

The fact that hip-hop continued to flourish is significant in the musical culture of the 1990s. It
prognosticated the enormous popularity it would achieve after the millennium.

Conclusion
To date, the first decade of the 21st century has produced artists such as Lady Gaga, Katy
Perry, Adele, and Rihanna. Pop/dance has had a recurrence. The industry has been turbulent
because of the industry-changing technological alteration in the distribution of music (digital),
the promotion of music (Internet and Satellite radio, cable, Facebook, YouTube, etc.), piracy
issues (illegal peer-2-peer file sharing as well as physical piracy), and the experimentation
with new music business paradigms, which continually evolve. There has been a resurgence of
adult-oriented music, including artists such as Michael Bublé and Nora Jones. In 2004,
according to Nielsen SoundScan, Usher’s album, Confessions, sold nearly 8 million albums in
the United States, making it the best-selling album of the year in the country; Norah Jones’s
second release sold 3.8 million copies, and Eminem sold 3.5 million units. Sales have
continued to decrease throughout the years. Albums have become primarily a marketing device
rather than a substantial income source for most artists. Successful recordings help artists get
booked and sell merchandise.
As the baby boomers grow older, the music business is hoping that the rock ’n’ roll
generation continues to purchase recordings—in one format or another—and keep music and
musicians alive and well.

In 2010, album sales in the U.S. fell by 12.8%. Digital tracks increased by 1%.

Assignment
Choose a classic album and analyze some of the songs, using analyses of The Beatles’ Sgt.
Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band and Pet Sounds by The Beach Boys, described in this
chapter, as models. Cite examples of recording techniques heard on your assignment album that
are still used in contemporary recordings.

Shania Twain is an example of an artist who not only has made extraordinary albums from a
musical perspective, but also has developed a sexy and glamorous image both onstage and in videos. She
is a marketer’s dream. Taylor Swift now reigns as the Queen of the country crossover market.
II
RECORDING TECHNOLOGY
16

The Studio

The idea of separation (isolating instruments in the studio) is the total antithesis of rock and roll, which is a bunch of
guys in a room making a sound and just capturing it.
—Keith Richards (The Rolling Stones)

Music producers must have a thorough understanding of recording technology. The creative use
of technology is essential to music production. Technology is nearly as important as the music
in popular-music production. A musical ambience is created by the compositional style, the
sound of the artist (a unique persona), and the application of audio technology. Producers
communicate with engineers on an artistic level. Their conversations are based not on
technology but on the application of technology used creatively.
The availability of digital technology at a reasonable cost has creatively transformed the
music industry. Musicians can purchase professional-quality audio and sequencing programs at
reasonable prices. Affordable technology has enabled musicians to change the sound of
popular music. The sounds of MIDI instruments and sampled instruments have become
commonplace. The audience does not expect or necessarily desire to hear all live instruments.
Certain genres, such as techno, are based solely on electronic sounds, and primarily live
musicians perform other genres, like classical and traditional jazz.
Composers, arrangers, and/or producers should consider the use of signal processing during
the creative process. For example, if the producer wants a long reverb to trail the lead vocal,
space must be left within the arrangement so that effect can be heard. If the arrangement is
crowded, not only will the effect get lost, but the arrangement will also sound “muddy.”
This book is not intended as a technical guide but rather an overview of the important areas
of recording technology. The subjects that follow should each be studied in more detail.

The Studio
A producer ought to become familiar with the acoustical environment of various studios. The
physical space (studio or venue) contributes to the final ambience of a recording. The natural
reverberation in a studio telegraphs the size and acoustical treatment of the studio. A commonly
used term, “live room,” refers to the natural reverberation in a room. A recording sounds as if
the session was recorded in a live venue and not in an acoustically treated studio. A “dead
room” means that the room has been acoustically treated to absorb the natural reverberation,
usually caused by hard, reflective surfaces.
 The section on studio design is included because most producers own project or home studios.
Building a studio can be costly and requires expertise in the field of studio design. It is best to hire or consult
a professional studio designer prior to building a studio.

Rock music and orchestral music are usually recorded in studios that contain high ceilings,
isolation booths that separate drums, guitars, and so on, and natural reverberation. This helps
capture a “live” sound. Caution! If the room is too “live,” the sound will be muffled, and there
will be little separation of individual parts.
For productions that are primarily synthesized, the acoustics of the studio room do not
generally affect the final sound. Reverberation and additional effects are added during the
mixing process; therefore, most producers prefer to work in a “dead” room.

Building a Studio
Because technology has made it possible to build a project studio at a reasonable cost, most
preproduction is prepared in project studios. If a production is synthesizer-based music, a
project studio might be sufficient. If a production involves live instrumentation, the acoustics
of the room are critical, and a project studio might not be adequate.
When a professional studio is built, the acoustician and studio designers try to build a room
devoid of outside noise. They accomplish that in several ways: floating the room, which is
basically building an acoustically treated room-within-a-room, and by tuning the room, which
is a scientific method of making the room sound “flat” (a realistic frequency response without
acoustic coloration). Some studios might have an abundance of bass frequencies, contain too
much midrange, or have any number of problems that will affect the final sound. Studio
designers can eliminate most acoustical problems.
A professional studio (normally catering to outside clients) is much more costly to construct
than a project studio, which generally caters to one artist, producer, and/or engineer. A
professional studio can cost millions of dollars, whereas a project studio can be built for
$10,000–$15,000 or less. Both budget and recording needs are determining factors when
planning a studio, and what follow are items to consider when selecting a studio.

The Room Size

When recording a large orchestra, a room with high ceilings and natural reverberation will
produce a more natural sound than a room with a low ceiling and no reverberation. Isolating
instrumental sections is usually not a major consideration when recording an orchestra because
the natural blend of the entire orchestra produces the most desirable result.
In other forms of live recording, isolation of the various instruments is necessary. Leakage
occurs when unwanted sound is recorded on a microphone not intended to record that
particular sound. For instance, if a distant-sounding saxophone is heard on a trumpet track, the
track has leakage from a saxophone. Recorded on its own track, the sax should not also be
heard on the trumpet track. There are several ways to avoid leakage:

Some instruments or sections can be placed in isolation booths.

Gobos (mobile sound panels) can separate instruments and sections, such as strings and
brass. Gobos are essentially movable walls on wheels. They are constructed in different
shapes and sizes.

Instrumental separation is preferred so that each track, containing only the desired audio
information, can be equalized and electronically processed during the mixing session. For
instance, the reverb and delay settings used for a snare drum will most likely not be the same
ones used on the tom-toms. Panning tracks helps to create a stereo image. The panning
positions are crucial for the overall musical clarity of a song/instrumental. With an abundance
of leakage, panning tracks will create a muddled sound by masking other instruments. Panned
tracks without leakage will create a “clean” stereo image.

Print-through (also called “bleeding”) can occur when recording on multitrack analog tape. This
means that information from an adjacent track can be heard in addition to the sound recorded on the
adjacent track. For example, if track one is assigned to record an acoustic guitar and a distant-sounding
acoustic bass can be heard on the same track, the bass would be bleeding onto track one. The engineer
prefers to hear only the acoustic guitar.

Crosstalk
Crosstalk (digital distortion) can occur when a digital tape recorder is not aligned properly.

Acoustic Room Treatment

To record under optimum conditions, a studio should be acoustically treated and tuned.
Highly paid acousticians design professional studios. They analyze the acoustics in the room
and then design a sound treatment that helps eliminate any unwanted frequencies. Their goal is
to design a room that is “flat” or has a flat response, which means that all frequencies are
heard in a natural and balanced state.
Parallel walls produce the worst form of reflective sound. Sound bouncing from one wall to
another creates an acoustical nightmare—chaos of reflective sound is not conducive to
performing or to listening. The timbre of the reflected sound is altered by the characteristics of
the surfaces it encounters.
 To help solve acoustical studio problems, sound absorption and diffuser panels are attached
to the walls in a scientifically designed manner. Sound panels come in various shapes and
sizes and are made of a variety of materials. The following are some of the panels available:

Convex diffuser panels

Convex diffuser panels are designed to help solve problems caused by flutter (distortion of
high frequencies), echo, hot spots (the amplitude of certain frequencies that are out of
proportion to the rest of the sound), and dead spots (frequencies that are lost due to a
phasing problem).

Pyramid-shaped diffuser panels

Pyramid-shaped diffuser panels diffuse sound into various angles of the room.

Quadratic diffuser panels

Quadratic diffuser panels are designed to diffuse sound equally throughout the room.

Absorber diffuser panels

Absorber diffuser panels absorb unwanted frequencies. The panels are unusually flat, made
in various sizes and lengths, and are strategically placed throughout the studio.

Isolation Booth
Isolation booths are used to control leakage. Almost all studios, whether professional or
project studios, have a vocal booth or a multipurpose isolation booth. The performer is placed
in a glass-enclosed soundproofed booth, which is designed to block out undesired sounds.
Quite often, a soloist records in the isolation booth while other musicians are recording
simultaneously in the studio. If, for example, the background track becomes the final
background track but the solo performance has to be rerecorded, there will be no leakage on
the background track because the soloist was in the isolation booth; this permits the soloist to
easily overdub a new part without hearing any leakage from the previous performance. It
serves not only a creative purpose but a practical one as well. It is costly to keep musicians in
the studio longer than necessary. The soloist can listen to the prerecorded music track and
record numerous performances without incurring the unnecessary expenses of paying the
musicians more money.

Drum Booth
Most professional studios have an isolation booth designed to record a full drum set. Drum
booths are also used for multiple purposes, such as recording percussion, e.g., conga drums, or
a tambourine.
The ceiling should be high enough to allow for the proper placement of microphones.
Microphones must maintain enough distance from the source (e.g., snare drum) to avoid
distortion. Many producers and engineers hang ambience microphones that pick up the entire
drum set. Combined with the tracks that are closely miked, the ambience tracks help to create a
“live” feeling.

Headphone leakage is common. If headphones are unusually loud, leakage will occur through an
open microphone. Always solo a track to make certain leakage is kept to a minimum.

Piano Booth
A piano booth is rare but exists in certain studios. Many engineers surround a piano with
gobos (mobile sound proofing) and cover the piano with cloth blankets (used by movers to
protect furniture). This helps to reduce and/or prevent leakage from other instruments.

Control Room
A control room is the “cockpit” of the recording studio. It is the center of the producer’s- and
engineer’s recording universe. The acoustical treatment of a control room is of primary
importance because the listening environment must be flat in order to judge the sound quality.
The room should be acoustically tuned so that the recorded sound will remain constant when
listening on speakers other than those in the studio.

Machine Room
Analog and digital tape recorders, computers, and other noisy machines are usually placed in a machine
room, adjacent to the control room. This is done to isolate the noise created by machines. The noise interferes
with critical listening that is essential during recording sessions. Not only is the sound distracting, but also the
noise can mask frequencies, causing problems when mixing.

Some control rooms project too many low (bottom-end) frequencies or not enough low
frequencies, such as bass or low kick drum; others have a lack of midrange or an excess of
midrange frequencies (e.g., vocals, snare drum); some have a lack or excess of high-end
frequencies, such as violins or bells. Choose a control room that has the most realistic
response.
 Listening to a familiar album in the control room enables producers and engineers to quickly
become familiar with the “sound” of a room. It is best to choose an album that sounds good on
multiple speaker systems. During the mixing process, producers should compare the sound
quality of the familiar album with that of the new project; it is called A-B-ing. The album
should be the benchmark against which to measure the sound of the new production.
Most producers and engineers frequent studios because they know the music will sound the
same when played on multiple sound systems outside the studio. If the music does not sound
accurate on three or four systems, the problem is either with the tuning of the control room or
the speaker system, or creative problems with the mix.

Monitoring
Monitoring is the ability to listen back to a recording or to the music being recorded. There
are many fine speaker manufacturers; therefore, purchasing speakers is a matter of artistic
choice. Most professional studios offer at least two sets of monitors:

Near field monitors are usually small in size and placed equidistant (left and right) in
front of and relatively close to the engineer. They usually rest on a platform built above
the meter bridge of the console.
Large monitors, called far field monitors, are usually housed above the console and built
into the wall (aka soffit mounted) behind the recording console. Far field monitors are
also equidistant (left and right) from the engineer, who is seated facing the monitors.

The monitor placement, like the acoustic treatment of the control room, affects the ability to
mix. If the control room and the monitor system do not have a flat frequency response, the mix
will not sound the same outside the studio environment. Sound quality is a matter of personal
choice; consequently, many engineers travel with personal near field monitors. That enables an
engineer to compensate for discrepancies heard on far field monitors. For example, if the bass
frequencies appear adequate in the studio but sound “bass heavy” outside of the studio, the
engineer can make adjustments by equalizing the appropriate frequencies.
It is crucial that mixes sound good on the radio, which is why it is advisable to listen to
mixes on several car-radio systems before giving final approval to the mixes. Most producers
do special radio mixes in addition to an album mix. Certain frequencies may sound louder on
the radio—than on an album on a home system—because radio station signals are compressed,
which affects the sound. A radio mix is generally the format in which the listener first hears a
new recording, and the producer must be aware of potential problems and compensate for the
potential problems during the mixing process. Radio mixing is both a creative and business
necessity. Producers and mixing engineers take pride in the sound of their mixes.

It is wise to monitor on inexpensive speakers. Certain frequencies will probably have to be re-equalized
because the speakers are not capable of reproducing all of the frequencies on the original album mix. Special
 radio mixes are usually designed to appeal to a specific format. For instance, a mix geared to an R&B
audience will generally have a prominent bass and kick drum in the original mix. A sub-bass and low kick drum
might not be heard on the radio (or television), which means the low frequencies will have to be equalized.
Some radio mixes have louder vocals than the album versions. Listen at a low level, making certain that the
mix is as “hot” as possible in this format.
When remixing dance music for the radio, most producers make the mixes sound more pop than dance. For
instance, there might be less of the kick drum, louder vocals, and new parts added that make the mix more
appealing to top-40 radio listeners. Under certain circumstances, several radio mixes are designed, to appeal
to a variety of radio formats.

When mixing, listen to the monitors at a low level. It is recommended that engineers listen at
85dB SPL. Listening at a loud level tires one’s ears, which makes it is difficult to balance the
mix. Radio mixes are usually compressed more than album mixes. Compression is an
attenuation progress that allows the low dynamics (volume) and the high dynamics (volume) to
meet in the middle of the mix, creating a generally more powerful sound. Since highs and lows
are cut off at the radio station, the audience will have the experience of hearing frequencies
that would be missing if compression were not used. Engineers who specialize in classical
music use compression selectively because retaining the dynamics in that music is imperative.

Recording Medium
A producer chooses the recording medium. The two main choices are surveyed here.
Magnetic Tape. For many years recording on magnetic tape was the standard for analog
recording. It has been replaced by digital technology.
Analog tape recorders can record and play back multiple tracks. Twenty-four-track machines
are the norm, but some engineers use eight-track and two-track machines. Two or more
machines can be locked together to enable more tracks to play back in sync.

When a mix is completed, producers and engineers listen at several volume levels to see if the
relative balances remain the same. They also listen on several speaker systems, both in the studio and away
from the studio.

Magnetic tape breaks and is more difficult to edit than digital audio. Tape editing is
performed with a razor blade; one miscalculated cut can ruin the tape. This form of editing is
also more time consuming than digital editing and is destructive in nature. If the tape is not cut
properly, it can be difficult to restore. Digital editing is flexible because it is nondestructive
editing, meaning the original files can always be recalled as long as the “parent” (original)
files have not been deleted.
 Copying analog tape multiple times creates a generational loss in sound, resulting in a
noticeable tape hiss; there is no generational loss when copying in the digital domain.
Digital Tape or Digital Hard Drive (Hard-Disk) Recording. Many producers and artists
prefer the crystal-clear sound of digital audio and its easy editing capabilities. Others consider
the sound harsh and, consequently, prefer analog recording.

Some producers and artists prefer the analog format because they consider the sound to be
warmer than it is on digital recording; the lower frequencies are perceived as sounding deeper and rounder.

Digital audio technology is offered in several recording formats. The most popular is
recording on a computer using a music-sequencing audio and MIDI program, such as Pro Tools
or Logic Pro. Editing is accomplished within the program. Nondestructive editing is one of the
most attractive features of digital editing, since edits can be recaptured if the original files are
not erased. Information is saved in several formats, but peripheral hard drives are the most
popular—solid state external hard drives, optical drives, tape drive, DVDs, CDs, and cloud
storage. Digital recording is also performed on dedicated hard-disk recorders, which are built
into some synthesizer workstations, and also exist as stand-alone units.

It is quite common to mix in a sequencing program and copy the digital mix onto analog 2-track tape
before mixing.

Computer audio technology and hard-disk recording offer similar features, but computer-
based audio recording is the most popular format. Since the advent of hard-disk recording,
many producers do not use tape. With digital audio programs, the entire recording process can
be recorded, edited, and mixed within the computer; there are also stand-alone hard-disk
recorders. This process is referred to as digital audio. Converting an analog audio source into
a digital waveform (ones and zeros) and having the ability to manipulate the sound and add
effects such as reverberation and compression make this a versatile format. (Sound is first
captured as an analog electrical signal and is then converted into a digital signal. This is
referred to as analog to digital conversion. The signal is then converted back to an analog
signal using a digital to analog converter. A digital signal cannot be heard.)
The ability to edit in a nonlinear format saves time. The engineer can locate any section of
the production by clicking on a destination, rather than having to roll tape back and forth.
Nondestructive editing enables producers to experiment without erasing original edits or takes.
Multitrack digital tape recorders were popular until computer-based programs developed
and replaced the format. DAT (digital audiotape cassettes), DTRS, ADAT, and DASH
recorders were primarily used for storage in professional audio environments. DAT never
became popular with the general public. Making digital copies does not degrade the audio
quality since there is no generational loss. (DVD, CD, hard drive, and cloud storage are the
preferred methods of storing data. Always store on multiple devices. In a “flash” data may
accidently be erased.)

Conclusion: Sound Media

As discussed, certain producers and artists feel that recording on magnetic tape produces a
warmer sound than digital recording. Some producers like the sound of digital recording,
which offers clarity. Most rock producers and artists prefer the sound of analog tape, whereas
many R&B artists and producers prefer the sound of digital recording. The choice is a creative
decision. (Unfortunately, unless tape is manufactured, multitrack analog recording will no
longer be an option. Very few companies manufacture analog tape.)

The Recording Console

Recording consoles differ in sound and quality. Producers usually choose a console based
on the overall sound they are trying to capture.
Numerous companies manufacture recording consoles. Consoles are analog, digital, or a
hybrid of the two. With the advent of computer music programs, it is possible to complete a
recording within a computer music program, never using a physical recording console,
sometimes referred to as a board.
Sound is recorded from microphones, synthesizers, or other devices, which can be routed
into the recording console or directly into the console with the use of a direct injection (D.I.)
box. For example, an electric guitar can be recorded by either placing a microphone in front of
an amplifier or by plugging the guitar into a D.I. box inserted into the input of the console.
Some producers record a combination of signals and mix them together.
Consoles vary in size and optional expansion capabilities. Large, professional consoles are
capable of recording numerous instruments/vocals simultaneously since they contain a sizable
number of inputs. The recorded sounds can be processed through numerous outboard-
processing devices, such as equalizers, compressors, reverbs, or delay units. Some consoles
are equipped with effects, which are built into the console.
The console is the “command center” of the recording process. Recording consoles contain
faders, equalizers, panning channel assignment switches, auxiliary sends and returns (including
master sends and returns), trim knobs, master fader, group faders, solo buttons, and mute
buttons. Some consoles contain limiters and compressors. What follows is a brief rundown of
analog and digital consoles.
Analog Recording Console. In analog consoles, the signal passes through physical
components, which include capacitors, resistors, and wiring. The sounds of consoles differ
from manufacturer to manufacturer. Some engineer/producers think a Neve console sounds
“warmer” than an SSL console, and so forth. Sound is a matter of preference.
Digital Recording Console. In a fully digital console, the audio signal is converted into
the digital domain. Ones and zeros represent the audio signal. The sound quality depends on
the quality of the analog-to-digital converters and the digital-to-analog converters; usually,
expensive consoles have the best converters.
The digital process uses computer technology to route the audio signal. Most digital
consoles have highly sophisticated switching devices that allow the user to scroll through
various console pages where the engineer can adjust various parameters. Since a multitude of
functions can be performed in a limited physical space, digital consoles have become much
smaller than their analog counterparts with the same functionality.
A major advantage of digital consoles is that they provide total recall. Total recall means
that all parameters that have been edited (especially during the mixing process) can be saved
and recalled at any time—settings for reverberation, panning, equalization, signal processing.
A multitude of mixes can be recorded and recalled without altering the original mix. For
instance, the producer might move the panning position of the lead guitar from bar 32 to bar 33.
The producer can move the position of the guitar from the one o’clock to the eleven o’clock
position for that one bar only, and then automatically return to the original panning position,
without affecting the remainder of the mix. (This is accomplished during the automation
process; the console’s total recall “remembers” the automated command.)
Digitally Controlled Analog Consoles. The signal path is processed in analog form, but the
parameters of the console are controlled digitally. The consoles have total recall, which
includes recalling levels, equalization, panning, and additional signal processing.

The choice of a console is a matter of personal preference. Some engineers prefer the convenience offered in
a digital console; others feel that an analog console has a more appealing sound.
Console choice involves basically the same argument that goes on between those who like the sound of
analog tape more than either digital tape or digital hard-disk recording. Some producers and engineers think
that digital sounds harder and more piercing than analog recording; others prefer the sound of digital.

Computer Consoles. Computer music-sequencing programs have virtual recording

consoles built into the programs. The majority of project studio recordings use this software
console. They look and work almost exactly like their hardware counterparts. When project
studio recordings are transferred to a system in a professional facility, the project will most
likely be routed through a professional console such as an SSL.

Components of Recording Consoles

 Recording-console types may vary, but some components are found in all recording
consoles.
Faders (Input/Output Module). Faders are used to control the input and output level of
sound. (The number of faders varies depending on the console.) The engineer records (input
level) at the “hottest” (loudest) level, avoiding distortion (overloading). Adjusting the fader
either raises or lowers the level. The fader is also used when outputting the recorded signal or
live (microphone or line) signal.
When faders are used in an automation system (a system that saves adjustable console
information and reproduces level and digital processing adjustments) the output levels can be
adjusted throughout the mix, and the computer processes and memorizes the changes. All
parameters can be continually updated.
Channel Input Knob. The channel input knob is used to input the signal from either a
microphone or another device. The channel input knob is usually located above each
input/output module (fader).
Trim. The trim is designed to increase the signal level; it is normally used after the gain
from the fader has failed to meet the desired recording level.
Equalizer (EQ). An equalizer offers the engineer the option of controlling the timbre of
the input signal by boosting or cutting a specified frequency or general frequency range.
Above each fader (on most consoles) is a set of equalization potentiometers (pots). The pots
are marked with frequency information. There are 4 standard frequency allocations: low
frequencies (between 20 and 200 Hertz, or Hz), low-middle frequencies (between 200 and
1,000 Hertz), high-middle frequencies (between 1,000 and 5,000 Hertz), and high frequencies
(between 5,000 and 20,000 Hertz). (Hertz is a unit of measurement). Advanced consoles offer
more varied and detailed adjustment possibilities, depending on the bandwidth. The two
standard equalizers are graphic and parametric, designed to adjust the musical frequencies; the
controls increase and/or decrease frequencies based on musical intervals. They are usually
controlled by vertical slide controls that adjust the parameters in discrete steps.

Parametric equalizers normally contain 3 or 4 frequency bands. The engineer is able to

scroll through the frequency bands, rather than having to make adjustments in discrete
steps.
Third-party manufacturers sell outboard equalization devices. The output signal can be
routed from the console to the input of a device, processed, and routed back into the
fader’s signal path.

Panning. Potentiometers (pan pots) are usually located directly above the fader. By turning a
pan pot left, right, or anywhere in between, the sound will be placed within the stereo or
surround sound sonic image. The placement of sounds is crucial to the final sound of a mix.
Panning is part of the creative process.
To achieve a feeling of space, not only must the panning be varied from track to track, but the
engineer and/or producer also has to find a sonic space for each instrument. If the panning is
not thoughtfully planned, the individual nuances of each track will not be heard, and there might
be masking of some sounds.
When recording contemporary popular music, the following are some suggestions:

The kick drum and the bass are usually placed in the center of the mix.
The snare drum is usually panned slightly off the center.
The overhead cymbals and tom-toms usually have a stereo spread.
Lead vocals are panned in the center, and the background vocals normally have a stereo
spread.
Do not pan stereo pianos hard left and right. It will sound unnatural. Arrive at the best
panning position through experimentation.

Channel Assignment Buttons. Channel assignment buttons route the output signal of a fader
to the input of a tape recorder or digital recording device.
Solo Button. The solo button enables the engineer to solo a track(s); this function is used
only for monitoring. When working with multiple tracks, soloing is a convenient and easy
method of either correcting errors or listening to sections of instruments without having to
lower unwanted faders.
Cut or Mute Button. The mute button mutes the signal on the selected fader(s). This is a
useful function when the intent is to instantly mute a track(s) and then reselect it. Some
consoles have a master mute button, which enables multiple channels to be muted by using one
switch.
Clipping. Consoles are equipped with a small light, which indicates when a signal is
clipping (distorting). Overloading the input level usually causes clipping. Lowering the level
of the input gain can prevent clipping.
Auxiliary Send (Aux Sends). The send section of a console provides a break in the signal
chain that enables the routing of various processors or functions through the selected send.
The number of sends varies between consoles. The sends have variable parameters and enable
the engineer to increase or decrease the amount of signal routed through each send.
The line-level signal is sent to a processor and then returned back to the console by entering
the signal path of a selected fader.
Some engineers like to route signal processors through the sends; they also use sends as a
monitoring system. How sends are used is a matter of personal choice.
Master Send. The master send adjusts the overall level of the individual aux sends.
Return. The return returns the signals to the individual auxiliary sends.
Master Return. The master return adjusts the overall level of the returned signal.
Group Faders. Individual faders can be bussed (sent) to group faders, to form submixes.
For example, the drum kit may be grouped to a stereo pair of faders. Adjusting the two faders
retains the relative balance. (Listen to track 4 on the CD.)
Main Stereo Output. The master stereo output faders control the overall output level from
the console.
 Patch Bay. A patch bay is used to route the various input and output devices used in a
recording studio, without having to physically manipulate each wire from each device. A
patch bay is a routing system.
Most patch bays are custom designed to accommodate the needs of a particular studio. If, for
example, an engineer wants the lead vocal track to be routed through a compressor: Patch a
chord (using a small mini-patch chord) out from the vocal track (located on the patch bay) into
the input of the compressor (also located on the patch bay), and from the output of the
compressor back into the input of the vocal track, completing the signal path. This procedure is
accomplished within the patch bay, rather than by physically taking quarter-inch cables, XLR
cables, or digital cables out of each device and placing the cables into another device to create
the same signal chain.
The patching system in a computer-based or digital console is contained in the software
program. Working within this environment is easier, and usually less troublesome, than
working with a hardwired, physical patch bay.
Signal Processing. Signal processing includes the use of equalization (EQ), reverberation,
delays, compressors, limiters, noise gates, and various hybrids. Effects contribute to the
overall sound of a music production and can be an intrinsic part of the arrangement. For
instance, leaving room in the track to hear a delay on the lead vocal or adding various
combinations of reverberation and echo affects the overall sound.
Signal processing was also discussed in Chapter 8. Reread Chapter 8 for additional
information.
Reverberation and Echo. When sound is generated in a room, the sound that first reaches
the listener is called the direct sound; following the direct sound are the early reflections.
Early reflections reach the ear within 50 milliseconds, and they help forecast the size of the
room. The longer it takes for the brain to perceive a sound, the larger the space. Reverberation
occurs after the early reflections. The number of milliseconds it takes for reverberation to
occur determines the size of the room. The sound that reaches a listener after approximately 50
milliseconds is called echo.
The sound bounces off of multiple surfaces and angles, and the size of the room determines
the amount of reverb. The sound begins to decay. This is called decay time. The reduction in
decay time is based on a 60 decibel (dB) level reduction. (A decibel is commonly used as a
measurement in sound level, although that is not the technical definition of a decibel.)
Reverberation can be created in the digital mode. Digital effects are called digital signal
processors or DSPs. Most studios, as well as computer and hardware-based sequencers, use
DSPs for effects.
Compressor. A compressor attenuates a predetermined threshold level. This helps
eliminate distortion. If a compressor is used on a mix, the bottom and top of the dynamic range
are pushed to the center, creating a louder mix by eliminating factors that may cause distortion
when the levels are too high. For pop recordings, a “hot” (loud) mix, when played at a low
level, is extremely important for the product to be competitive in the marketplace. The sound
quality contributes to the success of the recordings.
 In addition to myriad other uses, compressors are frequently employed to raise and adjust the
levels of bass drums, vocals, basses, and guitars, as well as to raise the level of a completed
mix.
When dynamics are important, as they are in most orchestral music, engineers will most
likely not use compression, or minimal compression, because it reduces the dynamic range.

Compressor Controls

Threshold: The threshold setting signals the compressor to attenuate a signal that goes above the setting.
The average range is between 0 dB and –40 dB.
Ratio: The ratio is the setting that indicates how much to attenuate the signal when it passes the threshold
setting. For example, if the ratio is set at 6:1, for every 6 dB above the threshold setting, the output signal
will be raised by 1 dB.
Attack: The attack time determines how quickly the compressor reacts to the signal when it exceeds the
threshold setting. The attack setting is in milliseconds.
Release: After the signal reacts to the attack time setting, the signal has a period of time to return to its
previous gain setting. This is called the release setting; it is calculated in seconds and milliseconds.
Coupling or Stereo Switch: The coupling or stereo switch couples both sides of a two-channel compressor
so they react to the same settings.
Hard knee/Soft knee: When the setting is in hard knee mode, the signal compresses at a rapid rate,
causing quick gain reduction. This mode works with instruments, such as drums, where a quick
compression sounds best. When in soft knee mode, the compression is slower and feels natural, as with
vocals. (Not all compressors have this function.)
Output Control: The output control setting adjusts the output level of the compressor.

Limiter. A limiter is a compressor that has a ratio over 10:1 and/or 12:1. The devices are
usually called compressor/limiters. A preset level is set, and the compressor prohibits the
incoming signal from exceeding that level. The input signal level does not affect the
compression.
Expander. An expander increases a signal’s dynamic range.
Digital Delay. A digital delay processor records sampled audio into the RAM memory; the
signal can be delayed in milliseconds, and when the signal is combined with the original
signal, numerous effects can be created. For instance, with a short delay time (15–35
milliseconds), a doubling effect occurs. This adds richness and fullness to a sound.
Microphones. Microphone placement and the choice of the proper microphones determine
the quality of a sound. Microphones might be of the same type—dynamic, condenser, or ribbon
—but each individual microphone, within each category, has unique sonic characteristics.
Since microphone selection is a creative choice, experimentation is necessary to find the
precise microphones that are most appropriate for specific projects.
Engineers vary in the way they place microphones to record sound. With training and
experience, they develop a style and a setup that achieves their sonic goals. Most engineers
own a personal collection of microphones, which they rent to clients.
 Read chapter 8 for a discussion of noise gates, chorusing, flanging, microphone modeling, and
auto-tune.

The following is a description of basic microphone placement:

Ambient Microphone Position: Microphones are used to record the ambient sound of a
room. For instance, to make an orchestra sound “live,” most engineers place microphones
in the room and mix in the ambient room sound with the sound of the microphones that are
placed closer to the instruments. This helps to make the recording sound live. Without the
room sound, the recording would sound drier—not as natural.
Distant Microphone Position: Microphones should be placed far enough from the sound
source to pick up the entire sound of the instrument, including some room ambience. For
example, the sound of French horns expands into the room. The microphones have to be
placed far enough from the bell of the horn so they capture the overall sound of the
instrument. The direct sound of the instrument has to be prominent in the mix; if the
microphones are placed too far from the source, the direct sound will not be prominent
enough.
Close-Up Microphone Position: Some instruments sound best when miked closely. For
instance, an alto flute would not be heard if the microphone was too far from the sound
source.

Microphone Configurations. The following is a description of basic microphone

configurations:

Condenser Microphone: Condenser microphones, also referred to as capacitor or

electrostatic microphones, produce a clear and crisp sound. The condenser is powered
either by a battery or (more often) by a 48 volt phantom power supply, which is housed in
the recording console or a separate unit. Condenser microphones are the most popular
microphones used for vocals, and they are excellent all-around microphones.
Electret Microphones: Electret microphones, a form of condenser mike, are commonly
used as lapel mikes. They are also used in computers and camcorders. Most of them do
not require phantom power but may need a battery or possibly phantom power.
Dynamic Microphone: Dynamic microphones are considered the sturdiest type of
microphone. They are used to mike amplifiers and vocals, and can also be used to
accomplish almost any result. They can take more abuse than other microphones, such as
ribbon microphones, which can be fragile, although current ribbon mikes are sturdier than
their predecessors.
 Ribbon Microphone: Ribbon microphones, a type of dynamic microphone, have a smooth
sound. Singers and radio announcers often use them. Older ribbons are fragile and can
easily break with misuse; the newer ribbons are sturdier. If a recording console contains a
phantom power supply (a power source used to power condenser microphones), make
certain the phantom power is turned off, or it can destroy a ribbon microphone. They are
bidirectional, which means they pick up the signal equally from both sides of the mike.

Preamplifier. Microphones’ output signals need to be amplified because they generally have
low output signals. This is accomplished by using a preamp (preamplifier). It is crucial that a
producer/engineer use high quality preamps. Poor quality will result by using inferior preamps.
Polar Patterns (Polar Response Curve). Some microphones are designed to pick up
information transmitted only directly in front of them. That means a vocalist would have to
stand in front of the microphone to attain the best frequency response and the best vocal quality.
This is referred to as on-axis frequency response. Off-axis frequency response means that the
sound information is not hitting the microphone on-axis, and that can cause filtering and other
unpleasant responses. The pattern in which the microphone picks up an optimum frequency
response is called a polar pattern.
All microphones either have one polar pattern or can be adjusted to select a polar pattern.
The following are descriptions of the most used polar patterns:

Cardioid Pattern: A cardioid pattern is shaped like a heart. The heart-shaped area
receives the best frequency response. Most microphones have a cardioid polar pattern.
Supercardioid Pattern: A supercardioid pattern is similar in shape to a cardioid pattern
but has a thinner on-axis area. This pattern is used when the engineer wants to capture
ambience sounds from the sides of the microphone.
Hypercardioid Pattern: A hypercardioid pattern is shaped like a cardioid pattern but picks
up less on the sides; therefore, a hypercardioid pattern also records information
emanating from the back of the microphone pattern. This pattern is often used on movie
sets to keep out the ambient noise.
Bidirectional (Figure 8) Pattern: The bidirectional pattern picks up sound information
from the front and rear of the microphone. It does not pick up sound from the sides. This
pattern is often used to record group vocals; for example, 2 singers on one side of the
microphone and 2 on the opposite side.
Omnidirectional Pattern: An omnidirectional pattern means that the microphone picks up
sound from all directions. This pattern might be used to record a large group of singers.

The following are some concerns that engineers have when recording vocals:
 Most engineers use the 3 microphone styles for a variety of purposes. Engineering is an art form,
and there are no rules.

Sibilant Sound. Sibilance sounds like a whistle. Some singers naturally have sibilance in
their voice texture. Microphones, which have an unusually high-end clarity, emphasize
this problem. There are two basic solutions. A de-esser, which is a signal processor, is
designed to compress a narrow range of high frequencies. Most often sending the vocal
through a de-esser will either eliminate the sibilance or greatly reduce its sound. Also,
changing microphones will often either eliminate or reduce the sibilance.
Plosive Sound. Plosive sounds are popping sounds caused by singing certain consonants,
such as Ps, Ts, and Ks. There are several ways to eliminate the sound. A pop filter is
placed in front of or around the microphone. Most pop filters are made of either nylon or
foam. Or professional singers turn their heads to the side before singing a plosive
consonant.
Proximity Effect. When singers move too close to a microphone, the lower vocal
frequencies become prominent. This is especially true when using a ribbon microphone,
although it is a characteristic of all microphones and often determined by the polar
pattern. It is sometimes considered a desirable effect. Radio announcers move close to a
microphone in order to sound more resonant and deep. If too many low frequencies are
prominent in a singing voice, the singer might stand back from the microphone and try to
achieve an equal balance of frequencies.

Conclusion: Microphones
Many singers and instrumentalists own microphones. Multiple microphones of the same
make and model will each have individual characteristics. The entire sound of a production
can change with slight variations in microphone placement. The study and use of microphones
is part of an engineer’s tool chest, and thus part of the art form.
It is advisable to experiment with condenser, ribbon, and dynamic microphones, as well as
with microphone placement in standard recording setups. There are no rules when selecting
microphones. Engineers select microphones according to personal preferences.

Recreating a Live Performance in the Recording Studio

Many producers and artists try to re-create a live performance in the recording studio.
Audience reaction provides the adrenaline, needed by most artists, to stimulate a dynamic live
performance. The producer must find a way to create a live atmosphere in the studio. That is
sometimes accomplished by inviting a small audience—although it could be distracting to the
producer and engineer. If the session is conducted in a professional manner, the audience can
become the catalyst that fuels a dynamic performance.
It is generally wise for an artist to perform new songs live prior to recording. It affords an
artist the opportunity not only to rehearse and edit new material but also to monitor the
audience’s response. Artists might change a song’s format or arrangement as a result of
information gained through this process. If a song does not receive a positive reaction from the
audience, it might be deleted from the album. The audience is a focus group and can provide
invaluable information.

Artists often rerecord songs years after the original recording was made. Performing live generally transforms
songs into something not captured on the initial recording. That is the primary motive for issuing albums
recorded in front of an audience. Some songs (instrumentals) are like fine wine—they get better with age.
Listen to Ike and Tina Turner’s recording of “Proud Mary,” and then view a video of them performing the song
in front of an audience. The tempo is generally much faster than the one on the audio recording. Performing
live brings an entirely different feeling to the song.

Some bands, such as Nine Inch Nails, are production-oriented artists, and the studio
recordings must be re-created when they perform in concert. Technology has now made that
possible. Most artists have massive technical requirements and travel with specialists called
“techs” (technicians who maintain the electronic equipment). The gap between the sound of a
studio recording and that of a live performance has narrowed. The sophistication of recording
technology is truly staggering, and the creative results are governed only by an artist’s
imagination.
Audiences expect to “hear the album(s)” in a concert setting. The producer and artist, when
preparing the sound concept of a recording, must address this. It is wise to keep the
instrumentation as self-contained as possible. If the act is a band and additional musicians are
used to enhance the recording, the band will not sound the same when playing live. This has to
be of concern when the arrangements are conceived.
There are several ways to solve this problem when performing live:

Re-create parts on stage by using synthesizers, or record parts, and dump them into a
sampler or a computer-sequencing program and trigger the parts to blend in with a
live performance. For instance, if the recording has a live string section, the parts could
be played using string samples, or the live strings from the recording could be sampled
and triggered in the appropriate places. (Music-industry writers and fans sometimes
frown on the practice, although it is commonplace.)
Adapt the studio arrangements for live performance, which can be accomplished by a
skilled arranger. For instance, if a guitar player plays a solo on the album as well as an
additional harmony part during the live performance, a keyboard player could play the
 harmony part using a guitar sample.
Hire additional musicians and singers to perform the extra parts—a common strategy
of successful artists. For instance, during concerts, The Rolling Stones usually perform
with a horn section and additional background singers.

A competent front-of-house engineer (live-sound reinforcement) and high-quality

musicianship help recapture the excitement and ambience that is heard on a recording, during a
live performance. Engineers that adjust the earphone levels (“ears”) of the performers are
called monitor engineers.

Recording Live Performances

Bands and singer-songwriters often have different recording goals. Bands want to capture a
live performance on a studio recording, à la The Rolling Stones. Beginning with Sgt. Pepper,
The Beatles became a studio band and were more interested in the recording process than
capturing a live performance.
Once a band has established a fan base, the label usually issues compact discs recorded
during live concerts. The audience’s interaction creates excitement, which translates into
energetic performances. The A&R executives and the artist are usually responsible for
choosing the songs and performances to be included on the album.
Recording live can be costly. Large trucks are designed to accommodate recording-studio
control rooms. The equipment is expensive, and the rental is costly.
In a live venue, the recording engineer must contend with numerous problems that are not
present in an acoustically treated recording studio. Sound reverberates between parallel
surfaces such as walls. If there are no diffusers to help dissipate it or sound-absorption panels
to soak it up, the sound can become muddled. The result is a lack of sonic definition, and the
audience experiences an undesirable “Wall of Sound” instead of a clear definition of sound.

The study of sound reinforcement refers to the study of live-sound engineering. Understanding the
sound in various venues should be of interest to a music producer because most producers will eventually
produce live recordings. Various acoustical environments can be complicated, and a producer must consider
potential problems prior to selecting an engineer.

That can be distressing for the producer and the recording engineer. To help alleviate some
of the problems, the engineer places microphones in front of instruments, amplifiers, and/or
instrumental sections such as brass or strings and separates their effects by recording them on
individual tracks. That gives the engineer control over each instrument or section when mixing.
Ambient microphones are placed throughout a venue to capture the room sound, including the
reaction of the audience. The ambience tracks are mixed with the individual tracks. The
overall sound greatly enhances the listener’s perception of a live concert and telegraphs the
size of the venue.
To combat some of the acoustical problems found in a concert hall, engineers hang heavy
draperies and give the venue extra acoustical treatment that helps absorb unwanted sound and
diffuse the sound more evenly. Acoustically treated gobos surrounding the drums, percussion,
or other selected instruments, also help isolate the sound.

Conclusion
A producer must become familiar with all aspects of the recording studio. Choosing a studio, a
recording console, an engineer, signal processors, a monitoring system, studio musicians,
background singers, songs, and arrangers, is the full or partial responsibility of a music
producer.
Once a producer has decided on a production concept and a sonic image, all potential
concerns dealing with the studio and the engineering must be addressed. Choice of studios and
engineers will affect the overall production. Producers must be detail oriented, dotting the Is
and crossing the Ts!

Interview with Trevor Fletcher

Trevor Fletcher is the vice president and general manager of The Hit Factory Criteria Studios
in Miami, Florida (more than 300 gold and platinum albums have been recorded in these
studios).
MZ: How has the studio business changed in the past several years?
TF: It used to be that when you made a record, it involved . . . $400,000-plus consoles,
expensive tape machines, and so forth . . . then the industry began to change a lot as digital
technology became more prevalent. Pro Tools, Logic, Cakewalk, Abelton Live . . . all of these
innovations drastically changed the concept of how to make a record. It essentially
democratized the recording process. As a result, people were able to record, with reasonable
quality, in environments different than the traditional recording environment . . . The
technological advancement and the cost [of equipment] enabled them to do that . . . Now
anyone can spend a couple of thousand dollars and make a record at home. There is no
guarantee that it is going to sound good, or no guarantee that it is going to be made well, or that
anyone knows what they are doing, but the technology now enables the layman to dabble in the
recording process . . . Almost anyone can go home and make music. It is a matter of perceived
value. If I’m going to go to studio ABC and record on a large console with engineers,
assistants, producers, arrangers etc and the ability exists now where I can do it at my house for
$5, where is the incentive for them to spend money in a recording studio?
 When recording engineers record live performances, they sometimes share the “snake” (a
connection that simplifies connecting microphones, amplifiers, and other equipment to the sound console)
with the live-sound reinforcement engineer. That helps eliminate unnecessary wires; both engineers must be
willing to compromise on the placement of the microphones.

MZ: Have professional recording studios lost clients because labels have lowered their
recording budgets?
TF: . . . file sharing has had a tremendously significant [effect] for the reduction in volume of
monetized music sales. . . . [Many] young adults think music should be free. They have no
qualms about stealing it, downloading it, sharing it with their friends, or anything along those
lines. [The compression used in MP3 technology has caused a lack of sonic quality,] “If you
have nothing to compare it against . . . Then you are in a situation where that becomes the norm.
So there is an entire generation of consumers that believe that A, music should be free and B,
music is supposed to sound like crap . . . they [the consumer] don’t even know it sounds bad.
They [the consumer] have essentially traded fidelity for mobility.
MZ: What percentage of your business is mixing as compared to recording?
TF: A large percentage [mix only]. . . . A lot of people believe they can do their recordings at
home and then they come to the studio and say, “Fix this . . . make this better . . . make it sound
like band XYZ but band XYZ recorded in a multi-million dollar facility with highly trained
professionals, acoustically correct rooms, the best equipment, the best technology, the best
“ears” [producers and engineers] . . . but for the most part, it can’t [sound as good]. [If an artist
records a hit in a project studio, why should the record companies spend money for artists to
go to a professional facility?] There are some boutique labels that go out of their way to keep
the [recordings] in the digital domain at high sampling rates, bit depths—things along those
lines . . . but it is not the rule but the exception.
MZ: What percentage of clients are recording on analog tape?
TF: 5 percent . . . the best of both worlds is to record the instruments that benefit from [the
sound of analog] and then transfer it to the digital domain for digital editing while still
retaining the sound of the analog signal path for those instruments that are most affected by it.
Take into consideration that [very few companies manufacture analog tape.] . . . There are now
plug-in companies that manufacture plug-ins to make the audio sound as though it has been
recorded on analog tape.
MZ: What is the future of the professional recording studio?
TF: A large number of middle-tier studios have gone out of business . . . completely gone or
perhaps to have become someone’s project studio . . . The large studios that are able to cater to
successful artists will continue to be a viable commodity. Target [your professional studio] to
do things that can’t be done in a small studio or project studio. Technology will continue to
advance, the price point [of the equipment] will [also] drop . . . therefore, a studio must
embrace that or your future will not be terribly bright.
MZ: Are most of your clients already established artists?
TF: Not necessarily. [We try to work [make affordable] with up and coming artists, producers,
and engineers because one day some of them will be successful and be able to afford to work
in a professional environment.] Some of our clients are not financially successful but value
what we have to offer. [We are able to cater to anything our clients need, from technical
assistance to dining and beyond.] When you come here, we have 5, 6, 7 studios of various
sizes and varying acoustic spaces and they all sound fantastic . . . we have an [extensive]
selection of microphones . . . our clients embrace that. If labels or production companies have
ongoing relationships with the studios, they [labels or production companies] may ask for
special financial considerations when recording a new artist. It is in everyone’s best interest
for the studio to attempt to work out a financially viable deal. One must recognize what the
market will bear and work with the client. That is how relationships are built and maintained.
It is a foolish venture [to build or purchase a studio] without knowing who is going to be using
it and how they are going to pay for it . . . [In this industry environment, if a new state-of-the-
art studio is built, someone involved should have a substantial revenue stream “to keep the
doors open.”] Most likely, successful producers and artists who write and produce [will
attract clients.] With limited exceptions, the days when one producer will produce an entire
album are over.
MZ: Are most successful producers recording tracks in their project studios and then mixing in
your studio?
TF: It varies. The big difference, in my mind, of recording in a project studio or recording in a
professional recording studio is primarily financial. It is my opinion, that if you are working at
home, it is a lot easier to be distracted—and therefore less productive. Be it by your
significant other, the dog, a movie, TV . . . there are always distractions if you are doing
something outside of a professional environment. There are artists who have the financial
resources to record at any recording studio, but choose not to. On the other hand, I have clients
who already have their own studios but still choose to come here—because of the atmosphere,
the level of service—whatever reason. My feeling has long been that the recording studio must
be conducive to creativity . . . Clients don’t have to worry about anything other than creating
music . . . Our primary focus is to make people comfortable and elicit the best performances . .
. the best music possible. Recorded music is becoming a loss leader for touring.

Assignment
Create a fictitious recording project (a complete album). Answer the following questions:

Describe the attributes of an engineer who would be most appropriate for the project.
Describe the studio of your choice. Why would you choose that particular studio? Your
answer must include specifics about the control room and the studio room.
Describe the signal processors you plan to use and how you plan to use them.
Include any additional technical information you feel would enhance your production.
17

Audio Engineering

Most audio engineers specialize in a musical genre. They apprentice in recording studios,
although many have studied audio engineering at universities or trade schools prior to
apprenticeships. The training requires years of practical experience. Audio engineering is both
a technical and artistic discipline. As previously stated, it is the creative use of technology
that contributes to the success of a music engineer.
Some engineers work only “in the box.” They record and mix in a computer audio program,
such as Pro Tools or Logic Pro. Most professional engineers route the audio tracks from a
computer program through an audio console. They use traditional outboard gear, such as
hardware reverberation, compressors, and delay units, in addition to computer plug-ins, which
are mostly software versions of the hardware counterparts for reverberation, compression,
delays, and so forth.
If an engineer records on digital tape, the information is transferred to a digital audio
program, such as Pro Tools, for editing and mixing.

Several companies still manufacture audio tape.

Orchestral Engineering

Most engineers who specialize in orchestral recording try not to use excessive
equalization (EQ). Their goal is to make the orchestra sound natural. Most engineers own
an array of microphones, and they have the ability to achieve a realistic sound through
proper microphone placement and selecting the most appropriate microphones for each
instrumental section.
The orchestra may contain prerecorded synthesizer parts, guitars, a rhythm section, or
various other sounds that must blend with the orchestra, consisting of live musicians.
Engineers generally receive prerecorded tracks prior to the orchestra recording. During
the recording process, the producer and the engineer must make certain that the orchestra
 blends with the prerecorded tracks. If necessary, the engineers can EQ the prerecorded
material to blend with the orchestra. If the overdubs are recorded after the orchestral
recording, it is easier to blend the sounds.

Orchestra Setup
Many albums are mixed in traditional stereo as well as in surround sound. Engineers
develop individual microphone setups. There are traditional setups that work for recording
orchestras. The following is one example:

4 microphones over the violin section. For a solo violin, place a solo microphone.
2 viola microphones
2 cello microphones
A bass microphone for each double bass
Stereo woodwind microphones and solo microphones for any solo instruments. Include an
overhead stereo pair to record the ambience of the section.
Record trumpets and trombones with a stereo pair. Use solo microphones if needed.
Record French horns with a stereo pair placed far enough away from the bell to record
the room ambience along with the direct sound.
Tubas should have individual microphones. There is normally only 1 tuba.
Use microphones to record the ambient sounds of the entire orchestra. Recording the
ambient room sound of the orchestra makes the recording sound as if the listener was
sitting in a concert hall.

Bob Fernandez Interview

Bob Fernandez has been a scoring mixer (a sound engineer for film music) for more than
twenty-six years. He was the chief scoring mixer at Warner Bros. Studios (film) for
approximately sixteen years, and he is currently an independent engineer.
MZ: What films have you have worked on?
BF: Most recently it would be The Hulk, Fast & the Furious and Legally Blonde 2. All in all
there’s probably a little over 300 films that I’ve done. And hundreds of television shows . . .
probably a thousand.
MZ: How do the engineering techniques differ from recording records?
BF: The first thing is multichannel, dealing with more than two channels. People are talking up
5.1, but I’ve been mixing in surround sound for years.
MZ: Do you think surround sound mixing will extend to 6.1 or 7 [additional speakers]?
 This interview was conducted on the Eastwood Scoring Stage at Warner Bros. film studios in
Burbank, California.

BF: It may. It’s hard to say; I know there are a few films out in 6 and 7.1 format, but primarily
it’s still a 5.1 world.
MZ: Theaters would have to be reconfigured to accommodate a more complex system.
BF: The theaters would have to be set up for that. They would have to have the discrete
surround sound channels. Discrete left, center, right, and front. Then you’d have to have
discrete left side surround that discrete left rear, discrete rear center surround, and a discrete
right rear, and a discrete right side surround. That becomes quite a big ticket for those guys to
spend a lot of money like that. I can see them staying at 5.1 for a while now.
MZ: When you’re mixing the music, are you using the entire surround sound system?
BF: Yes. I wouldn’t consider mixing the film without the surround. Its just part of what we do.
When you mike an orchestra you mike it so you have ambient surround microphones, which
give you the fill in the back. And you can also create surrounds when you are mixing
synthesizers. Basically all synthesizer samples are stereo, so you want to make them into 4.1.
There are left-to-right fronts and the left-to-right surrounds.
MZ: How do you select the speakers for each instrumental section? Is your sonic picture from
the audience’s perspective while viewing a live concert?
BF: Yes. I mike it so the orchestra is in a traditionally classical setup. Violins on the left,
violas center, woodwinds behind the celli, and basses on your right. And the brass on the right,
French horns in the middle or on the left side, and percussion spread off in the back. That’s
pretty much how I do it. I’ve done several scores, where we split the strings. We have this sort
of antiphonal effect, first violins on the left, second violins on the right.
MZ: Is that unusual?
BF: It is. A few composers that I work with like to do this. But you need to have a large string
section to do that. I would say, twelve [violins per side] is the minimum size. That gives you
twenty-four violins. We have had larger complements when we’ve had fourteen violas, ten or
twelve celli, and eight basses. For violins to work that way [there should be] fewer divisions.
It is better to lean heavily toward the unison side [especially if you have a small string
section]; otherwise parts tend to stick out and make the sections sound smaller.
MZ: Have you ever changed the configuration of the studio because of the balance?
BF: No, because you plan everything with the composer. We talk about what we are going for.
Are we going for a very open spacious sound, or a tight sound, or an intimate sound? The last
thing you want to do is waste time when you are on the stage [soundstage], resetting everything.
Once you step on the scoring stage—unlike a record session, where schedule is a little more
lax, you have a little more time to do things—in a film environment if you go onto the stage at
10:00, you start at 10:00. You have as many as 100 people sitting out there, and that meter is
running. It’s very expensive. You have to be prepared when you come on the stage. How many
synthesizer tracks are we bringing in? What format are they on, Pro Tools or Digital
Performer? All of these things need to be addressed before you get to the stage.
MZ: What does a music editor do?
BF: The music editor starts on the project way before I do. He [she] comes on initially with
the composer, and they work together. They’ll meet with the director and watch the film for the
first time. It’s called a spotting session. They’ll make notes of where they want the music to
start and stop. Suggestions about “maybe we don’t have music here, but how about we add
music?” The music editor will make all those timing notes, write them all down, print them out,
and give them to the composer. The composer now has an idea of where the director wants the
music. The composer will go back to his home studio with a copy of the film, whether it is a
digital video or a VHS copy. He’ll sit there and have all the timing notes, and of course there is
time code on the video, so he will know where each scene starts and stops. So the music editor
provides him with all that information and keeps him abreast of all the changes. Then, on the
scoring stage, we [music editor and scoring mixer] will notate everything that is going down.
We both keep track of all the takes that we are doing on a specific cue and any pertinent notes
that need to be addressed. We talked about adding some percussion stuff on this particular cue.
So that’s addressed, and all those notes are kept so we can systematically go through cue by
cue and address any changes that have to be done to the cue. Then, when we get into the mixing
process. I will mix off of whatever medium we record to. That could be a Pro Tools system,
maybe analog tape or digital tape. We will mix back to a Pro Tools system. He will handle the
Pro Tools while we are recording and mixing. He will keep track of all the takes and all the
mixes. He will edit them together and take them off to the dubbing stage, where he lays them
into the film with the rerecording engineers.
MZ: Do you hear the dialogue and/or the sound effects when you are mixing?
BF: We have a work track that we use. Unfortunately, it is only a mono work track, but yes, we
play the dialogue track against the mixes we make to make sure we are not getting in the way of
the dialogue. The effects in the work track, as well as the dialogue, are fairly crude, and they
are not the finished effects [or dialogue]. The production dialogue, at times, could be replaced
by ADR [Automated Dialogue Replacement] dialogue, but it gives us a good idea of where we
are as far as anything getting into that range. If things are poking out or too loud, we can flatten
them down a little bit, bring them down a level, give the music a better chance of getting
through on the mix.
MZ: Do you find that more composers are taking home QuickTime [digital video] videos to
work with?
BF: Yes. It’s much easier and faster. It saves a lot of time on the stage [studio].
MZ: We’re on the soundstage. You have a very high ceiling, which obviously gives you natural
reverberation. Do you still use microphones to record the ambience in the room?
BF: Absolutely. For an orchestra we have three omni microphones around the podium over the
conductor’s head, then a couple of outrigger mikes left and right over the orchestra. For the
surround I will have two mikes and set them back. We look at this from an audience
perspective. For a room with restricted distance, add a delay to the mikes. I use a TC delay to
do it either in feet, meters, or milliseconds. I want the mikes to be thirty feet behind the
conductor. When you don’t have space behind the conductor and are limited to twelve to fifteen
feet, there isn’t enough room to create a spacious feel.
MZ: Can you tell what the recorded ambience mixed with the music will sound like in a
theater?
BF: Yes and no. What we try and do in an environment like this is to get as close to, or make
the mix sound as well as it can possibly sound. You aren’t going to be right on the mark
because every theater is different. Obviously, there are times, because of sound effects and the
new dialogue tracks, that they eat through the music a little differently than what we
[originally] had.
MZ: Do the dubbing engineers have control over the gain on each output of the surround sound
mix?
BF: Yes. We give the left and right surround. They have control of that. They can EQ it, raise
the level, or lower the level.
MZ: Is it unusual for them to ask you to remix?
BF: It’s rare but not unusual. Once in a while they’ll say they are having trouble with one
particular element [and ask us to] separate it. We will bring the mix up and put it on another set
of tracks. It’s just a matter of recalling the mix that has already been recorded in the computer.
You bring it up, and make a new stem [grouping]. They have the mix as it originally was, plus
that element they wanted separate. You need to give them some flexibility. Basically when you
think of a 5.1 mix, the average person thinks a 5.1 mix is just 5.1. Well, it is in the sense that it
is what you are monitoring. In a film, you are essentially monitoring up to twenty tracks, in a
5.1 configuration. You have an orchestra [LCR, LS-RS-LFE], then LCR choir [Left Center
Right choir] with some surrounds. You may have some synthesizer [tracks] that could be a 4.1
[left front, right front, and your left surround, right surround, and LFE channel]—4.1 because
most synthesizer samples, being stereo, do not have hard center channels . . . you have this
phantom center [imagined center channel].
MZ: Are the synthesizers generally prerecorded before the orchestra is recorded?
BF: Yes. They are usually brought in already done, but they haven’t been mixed. They are
tracks that have been set up in a MIDI environment. For the most part, they haven’t been
balanced against the orchestra; they haven’t been EQed. Some have been affected where the
composer likes what he has, so let’s not modify this; let it in against the orchestra.
MZ: Do you use the Pro Tools mixer or run the recorded material through the SSL console?
BF: There again, it depends where I’m working. I have mixed several films using the
ProControl [Pro Tools mixing console], and from the SSL back into Pro Tools.
MZ: Are you using the console for balancing or effects as well?
BF: Sometimes effects. If I’m mixing through the Pro Tools console, I’m using the plug-ins
there [virtual signal processing effects]. I may have the digital reverb connected to a 960 or
TC6000. I may have that stuff connected to it. Mixing in a large studio, like Warner’s, you are
taking information from a Pro Tools system, bringing it in analog into the SSL, then analog out
of the SSL through a high-end converter and back to Pro Tools.
MZ: Do you notice a big difference with plug-in effects compared to hardware effects?
BF: Yes. If you take some of their samples, plug-ins, like the Bomb Factory LA2A, and
compare them, there is a bit of a difference.
MZ: Is one better than the other?
BF: I don’t know if it’s better. It’s different. When I’m working in an all-digital domain, I don’t
mind using the plug-ins because I don’t find them offensive. They are just a little different
sounding than the actual hardware [but very good].
MZ: What plug-ins do you like?
BF: Filters, EQs, and compressors.
MZ: Have you compared the sound of Pro Tools HD system to what you are hearing directly
through the console?
BF: Yes, and it sounds very good if I’m at 24-bit 96 k. I don’t like working in lower bit rates
and [lower] sampling rates. I have worked in 192 . . . great sounding.
MZ: How much memory do you need?
BF: You need an enormous amount of storage. With Pro Tools you can run out of DSP power
pretty quick, especially with some of the newer reverb plug-ins.
MZ: Do you find in a major studio, like Warner Brothers, that you generally have enough of
everything that you need? Do you have to call before the session?
BF: No, because I have a huge inventory of equipment myself. I have three monitor systems,
sixty microphone preamps, one hundred and sixty microphones of my own, three processing
racks of gear. I only worry about the console and the support team that is there. At a place like
this, they have a great support team. You’re never going to get stuck compared to smaller
studios. You need a studio that caters to film.
MZ: What are your favorite microphones for recording strings?
BF: I use the original AKG C12. I’m a big tube mike fan. It’s warmer…67s on violins and
violas. On the condenser side, the Senheiser MK40. For woodwinds, Schoeps microphones,
MK 40 for low woodwinds, bassoons, and clarinet. Percussion, I’ll mix it up depending upon
what it is. For big drums I use Omnis B&K4006 and MK40s cardioid microphones. The only
adjustable patterns I would use: 414 BULS on vibes, K184, 84 on mallets. For brass I go from
ribbons to condensers. Royers, AKG C12 VR on trumpets; Royer stereo; M50 on brass
overall; Tuba 193, 414 and U87A. On low brass, M149—nice fat full sound.
MZ: You obviously have vast experience recording orchestras. Many young engineers only
record into computer audio programs. Many of them do not know anything about miking a live
orchestra.
BF: I would recommend that people like that go out and listen to as much live music as
possible. Go to live concerts and hear what an orchestra really sounds like. Their only
reference to orchestral music is samples, orchestra, string, brass, and woodwinds. You should
hear what an orchestra sounds like. There are a lot of guys out there doing really great jobs, but
for me, it doesn’t sound like what an orchestra really sounds like. There is a huge amount of
power when they are playing. Listen to as much orchestral music as you can. Submerse
yourself. Listen to what’s happening on the walls behind you. Listen to how the orchestra is
filling up the room, the decays, and why an orchestra sounds a certain way.
MZ: How do you reproduce that sound?
BF: I spent years with orchestras setting up the console and doing assistance work. I was
always exposed to music—live classical. It became a natural thing. The interesting part for me
when I was assisting is that you could hear the difference between guys [who] really knew how
an orchestra should sound [and those who did not]. There is a balance already [between] a
good conductor and a good orchestra. It’s not like a pop mix.
MZ: Can you explain the difference between a recording console designed for film recording
and a console designed for normal music recording?
BF: First of all, this film panel [a section of the console] you wouldn’t find in a record studio.
This film panel allows us to monitor all the stems. If we are recording a mix that is twenty-four
tracks wide, this will allow us to go through and listen to each stem individually. On a regular
two-track stereo console, you wouldn’t have that. You couldn’t mix that way. What you’d have
to do is mix using the tape buses and bring back your stems on some faders. This console is
specifically designed to mix multiple stems as opposed to just mixing stereo. This allows us to
mix in 5.1 surround sound. You wouldn’t find that on a record console. You might find a
subwoofer channel on all the subsonic stuff . . . 2.1 is what you would probably get.
MZ: What is a stem?
BF: A stem is a group of tracks mixed together, such as the Orchestra. That would be a 5.1
stem—LCR, LS, RS, LFE, The Choir, a five-channel stem—LCR, LS RS, the rhythm,
percussion, synthesizers, etc. Each stem of the mix would come up in the monitor section. If I
wanted to check the orchestra stem, I would check the LCR [left, center, right stem] or just the
surround stem. The subwoofer [LFE] is a separate channel, percussion or choir. On a record
console we don’t have the ability to do that because you’re not set up to mix twenty-four tracks
wide [or in some cases even wider].
MZ: You don’t separate the instrumental sections with gobos [portable soundproofing]?
BF: Sometimes. It all depends on the sound we are going for. If we have an instrument that is
bleeding too much into the orchestra [we would use gobos]. For example: the celeste [might
be] a little loud in the room. [If you put] gobos and a blanket around it, it will sound fine. Once
in a while we do that, but for the most part we try not to. You want it to bleed, to sound live.
That’s the secret to a good orchestral recording, the bleed into all the microphones. This gives
you the sound and space—your sound field. Your front-to-back, your left-to-right width, the
sound traveling from one microphone to another.
MZ: Do you use outboard compressors or the compressors housed within the recording
console?
BF: Both. I like compressors in both the Neve and SSL consoles. They are great. Basically,
when I’m tracking, I’ll use outboard compressors. I’ll use things like LA2A or 1176. That’s
basically for rhythm tracking, percussion, and for orchestra. I’ll use a rack of Summit DCL200
compressors, and Avalon EQ’s. I run my film mix through them, sort of like mastering. My mix
goes through that before it goes to the final Pro Tools mix rig.
MZ: Is there a special engineering term used for mastering a film score?
BF: Finalizing the mix. My mix goes through my compressors, and I set the ratio depending on
what the mix is. A lot of the time I don’t like the compression. I don’t like that sound of things
being squashed. I like that nice open sound. It all depends on what it is. For myself, I tend to
put EQ after the compression so if there is any high stuff, I can put a little bit back in, brighten
it up a little bit more. There is one thing you have keep in mind when you’re mixing for film:
The screen is a high-end filter. The screen is a big white perforated thing, and sound has to get
through. Highs tend to roll off. We’ve measured that at Warner Bros. by putting microphones
out in front of screen with the screen down and up. There is a marked difference in what the
speaker produces without the screen. The speaker is just flat. You are listening to what comes
out. It’s basically what you’re hearing in here. You’re hearing the top end and things above 8K.
Put the screen up, and that tends to roll off. So you need to add just a little more back in.
MZ: Is it similar to what happens when music is played on the radio? The top end is rolled off.
BF: Right, only this thing [screen] is a big white filter.
MZ: The majority of income from films is made through DVD sales. Do you have to remix the
music for DVD, and are you concerned about the mix sounding good on small speakers, as you
would be with a record production?
BF: No. I’m not. I’ve gone back in and remixed a series of films that were originally released
in mono. I approached it as if I was mixing a film.
MZ: What do you normally put through the sub [low channel]?
BF: Specific instruments. If it’s synthesizers I’ll put some of the low hits, the impact, some of
the real low-patch stuff. So you sort of feel the rumble in the room. You don’t want to take the
orchestra and drop it in there because of the subharmonic. It drops everything and gets very
muddy. You have to be very selective. That’s something I would say to guys just starting out:
You’ve got to be selective as to what you put in there. Your mixes will come out much cleaner
and brighter if you just put things in there selectively. Synth hits . . . the low stuff. You’re not
going to stick an oboe there. It’s not going to sound right.
MZ: When mixing in surround sound, do you find it more difficult to get an accurate balance
than if you’re mixing in stereo?
BF: No. What I do like is to take some of the synthesizer parts and get the patch stuff moving
around us. Add delays so it comes across you and goes into the surrounds. Again, that’s another
area where you need to be very selective. You can start to overload your surrounds with too
much activity. For a film, it doesn’t really work because what you’re doing is drawing
attention away from the screen. You don’t want to do that. You want to have some ambience
around you…maybe a little thing here and there in the left-right surrounds. Keep the activity
down to a minimum because you’re distracting the viewer from what’s on the screen. You want
[the audience] to be enveloped in the sound. You don’t want to overload. You might want to
shock them a little bit, keep the surrounds as an ambient track.
MZ: Do you use a lot of signal processing?
BF: Eqing, depending upon the environment—things that you want to take out. Every room has
its own resonant frequency. Notes may tend to blossom a bit at that frequency. You want to be
aware of that. Find out where that is, and notch it back a little bit. You want everything to
sound like it’s in the same environment. Oftentimes, if you want a different sound, it needs to
be treated in a completely new way. On some scores, like Fast and Furious, we had a lot of
electronics and a lot of delays.
MZ: What is the mixing process for film music? In records, sometimes you spend five days
mixing one song.
BF: Well, in film we don’t have the luxury of that time. Normally, I’ll have to mix from 50 to
80 minutes of music for a score. When I’m asked how much time do I need, well, I say [it
depends] on the complexity of the mix and how many synth tracks we have. That keeps getting
bigger, and bigger, and bigger. Sometimes I’ll have as many as eighty to a hundred synthesizer
tracks in a mix.
MZ: How many faders do you use?
BF: Well, oftentimes we are using up the entire console; we use both sets of faders.
[Sometimes] in order to assign everything out, we bring in a separate console. The complexity
of the mix sort of dictates how much time I need. If it’s a complex mix, then we’re mixing
twelve minutes a day. That’s a lot of mixing in one day. The longest process has been two
weeks. When you’re mixing a song, you probably mix three or four different versions of one
song; well, that’s only one song. We have 40 to 50 cues; I’m [often] mixing three versions of
that cue. We may start out with the cue as it was originally written, which may not go into the
picture, and then there’s the cue that was changed after the director heard it, and then there are
alternates to that cue. In essence, you are mixing three, four, five versions of one cue that goes
off to the dubbing stage, where they decide at that point which of those cues or mixes goes into
the picture. So, again, not having the luxury of time that you have in the record industry, you
have to really mix fast. So I’d say twelve minutes a day, based on a twelve-hour day.
Depending on the budget, they don’t give us the time to do what we need to do, so we are
mixing around the clock. We are chasing the dub. If we start scoring on Monday, [on] Thursday
you start mixing, and we have the music Saturday. That’s when we are starting the dub [the
final mix, including dialogue and effects]. That was the case with The Hulk. I worked on the
second score with Danny Elfman. I was at Fox Studios, with Danny Elfman, recording the
orchestra. Dennis Sands was here mixing the music. Every time we had something done we
would send the hard drives over. Then Danny would show up here at night and go over the
mixes with Dennis. The next morning Danny would be back there with me and we’d mix till
seven or eight o’clock.
MZ: Is the film composer basically the music producer?
BF: Yes. He is dealing directly with you [the engineer] and the director. The director will talk
directly to the composer. If it’s something that pertains to changing the cue or adding something
or rewriting, then obviously that doesn’t pertain to me. That is Danny and the writing staff. That
brings up a composer and having a crew that he works with, people that he surrounds himself
with. A composer needs to establish a team of people around him that know their jobs and take
away all the tasks and things that a composer doesn’t need to worry about. Any composer I
work with doesn’t need to know what I’m doing here and how I set up there. We talk about the
sound we’re going for. It frees up the composer to do two things: write the score and deal with
the director. He doesn’t have to worry about what the rest of his team is doing. We are all
professionals, and we all know what we have to do. We try to keep our questions to a minimum
because we don’t want to bother him while he is writing
MZ: Is the orchestrator usually at the session?
BF: Yes. Oftentimes the orchestrator may be the conductor. Some composers don’t conduct,
and they prefer to have the orchestrator right there.
MZ: How often do cues have to be rewritten?
BF: I’ve been on films where every cue is rewritten. I wouldn’t say that it’s a regular thing, but
it does happen. I have not been on a film where every cue is thumbs-up approved. There are
always one or two cues that could be lightened or darkened up.
MZ: Is that a matter of rewriting?
BF: It can oftentimes be fixed by orchestration, by changing something in the strings, or
whatever. A lot of composers are really good at thinking on their feet, to change this and this,
and then they rehearse it for their director, and the director will go, “That’s exactly what I
want.” A lot of times it will be something a little more complex that calls for a rewrite, which
is a little less uncommon.
MZ: How often do the directors refer to the temp tracks during a studio session?
BF: They do, and it’s hell for the composer. One instance: working on a film—will remain
nameless—where a composer had written this beautiful seven-minute cue, and he sat down.
We played back the cue, and the director said, “That’s not like my temp.” The composer just
looked at him and said, “If you really like that temp, then I suggest you hire the guy that wrote
the temp, because this is what I wrote, and if you don’t like it, then I’m out of here.” Then the
director did like it, but [the director said], “Can you do this and this?” I think the better
approach of that whole situation would have been: “It’s a great cue, but can you change this
and this?”
MZ: When composing music for commercials, some creatives try to push the composer to
plagiarize.
 Temporary track is music written by other composers (or the film composer’s music) to show the
composer the style of music the director wants written.

BF: That’s an instance where they have been around their temp score so long that they can’t
wean themselves away from it. No matter how good the cue is, they are still falling back on the
temp because they have lived with it for so long.
MZ: What makes a good score?
BF: A good score is one that brings you into the picture, doesn’t distract you. It has a motion,
movement, things that keep you glued to the picture. In the past, I’ve worked with people that
overwrote for what was going on. A good composer will pick spots and write for what the
scene needs.
MZ: Do you find that when you are mixing, you do have to mute some of the orchestration to
make the cue work with the dialogue?
BF: That is something that used to happen in the past. The people I’m working with now are
really good composers and orchestrators who are aware of that because they are listening to
the dialogue too. They know to keep out of the way of the dialogue. You often have to throw
away dialogue. If the audience hears it it’s fine, but if the audience doesn’t, that’s also fine. We
want the cue to enhance the scene, not detract from it.
MZ: How involved is the average director at the scoring session?
BF: Some directors are hands-on, and others will let the composer do what he [she] is doing.
But they all have input, some more than others. Some will be a little too hands-on in guiding
the composer. Other directors give input when they feel it is needed. If there is a scene that they
feel strongly about, then they will have input. But again, they all have input; just the degree of
input varies.
MZ: How much tension is the engineering staff under since budgets are so high? If you have a
breakdown in the studio, it costs thousands of dollars.
BF: Yes, it does. The pressure is always there to make sure everything is working. The way I
work: I will be here the day before setting everything up, will check everything out. If we start
at ten, I will be here at eight. We will go through everything again. All the mikes are checked
out, just to make sure. There is quite a bit of setup time and preparation. When ten comes, we
start to roll. We start listening. With small-budget films you work a lot faster. With a big
budget, you will take your time and go through each cue and get it right.
MZ: Do you normally listen back while watching the film?
BF: Absolutely. All the time. We never play back without it. We play back with film and
dialogue. The way I run my sessions, I will play back the cue and listen to it with just the
music. We are checking notes on our first playback. Then we play it back again with the
dialogue to see where we sit. So we always have two playbacks.
MZ: Do you run a backup tape?
BF: Yes and no. Sometimes it’s another hard-disk recorder.
MZ: Do you record using digital tape, analog tape, or direct-to-digital audio?
BF: Pro Tools HD. We record right into it.
MZ: Do you run a second Pro Tools backup?
BF: Yes. A second Pro Tools backup or a RADAR. It’s a physical hard-disk recorder.
MZ: Do you still use tape?
BF: I do occasionally. I still love the sound of tape. When I’m not able to [work with high-
resolution digital audio], I’ll fall back to analog tape, two 24-track [recorders].
MZ: Do you think that 192 [high sampling rate] will become the standard?
BF: I hope so, unless they come out with something other than that. I would like to have 192 on
all 48 tracks.
MZ: Have you compared 192 to 96 [sampling rate]?
BF: You will hear the difference. You will hear the difference between 96K compared to 48K
and 44.1K. I was working on a classical record—classical guitarist with orchestra—–and we
had been recording for five days at 24-bit 96K. We were running 48K backup and had a DAT
16-bit 44.1. At the end of the session we hadn’t heard the DAT yet, and we played back the
DAT. How bad that sounds compared to 24-bit 96K. It was amazing, stereo mix in 24-bit 96K.
The converters make a very big difference.
MZ: What sampling rate are you hearing in the theater?
BF: In some theaters you might be hearing 96K. In most theaters, I think you are hearing 44.1,
but I’m not sure about that.
MZ: If you convert from 192 to a lesser resolution, does the lesser resolution sound enhanced
since the original recording was recorded at a high sampling rate?
BF: Yes. In my opinion, it’s always better to start in the highest resolution and then go down
from there.
MZ: How much digital editing do you do?
BF: Each film is different. When you record a cue—say it’s a three minute cue, and say there is
a little clam [mistake] in there, trumpets or violins—you go back and make a pickup in that
section. Some cues may have as many as three or four pickups, so you edit those pieces. You
make one complete cue, but that doesn’t happen on every cue. So you do have some digital
editing. Sometimes the music editor and the composer get together and say this cue is a little
long because the scene has been shortened. We will pick a section and [edit] that out, edit the
cue, shorten it, or maybe add a few frames to the cue, just like a record. The Pro Tools
operator, who is different than the music editor, will have all those cues in his rig, and he will
take all those pickups and edit them all together, so when I start to mix them, I’m not mixing
bits and pieces, I’m mixing the entire edited piece. It’s done. By the time it comes up to me on
the console, I’m mixing the cue, which has already been edited.
MZ: What percentage of cues are recorded using a click track [digital metronome]?
BF: Pretty much all of them. There are a few composers in town that don’t use click tracks at
all, or to a minimum. They work off streamers [markers put on the film]. They are the older
composers. I don’t know of any of the younger composers that work that way.
MZ: Do the conductors watch the picture on the big screen or on the monitor in front of them?
BF: Both. They have two monitors in front of them. One will be the picture, which is also up
on the large screen. One monitor will give the bar counts [and sometimes the notation].
MZ: If I wanted to conduct while viewing Digital Performer, would I be able to view it?
BF: Absolutely. That would be generated from the music editor’s rig or any other rig that was
in here. Digital Performer will be coming off a hard drive. It has to be locked, and it has to
start at a certain time-code point and end at a time-code point. Every cue is timed out for a
specific scene. So it has to start at a certain point and end at a certain point.
MZ: Is it typical to work in digital?
BF: Yes, from the home studios into the bigger studios. The bigger studios now are actually
supplying Pro Tools rigs. Warner, Paramount, and Fox all have Pro Tools HD rigs.
MZ: What kind of storage do they have?
BF: They are like 74-gig hard drives.
MZ: Are you working primarily on Macs?
BF: Yes.
MZ: Of course you don’t eat up any power running on Pro Tools; they are all running on their
individual computers. Is there any technology used more in film than in record production?
BF: Surround processing is really the only thing that comes to mind; you wouldn’t find that,
although record production is going that way now, SACD [Super Audio CD] and DVD Audio.
MZ: Titles mixed in surround sound [records] that sell five to seven thousand copies are
considered hits.
BF: I have a home theater room that I rewired myself for 8.1. I did wire my audio room in
anticipation of the SACD format and the DVD audio format. So I have a room that is wired for
[surround]. It sounds great. The theater system—it’s a great sound. I actually enjoy watching
movies there more than in the theater. My sound is just as good or better than most of the
theaters. My audio room is strictly audio.
MZ: Should a young engineer learn 5.1 or stereo mixing first?
BF: They should have a real understanding of stereo and how it works, how to separate things,
and how to create that wide space. Learn that first, and then go to 5.1. 5.1 will be a little
different in that you will have that hard center you didn’t have before. Coming out in stereo you
will have that phantom center. Then you have to decide, “What am I going to put in there?” The
obvious things would be if you had vocals; vocals would be in the center. If you had an
orchestra, if you miked it in a classical sense, that center mike would have to go. Solo
instruments would go in the center.
MZ: When mixing a rhythm-section track, would you mix it like a record—the bass and the
kick drum in the center and split the kit?
BF: Yes. That’s how I normally do it. Bass and kick drum [center]. Oftentimes even the snare
and hi-hat off to the right.
MZ: You have advised students to “listen” a lot?
BF: If you are a scoring mixer, the palette that you’re dealing with is so varied. I’ve done
scores where it’s been rock. Example: [music] we mixed for Queen of the Damned—John
Davis and Korn. That was really loud guitar with huge orchestra and smaller groups. Another
example of orchestra with a small group is The Hurricane, a Denzel Washington film, where
we had the B3 organ going on with a nice-size orchestra. So you need to be just aware of all
the different styles. I will go out and buy research material—how [was that sound achieved]?
That helps [because] you are not walking in cold.
MZ: If a popular band is recording music for a film, does the scoring mixer usually record the
band?
BF: That is pretty much done by their own guys. We’ll get the [finished tracks], and we add
orchestra to it. Occasionally, we will do vocals and [other overdubs]. And that brings up
another point. A lot of composers have friends or house engineers that work with them in their
MIDI studios [who] haven’t been exposed to a lot of live [recording]. They are good at mixing
the MIDI tracks, so some composers [hire scoring engineers] who know how to mike
orchestras, and to record [orchestras]. We will come in, and we’ll do all the live orchestra
[recording], mix that for them, and then take our mixes and balance it at their own home studio.
MZ: Would that become the final mix?
BF: Yes. A lot of the good composers have really nice studios at home, great places to work.
MZ: What is the difference between recording a score for a television show as compared to
recording a film score?
BF: The big difference is that when you [record] a television score, you’re on even more of a
schedule than for film. Of course, you are probably working for one day. You come in, and you
need to do the entire show in two sessions, which means you start at ten and break for lunch at
one, come back at two, and you go till five. That’s it.
MZ: How much music do you record in that time period?
BF: It depends on the show. An hour show will have forty minutes of music. [You record] as
fast as you can go. When I first started out, I started off doing setup, working as an assistant on
records. When I started mixing, I first mixed television. It taught me to be fast and accurate.
There isn’t any time to say, “I’m not ready for this.”
MZ: Do you mix the music the same day?
BF: Sometimes you have to mix it live.
MZ: You have extensive knowledge of microphones. How does a young engineer get that kind
of experience? Working in a MIDI studio is not going to do it.
BF: Again, you have to get yourself in an environment where you can do it. Even in a MIDI
studio, they record things live occasionally. I would say try different microphones, microphone
techniques. Read up on it—a lot of books on it. For me the best thing is to have hands-on,
practical experience. If you can get yourself into a small recording studio or even as an
assistant to somebody, you can pick up that knowledge. Mike placement is an art form.
MZ: Is it subjective what something should sound like?
BF: Again, that depends on the sound that you want. You listen to a French horn in a room; You
don’t put your ear next to the bell of the French horn. You listen to it in a room. That is the
sound of the instrument.
MZ: Getting a smooth, angelic string sound is difficult in the recording studio.
BF: Two things come into play: How it is written and how it’s miked. If you are too close, you
are going to hear all [those unwanted sounds]. You need to get back and up a bit. You give the
instrument a chance to breathe and a chance to develop a sound. There are times when you
want that really close sound, when you [want] this sort of affected violin. But basically, for a
very lush open-string sound, get back a bit. Let the strings develop a sound, because you don’t
want [to hear individual players]. You want to hear this big umbrella of sound going off.
MZ: Did you start as a musician as a kid?
BF: Yes.
MZ: How important is it for an engineer to understand music?
BF: I think it is rather important for them to understand music.
MZ: Do you generally get a copy of the score?
BF: Yes. I put it right up on the console. I make my notes on there for mixing; take numbers;
how many takes; alternates; what we printed; what I have to mix, and what I have to raise or
lower in the mix. I write that on the score and also write it in on the laptop.
MZ: What should be included in the training of scoring engineers?
BF: They should have a real understanding of what equalization is and how it works. Like
anything else, it is a tool. The first mistake [made by young engineers] is that they want to add
more EQ to [something]. That’s not always the correct solution. Listen to what the problem is.
You may find yourself saying, “You know what? I should be taking some EQ out here and there
and open up the sound more.” If it is not sounding right, adding more EQ is just going to make
it sound worse. You want to figure out what the problem is. Oftentimes, I’ll go through and
listen to an instrument, and I’ll sweep the EQ—turn the gain up and sweep the EQ—and find
that bad spot, the thing that’s real offensive. I’ll play with the EQ, and set that, the width of that,
and then—and then you have to be very selective that you don’t notch too much out and affect
the sound of it. Oftentimes, taking out is better than adding.
MZ: Do you EQ the microphones used to record the room ambience?
BF: Yes. If I’m in a room that has a real heavy resonant frequency, the basic frequency the
room oscillates at—if that tends to be a problem, I’ll find that, and I’ll really turn the gain up
on the EQ and sweep that frequency until I find it. Then I’ll play with the EQ as to how much I
want to take out. And then I will invert it. You would be surprised how all of a sudden it just
cleans everything up because that unwanted frequency is not there any more. I will do that to
each mike selected. I won’t just say, “This EQ worked on the left overhead, so it will work on
the center overhead.” No, because where that microphone sits in relation to this other
microphone, there is a difference in what the microphone is hearing. So you want to go through
each one individually, find the offensive frequencies, and notch those out.
MZ: Do you go in and test the standing waves in a room, before recording?
BF: I don’t have the time. I can hear it when the orchestra is playing. Certain notes will pop
right out.
MZ: Do you use bass traps?
BF: Just open up those panels on the side, and you will have bass traps.
MZ: Is there anything else you would like to add?
BF: Again, having knowledge of EQs and compressors, that kind of thing. You have to be very
selective in what you want. Do you want a solid-state or a tube compressor? What sound are
you going for? That is always in the back of my mind.
MZ: Is there ever a time when there are instrumental sessions that you do not use EQ?
BF: Sometimes, I do not use EQ at all. Again, that goes back to selecting the right microphone.
When you have the right microphone you don’t have to use a lot of EQ. I’m not a big fan of EQ.
I’ll use it to brighten things up on the top end for my ambient mikes, so we are getting through
the [movie] screen a bit. But as far as going in there and using EQ for the sake of EQing things,
oftentimes, it works against you.

R&B, Hip-Hop, and Pop Music Engineering

Most R&B, hip-hop, and pop engineers have an extensive knowledge of MIDI, sampling, and
in-the-box (computer) digital audio. They almost always work in an audio and sequencing
program; Pro Tools has become the industry standard. There are instances where the artist or
producer prefers to work in the analog domain. This becomes more costly, and most
contemporary artists prefer not to incur the expense. Another reason for remaining in the digital
environment is that most artists, engineers, and producers own project studios. Transferring
MIDI and audio data from one computer and system to another is a relatively simple task; it is
also cost-effective.
Engineers must be familiar with the market. The sound of mixes changes, and the sound of
the individual instruments changes, as in the case of kick and snare drums. An engineer must
achieve an overall ambience to a mix. Listeners become attracted to styles of mixes or trends
in the sound of mixes—sub-basses, loud, dry vocals with slight delays, loud, deep kick drums,
and the like. Engineers have to be on the cutting edge of the contemporary music scene. Their
involvement in the music is essential to achieving success.
As mentioned, many engineers route audio tracks from the computer through a recording
console. Some engineers travel with equipment they own, which includes signal processors,
microphones, studio monitors, and additional gear. Working with personal equipment helps
them achieve the highest technical recording quality, and the recording environment remains
relatively stable from studio to studio.
Many young and successful engineers are not experienced in orchestral recording, since they
have grown up in a MIDI and sampling environment. It is preferable to hire an experienced
orchestral engineer to record orchestras and orchestral overdubs; the mixing engineer can then
mix the completed tracks.
Some engineers mix and do not record. Mixing and recording are art forms, and just as
physicians specialize, so do engineers.

Rock and Latin Music Engineering

Most engineers who specialize in rock and Latin music are a hybrid between engineers who
specialize in live recording and those who work primarily with MIDI and samples.
Most traditional rock is recorded in a large studio, which provides a natural room ambience,
especially for the drums. Rock bands, traditionally, like to capture the equivalent of a live
performance in the recording studio. Rock engineers know how to mike drums, guitars, vocals,
keyboards, and other traditional instruments used in popular forms of music. Some may also be
seasoned orchestral engineers. Some engineers are mixing specialists, and others prefer to
record and mix an entire project.
Latin music and rock engineers have similar backgrounds. Most Latin music is recorded with
live instruments, and engineers who specialize in this style are generally well-seasoned
professionals capable of recording all sections of the orchestra. They must be adept at
capturing the sounds of a large variety of percussive instruments, as well as native instruments.
Latin music comes from many countries, and the instruments and the music differ between
countries. The engineer must be familiar with the general sound of mixes used in the various
genres.
The sound of contemporary Latin pop and hip-hop is generally mixed with the same sonic
ambience as American hip-hop and R&B. The engineers generally work in a digital audio
program, such as Pro Tools, and the remainder of the engineering process is the same as the
various processes previously discussed.

Conclusion
It is advisable for music engineers to study music as well as audio engineering. Attending live
concerts is the best preparation for learning the natural sound of the instruments, and hearing
the natural balance between them. Most often, an engineer’s job is to replicate the sound of a
live performance in a recording studio. If the engineer does not attend concerts and frequent
clubs, it is difficult for them to reproduce the sound in the recording studio.
The term creative use of technology has been used throughout this book. The importance of
using technology in a creative way cannot be emphasized often enough. In commercial music,
technology is a part of the music. Arrangements are often designed with the inclusion of
signal processing. A guitar can be assigned to use a particular chorus effect, or a trumpet might
use a long digital delay. (The arranger will indicate the use of effects in the score.) If the
effects were deleted from the arrangement, the arrangement would not sound the same. If a horn
section was made up of a trumpet, a saxophone, and a trombone and the saxophone player did
not play, the horn section would not sound the same. A signal processor must be considered an
additional instrument.
Because of advancements in portable technology, many of the effects used in recordings can
now be reproduced during a live performance. Signal processing has also expanded the
creative palette of an arranger. The infinite number of sounds, which can be created on
synthesizers and samplers, in addition to an infinite variety of effects, which can be created
with signal processors, has offered contemporary musicians a new set of creative tools.
Creative output is limited only by the author’s imagination.

Michael Abbott Comments

Michael Abbott is the audio mixer for the television program The Talk, broadcasted daily on
the CBS Television Network. He also works on the Country Music Awards and the Grammy
Awards. (In his younger years, he was a violinist.)
I’ve been in the audio business since 1972. I started on the road doing live audio for rock ‘n’
roll acts such as Frank Zappa, MOR acts, Diana Ross. . . . I’ve had a lot experience over the
years doing a variety of music. In the 80s, I started working in the TV Broadcast Audio
business doing the 1984 Olympics in Los Angeles . . . sound reinforcement for the opening
ceremonies . . . mixing in the booth for television shows, talk shows, music shows . . . the
transitions of all those disciplines is very diverse. The time constraints to come up with a mix
that’s going be 3 minutes on a television show. . . . I’ve got about 15 to 20 minutes to dial up
my mix depending upon the size of the act.
I’m honored to be the audio producer for the Country Music Awards, in Nashville, every
year . . . working with country artists is really a phenomenal experience. . . . (Since the country
artists are constantly performing on the road) they always come in prepared. The arrangements
are going to be clean . . . we know that the mix that I feed to the network live is going to go
through, what I call, “audio sodimization.” . . . processing, compression, integration into
commercials . . . then played into a server . . . a 5 second delay for obscenities . . . and
knowing how the audio stream I publish is processed downstream from me I apply specific
EQs. . . . I do a lot of low pass (filtering) on all the audio because of digital resolution. In the
old days, you had roll-off naturally on the high end when you sent something live to the
network . . . it was sent into a satellite) which de-emphasized the high frequency . . . otherwise
you would have distortion from peak transients. Nowadays we have a digital datastream with
very high resolution. (Referring to The Talk: We send the digital datastream) and the stream is
ingested in the CBS Broadcast center in New York, it is integrated with the commercials and is
then sent out (to the stations). There are latencies issues which occur with the many decoded
and encoded paths and along with multiple data compression processes. . . . I try keep my
audio levels the same as the commercials so that the listener does not have to adjust the volume
on their television sets.)
 For the Grammys, we have 2 music mixers, a production mixer, and a Audio Play Operator
who sits behind the production mixer that does the nominee playons and playoffs. . . .
(Although the Grammys are broadcast in 5.1-surround sound, we make certain that the
television viewer that has only a stereo receiver, still receives a good sounding mix.) For 3
years in a row, the show has won an Emmy (Award) for sound.
(Referring to The Grammy Awards show) An audio coordinator interfaces with the network,
all of the engineers on the show, the Artists, the Artist’s engineers, the Producer (and so forth).
I contact the artists who are going to be on the show (and get all pertinent audio information) . .
. I am always looking at new equipment . . . we receive approximately 400 to 500 microphones
that (manufacturers want us to use on the show).
[Mr. Abbott proceeded to say that the younger generation does not know what they are
missing when it comes to high quality sound because they have grown up listening to MP3s.]
The following is an example of Michael Abbott’s daily audio setup sheet for the CBS daily
talk show The Talk (www.cbs.com/daytime/the_talk/). The show periodically has live music.
This rubric shows the complexities of sound mixing on a daily television program. Since many
composers are also engineers, they might mix television programs as well as compose and mix
their music projects.
PGM Audio Program Composite Mix.
TD Technical Director, the operator of the Camera Switcher.
Equipment Set Up although now known as Everybody Shows Up, this is the period in the beginning of a shift when
ESU
Cameras are turned on, Microphones are checked . . .
FAX The origin of this is unknown. The actions are the checking of Technical Equipment for the use in the Production day.
Julie
Main & This refers to the Host Mic, Julie wears (2) mics a “Main & a “B/U” B/U denotes a Back Up . . .
B/U
Hand #1,
Hand There are (3) Hand mics used by our Talent, (2) Hand Mics or handheld mics and a Q&A mic which typically denotes its
#1 & use for Audience Question & Answer segments.
Q&A
Refers to the function in the Talent Communication system where a Button on a Communications Panel has an IFB
IFB function. IFB is “Interrupt Feed Broadcast”; it is used by a Producer to speak to the Talent during the segment. To cue
the Talent to go to a Comm’l Break or update with breaking news.
Warm Up This a person who keeps the Audience motivated, he cues applause at the beginning and end of a segment.
This is the Audio “Front of House” Mix position located on the stage; this operator provides a mix of all Production
FOH Mix
Elements for the audience in the studio.
This is a device that can source various Video & Audio Feeds and assign to Destinations in the Video/Audio Signal Path.
Typical routers configs can consist of 1100x1100 variables of sources to destination. With the variety of types of Audio
Router
& Video signal a Router acts a as a Hub for data, consider a bicycle wheel with the spokes running from the hub and the
points on the rim serving as the destinations such as Video Tape Recorders, Video Monitors, Audio Console inputs . . .
Tone is an Audio Signal used to calibrate devices and confirm and identify Signal sent to different devices such as VTR’s
Tone “Video Tape Recorders.” Typically a 1Khz frequency is used for this set at an audio level of –0db VU or –20db dbu
“Decibel Unit.”
Aux This is a utility feed sent for or to a device or location . . . it can be either a Video and/or Audio Feed.
Stage Announce, this is a communication function, a button on the Communications panel, which is used by the Director
SA
to address the Audience via the Stage Sound System.
ATPB Audio Tape Playback, any Audio Related signal that is played back for a music or VO Cue during a segment.
VTPB Video Tape or Server Playback, any Tape or file played back during a segment.
OS Off Stage.
DSL Down Stage Left, from the perspective of standing onstage facing the Audience or Cameras.
DSR Down Stage Right, from the perspective of standing onstage facing the Audience or Cameras.
 Down Stage Center, from the perspective of standing onstage facing the Audience or Cameras: Camera Left, from the
DSC perspective of facing the stage from the Audience, and Camera Right, from the perspective of facing the stage from the
Audience
VO Voice Over is an announcer or talent-delivering dialog laid onto a VTPB or an ATPB.
Instant
An audio device that records and plays back music or VO Cues
Replay
Fostex
Dir & This is a feed from the Communications system of the Director & Associate Director headset mics to allow their cues to be
AD Hot heard.
Mics
Rundown This a quick view of the various segments to be produced for a Show.
Prompter This is a device that has the dialog or bullet points of the script per a segment that the talent will read on camera.

6:45AM, ESU

Ipod Music to PGM for TD to Check Dressing Room Feeds

Bypass mics in Dugan for ESU
Check Cedar Units are not Bypass. . . . We lose power over the weekend sometimes fax
Check mics in the following order:
Julie Main & B/U, Sara, Sharon, Holly, Leah, Hand #1, Hand #2, Q&A, Fishpole,

Warm Up

Julie IFB via Julie Button

Talent IFB via Talent Button (Sara, Holly)
Warm up via Production PL button

FOH Mix FAX

Set Router to Tone

Select 3rd-layer inputs: Use RTR channel for FAX Feeds to FOH Mix
Push Aux 1–4 Attention Button
ATPB-Aux #1, VTPB-Aux #2, Remote-Aux #3, Dialog-Aux #4
Push Aux 5–8 Attention Button
On Air: Aux #5
Check SA #1

NOTE: NEED TO BE IN BOOTH PRIOR TO 10:00 AM HAIR & MAKEUP CHECK TO

PREVIEW FOR JULIE BTPBs
10AM Hair & Make Up Check

Check OS Stage Mic prior to 10AM, Julie will be doing VOs from Stage
Feed instant replay OS mic via Aux Stereo #8, make sure instant replay is not online, Post
and VTR will also track, IR is backup to b/u. Select IR cues in the 900 cue numbers and
label “VO [date], ex. VO 03311 . . .
 As talent comes out, open their respective mics to the Booth for Director to hear.

10:30AM VTPB QC

Check all VTPB with Jill Tape AD on Tape Channel & Network for levels

10:30 AM 10:45 AM Pre Show

Check the Talent IFB Julie: Talent for Sara & Holly
Preset Cue #1 on Instant Replay
Confirm Host mics go to PGM with a quick fade up online
Preset Dugan with all Host mics online
Turn on Fostex Dir & AD hot mic
Set Dialog, A/R, At & VT “A” at Show Open Presets
VTPB “E” is back up to all VT rolls
Keep Audio Black 30 seconds out from start of broadcast
Opening shot is camera #6, 2, 7, 5, 4, 2, 7, 6 & dissolve to 1; Camera 6 start fade Julie up
& fade down VTPB . . . have a nice show!

Segment X-checks

Check rundown for which hosts are in segment.

Make sure previous mics are turned off.
At programming music cue, double check AT DCA is down.
Get dialog up before camera shot at top of segment.
Watch prompter for the tease to open VTPB at end of segment.
III
THE MUSIC BUSINESS
18

A Combination of Art and Business

Any great work of art . . . revives and readapts time and space, and the measure of its success is the extent to
which it makes you an inhabitant of that world—the extent to which it invites you in and lets you breathe its strange,
special air.
—Leonard Bernstein

The marriage of art and business makes the music industry unique. The marketing and selling of
artists and artistic endeavors is not selling widgets. Some music executives do not see the
difference; therein lays a problem.
The most successful record executives are those who possess both a creative and business
temperament. For instance, Clive Davis and Herb Alpert are two executives who know how to
relate to artists.
Clive Davis began his career as a Harvard-educated lawyer who had an indefinable gift for
picking hit artists and hit songs. Choosing hit songs (and instrumentals) is the foundation for a
successful career in popular music. His admiration and respect for talent and his relationships
with artists are legendary in the music industry. He is also one of the most respected record
executives in the history of recorded music.
Herb Alpert, who became a success with The Tijuana Brass, cofounded A&M records in
partnership with promotion executive Jerry Moss. Herb Alpert is an accomplished musician,
producer, and executive, and he admires and respects talented artists. Talented people are
attracted to executives they can relate to musically.
The history of the music industry has confirmed that artist-oriented executives are the
backbone of the industry. Those who follow this example usually become the most
accomplished and successful executives. John Hammond and Goddard Lieberson are
examples.
John Hammond was one of the most accomplished A&R executives in the history of
recorded music. He signed to recording contracts and discovered Bruce Springsteen, Bob
Dylan, Billie Holiday, Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Robert Johnson, Bessie Smith, Aretha
Franklin, and Pete Seeger. That is a remarkable achievement. After studying the violin and
viola at Yale University, he dropped out to pursue a musical career. He had an eclectic
background that provided him with the ability to understand what he was listening to, and he
also had an innate ability to sign talent that appealed to the public. The gift of successful A&R
executives parallels that of producers or recording engineers. They know what attributes make
artists exceptional and also know how to nurture their talent.
I have learned from experience that it is easier to make a businessman out of a musician than a musician out of a
 businessman.—Goddard Lieberson, former president of Columbia Records and a master record producer

Competent record executives not only listen to their labels’ album releases but also attend
concerts given by the artists; this conveys both moral and business support to artists. Since
labels prioritize marketing and promotional expenditures, executive interest in artists is
essential to their success. Executives should always attempt to make an artist feel supported
and comfortable, since insecurity is common with artistic people. This creates an atmosphere
for an artist to concentrate solely on the creative process.

Music Publishing
Music publishing is the heart of the composer’s and lyricist’s business world. The following
section, on music publishing, is intended to give a brief understanding of a very complex and
interesting business. Before signing a publishing agreement, composers and lyricists are
advised to seek counsel with an attorney who specializes in copyright law.

It takes time and devotion to compose music and write lyrics for a Broadway show. Most shows
take years of work until they are mounted, and then the chances of surviving the critics are slim at best.
Creators who have had past success and are pursuing new projects rely on back royalties as a source of
income. The income enables them to devote the time and energy it takes to create a new work. Copyright
protection offers this opportunity.

Copyright protection affords the authors of copyrightable works control over the works for a
specified period of time. The works must be original enough to be copyrightable—sometimes a
gray area. Copyright is accomplished when a work is in a tangible medium of expression. For
instance, a song is automatically copyrighted if it is recorded or notated on music paper. This
provides the creators with initial protection, but it is advisable to register copyrights with the
U.S. Copyright Office or to register with the appropriate bureau in a territory outside the
United States. If there is a claim of copyright infringement and the copyright is not registered, it
is difficult to prove the date of creation, and it will be impossible to obtain damages and
attorneys’ fees from the infringer. (In the United States, the term of a copyright is life plus
seventy years following the death of the last surviving author.)
Copyright protection gives the creators certain exclusive rights. These rights are described
below in language from the U.S. Copyright Office. This protection affords the authors the
opportunity to generate an income stream, which might enable them to pursue writing on a full-
time basis, and also help them to achieve financial stability.
The following information is taken from the website of the U.S. Copyright Office:
 The Congress shall have Power . . . to promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to
Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries.—Article I, Section 8, U.S.
Constitution

What Is Copyright?
Copyright is a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S.
Code) to the authors of “original works of authorship,” including literary, dramatic, musical,
artistic, and certain other intellectual works. This protection is available to both published and
unpublished works. Section 106 of the 1976 Copyright Act generally gives the owner of
copyright the exclusive right to do and to authorize others to do the following:

To reproduce the work in copies or phonorecords

To prepare derivative works based on the “adaptation right”
To distribute copies or phonorecords of the work to the public by sale or other transfer of
ownership, or by rental, lease, or lending

The right to Display the Work publicly must be added to the above list. This can include
sheet music or works of art.

Transfer of Copyrights
Copyrights can be transferred, as in a sale, or bequeathed in a will. The length of the
copyrights is based on the current copyright laws.

This means that the creators have the first right to choose who will record and perform a work and
to use it on television programs or in motion pictures, and other media. Phonorecords refers to any form of
audio reproduction. This is called the First Sale Doctrine (see section 109c of the Copyright Act). The term
first use is also used, but this is not a legal term.

Compulsory Mechanical Licenses

Once a published song has been recorded (the authors have the right to choose the artist
who records the work for the first time) and sold to the public, the publisher, with the
consent of the copyright owner and the creators, is obligated to issue a compulsory
mechanical license to U.S. record companies, and the license allows third parties to record
“cover” versions of the song. Record labels must request a license. The record companies
also have to agree to pay royalties based on the statutory licensing rate (or a negotiated rate),
which as of January 1, 2004, is 8.5 cents per song, per disc manufactured and distributed.
Beginning on January 1, 2006, the rate was increased to 9.1 cents or 1.75 cents per minute of
playing time or fraction thereof, whichever is greater. (This occurs after the right of First Sale
has taken effect. The First Sale Doctrine gives the creators the right to issue a license for the
first recording.) Under negotiated compulsory mechanical licenses, the record companies are
also obligated to account for, and pay royalties on, units sold by the licensees. The melody or
fundamental character of compositions, or other works, cannot be altered without permission
from the publishers and the creators.

Mechanical Licenses for Samples

Sampling is new usage of any prerecorded material. Without permission of the publisher
and the record label, the user will be in violation of the laws governing mechanical licenses or
other required licenses. If a party is not authorized to sample a work, he or she is infringing on
the copyright.

This means that no one can use the author’s work to create a new work without the permission of the
original author. Examples: Broadway shows are sometimes adapted from films, books, dramatizations, or
other such works from different media. A music arrangement of a work is considered a derivative work. Many
rap songs use music tracks from existing compositions (sometimes samples from other recordings), and a
rap (lyric) is written over the existing music. This combined work is copyrighted with a new title and is now
considered a new work. The new title protects not only the new work but also the original authors, who have
agreed to receive a percentage of the royalties generated by the new title.

The creators must give permission to distribute the music and to have the work performed publicly.
The owners of sound recordings must give the exclusive right to digitally transmit audio recordings of their
works.

Sampling became popular with the formation and popularity of rap/hip-hop music. Hip-hop
producers and artists used portions of completed recordings to form the musical foundations of
rhythm tracks. Generally, they looped (repeated) a four- or two-bar passage and proceeded to
record a rap over the track. Aside from musical sounds, additional effects and sounds were
also incorporated into the track. The practice was abused because they were using copyrighted
material without paying the proper royalty fees or applying for a compulsory mechanical
license (publishing license), performance license, or a license to use the sound recording
owned by a record label or other owner. The practice changed when publishers and record
companies began to police recordings by searching for unlicensed samples. Samples can
include numerous identifiable sounds. Therefore, users should be aware that to use copyrighted
works requires a license.
Sampling is a lucrative source of income for music publishers, record labels, and artists
alike. Companies specialize in clearing and negotiating the use of samples.

Mechanical Licensing in Foreign Territories

Where mechanical licensing is concerned, most foreign countries (divided into territories)
have copyright laws that are similar to the copyright laws of the United States; however,
royalties are based on a percentage of the wholesale price of the recording rather than the
retail price used by most U.S. labels. The number of songs on a CD does not affect the fee. In
the United States, each song receives an individual royalty; foreign mechanicals are pro-rated
based on the total number of compositions on the disc.

Music in Print
Most substantial music publishers have a print division that publishes sheet music. The
royalties paid to the creators is based upon the standard retail price. The royalty rate is
negotiated between the publisher and the creator(s) prior to release of the printed material; this
also includes digital print rights.

Digital Performance Right in Sound Recordings Act of 1995 (DPRSA)

This act requires publishers and creators to issue mechanical licenses to companies
wishing to digitally transmit and distribute musical downloads that are sold on the Internet.
The DPRSA is important because it procured an exclusive right of public performance for
digitally transmitted and distributed sound recordings, and also protected digitally transmitted
and distributed musical works by adding to the compulsory mechanical license portion of the
Copyright Act. Many Web sites sell music, represented on the Internet by online record stores,
iTunes, Napster, artists’ Web sites, and similar cyberspace digital distribution systems.
Licenses are also required for digital subscription services. The fees are negotiable. As yet,
there are no standard fees.

Various areas of compulsory licenses include forms of digital performances, including uses on the
Internet, various cable television stations, public broadcasting, jukeboxes, and phonorecords (audio
recordings) of nondramatic works. This does not include digital phonorecord deliveries to individuals. (See
section 115a of the Copyright Act.)
 The Copyright Arbitration Royalty Panel (CARP) has established webcasting rates. Featured
artists receive 45%, nonfeatured musicians receive 2.5%, nonfeatured vocalists receive 2.5%,
and the record label receives 50%. Sound Exchange, an autonomous nonprofit performing-
rights organization, collects the royalties for more than 300 record labels and other copyright
holders of sound recordings. Sound Exchange receives a small collection fee for its services.
The artists receive direct payments, which is significant because the record labels cannot
deduct their payments from unrecouped advances.

Digital Millennium Copyright Act

This is a complicated Act. The issues are complex and require constant study. Laws
concerning the use of music on the Internet have not been standardized. The Act also addresses
the illegal copying of albums and other copyright-protected software.

Essentially, the Act punishes copyright piracy by making it illegal to use software to
circumvent or defeat copyright-protected devices or any form of hardware that helps to
“crack,” or make operable, copyrighted software. For example, some CDs are encoded in
various encryptions to prevent a consumer from copying a CD. DVDs have a coded
encryption called Content Scrambling System technology. Programs—some developed
by hackers—allow consumers to bypass or make unauthorized copies. Accessing
television stations without paying a cable provider is illegal under the DMCA.
Under special provisions, exemptions can be made for educational and several other
related uses.
Limitations exist for Internet service providers.
Webcasting companies are required to pay licensing fees to record companies, which in
turn must pay performers’ royalties and publishing royalties.

As the Internet grows, the laws and the business models will change. The information dealing
with cyberspace continues to evolve at a rapid rate. All music-industry professionals and students
should remain aware of the changing worldwide laws.

The DMCA, although controversial because some feel it severely curtails Fair Use and public
access to copyrighted works, is designed as a form of copyright protection. New laws will be
established as business paradigms develop in various areas of Internet transmission and
software protection.

Author’s Opinion: The right to use copyrighted material in educational institutions and other
 carefully policed nonprofit uses should be more lenient, for example as regards libraries. This
presents complex issues and requires continual study as the laws and industry practices
change.

Synchronization Licenses
Synchronization licenses must be obtained when potential licensees want to synchronize
(use music with a visual image) music with films, television programs, videos, commercials,
video games, or other visual images. Sync licenses must be obtained on an individual basis;
each usage requires a new license. The fees are negotiable. The process of obtaining a license
is referred to as “clearing the rights.” If the composer is contracted on a work-for-hire basis, a
sync license is not needed because the original composer is not considered the author; the
company issuing the work-for-hire agreement is the author and the owner of the work.
There are no standard fees, but industry practice enters into the negotiations. For example, a
hit song used as a theme for a motion picture can generate fees between $250,000 and millions
of dollars, depending on how important its use is to the director and producer. If the title or
storyline of a film is based upon a song title, that song will generate a higher licensing fee than
another song.
Sync licensing is complicated and should be negotiated by an attorney who specializes in
this area. Opening and closing themes, source music, incidental music, broadcasting rights, and
music used in trailers require individual licenses.
If the music is also going to be used on a CD, for downloading, video game, DVD, Internet
site, or similar medium, a mechanical license must be obtained for each usage from the
publisher. The fees are split between the publisher and the composer.
Music that requires a synchronization license can offer unknown composers an opportunity
for exposure. Producers of low-budget, independent movies normally allocate a small
percentage of the film’s budget to music. Some composers license their music in return for
retaining the publishing rights. If the film is broadcast on television (or cable) or plays in
movie theaters (internationally), performance royalties are generated. (There are no
performance royalties generated by performances in U.S. movie theaters.)
By retaining the publishing rights, the publisher(s) and creator(s) may generate additional
income. If the independent film becomes a hit, the composer will most likely receive offers to
score additional films. Composers have jump-started careers by scoring independent films, for
either no fee or a meager fee. Many songs, new or old, have become highly successful because
of exposure in a film.

Performance Rights Societies

Performance rights societies collect licensing fees generated by public performance income,
such as in television and radio performances, live performances, motion picture performances
in theaters (with the exception of the United States), nightclubs, and other streams of revenue
directly related to the live performance or recorded public performance of music. BMI
(Broadcast Music Incorporated) and ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors and
Publishers) are nonprofit organizations; SESAC is for-profit. (BMI and ASCAP are much
larger than SESAC.)
ASCAP and BMI issue blanket licenses. This enables the licensees to use the songs in their
respective catalogues.
A composer can be represented by only one society. A publishing company usually has two
companies with two different names: one company belongs to ASCAP, and the other belongs to
BMI. (Some also belong to SESAC.)

Foreign Performance Royalties

Foreign territories have organizations (analogous to BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC) that collect
performance royalties for writers and publishers. Writers’ royalties are paid directly to BMI,
ASCAP, or SESAC and distributed to the writer. The publisher’s share is paid to the
subpublisher; the subpublisher deducts a royalty percentage and pays the U.S. publisher.

The Harry Fox Agency

The Harry Fox Agency issues mechanical licenses for the majority of independent publishers
in the United States. It collects and distributes royalties and conducts audits, when necessary.
HFA receives roughly 4.5% of the collected royalties.

The National Music Publisher’s Association (NMPA)

The National Music Publisher’s Association (NMPA), a not-for-profit company, represents
more than 900 publishers in the United States. The NMPA’s goal is to protect publishers and
authors from copyright infringement; when necessary, it initiates litigation. The National Music
Publishers’ Association’s Internet Anti-Piracy Task Force is devoted to helping curb Internet
piracy.

The manner in which performance royalties are divided and paid is complex and requires in-depth
study. It is advisable for new publishers and writers to understand the various systems because there are
instances where creators and publishers will not know if they are receiving an accurate accounting. For
instance, television networks are expected to keep cue sheets (a log of music performances with timings) for
each program. If a composer is supposed to receive payment for 24 minutes of music and the payment is for
16 minutes of music, it is relatively easy to track, assuming that the cue sheets are accurate.

Income Distribution
When income is generated from a copyrighted song, most publishing agreements provide that
50%, referred to as the publisher’s share, be distributed to the publishing company, and the
remaining 50%, referred to as the writer’s share, be split between the composer and lyricist.
The composer/lyricist share can be divided in any manner agreed upon by the authors. More
often than not, the composer and the lyricist split the writer’s share 50/50. If the contributions
by the authors are not equal, the authors must agree upon a royalty split. For example, if a
composer and lyricist need help on the last verse of a song, they might call in a third party to
complete the song. They may agree to a royalty split of 40% (composer), 40% (lyricist), and
20% (third-party contributor). Unequal splits are not unusual when there are multiple creators
of one work. If a written agreement does not exist, the writer’s share will be equally split
between the authors.

Music Publishers’ Services

Publishing companies in the United States perform the following services:

File musical copyrights with the U.S. Copyright Office, in Washington, D.C. The forms
are on the Internet, and the filing process is simple. As of this printing, individual
copyrights cost $30.00. Multiple copyrights by the same writer or cowriters can be
registered on one copyright form, but it is advisable to register individual copyrights
because it affords the writers additional protection in case of any legal problems.
Collect and distribute musical copyright royalties, and issue royalty statements
quarterly to the composers and lyricists.
Register songs with the performance-rights organizations, BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC, in
the United States, and with counterparts in countries throughout the world.

The Harry Fox Agency is a wholly owned subsidiary of the National Music Publisher’s
Association (NMPA).

Publish sheet music, and administer other forms of rights for various publications.
Sheet music can generate substantial income if a song is a hit or has wide commercial
appeal, such as a simplified arrangement of a popular work that is performed in high
schools. Most popular works are arranged and/or transcribed for various instrumental
combinations. The arrangements vary in degrees of difficulty.
Negotiate synchronization and mechanical licenses. Synchronization licenses and
mechanical licenses must be issued before companies can use songs or instrumentals in
film, television programs, commercials, or wherever the music will be synchronized with
visual images. Synchronization licenses and mechanical licenses are not compulsory
 licenses. Each license must be negotiated separately. Once a musical composition has
been recorded the publisher is obligated to issue a mandatory license after it has been
recorded and released in a country for the first time. Copyright royalties must be paid.

Synchronization licenses (the use of a recording) must also be obtained from any company
interested in using a master recording in a film, on a television program, for a commercial, or
for any other synchronized use.

Mechanical publishing royalties are paid to composers and lyricists for the use of songs (instrumentals) on
albums or single songs, which are distributed and have been sold and paid for. The following are the current
rates paid in the United States:

For digital downloads and physical product, such as CDs, the publisher statutory rate is 9.1 cents. If song
is longer than 5 minutes, the rate is 1.75 cents per minute.
These rates began on January 1, 2010 and are applicable through December 31, 2012.

Many labels negotiate to pay 75% of the minimum statutory rate. This is usually requested when dealing with
compositions that are controlled by the artist (“controlled compositions”). This means that the artist has either
authored the works or owns and controls the publishing of other songwriters. The compositions are referred to
as controlled compositions. Labels usually cap the amount of publishing they are willing to pay on 1 album to
10 songs. For example, if an artist writes and records 10 songs and also records an additional 2 songs written
by songwriters whose publishing is not controlled by the artist, the label will generally be obligated to pay the
full statutory rate to the outside writers. The amount that is over and above the negotiated publishing
agreement will be deducted from the artist’s controlled compositions publishing royalties. For instance, if the
label is willing to pay a total of only 85 cents per album to publishers and the total comes to $1.02, the extra 17
cents will be deducted from the artist’s controlled compositions income.

50% is the publisher’s share, and 50% is the author’s share.

Legally pursue musical copyright infringements. Most major publishing companies

pursue legal action against companies or individuals infringing on copyrights. The fees
required to pursue legal action are generally deducted from the writers’ royalties. For this
reason, it is important that the company and writers have a strong case before incurring
any legal expenses. The publisher has control over whether or not to pursue a lawsuit.
Accurate accounting practices ensure composers and lyricists that royalties are collected
and distributed pursuant to worldwide industry standards.
The following is a description of the revenue stream generated by music publishing
companies:

The authors have the right to choose the artist who will record and release the first recording of a
composition. Most countries observe this rule. This is called First Use.

Mechanical royalties. Mechanical royalties are royalties paid from the unit sales of
records, tapes, CDs, and digital downloads. Mechanical royalties are a significant source of
income for authors and publishers.
Performance royalties. Performance royalties are the part of U.S. copyright law (as well as
worldwide copyright laws in most countries) that requires users of copyrighted musical
compositions to pay performance royalties. Performance royalties have to be paid when music
is played on television and radio networks and individual stations, in concert venues, as
background music, such as Muzak, “on hold” telephone messages, Websites, theme parks such
as Disneyland, hotels, restaurants, and other venues that play music. Performance royalties are
a significant source of income for both songwriters and music publishers.

Source Publishing Statements

Selection of trustworthy subpublishers is the best assurance of receiving accurate royalty
payments. Publishers and authors should request source statements from subpublishers. A
source statement means that the primary publisher’s royalties are based on the gross income
derived from the source territory, and not after the subpublisher in the local territory has taken
commissions as well as the main subpublisher also taking commissions. Sometimes
subpublishers collect in more than one territory, which means that if a contract does not read
that the author and publisher are paid at the source, the subpublisher can deduct additional fees
before paying the primary publisher. That is, the subpublisher and the subpublisher’s
subpublisher, in a local territory, both deduct commissions before paying the primary
publisher. This cannot happen if the royalties are calculated at the source.
For example: XYZ Music Publishing, from the UK, agrees to collect European publishing
royalties for the U.S. publisher CBA Music Publishing Company. XYZ (UK) is now the
subpublisher for CBA Music Publishing (U.S.). XYZ (UK) has a subpublisher in France, who
is paid a percentage of all royalties they collect as the subpublisher for XYZ in France. If CBA
(U.S.) does not have a source collection deal with XYZ (UK), not only XYZ will deduct its
normal collection percentage before paying CBA (U.S.), but the bottom-line payment by which
CBA’s French royalties will be paid will also include a deduction based on the percentage the
French subpublisher charged against XYZ’s overall subpublishing deal.
If the agreement says that CBA (U.S.) receives their royalties based on the gross royalties
received at the source (which in this example is France), the U.S. company will not have to
absorb the French company’s commission. If $1.00 is collected in France and XYZ (UK)
receives a 15% administrative fee, XYZ will base the royalty paid to CBA (U.S.) on 85 cents.
If CBA (U.S.) is supposed to receive 80% of the gross royalties, CBA will receive 72.25
cents. If the French subpublisher deducts a 15% administrative commission before paying XYZ
(U.S.), XYZ will receive 85 cents, deduct another 15% (XYZ’s commission), which comes to
68 cents, and finally pay CBA (U.S.) 57.80 cents.

Copyright Administration

The publisher retains 50% of the income and the authors split the other 50% of the income.

The royalties are paid directly to composers and lyricists by the performance rights societies. The
publishers also receive direct payments. The publishers and the songwriters split the royalty income equally.

Some music publishing companies and authors operate publishing companies in the
territories in which they reside. Outside of their territory, they make subpublishing or
administration deals with publishing companies. The licensee is responsible for collecting the
income from sources, which include mechanical royalties, performance royalties,
synchronization licenses (income from films, commercials, etc.), print, and other income
sources. They do not solicit business, which is the job of a publisher. To administer a
catalogue, fees range from 10% to 25% of the gross receipts. The licensee provides the
licensor with royalty statements twice a year. In the interim, the licensee might provide the
licensor with prepayments.

Conclusion
The above information is a brief description of music publishing. All students interested in the
music industry should become familiar with the continuously changing laws and industry
standards that are developing, primarily because of the evolution of the Internet and its
relationship to the music industry. Global boundaries are essentially nonexistent, and the music
publishers must be as familiar with the international music publishing business as they are with
practices in their home territories.

Assignment
Study the structure of a major publishing company. Design a business plan for a small
publishing company. Consult a music business accountant for advice.

A prepayment is income derived from royalties already received by the subpublisher but is not yet
due to be paid. This differs from an advance payment, which is recoupable.
19

The Record Business

I wish there had been a music business 101 course I could have taken.
––Kurt Cobain

Google published Google’s Rules to help their management executives become more efficient
managers. These rules can apply to any business.

Be a good coach
Empower your team and don’t micromanage
Express interest in team members’ success and personal well-being
Be productive and results oriented
Be a good communicator and listen to your team
Help your employees with career development
Have a clear vision and strategy for the team
Have key technical skills so you can help advise the team

The following are “Pitfalls of Managers,” according to Google

Have trouble making a transition to the team

Lack a consistent approach to performance management and career development
Spend too little time managing and communicating

The following is a general description of how the record business operates. Most artists who
sign agreements with record labels have several options.

Major Label Deal

Major labels—EMI Music, Sony BMG Music Entertainment, Universal Music Group, Warner
Music Group and their imprints—sign artists who, in their opinion, have the potential of
generating platinum and multiplatinum sales. It is costly to maintain a record company;
therefore, they cannot afford to retain artists who spawn minimal sales. Popular forms of
music, such as rock, hip-hop, country, and R&B, are the mainstays of the majors.
 Movie soundtracks have been generating substantial sales due to the conscious effort by movie
executives to hire popular recording artists to write for a particular film or license their recordings for use in
the film and on the soundtrack album.

Generally, jazz and classical music do not generate sales on a par with popular artists. There
are exceptions by artists such as Norah Jones and John Williams. By offering lower advances
to artists and spending a minimum on promotions and marketing, the majors can make a profit
or break even. For example, the renowned classical music division of Sony brings prestige to
the overall label. Labels not only want to sell quantity, but they also enjoy associating with
prestigious artists, not just the flavor-of-the-month variety. Some profits from multiplatinum-
selling artists are allocated to artistic endeavors that will not necessarily be profitable.
Fortunately, there are still areas in the recording industry where artistry is revered.
Unfortunately, that is not the industry standard. The public dictates the market through buying
habits. The recording industry is a business first and an artistic venture second.

Author’s Opinion: Throughout the history of the music industry, many artists have been
artistically and commercially successful. In the contemporary music industry, country music and
jazz music have consistently produced artists fitting the aforementioned description. The music
is not dependent on recording technology, which enables producers to technically manipulate
and improve artistically mediocre performances. Most country and jazz artists are signed to
labels based upon the ability to perform, without relying on an excessive use of technology to
help create performances. They are offered recording contracts based on their artistic ability.

Large Independent Labels

Large independent labels are usually financially stable and provide almost the same
opportunities for artists that major labels offer. Many large independent labels do not distribute
all genres of music; they generally focus on several styles. Some labels become as successful,
and even rival, the major labels. For example, majors acquired both Zomba and A&M.

Small Independent Labels

Small independents usually specialize in one or two styles of music and operate with smaller
staffs than large independents. They are distributed by independent distributors or through the
distribution channels of the major labels. Their ability to promote music is limited by available
funds, and they rarely specialize in music that requires substantial financing.
Dance music is an area of music that is dominated by independent labels. The independents
promote the music primarily in the dance clubs by soliciting DJs to play their records. Since
there are a limited number of radio stations playing dance music in the United States, one
promotion person—and sometimes with the aid of independent dance radio promoters—can
make a dance record a success.
In this particular example, one might ask, “Since dance music sales are minimal compared to
high-profile major label artists like Britney Spears, why would a label specialize in dance
music?” There are several answers: Small independents generally operate with two to ten
employees, and their overhead is relatively low. With low overhead, moderate sales can
generate substantial profits. The success of dance records internationally enables small labels
to license hits to companies that release compilation albums. Dance hits are heard on numerous
compilations; they are also licensed for use in commercials, motion pictures, television
programs, and other outlets. Performance royalties, mechanical licensing royalties, and
synchronization licensing fees, in addition to unit sales, can be lucrative.

During the 1990s, major labels purchased small, boutique, independent labels for inflated prices.
The practice did not generally prove profitable. Illegal downloading and pirating decreased the availability of
cash, and the majors began downsizing.

Similar musical genres have mirrored the results dance music has generated. The various
spin-off opportunities can make small label catalogues valuable. In the past, successful small
independents have been sold to major labels for millions of dollars. Most small dance labels
do not survive after being purchased by a major label. One reason is that the profitability is not
enough to warrant the resources of a major label.

Evaluating a Label Offer

A logical question for an artist to ask is, “How do I decide on the proper label for me?” The
question is complex and difficult to answer; there is more than one answer. Choosing a label is
both a subjective and a business decision. The following are some of the pros and cons:

Major Label
Pros
Major labels have substantial financial resources, as well as the ability to promote and
market artists. They can “break an act.”

Cons
 Artists may not receive the proper attention from the promotions and marketing staff. If an
album begins to sell, the label takes notice; if it does not sell, the promotional dollars are
usually redirected to albums that are selling. The label’s commitment to an artist is paramount
to the success of an artist’s recording career.

Large Independent Labels

Pros
Large independent labels are usually well funded and generally only sign artists they are
committed to breaking (achieving success). Each artist, normally, is considered to be an
important signing. That is advantageous to the artist.

Cons
It can be difficult to receive proper royalty statements. If the artist is generating adequate
sales, an accurate and prompt royalty payment is virtually assured. If the artist’s music is not
selling, the artist might receive late statements.

Independent distributors distribute some large independent labels. It is common for the distributors to
experience collection problems from clients. This naturally filters down to the labels, resulting in late
accountings and royalty payments to the artists.
Some independent labels are distributed through the distribution systems owned by major labels. In that
case, independent labels can usually be assured of timely statements, which enable them to pay artists (and
publishers) in a more timely fashion.
During contract negotiations, it is wise for an artist to request a source statement from the distributor. This
means that the artist gets a copy of the same royalty statement received by the label. The artist does not
usually have the right to audit the distributor. If a problem occurs, the artist must audit the label.

Small Independent Labels

Pros
Small independent labels cannot afford to sign an artist without promoting that artist. They
generally have limited funds and therefore must try to produce a profit on their investment.
They cannot afford to release three or four similar artists, see which one receives attention,
and then put promotional efforts behind that one of the four. It is too costly for a small label.
Most small labels specialize in one or two genres of music; consequently, the label
executives understand the music and know how to promote it. They are familiar with radio
station formats and Internet and services that are genre specific. Established independents gain
credibility in certain market areas, for example with new age, jazz, and dance music, which
helps to attract future artists.

Cons
 Limited finances are the leading liability of a small label. It is difficult for small labels to
compete against larger labels, but since the operating costs are lower, they can generate a
substantial profit with fewer sales. Small labels generally pay lesser advances to an artist and
offer a lesser royalty rate than major labels.

Record Label Services

Record labels perform the following services:

Many small independents grow into large independents. Historically, successful small labels tend to
grow too quickly, overextend financially, and eventually file for bankruptcy. Smart independent label executives
tend to grow a business slowly, attempting to avoid the “Peter Principle,” or rising to the level of being
incompetent.

Sign artists and, sometimes, pay recording expenses

Distribute CDs and music DVDs (cassettes are a rarity) by manufacturing hard copies, or
enabling the music to be digitally downloaded from the Internet. (Although sales are not
significant, vinyl has experienced a resurgence. It is purchased mainly by audiofiles.)
Promote and market recorded music
Pay artists’ and producers’ royalties
Pay publishing royalties (mechanical royalties) on song copyrights on the recordings sold,
and other revenue streams, such as ringtones and ringbacks used on mobile phones.
License recordings that can be used on compilation albums, motion pictures, television
programming, commercials, and additional outlets that require a license.

The following is a description of the revenue streams generated by record labels:

CD sales of hard copies

Downloading
Mobile phone music licensing (recordings downloaded onto mobile phones)
Internet sales (legally downloaded music)
Synchronization licensing (films, television, and other special products)
Mechanical and performance royalties, which include royalties generated from digital
transmission (some labels own publishing companies)
DVD/video sales
Licenses by third parties; third parties license master recordings.
Internet
The business of music is as intricate as the music publishing business. Creative people, as
well as music executives, must be familiar with all aspects of the business. Since the industry
is rapidly evolving—primarily because of the digital revolution—business paradigms are
continually changing. When formulating promotions and marketing plans, global considerations
must be addressed. Regional and national releases are, to all intents and purposes, a business
practice of the past. When an album is released, it becomes a global release, whether intended
or not. Global communication is instantaneous. Legal and illegal Web sites enable consumers
to instantly access most music (and films); Internet promotion has become as imperative as
radio and television promotion.
Research has shown the most effective sales tool is releasing new music in the stores and on
the Internet simultaneously. (Some music is tested on the Internet prior to releasing physical
copies for sale.) Since the large record store chains have closed, and stores (e.g., Best Buy,
Target, etc.) have record departments, unless an artist is successful or is signed to a company
that had pledged considerable marketing and promotions for an artist, it is very difficult to
release physical product because of limited shelf space.
In the past, foreign releases in most territories followed the release in the primary territory.
Since legal downloading is becoming a worldwide paradigm, sales are lost if simultaneous
releases are not scheduled. Internet stores contain territorial firewalls. For instance, a
consumer in the UK cannot download a song that is offered on a French Web site and vice
versa. Recording contracts are often territorial, and if the Internet businesses do not abide by
each territorial agreement, the record industry could shrink to an almost monopolistic industry.

Author’s Opinion: In the past, Internet computer codes were relatively easy to crack. Even with
legal downloading, hackers will crack Web sites in foreign territories so they can purchase
music that is licensed only to that particular territory. This violates territorial boundaries, which
are included in most sound recording contracts. In the future there may be worldwide copyright
laws, which would eliminate this problem.

Complex issues in copyright laws and publishing statutory rates are endemic to particular
territories. With the constant challenge battling illegal file sharing, it is to the industry’s
advantage to standardize as many industry issues as possible.

Author’s Opinion: Publishing statutory rates and downloading prices will become relatively
standard throughout Europe. Research has shown that ease of downloading and one-price
structuring are the main ingredients for success on the Internet. In April of 2009, iTunes initiated
three price tiers: 69 cents, 99 cents and $1.29. The most popular songs are sold at the highest
price. As of the writing of this book, Amazon has more single MP3 downloads priced at 69 cents
than iTunes.
 Job Descriptions
The music industry is multifaceted. Managers, agents, accountants, and attorneys represent
artists; record label personnel discover artists and promote, distribute, market, and publicize
them; music publishers publish and promote compositions; stores—both brick and mortar—
and Internet stores sell recordings; radio stations (terrestrial, cable, and HD radio) play
recordings, and the Internet has created a digital world of music.
This chapter offers a brief description of some of the critical jobs in the music industry. Each
job description is supported by entry level and mid level positions. Study the structure of
record (production) companies. Basically, the only structural difference between a major label
and a midsize independent label is the number of employees. One or two employees at a small
or medium-size label might tackle the job of 10 employees at a larger label. All full-service
record companies provide the same services.

Artists’ Representatives
Manager
A manager (personal manager or artist’s manager) coordinates all facets of an artist’s
career. Strategic long-term planning should be a manager’s primary goal. Managers who think
only of short-term results are usually not successful. Record company contracts, publishing
agreements, talent agency coordination, sponsorships, and public relations and marketing are
all under one umbrella. Managers are, first and foremost, amateur psychologists. The ability to
solve problems is vital to success. Managers and clients make strategic choices that can shape
an artist’s long-term career. They are compensated with an average commission of between
15% and 25% of the gross receipts, which include record royalties, publishing royalties,
public performance income, merchandising, and additional sources of income. Managers’
commissions are negotiable. They do not receive commissions on certain negotiated items,
such as recording costs or tour support that is not recouped against artists’ royalties.

Major label distribution and independent distribution companies distribute small and midsize
independent record labels. A sales executive from the label stays in daily contact with the distribution
company. The executive keeps the distributor updated on the progression of airplay and the venues and
cities in which the artists are performing. The distributor must keep the stores stocked with CDs, especially
when an artist is performing in a specific geographical area. Consumers usually purchase albums
immediately after attending a concert.

Managerial decisions affect profit and loss. The business of music is complex, and, as in
other businesses, there is a high degree of cross-pollination: Each business component links to
something else. A manager not only coordinates all business and creative activities but also is
often a referee. Numerous internal problems occur between band members, artists, record
labels, concert promoters, and others who deal directly with artists. A manager has to assume
the role of a CEO, overseeing and solving problems. Managers are not booking agents and do
not solicit performances and other income-producing “gigs” for artists. In fact, if problems
occur, a manager who acts as an unlicensed booking agent may be required to relinquish all
commissions back to the artist.
Managers must make certain that artists’ sound reinforcement equipment and lighting
demands are adequate in each performance venue. There is usually a contractual addendum
written into each agency agreement with a promoter that stipulates the terms and additional
requests. Some managers refuse to allow artists to perform unless the promoter has met all
contractual obligations.
The two most essential functions of a manager are to (1) secure record deals for clients,
and (2) arrange for artists to be signed to contracts with talent agencies, which book artists
for concerts, or other public appearances. Most successful managers have close personal
relationships with talent agents and record label executives. This can be advantageous to
clients, especially new artists.
When a manager or a management company represents successful artists, agencies and labels
are anxious to be informed about the newest signings. Success breeds more success! It is not
unusual for a manager to represent several artists on the same label.
The following are managerial responsibilities:

Managers work closely with agents to design tours for artists. Tours equal sales.
Strategic planning and guidance help provide maximum exposure for clients. Performing
in inappropriate venues, and/or appearing with artists who have a different fan base can
damage an artist’s credibility with fans and harm their public image.
Regional radio exposure breeds performance opportunities. Agents and managers seek
out opportunities to promote sales of albums and merchandise and to generate live-
performance income.
Public relations and advertising are crucial to building and maintaining an artist’s
career. Print, television, radio interviews (terrestrial, Satellite, cable, and Internet), and
Internet exposure are the most effective promotional tools. Awareness attracts ticket
buyers. Managers oversee the process by working with radio and television promotion
executives (either staff or independent promoters) to obtain airplay, especially in a market
where an artist will be touring. A manager informs the record label of an artist’s
performance schedule; this enables the label to prepare a marketing and public relations
campaign prior to a performance.
It is essential for record stores to be stocked with an artist’s catalogue prior to a
performance. The label’s sales force is informed of artists’ performance schedules. Live
performances provide the sales force with a “story” to tell the retailers. Individual stores,
sometimes called mom-and-pop stores, and chains usually stock an artist’s catalogue
 prior to a performance in the market area. Audience members normally have a short
attention span and want to purchase albums immediately following a live performance. If
a store is out of stock, the customer will quite often not return to buy the album. Many fans
purchase music online.
A manager works in conjunction with an artist’s road manager (traveling manager).
While on tour, a road manager is responsible for managing the daily activities of an artist.
Many managers select the road manager, who reports directly to the manager.

Some of a manager’s jobs include the following:

Arranging for transportation

Arranging for sound checks before performances
Collection of performance fees and merchandising income from products sold at
performances
Making certain a promoter is honoring the terms of the performance contract
Storing equipment, when the artist is not on the road
Setting up rehearsal schedules and coordinating the musicians’ itineraries

Managers pursue and negotiate publishing contracts. Many artists are songwriters.
Representation by a publishing company is necessary in order to collect mechanical royalties,
which are generated from record sales, performance royalties, which are generated by
performances, and other income, including royalties and fees derived from music publishing,
which are called synchronization fees. Since many neophyte artists need income, publishers
are willing, under certain circumstances, to advance money that they will recoup against future
royalty earnings. As artists develop and catalogues grow, mechanical royalties,
synchronization fees, and performance income can generate millions of dollars. Publishers are
sometimes willing to negotiate sizable advances in exchange for the rights to administer a
catalogue.

Some artists travel with a massive caravan of tractor-trailers, which contain a sound system,
lighting, and scenery.

Some managers participate in selecting producers for artists. Producers’ royalties are often
deducted from artists’ “all-in” royalties (all royalties collected). Therefore, artists and
managers must agree to the contractual terms negotiated by the producer. The producer has a
contract with the record label, directly with the artist, or with both parties.
 Managers—in conjunction with music-business attorneys—generally negotiate all
contracts. This includes performance contracts, recording agreements, and merchandising
contracts. Merchandising can produce a large revenue stream. Most ticket buyers spend as
much money on purchasing memorabilia as they do for the price of a ticket.
Managers usually consult with artists’ accountants. Music business accountants specialize
in the intricacies of the music industry. It is advisable for music industry professionals to be
represented by a specialist in all business dealings.

Management: Conclusion
Artist management is a risky job. If an artist’s career is flourishing, the manager is hailed as
a genius; if the artist is faltering, many artists claim that it is due to poor management. In
reality, when an artist’s album sales begin to decline and the ability to attract a concert
audience diminishes, there are hosts of contributing factors. The problems include poor choice
of songs, a fickle public, mediocre stage performances, substandard production values on
albums and in live performances, internal business problems, and personal problems.
Managers can attempt to guide artists, but artists do not always heed the manager’s advice. You
can lead a horse to water, but you can’t make him drink. It is unusual for an artist to remain
with one manager or agent throughout his or her career.

The popular-music business is cyclical and contemporary. Popular musical styles frequently change, as do
subgenres, such as R&B (e.g., hip-hop), dance music (e.g., garage and house), and various pop styles.
Some artists are popular because of a sound (individuality) that the public has accepted, or because an artist
has a unique musical personality: Louis Armstrong, Prince, and Barbra Streisand. Clones usually follow, but
with minimal success. When the public becomes bored with an artist, the artist loses either some or all of his
or her audience. Many artists retain a core following and are able to sustain themselves for many years,
through public appearances. Doo-wop shows, oldies shows, and Motown revues are examples. In 2003, the
Isley Brothers, one of the most successful of the old-school R&B acts, had a hit album, which was produced
by contemporary R&B artist R. Kelly.
Unfavorable publicity can seriously harm an artist’s career, as has been the case with Whitney Houston. She
has experienced a decline in sales as a result of her continual lack of discretion.

Some labels pay royalties based upon 90% of the sales rather than on 100%. That is negotiable.

Some managers offer services that are not traditionally performed by personal management.
Record labels provide public relations and radio promotion. Some managers use personal
contacts to help the labels. Any activity by a manager that is related to standard label services
is usually coordinated with the label, prior to any involvement by the manager. Their efforts
must be consolidated so the manager’s and the label’s efforts are not counterproductive.
It is imperative that a record producer develops rapport with an artist’s manager. It is
necessary not only for general business reasons, but also because, quite often, peripheral
communications with an artist go through the management office. In case of a business dispute,
the communication is with the manager, possibly the artist’s attorney, and also the record label.
The manager is generally the initial point of contact.
An accomplished manager can literally navigate an artist into a successful career; poor
management decisions can do the opposite. Choosing a manager is a critical business decision,
and requires due diligence on the part of the artist.

Talent Agent
Talent (booking) agents book artists for live performances, such as concert, club, and
television appearances. Most large agencies will not represent an artist until he or she either
signs a recording contract with a reputable label or becomes established. Some agents are
willing to help unknown artists secure recording contracts.
Agents’ relationships with consumers are crucial to the success of artists. Agencies send out
press kits and CDs, which provide information about new artists, and update promoters and
bookers on established artists. They also direct them to the artist’s website, where the same
information can be found. (The Internet has become the primary source of information.) Agents
who represent popular artists command more attention than an agent handling nascent artists.
New artists should vie to be handled by the most influential agent who is willing to sign them.
One of the concerns, which must be addressed, is that an artist needs to receive ample attention
from the agent and/or agency. Powerful agents are interested in developing new artists, but the
primary obligation of an agent is to generate income from prosperous and signed clients. An
agent’s commissions are based on gross receipts from concerts and other revenue streams, such
as television and film appearances. Successful managers usually have personal relationships
with agencies and agents, and they encourage clients to sign with the most suitable agency.

Some managers represent producers. Often, a manager is necessary if a producer receives

numerous production offers. It can be difficult for a producer to choose and negotiate new projects without
interfering with the creative state of mind. A manager analyzes the offers and presents the opportunities,
along with the manager’s recommendations. Some managers guide both producers and artists; sometimes
that synergy can develop into business and creative opportunities for both parties.
 In the United States, talent agents or agencies must be registered and licensed. Most agents
charge a commission of 15% to 20% of the gross revenue, but commission rates are often
negotiable. All national multistate agencies are signatories to the AFofM (American
Federation of Musicians), AFTRA (American Federation of Television and Radio Artists), and
additional applicable unions that affect clients. They must abide by union regulations, which
include a minimum pay scale and proper working conditions.
Major labels and large independent labels work closely with agents. Advertising, marketing,
and financial tour support provides that artist with exposure, which is meant to translate into
sales. Support gives credibility to the artists and helps the agents “tell a story” to potential
concert promoters and talent bookers. Concert promoters are entrepreneurs, and they rely on
the labels to support their efforts to sell tickets. Exposure sells albums, which is the ultimate
goal of record labels and artists. Financial tour support is usually considered a recoupable
advance against an artist’s royalties.

Tour support is sometimes financed by corporate sponsorships (e.g., Nike sneakers or Pepsi). In return for
substantial exposure, a company will spend considerable sums to be associated with an artist, and artists
generally agree to appear in commercials in return for tour sponsorship. Artists’ representatives should give
much thought before making a commitment to lending their name and likeness to a product. Representing an
unsuitable product can permanently damage an artist’s credibility with his or her fans.

Agents work with artists’ managers to guide artists’ careers. After an artist has been signed
to a recording contract, it is essential that he or she eventually sign with a talent agency. Agents
usually begin to build an artist’s career by booking clubs and small concert venues. Eventually,
the artist embarks on a concert tour, usually as an opening act.

Within the structure of a large agency, one agent is usually assigned to an artist. The individual
agent signs an artist and is responsible for handling the artist’s career. The agent’s responsibilities are
analogous to those of A&R representatives at labels. If the agent’s client is not successful, the agent’s job
might be in jeopardy. Some agreements require an agent to produce a minimum revenue stream per year, or
the artist is able to terminate the agreement.

Relationships between artists and managers are analogous to the relationships managers and
artists develop with talent agents. If the agency or agent arranges for a productive tour that is
organized and includes playing venues that are prestigious and attracts an audience that will be
receptive to the artist, the agency is in good favor; if a tour is not organized properly, problems
occur. As with management, it is unusual for an artist to remain with one agent or agency
throughout his or her career.

Some consumers prefer purchasing music online because it is more convenient than traveling to a retail
outlet, and albums and singles cost less.
Online legal downloading and on-demand streaming keep increasing. Although the overall record industry is
predicting a rapid growth spurt, the increase has not yet generated enough revenue to make up for the loss of
physical sales. Labels can charge less in the digital domain because they do not have to absorb
manufacturing costs and the return of physical CDs. The business model for the worldwide record industry
has been in a state of flux because of illegal downloading and rampant physical piracy. Many of the large labels
are now sharing in the revenue stream spawned by live appearances, merchandising, and music publishing, in
an effort to protect the label’s financial investment. Other platforms for hearing music are:

Pandora Radio, which allows listeners to enter artists or song titles they enjoy and the service responds by
suggesting music that is similar to the listener’s request. The listeners can be linked to Web online stores
to purchase the music.
Last Fm is a “recommendation service . . . it helps you discover music based on the songs you play.”
Numerous music apps for mobile devices.

Most powerful music agents work for large talent agencies. The William Morris Agency,
International Creative Management (ICM), and Creative Artists Agency (CAA) are three of
the largest. One of the advantages of signing with a sizable agency is that it has divisions that
specialize in all areas of the entertainment industry. They can help coordinate an artist’s
overall career. For example, some singers, such Jennifer Lopez, are also actors; therefore, she
may have one agent representing her for films and another representing her recording career.
The larger agencies generally want to control all aspects of an artist’s career, although there
are instances when several agencies perform different functions for one artist.
Because large agencies represent established artists, they sometimes hold the power to
force, or “suggest,” to promoters that a “baby” or midline artist becomes the opening act
on a specified concert, or concert tour. Opening a major artist’s concert offers great exposure
for a new artist. Many artists have jump-started careers after opening for a headliner.

Booking a major tour normally requires some positive activity surrounding the client’s album such
as announcing a single has hit the charts, encouraging consistent airplay, positive reviews, and active public
relations.
 Many powerful agents book developing artists as an opening act with a headliner. The agent
tells the promoter that if he or she wants to book a certain headliner, then the agent’s choice of
an opening act is part of the entire package. Agencies are interested in promoting new and
developing artists and are therefore willing to exert pressure when necessary.

Music-Business Attorney
In addition to performing legal work, music business attorneys are essentially business
representatives. Powerful entertainment attorneys are predominantly dealmakers. Many of
them have close relationships with record label executives and agents and are able to shop
deals to labels and publishing companies, much in the manner as managers. Attorneys negotiate
recording contracts, concert agreements, merchandising agreements, and music publishing
agreements, in addition to myriad other contracts that require guidance and negotiation.
Disputes are usually settled through arbitration or mediation. Court should be the last resort. It
is not uncommon for attorneys to represent artists before a manager is involved. Attorneys
frequently recommend managers to artists and vice versa.
The music industry is a worldwide industry with thousands of employees, but the powerful
attorneys, managers, and agents belong to a rather small but elite club. They can present
incredible opportunities to deserving artists, which can literally create recording stars. They
are highly selective and put together the pieces of the entire organizational puzzle before the
career-building machine goes into gear. There have been extremely successful record labels
that have signed a majority of their artists because of business relationships with a select
number of managers, agents, and attorneys. The label executives know when a promotional and
marketing machine is in place.

The following is an example of how this machine operates: A manager finds an outstanding artist. The
manager calls an attorney and asks him or her to negotiate a contract with record label Y. The manager knows
that the attorney is friendly with the CEO of the record label. If the artist is as good as the hype, the deal will be
consummated. The label then “suggests” that agent Z become the artist’s agent. The agent knows the label
has made a major commitment to the artist. The sum of all parts equals a whole—good business!
This sounds like a fairytale, but the information is accurate. The artist who is selective when choosing
business representatives may be able to create a situation similar to the one just described. The choice of
advisors can be crucial to an artist’s overall career.

Attorneys are compensated in several ways: hourly fee, a retainer for a certain number of
hours, or a percentage of profits from a deal the attorney negotiates on behalf of the client.
Some litigators who try court cases in the entertainment industry are willing to work on a
contingency basis, if they feel that there is a strong case. If they win, they are paid a percentage
of the financial award; if they lose, they get nothing.
 Record labels that provide tour support for a headlining artist will generally not allow agents to
choose an opening act. The label may insist that an artist signed to their label open the concert. The clout of
the artist, plus the influence of the label, enters into the outcome. (Many promoters and labels allow local
artists to perform a short set prior to the “opening act.”)

Many managers and/or agents have law degrees. Their legal background is often beneficial
to the artists. As previously mentioned, music attorneys frequently act as business affairs
representatives.
Artists and producers should feel comfortable with an attorney and respect not only their
legal advice but also their overall guidance. Since many artists are not particularly interested
in the business of music, the role of an attorney becomes even more significant. Trust is the
paramount factor in the relationship.

Music Business Accountant

Music business accountants specialize in all financial matters an artist or producer might
encounter. They understand the global record business, the live-performance business, as well
as the global music publishing business. In addition to industry specific matters, they attend to
traditional accounting duties that deal with taxes, accounts payable, and accounts receivable.
Their relationships with attorneys, managers, agents, and record executives can be
advantageous to their clients. Many young artists do not know people in the industry and seek
out business relationships in hopes of networking as a result of one important contact.
Accountants quite often perform that function.
Accountants calculate royalties and income derived from the following:

Master sound recordings

Mechanical and performance royalties
Merchandising royalties
Artist’s royalties
Performance royalties

Record company mergers, the Internet, and the ease of communication have made the 39
billion-dollar global music industry a relatively compact community. The major “players”
know one another and relationships, as in any industry, perpetuate new relationships. In many
ways, music business accountants perform the same peripheral functions that music business
attorneys perform. They are dealmakers! Some are licensed financial advisors and help clients
plan for a secure future. Since artists are notoriously inadequate financial planners, accountants
and/or financial advisors perform a crucial role in protecting clients’ financial futures.
Being an artist is a business. Many artists own record companies and publishing companies.
Accurate records are necessary because of accountability not only to the government, but also
to other artists and songwriters who are entitled to fees and royalty distributions from the
record label or publishing company.
Artists and writers receive fees, advances, and royalty payments. The calculations can be
complicated and must be handled by a qualified music business accountant.

Record Label Positions

A&R Executive
A&R (Artist and Repertoire) executives are responsible for signing artists to labels and
guiding the artists’ recording careers.
Skillful A&R executives work closely with artists to help guide them in making creative and,
as everyone hopes, commercially successful recordings. As overseers, they are peripherally
involved in the formation of marketing and advertising plans. Labels pay royalties or bonuses
to A&R executives based on the performance of the artists. It behooves them to become
involved in as many aspects of their artists’ careers as time permits. A recording may be of the
highest artistic quality, but without promotions and marketing its chances of achieving financial
success are minimal.

In classical recordings, targeting a core audience is the main consideration. Marketing and promotional
concepts are of primary interest when dealing with soundtracks for films such as Star Wars and Titanic.
Catchy titles, such as Bach’s Greatest Hits, can attract a consumer’s attention. Unless the consumer is
familiar with an artist or an orchestra, it is a difficult task to sell the artist’s albums. Inventive selling techniques
have proved to be successful. An average classical album that has been promoted sells between 5,000 and
12,500 units worldwide.
In all styles of music, albums must have an artistically cohesive quality. A set of random songs or
instrumentals without a preconceived marketing image is usually a mistake. Record labels produce videos and
design album covers that project an image. Most artists tour to promote newly released albums. The tours are
often named with the titles of the albums. Labels, managers, agents, concert promoters, and public relations
firms work as teams to help promote what they hope will become commercially successful albums. That is an
expensive and time consuming undertaking, and the more harmony among the creative and business teams,
the better chance the projects have of achieving success in the market.

Business affairs: Most major labels have business affairs departments, which are staffed by
attorneys who negotiate deals and agreements—artists’ contracts, publishing contracts, international
licensing agreements, and the like. The results of their negotiations are forwarded to the legal department.
Some labels combine both departments.
 Additional income is derived from the peripheral entertainment-oriented businesses.

Following are some of the responsibilities of A&R executives:

A&R executives usually help with the selection of producers. They arrange meetings
with various producers to determine if there is any “chemistry” with the artist. It is
unusual for an A&R executive to force an artist to work with a producer. The choice is
usually a mutual decision.
It can sometimes be a mistake to place an artist with a producer simply because he or
she is “hot” (has a current hit or hits) at the moment. The producer might not
necessarily be the best creative choice for working with a particular artist. Consider
temperament, musical taste, and availability before committing to an artistic relationship.
Artistic ventures inherently create a multitude of potential problems that would not
necessarily occur in a purely business relationship. Artists “give birth” to their
“creations” and do not necessarily value or want the opinion of others, even though a
successful artistic relationship between an artist and a producer results in a better
creative product. An outsider’s view can bring new ideas and new perspectives to a
project. It is the job of a perceptive A&R coordinator to mix and match until the most
appropriate producers are found.
As mentioned several times, A&R executives are amateur psychologists. Not only do
they work with the artist, but they must also develop rapport with the artist’s manager and
agent.
Many decisions that could be beneficial to the label are not necessarily helpful to the
artist. For example, the label may suggest that the artist promote the album on a television
program that has a large number of viewers, but the manager may feel that appearing on
the program could hurt the artist’s credibility with fans. Some labels are more interested
in immediate success than long-term development. Unfortunately, artist development by
labels has become almost extinct. The expense, coupled with the state of the music
industry, has made the financial commitment almost impossible.

Success is a team effort, and consequently, cooperation from the business team is essential.

Artist Relations Executives

Artist relations executives’ duties include coordinating the label’s activities with artists,
managers, and booking agents. They address all aspects of an artist’s development, including
tour support, release schedules, public relations, promotions, marketing, and advertising.
 At smaller labels, the A&R staff, or general management personnel, usually handle artist
relations.

Promotion Executive
Promotion executives have one of the most grueling jobs at a record label—to get airplay.
Airplay, especially on radio (terrestrial, Internet, cable, and HD) and music-television stations
and websites, is the primary promotional tool for helping to create a hit record and developing
artists’ careers. The vice president of promotion oversees either a national staff or independent
promoters who are hired to promote one or more albums or singles. Record promotion usually
begins in a region and then spreads nationally. Superstars releasing a hot record might attract
national airplay from the day of release. The more the “story” develops, the easier it is to
spread a record. Success generates more success.

Terrestrial radio stations monitor stores to determine if the records on their playlists
are selling. Sales and advertising are important to radio program directors because they
reflect the effects of airplay. If a record is not popular or is losing popularity, stations
will usually drop the record from their playlist.
Internet, Satellite, and cable radio are all significant promotional devices. Technology
also affords consumers the ability to listen to music on Internet on-demand subscription
services, or on a label’s- or artist’s Web site. Most oftern, the listener can instantly
purchase the music from either the source or be linked to a retail outlet on the Web. The
track is downloaded and logged; the pertinent information allows appropriate royalties to
be paid to the artists, record labels, and publishers. The listener can listen to the selection
either on a computer or on a digital player, such as Apple’s iPod or on a mobile phone.
Videos are also an important promotional tool. Performance ability and charisma are
essential to an artist’s success, since visuals help create an image. Lady Gaga is a
formidable example of an innovative artist. She developed one of the most recognizable
personas in the music industry. She is the 21st century version of Madonna. In addition to
the basic artistic ingredients needed for commercial success, promotion becomes the
significant factor. (YouTube is the primary outlet for music videos.)

****
Some of the most popular artists on YouTube were selected to be part of a 27 city tour
organized by YouTube. It was called The Digitour and began in May, 2011.

Marketing Executives
The job of a marketing executive has changed dramatically, mainly because of the increase in
viral marketing. The next chapter, Marketing and Promotions, contains an in-depth discussion
on this subject.

Advertising Executive
 Strategically placed print, television, all forms of radio, and Internet advertising continue to
be the traditional outlets for informing the public about the release of an album. An advertising
executive(s) is responsible for the overall advertising strategy. The best advertisement has
always been for the potential consumer to hear the music on the Internet, radio, television, or in
a store, including the short snippets heard on legitimate Internet music stores, such as iTunes,
which lets the consumer preview each selection. In recent years, advertisers have been
showing television commercials in movie theaters. Some have packaged sample CDs along
with a purchase at the food concession. Many retail chains run co-op print advertising, which
is generally featured in newspapers on the weekends. They usually offer discounts for a limited
time. In-store listening stations have proved to be a successful way of promoting CDs. It is a
form of advertising. A fine line exists between advertising, promotions, and public relations.

Analyzing the weaknesses and strengths of new artists is the mark of a creative music producer.

Trade advertising is geared to attract executives from various areas of the music industry
such as promoters, retailers, program directors at terrestrial, Internet and radio stations, video
outlets, and other areas that have the potential of creating exposure for artists.

Public Relations Executives

Public relations is, essentially, a form of free advertising. PR representatives arrange for
clients to gain exposure on television, radio, in print, on the Internet, and in other forums. The
PR department assembles press kits, which consists of promotional and background material
for writers or interviewers. A press kit, both physical and online (electronic press kit),
consists of new and past reviews (magazines, television, radio, etc.) newspaper articles, radio
and television interviews, and additional material that might be of interest. Electronic Press
Kits (EPK) have become essential. If the promotion is for the release of a new album, the CD
is included in the press kit. PR representatives assemble press parties, which are usually
coordinated with a new release or a highly visible event, such as the beginning of a major tour.
Most major labels assign a press representative to accompany artists on all important
organized activities.
Public relations is a high-pressure job because it relies on PR agents’ contacts. New and
established artists need exposure. Controlling not only the amount of publicity but also the
appropriate publicity is the publicist’s job.
Most successful artists hire private public relations firms on a yearly basis or for a selected
project. Many record companies have PR departments that are primarily responsible for
promoting new releases. Since it is difficult to provide equal attention to each artist, the artist’s
personal agent usually assists the label.

Art Executives
Creating and/or supervising an album cover design is the primary job of an art and graphic-
design executive. Portraying an artist’s public persona is critical. Therefore, all artwork must
be carefully crafted to graphically capture the album’s theme or concept.
Art executives are also involved in the overall graphic branding of artists. A logo can be an
effective tool; think about the Rolling Stones logo of Mick Jagger’s tongue and lips.
Advertising and merchandising campaigns extensively use various forms of artwork and
graphic design.
Some major labels employ staff artists, but independent artists do the majority of artistic
work on a work-for-hire basis. Most photographers and videographers are also hired on that
basis. Under work-for-hire agreements, labels retain ownership of the works.

Sales Executives
A sales director is in charge of the regional sales managers. Salespeople sell directly to
large retail chains, rack jobbers, Internet companies, and other specialized sales outlets. When
a new album is released or there is a special sales promotion, the label executives arrange for
quantity discounts and special pricing structures. Wal-Mart, Best Buy, and Circuit City are the
most important brick-and-mortar retail chains in the United States.

It is costly for new and midlevel artists to tour. Videos provide universal exposure without touring.
Labels have tried to generate profits from music videos via DualDisc, the format that has music on one side
of the disc and video on the other. The format failed with the public. They are now developing strategies to
profit from videos on the Internet.

The United States is divided into sales regions, and the sales team works closely with the
promotions department to maximize the impact of sales promotions. The sales director must
make certain that, when an artist is touring, the stores in the vicinity of the concert sites are
stocked with the artist’s CD(s).

Additional Information
 Promotion encompasses merchandising and public relations. Promotion executives work closely with
the label’s marketing and public relations departments. The following are promotional tools:
Radio Promotion Radio is the most important marketing tool used to create sales. Radio stations are the
equivalent of boutique stores that specialize in a product. Some boutiques sell designer clothes, others sell
designer shoes, and some sell only men’s clothes. Some radio stations play rock, others play R&B, while
others play only the top 40. The list is extensive. Although there has been a decline in the listenership to
terrestrial radio, in 2010 there has been resurgence in the popularity of terrestrial Top 40 radio. This is mainly
due to the success of artists such as Katy Perry, Lady Gaga, Usher, Madonna, Rihanna, and other pop-
dance artists.
With the advent of Internet and radio, the subgenres have become even more compartmentalized. Stations
usually play one style of music. A listener can find almost any genre of music desired. The Internet is the
most important technology since the invention of television. Internet and radio stations have become an
important link in the promotional chain. Since downloading can be instantaneous, the listeners are able to
purchase songs instantly without having to travel to a traditional brick-and-mortar store. The technology
eliminates manufacturing costs and traditional distribution costs.
Producers, Songs, and Promotions Producers are concerned with the source and quality of artists’
songs. Performers’ primary assets are songs (instrumentals). Labels—both majors and independents—
want artists to record songs/instrumentals that will be played on the radio. A&R executives are always
scouting for artists who are songwriters. Artist/songwriters are essential to labels because the labels know
they are a source of future material.

To gain acceptance from radio, a recording must be competitive within the market. Radio airplay,
Internet radio, Satellite radio, cable and terrestrial, and music videos are the primary sources of
promotions. Hits lead to concert tours, and exposure leads to sales.
Some musical genres receive limited airplay on terrestrial radio stations. Internet and other radio
outlets specializing in one style of music have opened up new opportunities in a way analogous to the
channels on cable television, such as The History Channel, CNN, and the Food Network.
The question that must be addressed is this: If a station does not advertise, how does a consumer
become aware of a particular radio station or new artists? Word of mouth, called social networking or
viral marketing, has become the most affective tool used to inform potential consumers. Sirius XM is
the giant in the U.S. They have bought print, direct mail, and television advertising, and have
subsequently greatly increased their number of subscribers, although they are struggling financially as
of the writing of this book.
An additional problem is that BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC, the performance-rights organizations in the
United States that collect performance royalty income for writers and publishers, want the boutique
Internet radio stations to pay blanket performance fees similar to performance fees paid by broadcast
radio stations. The Internet stations claim they cannot afford the fees because their advertising revenue
does not generate enough income. Many small Internet stations have ceased operating because they
cannot afford the fees required by the rights organizations and the RIAA. There are many problems
associated with not only writers’ and publishers’ royalties but also with royalties for performers. This
topic is beyond the scope of this book.
Producers and Promotion The relationship that a producer develops with the label and the label’s
belief in the final product ultimately determines their commitment to an artist in terms of promotion.

It is rare for a label to employ staff producers and engineers; most are hired on a
 freelance basis.
Some labels own studios, but the majority of state-of-the art studio facilities are available
for rent on a per-hour or daily rate.
Some major labels own mastering labs.
Video directors are hired on a work-for-hire basis.
Music publishing is an exciting and creative career path. An understanding of domestic
and international copyright laws, as well as the complex issues involving all aspects of
music publishing, is the backbone of the music industry.
Most labels own music publishing companies.

Conclusion
The occupations described in this chapter have numerous support positions. The music
business is a complex, interesting, and exciting industry. It is advisable to choose a focused
career path when first entering the industry because apprenticeships are rigorous and time
consuming. It is also advisable to complete an undergraduate university education and, in some
instances, an advanced degree, in addition to either an internship or industry experience. Most
major universities offer courses of study that prepare students for industry-specific jobs. For
example, Florida Atlantic University, The University of Miami, and New York University offer
majors in music industry studies. Consult the Internet and university guidebooks to find similar
academic programs.

Nielsen SoundScan, which tracks official sales in the U.S. and Canada, and Broadcast Data Systems, or
BDS, which tracks airplay, serve as the guiding lights for sales personnel. Stores and labels rely on the
information gathered from these services to determine the number of CDs that should be racked in the
stores. The National Association of Recording Merchandisers (NARM) is a nonprofit organization that tracks
sales figures, use of listening stations in record stores, Internet sales, and other related sales outlets.
Questions to ask when creating a sales plan:

Have stores been approached to rack (sell) the CD? Stores have to be “sold,” especially when an artist
is new. There is very limited shelf space.
Have special sales promotions been established with the retail chains? An example is offering a
discounted price for a specific time period.
Are listening stations being used so the consumer can hear portions of the CD? Listening stations are
expensive to rent, but they are considered one of the most effective sales tools.
Is in-store play being used to promote the CD? This is also one of the best sales tools. The CDs are
usually displayed at the checkout counter.
Is the CD exhibited on in-store wall displays, window displays, and end caps?
Is the label advertising? The advertising must be strategically planned so that the target audience is
reached.
 For those interested in entering the creative aspects of the music business—producer, artist,
arranger, or composer—it is wise to study music at the university level. Musical versatility can
be an asset because of the volatile and varied nature of the business. For example, an arranger
can arrange music for records, commercials, films, and television. Learning the various
aspects of music production, which includes an understanding of audio engineering, prepares
students to apply their skills in a variety of fields.

Questions to ask when creating an advertising plan:

Where will the album be advertised? Is the advertising reaching the target audience?
Is co-op advertising being bought? The cost of the ad is pro-rated when an artist’s album is included
with other albums.
Is the media buy prudent? Buying airtime and print space is costly. Labels do not usually engage in
these expenses unless an artist is generating sales. Advertising placement is crucial to effective
advertising.

Often, creative people feel they can tackle any musical situation, which is highly unlikely. It
is advisable to only accept jobs that showcase one’s creative strength. Second chances are
rare!

The studio business has become an increasingly difficult business primarily due to the availability of
inexpensive, professional, or semi-professional home studio equipment. Most artists and producers have
home (project) studios, which allows them more creative freedom. Renting studio space is costly and should
be used, in most instances, to complete the work, not to create it.

Assignment
Assume you are forming a small record label. To remain within the budget, you can hire only 5
employees. Outline all positions and describe the responsibilities of each position. The jobs
should encompass all areas needed to run a small label.
 To promote a new album, there must be a “handle”—something for the promotion, marketing, and
advertising teams to “hold on to.” When a new project is being designed, some of the key ingredients of
concern to an artist, producer, and label are the album title, cover design, and the project’s musical identity.
Producers help formulate the overall ambience of a project. Many projects have musical themes, which
helps the promotion department market an image.
Questions to ask when preparing promotions and public relations plans:

Which radio stations are being targeted?

Are special radio promotions and giveaways being offered?
Are Internet, satellite, cable, HD radio, and terrestrial radio stations all being targeted?
Are newspapers (including college papers) being contacted to write stories about the artist? Are
magazines that cover the artist’s genre of music being targeted?
Is the Internet being utilized for both promotions and sales?
Is there a physical and electronic press kit?
Has a one-page fact sheet been prepared?
Are discount coupons being offered?
Is there a sampler CD or a digital sampler?
Are there any cross-promotions? (For example, buy 2 hamburgers and a soda and receive an artist’s
greatest hits album at a reduced rate.)
20

Marketing and Promotions

Without passion, you don’t have energy; without energy, you have nothing. Nothing great in the world has been
accomplished without passion.
––Donald Trump

As noted by RIAA board member Tommy Silverman, “74% of all US-based albums sales came
from CDs in 2010.” Silverman noted even better statistics in certain genres. “84% Country . . .
85% Gospel and . . . 93% Latin album sales came from physical.”
According to Nielsen SoundScan, 46% of U.S. sales in 2010 were digital downloads.
To develop comprehensive and, hopefully, successful marketing and promotions plans,
artists and/or labels must have concise and targeted goals. The ultimate objective is to attract
new fans, retain current fans, and interest them in purchasing music and merchandise and to
attend concerts. The details of how to achieve these objectives will be discussed in this
chapter.

The 4 P’s of Marketing

Product
This term originally referred to physical product. In the music industry, it also
applies to digital product.
The name of an album, the artwork, the recording quality, etc. is all considered part
of the “product.”
Price
iTunes is an example of a pricing strategy that changed. Originally, all individual
songs were priced at 99 cents. After much discussion with the record labels, they
implemented a new pricing structure: $1.29 for very popular and mostly new
recordings, some catalog songs that have remained popular sell for $.99, while older
less desirable songs sell for $.69.
The price of albums varies.

A “Greatest Hits” album could be considered a Special Product. Since the genre has
decreased in sales, some labels now promote these albums as new product. For instance, the
 artist might be booked on television programs that attract the proper demographic such as the
Late Night programs or the artist may record several new tracks for the album or include several
remixes; a deluxe package might contain a music video and booklet. This marketing strategy has
proved to increase sales. (Most record contracts limit the number of “Greatest Hits” albums that
will be released within the term of a contract.)

Place (distribution)
Today, distribution includes making product available to digital stores and mobile
devices.
Physical distribution includes delivering to brick & mortar (retail) stores,
warehousing, transporting the product, returns, etc.
Special Products: Albums that are either newly recorded or compiled from existing
tracks and are specifically targeted for exclusive distribution, e.g., the album is only
sold at Bed, Bath & Beyond.
Promotion
Marketing the product to a targeted demographic
Public relations
Sales
Radio and television promotions
Web promotions
Inventive promotional strategies, some of which are described in this chapter.

Most marketing plans use these basic principles to develop marketing strategies.
The 4 P’s rubric was assembled by E. Jerome McCarthy, which was taken from an article
written by Neil H. Borden in 1964.

SWOT Analysis
Many businesses develop a SWOT Analysis, as an aid, prior to making business decisions
concerning marketing, strategic planning, and other crucial aspects that must be considered
when operating a business. SWOT is an acronym for:

Strengths
Weaknesses
Opportunities
Threats

A SWOT Analysis can be useful in marketing albums. The following is an example of some of
the items that should be listed under each major category.
Strengths
 The executives are experienced in targeting the proper demographic
An innovative marketing strategy
Advantages over other companies marketing similar artists
A substantial budget that will allow the company to conduct a thorough marketing
campaign and sustain the campaign, if warranted
Price the product to be competitive
Quality (high quality reproduction and mastering)

Weaknesses

May not have competitive distribution

May be under-financed
May not have experienced marketing managers in the record industry
May not have the commitment and morale required by the top executives
May not have the ability to distribute and market globally
May not distribute physical copies

Opportunities

Social networking (viral marketing), which is not necessarily costly.

Unknown artists have many opportunities because they can be discovered through
websites such as YouTube or Facebook. This was not possible prior to social networking,
which was made available by innovative applications.
Song videos can be produced at a relatively inexpensive production cost.
Albums can be recorded in project studios, which present opportunities for many
innovative artists that would, most likely, not be signed to major labels because they have
a limited audience. (The equipment used in project studios is relatively inexpensive and
produces high-quality results.)
Artists can communicate directly with their fans and develop new fans by approaching
them to help expand their audience.
Synchronization opportunities

Threats

Peer-2-Peer file sharing

Physical piracy
Limited radio play

Marketing Executives
Marketing executives, obviously, market recordings, hopefully in a creative manner.
Marketing departments negotiate promotional deals with radio stations; they give away concert
tickets and merchandise to listeners and expand the marketing as an artist generates income.
They work closely with the promotion department. When a recording is receiving exposure,
which includes airplay via terrestrial radio, the Internet, satellite radio, blogs, etc., or an artist
is touring, the marketing department is responsible for supporting that exposure in various
ways.
In-Store Promotion Labels rent listening stations in retail stores so potential customers
can hear portions of CDs; they also purchase space to hang promotional posters and to
have their recordings played on in-store speaker systems. This is a costly marketing tool.
End caps are located at the end of a rack so the CD is proximately displayed. Some CDs
are prominently displayed where a customer pays for the product. This is called the Point-
of-Purchase (POP) and can be costly. Artists sometimes perform in stores. This attracts
new potential fans and the artists make themselves “available” to converse with their
current fans. (As a result from the competition from the digital market, physical sales
have decreased; therefore, most large stores devote less space for CDs.)

In the 1960s and 1970s, Albert Humphrey, a management consultant, developed the SWOT
Analysis Technique while working at the Stanford University Research Institute. He was in charge of a
research team.

Business models are changing at a rapid rate and it is difficult to predict how the current increase in
Internet and mobile sales and decrease in traditional retail sales will affect overall sales. Some labels pay
stores merely to have their product racked and prominently displayed. Most music pundits predict that brick-
and-mortar stores will not be the primary source of purchasing music in the near future. To help combat the
problem, many store chains and record labels have developed online stores.

Tour Promotion and Tour Financial Support Concert appearances promote sales. To
help support touring, record labels usually advance money to worthy artists; the advances
are recouped against record royalties. Tour support is 100% recoupable. (It is difficult for
new artists to generate a profit while touring because there are numerous expenses.)
Touring also helps to sell merchandise, such as t-shirts and hats. In general, revenue
from merchandise produces the same revenue as ticket sales.
Music Video Promotion Music videos are an important marketing and promotional
tool. (MTV popularized music videos, in the U.S., in 1981.) The production expenses are
costly, which means the labels have to feel strongly about a song before committing
financial support. Videos can cost anywhere from $5,000 to over $1 million. 50% of the
cost of a video is generally recouped against artists’ royalties and the remaining 50% is
recouped from video sales. Artists with clout can sometimes negotiate more favorable
terms.
Most consumers view the videos on artists’ websites or sites such as YouTube.
University and College Promotion University and college promotion is a synthesis of
sales, radio promotion, and merchandising. Most universities have radio and television
stations; in addition, they present concerts by renowned artists. New recordings have
“broken” (become hits) after receiving exposure on university radio and television
stations. (Some labels hire college students, as interns, to promote their product on
campus. Internships often lead to jobs upon graduation.)
Web Site Promotion Most artists (and producers) have Web sites. Web sites, or Internet
sites (MySpace), are one of the most effective marketing tools. Some record labels’ Web
sites have direct links to the artists’ personal Web sites. Create and register a domain
name such as xyzband.com. The name should be simple and directly associated with the
name of the artist.
An effective website begins with a thoughtfully designed homepage. The homepage is the
most essential screen of a site because it establishes the image of the artist (producer). The site
should be designed so that the artist’s brand is identifiable. The site should be simple to
navigate. Fans do not want to waste time attempting to find information that should be easily
accessible. In addition to being graphically appealing, the menu should include links to the
following content:

New releases
Bio
Electronic Press Kit (EPK) (Include relevant press clippings.)
Discography
Tour schedule
Newsletter
Reviews
Photos
Sales Charts
Chart Rankings (e.g., Billboard, iTunes, etc.)
A request for the viewer’s e-mail address
A message board so that the fans can communicate with the artist or the producer
MP3 samples of the latest CD and catalogue samples
Purchase of albums (This is not always possible. If the album cannot be purchased on the
Web site, links to other online stores, such as Amazon.com, should be included.)
 On average, record labels retain 20% to 30% of revenue generated by artists that sign “360”
deals. Artists usually retain a minimum of 30% of the gross profits. Successful artists negotiate higher
percentages.

Swag (s.w.a.g.), an acronym for “stuff we all get,” refers to merchandising such as t-shirts.

When music videos first surfaced in the United States, some executives felt that depicting a
song via visual images detracted from the listener’s imagination. Apparently, they were mistaken.
Almost all hit records are supported by videos.

It is essential to keep the Web site current and imperative that the questions on the message
board be answered in a timely fashion. Gathering fan information is crucial to maintaining a
solid fan base. Fans will attend more concerts and purchase additional CDs, downloads, and
merchandise if they “connect” with an artist. Gather profiles of your fans, which should include
information such as:

What other artists do they follow?

What blogs, e-zines, and traditional magazines do they read?
Do they listen to a variety of music-based podcasts?
Do they subscribe to social networks such as Apple’s Ping, Facebook, and Twitter?
Do they listen to terrestrial, Satellite, and Internet radio stations?
Do they watch broadcast, cable, Direct TV, and Internet television programs?
Do they communicate with others through music chat rooms?

The above information aids the marketing and promotions teams to target their audiences;
therefore, it is cost effective.
Preparing a Marketing Plan The plan should include the following information in
addition to traditional marketing plan information.
 In which bin will the CD be racked in a store (rock, pop, R&B, alternative, adult
contemporary, etc.)?
Describe the demographics and psychographics of the target audience. Provide a
description of the music.
How does the music differ from that of the competition?
What is the artist’s image? Does the artist have a musical identity?
Is the image on the album cover being used as a general marketing logo? (E.g., Mick
Jagger’s tongue.)
Visual branding is vastly significant because it helps to establish an artist’s image.
Does the artist publish a blog and/or podcast?
Does the artist send an e-mail newsletter? (Newsletters should inform fans but in an
entertaining manner. “Talk” to them as if one was conducting a private conversation.)
Does the artist make music videos and post them on YouTube and other similar sites?
What promotional tools are going to be used?
Is there a “one sheet” (a brief description of the artist and the marketing and promotional
plan)? This is important to retailers. If they rack (provide shelf space) the CD, it takes up
store space; retailers want to be reassured that the label is committed to promoting the
CD.
Is there a music video? Will it be for sale? (Traditionally, music videos do not sell well
but are effective for marketing.)
Where is the artist performing and what promotional strategies are planned to help
promote album and merchandise sales at concert venues?

70% of entertainment searches on Microsoft’s Bing search engine, in the summer of 2010,
were customers searching for song lyrics. This may become a lucrative source of songwriters’
royalties.

Does the artist have mailing addresses and e-mail lists?

If so, how can they be used to help sell albums and merchandise? Are there sales
incentives such as download 1 song and get another track for free? (These should be
implemented for a limited time period.)

Nontraditional Alternative Marketing

Have nontraditional retail outlets been approached for distribution; for example, stores
other than traditional brick-and-mortar record stores, such as health-foods stores?
Is there a plan to use direct marketing? The customer is contacted directly and provided
 with an opportunity to order the CD or download.
Is there a plan to use direct mail or flyers? Most performing artists acquire a mailing list
containing both e-mail and home addresses of their fans. They send out weekly reminders
of upcoming concerts, as well as additional general information.
Does the artist have a Web site? Most artists’ Web sites present an opportunity for the
customer to purchase albums (including merchandise), as well as providing them with a
newsletter, which contains the artist’s concert schedule and other news. Some link the
customer to a traditional Web music store such as Amazon.com or iTunes.com. Allow the
customer to print out a coupon that provides a discount on certain items. (In today’s music
industry, Web sites may be considered traditional marketing.)
Link your Web site to a store(s), such as iTunes, so that fans can download or purchase
physical copies of the artist’s music. Some artists prefer to allow the consumer to
download and/or purchase physical copies directly from their Web site.
Is a one-page flier or brochure available? Most fliers and simple brochures provide fans
with an opportunity to purchase artists’ albums and other merchandise in addition to a
listing of their concert schedule. An order form is usually included and it is either
stamped or has a return envelope with the postage prepaid.
Is the album being licensed to record clubs? Record clubs sell albums at a discount but
the volume of sales can more than compensate for the reduced royalty rate.
Does the artist sell his or her CD(s) at live performances? This strategy can be lucrative,
since the fans are most interested in purchasing an artist’s music after attending a concert.
The artist purchases the CDs at the wholesale price; however, labels limit the number of
CDs an artist may purchase at that price.
Have television programs, advertising agencies, and film companies been contacted to
license songs from the album? Licensing music from an album can be a superb marketing
tool as well as a lucrative revenue source.

Summary of Marketing and Promotions

Social networking, referred to as viral marketing, has become the predominant promotional
tool used to sell music. It allows fans to communicate with each other as well as with their
favorite artists. This tactic has always been used to market: Word of Mouth. It is important to
target the proper demographic. For example, Katy Perry has a core demographic that most
likely attracts teens through consumers in the their mid-20s. The Internet provides important
information about consumers, which helps content providers target their audience. It also
provides artists with global distribution. Marketing and promotions plans must include a
budget.

Determine when the CD and/or digitized recordings are scheduled for release and
determine the territories. For instance, the digital distribution company IODA, previously
mentioned, allows their customers to choose the territories they wish their product to be
 available. Planning ahead is necessary.
Coordinate live performances with the release of an album. For instance, touring,
television appearances and interviews, which may include podcasts, blogs, Ezine articles
(online magazines), magazine articles, and additional forms of exposure.
Target the proper demographic. The more pointed the marketing and promotion, the
greater chance of reaching a core audience.
Viral marketing is significant because fans want to become “friends” with the performers
they admire. They do not want to be “preached to.” For example, if a tweet, which is a
short message (a part of the social networking service Twitter), is used to promote an
artist, the tweet should only contain essential information about the artist such as, “The
artist is performing this weekend from 9PM-10PM at the XYZ Club.” (Twitter had 175
million viewers in 2010.)

iTunes Ping, which launched on September 1, 2010, is iTune’s social network and is similar to
Facebook and Twitter. The purpose of Ping is to allow iTunes customers to keep current with artists
and share information. It is simple to use because while on iTunes there is a direct link to Ping. It can
also be accessed on iPhones and iPod Touches.

Study marketing techniques used in other industries and use them if they are applicable to
marketing music.

Since consumers have complained that albums contain only 1 or 2 “good” songs, they have
transformed the music industry, for the most part, back to the 1950s and early 1960s business
model of selling singles; if the singles are hits, produce an album. This paradigm allows
consumers to “cherry pick.” (The ability to purchase only the songs they want to own.) The
problem, from a record company’s perspective, is that it does not warrant the cost of recording
an album if the consumer does not have to purchase the album to get the song or songs they
wish to own. As previously mentioned, consumers pay more for current hits and less for older
recordings. Many artists offer a free download in order to entice consumers to purchase their
album.
As a result of fewer sales and less profit, numerous artists view their recordings as
marketing tools that help attract an audience to their live performances.
Music Web site design is one of the most essential tools used by artists that keep fans
informed. It is essential that viewers have the ability to easily navigate the site and
quickly access the desired information. The site must be frequently updated; the content
should include:

“Facebook issued a warning to independent developers . . . in response to reports that some

applications on the site were sharing identifying information about users.” (Doug Cross CNN [October
2010])

Music
News
Videos
Photos
Music
Concert Dates
Updated Bio
Reviews
Chat Room (enables fans to communicate with each other and the artist)
Street Teams (fans who help promote the artists), log-in (provides e-mail addresses)
Available ringtones and ringbacks
Links to MySpace, Facebook, YouTube and Twitter, merchandise, videos, as well as
links to additional essential Web sites. (Facebook had 500 million users in 2010.)
Hire a web designer who will not only visually reveal your vision but will also help
register a proper domain name and Internet address. List your site on the following
search engines: Google, Yahoo, Bing, and About.com. There are also many
additional search engines that are theme related.
The objective is to appeal to fans so they will support the artist’s career. Make them feel
as though they have become a member of the artist’s “family.” Sometimes, artists offer
backstage passes to fans that have helped sustain their fan-base and helped to increase
their fan-base. The more interaction an artist has with his or her fans, the longer he or she
will retain their support staff. Artists can no longer depend on labels and agents to guide
and develop their careers. Managers have taken on a much more significant role than in
the past partially because many new and established artists do not sign with labels;
therefore, the manager becomes their “guiding light.” Although the following statement
might be construed as an insult, artists are brands. They must have the ability to survive
in a competitive environment. This requires an unequivocal commitment to their careers,
which is guided by a skilled support team consisting of a manager, road manager, agent,
 attorney, accountant, public relations firm or individual, and others. Artists must project a
very clear image so that the public associates their music with their personas. The record
industry is a business, and their careers must be conducted as such.

Some artists promote their new albums on Twitter rather than through traditional channels,
which might involve managers and press representatives. This is yet another example of the influence
and future of social networking.

When attempting to obtain public relations for an artist, the story or press release––a short
synopsis containing pertinent information about the artist––should be targeted to the proper
sources. (The story should be concise and the content clearly stated.) For instance:

Do not send a story about a pop act to a new age magazine.

The information should contain content that will appeal to the artist’s audience. The
headline should reveal only pertinent information about the content of the story. For
example: XYZ TOURS EUROPE!
Try to send information that is unique. Do not bombard the media with irrelevant stories.
Send the story to multiple sources such as entertainment television programs, music blogs,
music podcasts, etc. but be selective.
Do not abuse relationships with media contacts. Use your acquaintances judiciously.
Sometimes, it might be wise to give an “exclusive” interview, for instance, to one source
but be prepared for the possible consequences. Other sources might get irritated and
refuse to support the artist when the artist needs a favor.
It is essential to build an e-mail list of fans. Develop a substantial list and use it to inform
fans about all essential activities such as performances, merchandise, recordings, news,
etc. Personalize each e-mail, e.g. Dear Bob, and create a message that is simple and short.
(Personalized e-mails can be time consuming and therefore impractical.) E-mails should
always provide a link to the artist’s Web site.
Approach retail stores, referred to as brick & mortar stores, only after a recording has
created a “buzz.” For instance, a buzz can be local or regional radio play that has resulted
in confirmed online sales. Limited shelf space has made it difficult to place physical
product in retail stores without some indication that the album will sell. Many stores will
only accept CDs on consignment. Consignment means that the label only gets paid when
the album sells. The store does not purchase the product.
Streaming services: For example Rhapsody—the most popular on-demand streaming
service in the U.S.—allows their subscribers to listen to unlimited music for a fee of
$10.00 a month. The customers can also download as many songs as they wish but the
 songs cannot be burned to a CD or DVD. The content can be played on, for example, an
iPod. The iPod must be connected to the Internet at least once a month to verify that the
customer has paid for their subscription. This is referred to as a non-tethered stream. If a
customer stops her subscription, the songs no longer remain on the computer or other
devices. A tethered stream means that the customer must be connected to the Internet to
hear the stream. Rhapsody can also be downloaded to mobile phones. Napster (the legal
version) is also a streaming service. Although record labels favor the streaming of music,
as of the writing of this book, the paradigm has not proved to be financially viable.
Some digital distributors, such as Bandcamp, allow the content provider to determine the
sales price for a single or album and also retain all ownership rights. The content
provider may set a minimum price and fans might choose to pay more than the minimum.
(Most digital stores determine online prices.) The compensation for online distribution
varies. (Bandcamp also allows artists to sell their merchandise.)
“Sell Physical and Digital, Side-by-Side. You can sell both your physical merchandise
and your digital music from Bandcamp, and better yet, you can sell them together.”
(Bandcamp website)
IODA (Independent Online Distribution Alliance) is an example of a large online
distributor of music and videos. They also offer a marketing service for additional
compensation.
ReverbNation permits artists, producers, and musicians to communicate and share their
work with each other. They can market and promote music without a large investment.
Topspin provides the same opportunities as many other Internet Web sites.
Inserting an advertisement on a web page is called a banner ad. This can sometimes be
very effective if placed in a location that attracts the proper demographic.
Mobile marketing via ringtones and ringbacks generates substantial publishing and
licensing income. Most mobile devices enable the user to create a ringtone library.
Certain applications allow the user to illegally upload ringtones and ringbacks to mobile
devices. This, obviously, is copyright infringement. Some mobile phones include generic
ringtones and ringbacks and a free music library. The mobile market will continue to be
an essential part of the evolving music industry. (In addition, there are many music “apps”
available for mobile devices. This has become a lucrative business.)
Synchronization licensing (licensing music for films, commercials, Internet use, etc.) and
transcription licensing (e.g., radio commercials) are substantial sources of income.
Game licensing can be a considerable source of income but mainly for established artists.
Sell sheet music. Substantial revenue can be generated without much development cost.
Most sheet music can be downloaded, which eliminates manufacturing costs. Larger
works must be produced in a physical format.

Hulu shows television programs, films, and music videos in the U.S. only. Fox, ABC, NBC, as
well as other networks and studios own it. They are able to provide content without infringing
on copyright ownership.
 Vevo is a successful Web site that shows music videos provided by the Sony Music
Entertainment, EMI, and the Universal Music Group. Sony Music Entertainment, EMI, and Abu
Dhabi Media own the site. (EMI is not an owner.) The site is monetized via advertising
revenue. There is no illegal use of videos because the owners of the site, plus EMI, provide
the content. The site also sells merchandise.
“Lift” is a new Vevo program that was designed to help develop emerging artists. They will
select new artists and promote them on their website, Facebook, and Twitter in addition to
providing additional social networking opportunities.
“Music Meter,” launched by MTV, was designed to promote new artists. They rank the top
100 unknown artists. The chart is based upon interest from fans on social networks, the number
of video streams, sales (physical and downloads), and radio play, including terrestrial,
Internet, and Satellite radio. (Traditional charts are based upon sales and radio play.)
“Ultimate Chart,” controlled by Big Champagne and “Social 50,” owned by Billboard, base
their rankings on artists that are popular on social-networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter,
MySpace, and more. Most of these artists are well known and generally appear on traditional
music charts. “Music Meter” and “Lift” provide music lovers with an opportunity to discover
new music by unknown artists.

Music publishers collect and distribute the royalties generated by all digital tracks; this includes
streaming and downloading.

Grooveshark is a free, ad based, music search engine that allows consumers to select songs and/or
artists and stream their music. Downloading is not permitted. This is an unusual example of a music service
because subscription services, such as Rhapsody, charge consumers to choose a specific song and
stream it.
For a fee of $3.00 USD a month (for the first year), Grooveshark offers a VIP service, which removes
banner ads, adds mobile applications, allows users to keep their playlists on their computer desktops, and
additional features. Users can also upload content, which may increase the risk of copyright infringement.
The content provider is personally liable for uploading illegal content. Major record labels have filed lawsuits
against the company.

Instead of releasing an album, every several months release 1 single and promote it.
Obviously, do not release all of the tracks. After a buzz has been created and there are
 respectable sales, compile the singles, add additional tracks, and release the album. This
model allows the public to get to know the artist and to, hopefully, be encouraged to
purchase the entire album. Some albums have several album covers. For example, Lady
Gaga’s Fame album has several covers. The Deluxe Version, called The Fame Monster
has 15 songs; the price is $14.99. The Fame Monster contains 9 songs plus a digital
booklet; the cost is $7.99. The albums have separate covers. Labels must find new models
that will increase monetization of their products. This is a creative example.
One of the advantages of digital distribution is that artists and labels can make their
complete catalogues available without a substantial investment. Many formally
established artists have had their careers revived because of the Internet, Satellite radio,
ringtones and ringbacks, and the use of their music in commercials, films, and television.
The same is true for new artists. Their songs are discovered online and licensed for
various projects. This exposure can lead to multiple opportunities.

1. Performance on The Grammy Awards (After performing on the 2010 Grammy Awards,
Pink’s album Funhouse received the greatest increase in sales of any performer on the
program.)
2. Synch Placement in a TV ad for Apple
3. Performance on The Oprah Winfrey Show
4. Song Featured as Free Single of The Week On iTunes
5. Album Displayed in Walmart Endcap
6. Song Performed on Fox’s Glee
7. Album Featured As Amazon MP3 Daily Deal
8. Performance on Saturday Night Live
9. Single/Album Charting on iTunes
10. First Arena-Level Headlining Tour

ReverbNation allows users to put music on other websites by using free music player widgets.
(A music widget allows users to post notes on social networking sites.) In addition, the user might
provide information on new artists and promote other web sites and blogs. Limitless information can be
posted.

Some Web sites, such as YouTube and Hulu, present a commercial prior to showing selected
videos. This ad-supported model helps monetize the website.
 Set goals. Set a time-line. For instance, by a specific date assemble an e-mail list that
contains X number of addresses and also that a minimum of at least 150 fans attend each
performance. These goals may be difficult to attain but it is the only means to build a loyal
audience. Performances and selling merchandise are the primary source of income for
most performers unless they are superstars. Superstars can earn significant income from
artist’s, publishing, and performance royalties.

Conclusion
The producer and label know that a marketing and promotions campaign cannot be successful
unless the songs and the production values appeal to the proper demographic. As previously
mentioned, the songs are the foundation of any project. Producers and artists must spend
considerable time and energy writing songs or selecting appropriate songs, “setting” the songs
in the most suitable arrangement, and capturing the ambience of the music. The listener should
be able to “hear” these elements in the final mix. The final “cherry on the cake” is mastering
the project, which should capture the best possible sonic quality. Not all marketing and
promotion plans are going to achieve complete or partial success. It is best to view your
marketing strategy as a “living” plan, which means that the marketing managers must be
prepared to make changes. Be flexible! It is the nature of any business venture.

Assignment
Create a fictitious artist. Construct a viral, Internet-based marketing and promotions campaign
that is designed to support a new album. Include a budget but try to keep costs to a minimum.

One of the advantages of controlling content on the Internet is that artists are not necessarily willing to
sign “360” deals (described earlier) with record labels. Artists and/or content owner/providers keep the
majority of profits and have total control over their content, which includes merchandise. As this paradigm
increases in popularity, the labels will, most likely, become weaker. When Web-based artists hit mainstream,
global popularity, the music industry will have recovered from many years of reorganization. To date, this has
not occurred. The major labels and mini-majors have the funds to market and promote artists into
“superstardom.” They can finance tour support, which is recouped against royalties. Will web-based artists
without substantial funding be able to attain the same level of success? (Approximately 30% of sales are
downloaded.)
As reported by Nielsen SoundScan (October 20, 2010), Lil Wayne’s I Am Not a Human Being debuted on
the Billboard 200 chart at number 2 based upon downloaded sales only. This is highly unusual as of the
writing of this book. The release of the physical album increased the chart position to number 1 in its 3rd
week on the chart. (Nielsen SoundScan tracks sales of music and videos in the U.S. and Canada. The
information is used to determine the Billboard chart positions.)
 As reported in the New York Times by Janna Wortham on September 6, 2010, “Viral videos tend to
have a short lifespan online. The best ones might attract a few million views on YouTube and get a mention
on a Late Night talk show before fading into oblivion.” This statement might be accurate but what Ms.
Wortham does not mention is that the exposure can lead to many opportunities.

Billboard Magazine published a list of the 100 best ways to generate sales and a buzz (October 2,
2010). The following list is the top 10.

According to Billboard, during the week of May 23, 2011, Amazon.com sold Lady Gaga’s new album,
Born This Way, for 99 cents for two days. The album sold approximately 1 million copies in its first week of
release. Amazon’s wholesale price is approximately $8.00. iTunes sold the album for $15.99.
The promotion was, most likely, sold for that price to promote Amazon’s music service. Customers can
store their music, for free, in Amazon’s Cloud Drive Storaage.

The Associated Press reported that in 2010 concert sales were poor due to elevated ticket prices.
Concert promoters plan to lower ticket prices in 2011 and to promote the artists’ merchandise in hopes of
making up lost revenue. Pollstar Magazine reported that in the first half of 2010, concert attendance dropped
12% when compared to the same period in 2009. Live Nation Entertainment Inc. reported a drop of more
than 12% in concert sales during the summer of 2010, even though they lowered ticket prices when sales
were slow. Some productions are costly to produce: therefore, the promoters cannot afford to lower prices.
In the future, some artists might not create massive, expensive productions. This will allow the promoters to
lower prices.

The Top 10 Selling Albums in the U.S. for 2010 as reported in Billboard Magazine (Figures in millions)
were:
 1. Eminem, Recovery (3.42)
2. Lady Antebellum, Need You Know (3.09)
3. Taylor Swift, Speak Now (2.96)
4. Justin Bieber, My World (2.32)
5. Susan Boyle, The Gift (1.85)
6. Lady Gaga, The Fame (1.59)
7. Sade, Soldier of Love (1.30)
8. Drake, Thank Me Later (1.27)
9. Usher, Raymond v. Raymond (1.18)
10. Ke&ha, Animal (1.14)

As reported by SoundScan, total U.S. sales in 2010 dropped 9.5% when compared to sales in 2009. In 2010,
total sales, which include CDs combined with downloads of complete albums, equaled 443.4 million units
compared to 489.8 million units in 2009. The decline in sales is attributed to illegal downloading and
diminishing shelf-space in retail stores.
21

Business Agreements and Creating a

Business Plan

Google, Apple and Amazon are all racing to provide cloud-based access to digital entertainment, including music,
movies and books—Billboard Magazine (May 21, 2011)

The business of music is complex and should be studied as a separate subject. Numerous
books are available. A student should become familiar with record company agreements and
music publishing contracts, in addition to learning the general “deal points” associated with
performance contracts, entertainment union contracts, merchandising contracts, managers’
agreements, talent agency agreements, Internet agreements, mobile agreements, and additional
music industry contracts.

Overview of a Production Agreement

In popular music genres, especially hip-hop and R&B, producers are often composers and
arrangers. Frequently, producers scout for artists to record the producer’s songs. The artist
signs an agreement with the producer’s production company and proceeds to record three or
four songs. The producer then shops a deal (solicits labels for a recording contract). If the
artist receives an offer to sign with a label, a representative of the production company—
usually an attorney—conducts contract negotiations with the distributing label. Under this
model, the production company collects all advances and royalties and distributes the allotted
share to the artist after deducting the production company’s share. Some artists receive
royalties directly from the distributing label, although the production company usually signs the
deal with the distributor. (These items are usually negotiable.) The distribution company
normally asks an artist to sign an inducement letter, which states that the artist agrees to fulfill
all obligations stated in the production company agreement.
In addition to signing with a production company, most record companies also require an
artist to sign an additional contract directly with them. If business problems develop between
the production company and the label, the label needs protection.
 The artist’s deal is negotiated when he or she signs an agreement with a production company. The
terms of the distribution contract are normally coterminous with the artist’s deal with the production company.

If a manager represents the artist, the manager—usually in conjunction with an attorney—

negotiates an agreement with the production company. The negotiation involves royalty splits,
publishing issues, and deal points relating to future recordings for a label and/or distribution
company.
The deal points and signing of agreements should be concluded prior to any recording. This
helps to avoid potential contractual problems. If an artist achieves success and is dissatisfied
with his or her royalty rate and/or additional deal points, most labels and production
companies will be willing to renegotiate certain terms. In fact, renegotiation is almost
expected. If an artist does not uphold the terms of a contract, the courts will enforce the
original agreement even if the agreement is not a fair contract, by industry standards.
As part of a renegotiation the label will generally ask for an extension of the terms of the
current contract. Some managers will not negotiate a new contract until the current contract has
almost expired; that helps to avoid potential conflicts with the label. From an artist’s
viewpoint, the more influential the artist, the better position the artist is in to renegotiate an
agreement and receive more favorable terms than were provided in the original contract.
An artist who has achieved financial and artistic success will most likely be offered a
substantial advance, an increase in the royalty rate, and other significant concessions. Bidding
wars often occur after an artist’s agreement has expired or the expiration of the agreement is
imminent. Assuming everything is equal to competitive offers, if an artist has a fruitful
relationship with a label or a production company, the artist will most likely sign a new
agreement with that label or production company. Some artists have maintained multiyear label
associations, as in the case of Barbra Streisand with Columbia and Paul Simon with Columbia
and later Warner Bros. Simon’s newest album, So Beautiful Or So What (April 12, 2011), is
released by the Concord Music Group.

Producer’s Agreements
Music business contracts are multifaceted, and a music business attorney should represent a
producer. (Deals vary from country to country.) Producers sign production agreements with
labels, artists, or production companies. Some producers own production companies and
license their recordings worldwide. They retain ownership of the master sound recordings.
A number of artists own production companies and compensate independent producers
directly. For example, if an artist receives an advance (against royalties) of $500,000, from the
label, to produce one album, he or she may negotiate a deal with a producer to produce one
song. The artist may negotiate a deal with a producer to produce the song for $25,000. The
$25,000 is recouped against the producer’s royalty rate, which is generally 3 or 4% of the
retail price or the producer does not receive royalties until the record company has recouped
the entire cost of the album through retail sales, which have been paid for. The $25,000 can be
a creative fee, with the production company paying all recording expenses, such as studio time,
musicians, engineers, and cover design, or the producer is responsible for paying all expenses
out of the allotted budget. The producer’s fee, or advance against royalties, is the currency
remaining after expenses. (It is difficult to negotiate a fee for a producer. Most advances
received by producers are recoupable against record sales.)
Most labels pay a producer and an artist separately. A record label may hire five producers
to work on one album, and each deal is individually negotiated. Artists’ deals and producers’
royalty calculations may be intertwined, or they may be separate agreements; it usually
depends on the track record of each entity and the contract negotiations.
The following general deal points are negotiable:

The average producer receives a 3 or 4% royalty rate, which is calculated by using the
U.S. suggested retail list price (SRLP) of units sold.
Royalties in foreign territories are calculated in different ways, such as based on the
wholesale price. The Published Price to Dealers (PPD) is usually double the retail rate.
For instance, 10% of wholesale is the equivalent to 5% of retail.

Standard deductions before calculating royalties are as follows:

Free goods are used for promotion. Many contracts stipulate that no more than 3 “free goods”
can be shipped with each 10 CDs. (Downloads are also used as “free goods.”)
Reserves—labels pay royalties only on sales and not on the number of units that have been
shipped. The industry standard is for labels to accept returns of 100%. No reserves are applied to
downloading.
A packaging deduction of 25% is standard. There is no packaging deduction for music distributed
online.

Most producers do not receive royalties until all recording costs have been recouped. Some
producers receive royalties from the first record sold, after recording costs have been
recouped. Royalties are paid beginning from the first record sold. The deal depends on the
clout of the producer.
Most producers usually receive an advance against royalties; the advance payment is
deducted from the producer’s royalties or against the producers’ and artists’ royalties
combined. Highly successful producers may receive a fee (in place of an advance), which is
non-recoupable. The amount of the advance depends upon how “hot” the producer is. A
successful producer can receive substantial advances or fees. A novice producer may receive
an advance of $1,000 per song whereas a successful producer might receive $100,000 per
song or more.
Some labels buy completed master sound recordings (masters). If a producer owns master
sound recordings, he or she usually licenses the masters for a specified period of time. Each
territory (worldwide) negotiates a separate contract, which includes an overall royalty rate
and payment schedule. The royalty rate is divided between the producer and the artist, in
accordance with the terms of the production agreement.

Some producers’ royalties are recouped at the combined artists’ and producers’ “all-in” royalty rate.

If a producer or a production company owns a master sound recording of an artist and

licenses it to a label (with options for the label to license or record future albums), most labels
will not guarantee that the producer will continue to produce the artist, either on the current
album (if tracks are added or replaced), or on future albums. To compensate a producer or a
production company for their initial financial risk, the producer or production company usually
receives an override royalty payment for a specified time. For example, the producer or
production company may receive a 2% royalty override on the next two albums. The deals are
not standard and require negotiation. The amount of the override—if applicable—depends
upon the effectiveness of the producer or production company.
Producers usually receive half of their royalty rate for the sale of videos. Video sales are
meager compared to album sales, and this is usually a standard calculation.
A producer’s royalty rate normally remains constant in calculations of additional income
generated by the sale of the recordings. The royalties from Internet sales, master ringtone and
ringback sales, and other nontraditional sales, might be calculated at a lower base rate than the
traditional record royalty rate, but the royalty percentages remain the same. Individual projects
may require specific alterations.
Most producers’ contracts contain the following stipulations:

The royalty override is calculated on the same basis as a producer’s and artist’s royalty. For
instance, the record label must recoup all recording costs before the royalty override is paid.
Producers normally receive half of their fee, or advance (against royalties), prior to
recording; the remainder is paid when the label has approved and accepted the completed
master sound recordings.
The length of the agreement and any options for future production services are stated. For
instance, a producer might stipulate that if the album sells more than 250,000 units, the
producer will have the option to produce either all or part of the next album. A label
might also request this option. The agreement might not have any commitments past the
current project. Most producers are hired on a nonexclusive basis.
Producers must abide by the recording budget. In some contracts, the overage is deducted
from either the producer’s or the artist’s advance. If a producer is likely to exceed the
budget, the producer should get permission, in writing. This assures the producer that the
overage will not be deducted from the fee or advance against royalties. A 10% “safety
net” is built into most producers’ agreements. The overage is usually not deducted from
the producer’s royalties but from the artists’ royalties.
The producer’s royalty rate is stipulated. Some producers receive royalty escalations,
also known as bumps, based on sales. For instance, for sales that range from 1 to 100,000
units, the producer receives a 3% royalty rate (based on the suggested retail list price
referred to as SRLP) and, for units exceeding 100,000 units, the royalty will increase to
4%. That royalty might apply only to the units over and above the initial 100,000 units, or
it may increase the royalty rate, retroactive to record one.
The producer agrees to abide by the rules stipulated in all applicable union contracts,
primarily the American Federation of Musicians (AFM). This includes timely union-scale
payments, health and welfare contributions, reporting sessions prior to the session,
confirming that all musicians are in good standing with the union, and that all performers
all legally allowed to work in the United States.
The record company must approve all aspects of the production, including the mix. Labels
might request a remix and may reject a production. Contracts state that the productions
must be “technically satisfactory,” or “technically and commercially” satisfactory.
“Commercially” means that the record label can reject a master recording if it does not
think that there is a market for the recording. It is better to avoid this clause in a
producer’s or artist’s agreement.
Prior to recording, the songs (instrumentals) must be approved by the label and/or the
artist.
Some producers submit the record packaging liner notes, but more often they submit
information, and a professional writer writes the liner notes.
The wording and placement of the producer’s album credit are stated, as in “produced
by” on the CD front and/or back cover and in all advertising.
The producer must submit all credits for engineers, studio names, musicians, background
singers, graphic artists, liner note writers, and label executives, as well as the timing for
each song.
The producer provides clearances for all samples used on the masters and other
 necessary clearances for items controlled by the producer.

When calculating album sales, 10 downloads of single songs is considered an album. The
industry term is Track Equivalent Albums. Royalties are not paid on “free goods.” These are recordings
that are given for promotional purposes.

An influential producer might include a “guaranteed release” clause. This means that a
producer’s production must be released for sale to the public within a stated time period,
and put on the shelf. This is a difficult clause to enforce. For instance, the label can
release 200 copies and fulfill the agreement. The definition of the term released is stated
in the producer’s contract and must be clearly stated or it will be difficult to enforce a
breach of contract if a problem occurs.
Most agreements stipulate that the label has the right to replace a producer at the label’s
discretion; in such case, the producer still receives a producer’s fee or an advance.
All contracts give the producer and artist the right to audit the books and records of the
production or the distribution company. It is costly to audit, and there is usually a
significant reason(s) to do so. Reasons to audit might include considerable sales and
suspicion of inaccurate accounting practices.
The producer allows the label (production company) to use their name, bio, and likeness
in all advertising and public relations concerning the project.
The producer agrees not to produce or co-produce a song he or she produced on the
album for a negotiated period of time. The average term is 3 to 5 years.
The producer agrees to indemnify the company against any legal claims. The company has
the right to withhold the producer’s royalties if there is legal action, or potential legal
action, taken against the company and/or the producer.

Additional Concerns
The following deal points should be taken into consideration when producers make deals
with production companies.

A producer might sign an agreement with a production company before the production
company makes a label deal. This can present several problems such as the production
company will receive the royalty payments (an “all-in” deal) from the record label, and
pay the producer and the artist their royalties from that payment. If the production
company files for bankruptcy, what are the consequences? It is wise for a producer be
compensated directly from the record label, which is not always possible. At a minimum,
 the producer’s attorney must address this scenario. Attorneys might request a Letter of
Direction (LOD) to be signed by the producer (or artist) and the production company. The
letter directs the distribution company to pay the producer (or artist) directly.
The producer’s agreement might stipulate that royalties on foreign sales, record clubs, and
other sources of revenue—where it is standard to receive a reduction on the royalty base
—are X percentage lower than the 3% to 4% royalty received on traditional retail sales.
The production company might negotiate deals with the record label that are lower than
the deduction it is asking the producer (and artist) to adhere to. For instance, the producer
agrees to receive 50% of their base royalty for record club sales, but the production
company is only charged a 25% reduction from the record label. The fairest way to solve
this potential problem is to base the producer’s royalty rate on the agreement the
production company makes with the record label or the distribution company. If the terms
with the label are more favorable than the economic terms in the producer’s agreement
with the production company, the producer shares in the more favorable terms, and vice
versa. This is referred to as a flow-through or pass-through provision.
A producer or production company may have to the right to assign the agreement to
another entity as long as the producer or production company fulfills its obligations under
the terms of the original agreement with the label and/or artist.
If an independent producer funds an album, the producer may be obligated to have the
album released within a certain time period or the artist’s agreement is automatically
terminated.
If the artist breaches the producer’s agreement with the artist prior to the producer
obtaining a label deal or distribution deal, the producer might be entitled to recoup all
reasonable costs spent to develop the artist’s career—including attorney’s fees—from the
artist.
If a disagreement occurs between the producer and the artist, it is wise to consent to
binding arbitration. It is generally too costly to initiate a trial. The agreement will
stipulate in which state proceedings will occur. (Most cases are settled out of court.)

Producer’s Production Agreement

Some successful producers sign agreements with major or large independent distribution
companies. The average contract is 3 years with options, by the distributor, to extend the
agreement. The option pickups, by both parties, are usually determined by the success of the
relationship. It is crucial that the producer/production company retains ownership of the
master sound recordings.
The following are general terms included in such agreements.

If the distributor or label markets and promotes the albums, the producer receives a lesser
royalty rate than if the distributor merely distributes the albums.
The territory, e.g., the world or specific territories such as the U.S. and Canada only.
 The number of albums per year that will be distributed. This usually depends on the clout
of the producer and, of course, negotiations. Each signed artist will be expected to deliver
a certain number of albums as determined by the production agreement. The
artist/producer is obligated to deliver the agreed upon number of albums even if the
producer’s agreement with the distributor expires prior to the artist and producer
fulfilling their contractual obligation.
Some producers are permitted to sign a certain number of artists without the consent of the
distributor. It the producer wants to sign additional artists, he or she requires the
distributor’s permission.
Some deals are based upon the label or distributor having “The Right of First Refusal.”
This means that if the label/distributor does not choose to distribute an album, the
producer has the right to license it to another distributor.
The amount of a recoupable advance, if any, is stated.
The royalty rate—In most distribution-only deals, the distributor receives a 25% royalty
and the producer (production company) receives 75% out of which they pay the artists’
royalties, publishers, marketing costs, and so forth. If the distributor also markets and
promotes the albums, the percentages are negotiable. The average split is 50/50.
Do not agree to cross-collateraliztion. Each album should be handled as a separate
project. This means that if one album is successful and others do not recoup the
production and, possibly, marketing costs, the distributor may apply the profit from the hit
album to recoup losses from the albums that are not profitable.
Although an agreement expires, if the label/distributor has not recouped their investment,
the agreement remains intact until the label/distributor has recouped its costs.
In the current market, most distribution deals include both physical (CDs) and digital
distribution (downloading). If the producer has a digital distributor and the album is
selling, some labels will negotiate a deal to distribute the physical CDs.
When an artist is signed to a producer’s production company, all terms that might be
included in a distribution agreement must be included in the agreement with the producer.
If all terms are not included and the producer warrants that his or her company has the
rights to distribute the artist’s albums without any restrictions, there could be a potential
lawsuit.
Some successful producers receive “Record One Royalties.” This means that they do not
wait until production costs are recouped before receiving royalties. Many labels will not
agree to include this clause in the agreement.

Composer/Producers’ Agreements in Film and Television

Composers of film and video music often also produce the music. The following are some of
the terms included in the contracts:

The score must be written specifically for the film or video. The composer’s music must
be timed to the picture, as compared to using “library music” or “source music”
 (prerecorded music, such as records).
The composer is required to write a minimum and a maximum number of minutes of
original music. For instance, the composer is obligated to compose “a minimum of 30
minutes music and a maximum of 45 minutes of music.” This provision is important for
several reasons:
If the film or video is a low-budget project, the composer/producer’s fee will most likely
be “all-in.” “All-in” includes the cost of producing the music; the composer’s/producer’s
fee is included in this budget. If, for instance, the maximum number of minutes is 45
minutes and the director requests an additional 10 minutes of music, the additional
production cost could be substantial.
If the composer/producer is hired to work for a certain time period—based on the length
of time estimated to compose and record the score—and the composer/producer was
contracted to begin a new project on the projected completion date of the current project,
writing and orchestrating additional music can present a contractual problem. If there is a
possibility that the director might need the composer/producer’s services for a time
period that exceeds the time period stated in the original contract, a provision to this
effect should be included in the agreement, and an additional budget agreed upon.
A composer of motion picture scores will frequently produce a soundtrack album, often
coproducing with the music supervisor. A producer’s royalty must be negotiated and
included in the composer/producer’s agreement.
Composers of video and film music are usually hired on a work-for-hire basis. (The
studio and/or production company becomes the “author” of the work.) This usually means
that the original author(s) will not receive royalty income. For example, when composing
music for national commercials, the advertising agency and/or the client becomes the
“author” of the work; the composer receives a fee and waives all additional rights to the
material. (Most composers receive performance royalties even though they are not legally
considered the authors.)

The composer’s credit on screen, in advertising campaigns, and other media must be stated
in the contract.
As a composer, some of a music producer/supervisor’s responsibilities include supplying
the cue sheets, hiring musicians, booking studios, hiring engineers and music copyists, paying
union contracts, cartage and rental fees. The exact budget and expectations of the
producer/supervisor is stated in the contract.

Conclusion
Recording contracts include detailed terms that address many areas of the business of
recording. The record labels and production companies can sometimes calculate royalties in
very “creative” ways. A music-business accountant should closely review royalty statements.
If economically justified, an audit may be necessary.
Music supervisors’ agreements and producers’ agreements are likewise complex and require
the services of a specialized music-business attorney.

Music Publishing Agreements

Many recording artists and producers are also songwriters or instrumental composers. The
compositions are called “controlled compositions” because they are “controlled” by the
author. Publishing companies are generally interested in signing songwriters whose songs will
be recorded and released. Therefore, recording artists and producers who are songwriters are
generally offered contracts from large publishing companies. It is difficult for songwriters who
are not artists to get signed to major publishers unless they have a track record. The exception
is in Nashville, where songwriting flourishes. Many country artists do not write; they rely on
outside songwriters to provide material.

A composer’s rights must be negotiated prior to signing a work-for-hire agreement. Some

accomplished composers negotiate “back-end royalties,” which include a participation in profits (“points”),
mechanical royalties, music library royalties, and copyright ownership.

Labels previously paid royalties based on 90% of the sales price rather than on 100%. This was
due to breakage of records, which does not exist any more. Do not agree to being paid on anything less than
100% of a sales royalty base—that is, 100% of sales, minus returns.

The territory stated in most music publishing deals is either worldwide or territorial. Deal
points vary between countries. Some writers sign with one company for the United States and
Canada, and with various foreign publishers for the remainder of the world.
Advances are given to established songwriters and composers who can guarantee recorded
music releases. Unless a songwriter displays an unusual ability to write commercial songs, it
is difficult to negotiate an advance against songwriter royalties.
Some large companies retain staff writers, who receive a weekly or monthly advance against
royalties. Royalty statements are generally issued on a semiannual basis. The following
general deal points are negotiable:

A writer assigns 50% of the copyrighted composition(s) to the publisher. Most publishers
 have the right to administer the compositions without permission from the writer, as long
as the integrity of the copyright is protected. For instance, a publisher would not have the
right to place a song in a pornographic movie without the writer’s permission. In some
contracts, the publisher needs permission from the writer(s) to place a song in a film or
television program (synchronization license) or for uses other than standard recordings,
which are governed by the law and require publishers to issue compulsory licenses.

Some publishing companies receive a fee for administering copyrights or a publishing

catalogue. The fees range from 10% to 20%. The average rate is 15%.
Publishers agree to pay royalties derived from the following sources.

Mechanical rights, electronic transcription, reproducing rights, motion picture and

television synchronization rights, performance rights (public performances), ringtones,
ringbacks and other sources of publishing revenue.

Terms included in a Compulsory License Agreement

Title of composition, also referred to as a musical work

Read the section devoted to Music Publishing prior to reading the following section.

Some small labels, or production companies, will not sign a songwriter-artist without sharing in
at least 50% of the publishing rights. This is called a co-publishing agreement.

Major film companies own the rights to all of the music specifically composed for the feature
films and television programs they produce. (In rare instances, the composer might retain some of the
publishing rights.)
 Name of author(s)
Publisher(s)
Date of Release
Licensee Contact Information
Licensee’s Signature
Fiscal Year of Licensee
Date of Initial Distribution
Label Name
Catalog Number(s)
Phonorecord Configuration, e.g., Digital Phonorecord Deliveries

If a client has a licensing agreement with the Harry Fox Agency, the licensing request will go
direction to the HFA. The HFA will contact their client.
A client will receive a Notice of Intention to Obtain a Compulsory License. This license
will include the manner in which the licensor will be compensated. If the master sound
recording will also be used, the licensee will negotiate a separate agreement with the owner of
the master sound recording as well as receiving a licensee from the proper performing rights
society(s).

Synchronization License Agreement

The following are some of the terms included in synchronization (sync) licenses. Each of the
following terms is explained in detail when the agreements are written.

Composition—Name of composition
Grant of Rights—Explains the content of the rights, e.g., non-exclusive, exclusive, any
restrictions, etc.
License Fee—States an agreed upon fee
Out-of-Context Trailer Option—Agreement to use the agreed upon music in trailers. This
paragraph states specifically how the music can be used. (Most often this refers to a
song.)
Performing Rights Requirements—PROs (BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC in the U.S.) must be
paid when the content is performed on television, the Internet, cable, and additional
content providers.
Warranty—Licensor warrants that it owns the content.
Indemnifications—Each party indemnifies the other party from any and all claims.

Administration includes collecting, paying writers, and issuing statements.

 Publishing companies make administration deals with foreign sub-publishers to administer
their catalogues in foreign territories.

The composition(s) cannot be altered without permission of the publishers and the
authors.
Screen Credit—The exact screen credit is stipulated such as “Name of Song,” authors,
publisher(s), and so forth.
Options
A music cue sheet must be presented to the Licensor within a stipulated time period, e.g.,
60 days.
If a party claims a breach of contract, the agreement stipulates in which state the
disagreement will be adjudicated, e.g., California, New York, etc. The party claiming the
breach must inform the opposite party and give them a short time period to settle the claim
before the breach becomes an official breach.
This paragraph states that the terms of the agreement are binding.
Right to audit

Some very basic synchronization agreements are sometimes written, especially for television.
These agreements are often referred to as Terms-of-Agreement. (These agreements are
sometimes used to negotiate the seminal terms after which a more formal agreement is written.)
The agreement will typically state:

The name of the program

The episode number
The name of the composition(s) being licensed and the publisher(s)
The fee
Term, e.g., 3 years
A description of the scene in which the music will be used
The timing, e.g., 1 minute
Territory, e.g., the world
Media, basic cable television, the Internet, DVDs, etc.
Share, e.g., 25%
Options
Sheet music sales
“Fakebooks,” folios, and similar publication sales
 Foreign rights (if included)
Internet sales and general digitally transmitted sales, such as ringtones and ringbacks
Additional publishing income derived from the songs or compositions

Conclusion
Most publishing deals that involve “controlled compositions” pay 75% of the minimum
statutory rate; this is standard in the United States. It is advisable to consult a music-business
attorney, specializing in music publishing, before signing a publishing agreement. The
agreements are intricate and the author needs a competent negotiator.

Recording Artist Agreements

Recording artist agreements are lengthy and involved. Artists are advised to hire a music-
business attorney to represent them.
With respect to recording agreements, the following general deal points are negotiable.

Artists sign either a worldwide exclusive deal or territorial deals. Most major labels
want to sign artists to an exclusive worldwide agreement. Territorial deals usually occur
when a small or midsized label signs an artist and licenses the master recordings to
various territories for limited negotiable time periods. Major labels might also license
tracks for select territories.
Artists usually sign 3 to 4 year recording contracts with an obligation to record 1 album
per year. The label has the right to pick up successive 1 year options. After the initial
contract period, if the option is not picked up, the artist is released from the agreement.
The label only informs the artist if the contract agreement is being terminated. The label is
not obligated to inform the artist that the agreement is still valid.
Advances are given to deserving artists. Advances are not standard. They can range from
$1,000 to over $1,000,000.
An artist is generally expected to record a minimum of 50 minutes of music per album.
Recording costs and recoupable advances are deducted from royalties. Labels generally
pay the recording costs, unless it is a licensing deal, in which case there is normally no
advance paid. If the album does not generate enough sales to recoup the label’s
investment, the artist is not obligated to return the advance. However, the advance is
recoupable from later albums that make a profit.
Net artists’ royalties (after deductions of producers’ royalties) vary between 8% and
12%, based on the suggested retail list price (SRLP) in the United States on records sold
and not returned and are higher for established artists. Royalty rates increase as options
are picked up or increases are based on sales.
 BMI, ASCAP, and SESAC, the performance-rights societies in the U.S., collect performance
income for artists and publishers.

When songwriters are hired to write a song for a film, they are usually paid a fee, in addition to
receiving mechanical and performance royalties. A songwriter with clout might be able to retain
ownership of a percentage of the publishing rights. The same is true of extremely successful film
composers. In general, major film companies retain ownership of the publishing rights and always
retain the administration rights. This enables them to conclude deals without having to consult with the
authors.

Work-for-Hire
Songwriters and composers, such as film-music composers, are often hired as work-for-hire
employees. The employer is considered the “author” and owns the work(s). Agreements to compose
music for commercials, corporate videos, and other specific commissioned music, are usually written
as a work-for-hire. The employers generally provide lump-sum, or flat-fee, compensation to the original
authors if they do not participate in royalty income.
The U.S. Copyright Act describes work-for-hire as follows: “A work specially ordered or
commissioned for use as a contribution to a collective work, as a part of a motion picture or other
audiovisual work, as a translation, as a supplementary work, as a compilation, as an instructional text,
as a text, as answer material for a test, or as an atlas, if the parties expressly agree in a written
instrument signed by them that the work shall be considered a work made for hire.”
Work-for-hire agreements call for the employer to become “the author.” The original author has no
future rights to the composition(s). When an author “assigns a copyright” to a third party, such as a
publishing company or film company, the rights revert back to the original author after thirty-five years.
This is called a “reversion right.”

If an artist signs with a production company and the company licenses the master recordings
to a record label, the artist receives his or her royalties either directly from the distribution
company or from the production company.
The record label or production company owns the rights to the master recordings.
Bands are usually signed collectively—as a group—and individually; each member is
considered exclusive recording artists. If a group member wants to record a solo album, it
must be distributed through the label. If the label is not interested, it will often grant permission
for the artist to record for another label. Sometimes the parent label is willing to accept a
royalty override.

In writing, a group member must notify the label if he or she plans to leave the group.
The member cannot use the group name or a similar name.
The member cannot advertise that he or she was a former member of the group until after
 6 months following departure from the group.
The label has the right to approve a new group member (for recording) but cannot
unreasonably withhold approval. The new group member must sign the existing exclusive
recording agreement.
If the label does not approve a replacement member, the group has the right to terminate
the agreement.
Within a specified number of days, usually 90, following the departure of a group
member, the label has the option to require the member to record for the label.
If the group is financially unrecouped and the departing member remains on the label, a
pro-rata share of the group’s unrecouped position will be charged against the departing
member’s new royalties. For instance, if the group consists of three members, the new
member will be charged one-third of the unrecouped deficit.
If the group disbands, the label is required to pay royalties only for past albums and is
under no other obligation to record new albums or to honor the terms of the recording
agreement.
The group must legally own the group name.

Most agreements contain a controlled composition clause. If the artist writes his or her
songs or controls the compositions written by other writers, the record label usually pays 75%
of the minimum statutory mechanical royalty rate. Artists with a substantial sales history might
receive the full statutory mechanical royalty rate. On January 1, 2006, the statutory rate in the
United States increased to 9.1 cents per song per disc (up to 5 minutes) for a 2 year period.
This rate applies to records that are “made and distributed.”
Artists cannot rerecord any composition recorded for the label for 5 years after the
recording has been delivered to the label or three years after the contract has expired,
whichever is later. This is called a “rerecording restriction.” (This restriction is sometimes
negotiable.)
Record labels pay royalties on the following:

Units sold via normal distribution channels (not on free goods)

Internet sales, video streaming, and additional digital sales, such as master ringtones and
ringbacks (songs played on mobile telephones)
Synchronization master sound recording use licenses (for film and television use and
other audiovisual uses)
Music video direct sales (no payments are received for music clips and other promotions
uses)
Foreign sales, including all third-party sales

Record labels do not pay royalties on “free goods,” such as records or videos given to
reviewers or DJs, or videos given for promotional purposes.
 Most foreign territories calculate royalties based on the wholesale price. With this formula, artists
usually receive double the SRLP royalty rate.
Classical music royalty rates are generally less than popular music rates. The average royalty is 7 ½% to
10%, and recording costs are not deducted from the royalties, but advances are recouped; royalties are
calculated from the first record sold.

The artist’s term of contract is usually coterminous with the terms of the distribution agreement.

Sometimes, the rights to the master recordings revert back to the artist after a predetermined time
period.

Record labels pay royalties on any additional income-producing agreements.

Royalty statements are issued on a semiannual basis.
Cross-collateralization, from album to album, is standard in most agreements. If an album
has not recouped production costs, advances, or other costs, the expenses are cross-
collateralized (recouped) against the next album(s) or a former album. Unfortunately, this can
become a downhill spiral, and the artist might never receive royalties. (Artists should avoid
having unrecouped record advances taken from publishing royalties.)
Below is a possible model being considered by some record contracts:

A 4 album deal.
Advances will be paid throughout the length of the agreement. Currently, it is industry
practice to pay advances upon the signing of a contract.
Advances will not be recoupable.
An equal split on nontraditional sales between the artist and the label.
Monthly statements will be issued in place of biannual statements.
A 15% royalty, which is high, will become standard. (Royalty rates currently average
12% in the United States, with increases based upon sales and the length of contract.)
The standard 25% CD packaging deduction will be eliminated for all electronically
 distributed music, thereby increasing the base for determining artists’ royalties.
Reserves for returns will be eliminated for electronically distributed music.

Labels are realizing less income from recordings due to the problems previously stated.
They are hoping to recoup their investments by creating new income-producing sources. New
agreements are being structured as partnerships between labels and artists.
“360” recording contracts, previously discussed, have become the standard business
model as of the writing of this book.

Overview of a Video Game Agreement

This overview is not intended to be a legal document. It merely states terms that are included
in most agreements. All music producers/supervisors should be aware of the following:
A composer or music producer/supervisor working on a game, in any capacity, is required to
sign a confidentiality (non-disclosure) agreement. A game developer will not disclose any
information until this agreement is signed. The agreement remains in force even if the
composer or supervisor rejects the projects or is not offered the project.
The agreement will state:

The name of the game

The characters
The marketing, advertising, and promotions strategy
Anything related to the graphics
Technical information
The game platform(s)
The composer’s fee
The music budget, including the payment schedule
The completion period
A work-for-hire agreement (most game developers own the rights to the music)
Ancillary rights
Credits
Litigation
Expenses

Most artists’ agreements deduct 50% of the cost of video production from their royalties, and
also deduct 50% of the money spent on marketing and independent promotion.
Conclusion
The details of the agreement are beyond the scope of this book. Hire an entertainment
attorney who has expertise in music for video games before signing a contract.

Personal Management Agreement

Music producers often have personal managers. Busy producers do not have the time to
analyze prospective projects or to negotiate agreements. Managers and attorneys will,
generally, get the best possible terms.
The following are the general terms included in most Personal Management Agreements:

The length of the agreement, e.g., 3 years.

The manager is exclusive. He/she may agree to only manage a producer’s recording
career. For example, if the producer is also a film composer, he or she might have a
separate manager.
The agreement will state the duties of the manager, e.g., analyzing projects, negotiating,
compensation, and so forth.
The manager’s commission is usually off of the gross. This term may vary dependent upon
the manager’s performance. An average commission is 15% of the gross. (The gross must
be defined.)
The producer might agree that the manager has the right to handle all publicity and
advertising, with the producer’s written approval.
The manager might receive all monies generated by the producer and distribute the
income according to the terms of the agreement.
Some managers make loans to their clients. For instance, a manager might finance demos
for a new artist.
The agreement will state that the manager is not a talent agent but represents the artist to
the talent agent.
Some managers are also business managers and invest a producer’s money. (Some
managers are often attorneys and/or CPAs.)
If there are legal difficulties, most managers and producers agree to enter binding
arbitration.

Conclusion
A Personal Management agreement contains many terms not mentioned above. Also, each
category mentioned might have multiple sections, within the final agreement. An attorney
should negotiate on behalf of the producer.

Business Plan
“360” recording agreements (explained in a previous chapter) have encouraged music
business entrepreneurs to form, primarily, web-based record labels. Funding cash may be
needed to cover recording, marketing and promotions, salaries, website development, and
other related costs essential to operate a label. This requires a business plan. The following
are items that must be addressed in the plan:

Mission Statement—What is the company trying to achieve? This statement should be

brief and easy to comprehend. The writer must assume that numerous potential
investors/lenders do not understand the music industry.
Present an overall view of the music business.
The Executive Summary provides information about the management team. This is the
most essential section of the plan. If the executives do not have the proper experience and
success, it will be problematic to attract investors/lenders. What percentage of stock do
the owners control? This should be broken down into individual shares.
Why should investors or lenders fund the label?
Will they be equity partners or shareholders?
Why and how will the label increase in value? State the strategic goals, and forecast
revenues and expenses, which will most likely increase if the business grows.
Does the company own both a label and a music publishing company? If so, explain the
sources of revenue that can be obtained from publishing revenues such as synchronization
and transcription licenses and mechanical royalties.
Is the concept of the label unique?
Identify the Target Demographic. For instance, the music will appeal to a young
demographic between the ages of 14 and 21.
State a Projection of Profits and Possible Losses over a determined time, e.g., 5 years.
(Do not make the projections too aggressive.)
How much capital are the principal executives personally investing in the company?
List job descriptions, which should include the title, responsibilities, required education,
and salary; include benefits and other pertinent information.
What is the projected return for the investors and/or lenders and for how long will they
receive a return on their investment? Not all investors receive a return in perpetuity.
Budget—The budget includes such items as salaries, advertising, marketing and
promotions, website development, maintenance, accounting fees, legal fees, rent/lease,
phones, office supplies, and other essential items. Most projections cover a span of 5
years. It should also include a “cushion” for unexpected expenditures.
Break-Even Forecast—Although it is a difficult task to project the future, potential
investors/lenders want to study a forecast prior to reviewing a business plan. Be
conservative!
List the biographies of the artists signed to the label and the publishing company.
List merchandising and touring opportunities.
Use graphics, if necessary, e.g., pie and bar charts.
Using bullet points and numbers makes it easier for a reader to navigate the document.
The plan should not be too verbose. Only include necessary information. Investors/lenders
read many proposals and do not have time to read documents containing unnecessary material.
State the facts as simply as possible. Use headings to aid the reader in finding seminal
information.

Do not start a record label or music publishing company without experience in the industry(s) or
hiring experienced executives.

As suggested by author Mike McKeever, a complete Business Plan should be organized in

the following order. (An option is to write a condensed version and add information if
requested.)

Title Page
Plan Summary
Table of Contents
Problem Statement
Business Description
Business Accomplishments
Marketing Plan
Sales Revenue Forecast
Profit and Loss Forecast
Capital Spending Plan
Cash Flow Forecast
Future Trends
Risks Facing Your Business
Personnel Plan
Specific Business Goals
Personal Financial Statement
Personal Background
Appendix

The potential of attracting funding is greater if the label has achieved some success prior to
approaching potential investors or lenders. It may be advantageous to hire a professional
business plan writer and consultant. For a small venture, it may be too costly; therefore, plan
carefully and do not pursue any venture without thoroughly understanding the risks involved in
starting and/or sustaining a business.
Conclusion
Due to the continuing evolution of the worldwide music industry, standard artists’ contracts
will continue to change. Illegal peer-2-peer file sharing, as well as physical pirating, has
caused record labels to rethink the structure of artists’ agreements. Some new agreements
include labels sharing in publishing, merchandising, and live-performance income.

Music Video Agreements

The right to shoot music videos is included in all artists’ contracts. When artists agree to
sign a recording contract, they are simultaneously giving the label the rights to sell and
distribute the artists’ music videos. (The definition of the term “record” in a recording
agreement includes the video rights.) Some contracts include separate provisions for music
videos. The following are some of the deal points that are, or should be, included in record
agreements.

The label exclusively owns the rights to the videos and the artist cannot make music
videos for other companies during the term of the recording agreement.
Labels usually agree to finance one video per album. For superstars, labels commit to
more than one video per album.
Music publishers (and authors) must grant companies the rights (mechanical licenses) to
use music in videos. Mechanical licenses are automatically granted for recordings but
must be negotiated for use in videos. These rights allow the label to sell the videos.
Recording agreements state that the video rights to compositions controlled by the artist,
or controlled compositions, are automatically granted to the label without charge.
Publishers issue synchronization licenses. Synchronization licenses allow labels to use
the music with the videos. The license is automatically issued to the label (upon request)
for any controlled compositions.
On average, 50% of video production costs are recouped against artists’ royalties. Most
agreements state that if the costs are not recouped against the sale of the videos, the costs
are then recouped against the artists’ record royalties.
Record labels absorb the remaining 50% of production costs. Recording contracts define
the term production costs.
Most artists’ video royalties equal one-half of the label’s net receipts. Music videos that
are sold are normally licensed to third-party video distributors. If the label distributes the
videos, artists’ royalty agreements can become complicated, and some terms are
negotiable. As in any contract, the terms of the agreement are dependent on the “power”
of the artist.

Film composers often produce their scores. The music supervisor may co-produce. Film
composers’ agreements include the following terms:

The score is defined as music that is used as background music, main and end title music,
 the orchestrations and arrangements, as well as additional required music.
The composer is required to compose music that is in synchronization with the film.
Composers, primarily working on independent film, may be required to also act as music
supervisors. One of the responsibilities of a music supervisor is to select and license
songs for the film.
They may be required to attend the final dubbing session.
The composer is required to write X number of minutes for an agreed upon fee. If extra
music is needed, additional compensation is negotiated.
The dates of the composer’s services are stipulated.
The studio usually owns the publishing rights. Composers of independent films might be
able to retain the ownership of their music.
The producer has the right to use the composer’s name when publicizing the film.
The wording of the screen credit is stipulated, such as full screen credit. Composers want
their names included in all advertising and exploitation of the film.
The composer agrees to allow the score to be used on a soundtrack album. Most
composers receive performance royalties and producer’s royalties from soundtrack
albums.
Studio films usually pay all expenses plus the composer’s fee. Many independent
filmmakers pay the composer one fee and the composer must deliver a complete score for
that fee. This is referred to as a “buy-out.”
The composer must warrant that he or she has the right to enter into the agreement.
If there is a breach or default of contract by the composer, the film company (producer)
has the right to terminate the agreement. The same is true if the film company creates a
breach or default of the agreement. Either party agrees to inform the other of a breach or
default of contract and provides them with a time period to solve the problem.
The film company is not obligated to use the music in the final film but must pay all fees
and expenses.
The state in which any legal matter will be handled is included in the agreement.
The agreement is binding.
Some composers receive “back-end” royalties. These consist of performance royalties
(BMI, ASCAP, or SESAC) and mechanical royalties, from the sales of the music, which
include album sales and music library sales and/or licenses.

Conclusion
Video agreements should be negotiated by an attorney. Video sales have proved to be
disappointing, and music videos are generally considered to be a marketing tool. Artists
receive exposure on television, in movie theaters, on the Internet, and in clubs. Radio play
(terrestrial, Internet, cable, and Satellite), video play, and live performances are necessary to
generate sales.

Record Distribution Agreements

 Independent record labels are distributed either by the distribution arm of major labels or by
independent record distributors. Distributors only “sell” the completed CDs to buyers; record
labels are responsible for producing the recordings, advertising, marketing, promotions, public
relations, tour support, video production, artwork, and so on.
Distributors sell to retail outlets, “one-stop” distributors that sell to small retail outlets, rack
jobbers, or firms that lease floor space in stores, Internet companies that sell physical product,
and additional outlets. Some labels manufacture the CDs and ship them to the distributor for
distribution. This is done so that the label knows the number of CDs that have been
manufactured and can therefore keep an accurate accounting of sales.
The following are some of the deal points included in distribution agreements.

The label pays the distributor an average of 18% to 22% as a distribution fee and may
pay as high as 25%, if the distributor also manufactures the CDs as part of a P&D
(Pressing & Distribution) deal.
The term of agreements is negotiable. If the deal is to exclusively distribute the label, the
initial term might be for 2 or 3 years. If the product does not sell a minimum negotiated
number of units per year, the distributor has the right to terminate the deal.
Some distributors want to select only selected CDs for distribution. (The industry term is
to “cherry-pick.”) It may be wise to allow a distributor to distribute one CD and “test the
waters.” If the relationship is not successful, neither party is obligated to continue the
relationship. If the product is successful, a long-term agreement might follow.
Many distributors will not conclude a label agreement without investigating the finances
of the distributed label. They want to be assured that the label has the financial resources
to advertise, market, and promote the product.
The territory might be North America (United States and Canada), selected territories, or
for worldwide distribution. If the agreement states North America only, the label will
most likely make either selected foreign deals or agree for one distributor to distribute in
all territories outside of North America.

Conclusion
One of the dangers of manufacturing CDs is that the record companies may manufacture too
many copies. Retailers are allowed to return 100% of unsold copies, and the record company
must accept all returns. This can be costly. The agreement should state the number of CDs
pressed. If radio stations in a region are playing a record, the video is getting substantial hits
on YouTube, the market has been inundated with public relations and advertising, and the artist
is touring, the risk of manufacturing too many copies lessens.
Distribution agreements should be negotiated by a music-business attorney.

Selling a Master Sound Recording

If a record label wants to purchase a master recording, the deal points can vary. The
following are some of the possible scenarios.
 The production company may ask for a substantial advance, in addition to recouping the
production costs. This means that if the artist has “made some noise” in the marketplace
via radio, Internet, cable, television performances, regional sales, or performance
income, several labels will most likely be vying to purchase, or license, the master sound
recording. They will also want options to record additional albums. If the artist has an
influential manager and/or agent, a major label might offer a large advance, although in
the current market this is highly unlikely. The purchase price will be based on the industry
standards at the time of the purchase. An agreement will include a price for the current
album, plus an advance for additional albums.
If an artist is new and has not been previously exposed to the public, a label might offer
an advance equal to the cost of the production, or it may not offer an advance but offer a
guarantee of promotion, marketing, advertising, and distribution; labels try to reduce
financial risk.
The label might not offer an advance but guarantee a release within a stipulated time
period. Royalties will be paid beginning with the first royalty statement.
Labels often lease a catalogue for a negotiated number of years after which the catalogue
is returned to the owner. This could be viewed as “ownership” for a specified time
period.

Conclusion
Because of problems in the global music industry, labels are less likely to offer large
advances for master recordings, unless there is a sensible reason to do so. For instance, if an
album had sizable sales in a region, this indicates that it might attain significant sales
nationally. Regional distribution acts as a test market. If a local band attracts a sold-out crowd
each time the artist performs in a particular region, that indicates the artist has a loyal
following, which can lead to sales. The artist might embark on a U.S. tour, opening for a
headlining artist. Touring exposes artists to potential buyers.
Master licensing and purchasing agreements are complex and should be negotiated by a
music business attorney.

Sony closed the company’s largest CD manufacturing plant at the end of March, 2011. The closing
is mostly due to the increase in digital downloading and a decrease in CD sales. Between 2008 and 2009,
CD sales were down 18%. 300 employees were fired.
 Most distribution fees are calculated by using net sales as a base. The distributor is not paid on
“free goods.”

Additional Agreements
In the United States, record labels and production companies have to adhere to certain union
agreements, if they are signatories. It is advisable for producers to study the following
agreements:

American Federation of Musicians (AFM)

The AFM protects the interests of musicians, music copyists, contractors, arrangers,
orchestrators, and conductors. The union provides a list of scale payments for recording
sessions, live performances, reuse payments for various forms of recordings, pension, health
plans, and additional protections.

Screen Actors Guild (SAG)

SAG represents singers (as well as actors and other performers) when the singers’
performances are used in film, television, commercials, industrials, corporate videos, and
music videos. SAG negotiates and implements scale and reuse payments, pension and health
plans, as well as additional protections for the membership.

American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (AFTRA)

AFTRA represents singers (as well as actors, broadcasters, and other performers) whose
performances are used in live and taped television and radio programs, sound recordings, non-
broadcast industrial programming, and new and emerging technologies, such as CD-ROMs.
AFTRA negotiates and implements scale and reuse payments, pension and health plans, in
addition to additional protections.

Concert Promotion Agreements

Concert promotion contracts are complex. Below is a list of some of the items included in
most agreements:

The financial terms—fees based on a percentage of gross receipts, a straight fee, and
when the fees have to be paid.
The name and address of the venue.
The date(s) of the performance(s) and the length of the performance(s)
If the promoter is paying for the transportation, the details must be incorporated in the
agreement.
The time of the sound and lighting check. The sound-reinforcement requirements (live
sound) and lighting requirements are often addressed in a separate rider to the main
agreement.
Security arrangements for the venue and for the artists are also covered.
Most popular artists arrive with truckloads of equipment. The promoter usually provides
workers to load and unload the equipment. Enough time must be allocated to properly set
up.
In states adhering to union agreements, the promoter must agree to the terms of the
agreements. (These are states with “no-right-to-work” under local law; those states do not
require workers to be union members.)
Space must be provided in the venue so that the artists’ representatives can sell
merchandise, such as programs, t-shirts, and hats. If the concert promoter shares in the
merchandising profits, there is usually a separate agreement.
Provide adequate parking attendants.
Some agreements include a clause stating the number of advertisements the promoter is
obligated to purchase and where the advertising will be placed.
Some agreements state that the promoter will perform public relations services and
launch special promotions designed to attract ticket buyers; this might include designing
special posters and sending mailers and arranging for interviews at radio and television
stations.

This scenario is analogous to sub-publishing agreements, which involve licenses to sub-

publishers for negotiated limited time periods.

Some large corporations, such as Pepsi, sponsor concert tours for popular artists. All
details associated with a sponsorship are addressed in the agreement. The sponsors’
names are included in all advertising and public relations surrounding the concert tours.
The corporate names are also displayed in various locations within the concert venues.
Popular performing artists always have riders, which include specific items that must be
adhered to for the contract to be considered binding. Usually included are: food, dressing-
room parameters, showers, and security guards. Almost anything can, and is, included in a
rider.

Author’s note: There is an artist who requires the toilet in the dressing room to be filled with
rose petals!
Conclusion
In the United States, certain states do not require musicians or singers to join unions.
However, if a production company is a signatory to union contracts, the singers and musicians
are required to be union members or to receive the same scale payments as union members.
Calculating scale payments can be difficult. It is advisable to have people familiar with
union agreements compute the payments and fill out and submit the contracts. Companies
specialize in this process. Mistakes or late payments can result in large fines.

Assignment
Review publishing and artists’ recording agreements, which can be found in numerous books
and online. Construct a fair and realistic publishing contract and an exclusive artist’s contract.
Design the agreements for an artist-songwriter who is signing with a small independent label.
Assemble a budget to promote a band in a small theater.

If possible, consult with a music-industry attorney. To learn contract negotiation, read numerous
agreements and write your own agreements. Do not offer these agreements to artists without consulting with
an attorney. Generally, your agreement will be used by an attorney as a model for a proper legal agreement.

Request a copy of standard contracts issued by concert promoters. Call the unions (if applicable)
and inquire about the cost of scale payments for workers in various jobs.
22

Album Production Budget

Budget items vary from project to project, but the basic line items rarely change. As a practical
exercise, prepare two budgets: one based on paying union scale to musicians and singers and
the other based on “standard” nonunion rates. (“Standard” nonunion rates vary from state to
state in the U.S.)
Calculate the budget based upon a 12-song album recorded by a mixture of live musicians
and synthesizer programmers. Submit a budget for each song and a total for the entire album.
Not all tracks require the same line items or require the same number of hours to complete.
Include applicable taxes, which differ in each state. The budget should be detailed. It must
account for the following items, as well as any additional potential charges, that are specific to
the project.

Studio Time
Divide the studio time into hourly charges.

Recording time
Mixing time

Albums might be recorded and mixed in numerous studios. Base your budget on an average
studio’s hourly rate or daily rate. Request rate cards from several studios. Most studios offer
quantity discounts. It is cost effective to purchase studio time in blocks—usually 12-hour days.

Musicians

Figure AFM (American Federation of Musicians) union-scale payments. The payments

must include pension contribution, health and welfare contribution, Recording Trust Fund
payments, and other applicable contributions. Request a copy of the AFM scale payment
schedule. Study union payment procedures.
Some musicians request double-scale union payments. (Calculating double-scale
payments can be complicated. Study the union contract.) As part of the exercise, include
several musicians at double scale. Contractors, leaders, and conductors always receive
double scale, and contractors must be paid if a certain number of musicians are
contracted. (Check union rules; not all additional contributions—health contributions are
 one example—are doubled as a result of a double-scale payment.)
Overtime payments—Union scale provides for overtime payments; consult the union rules
and scale payment schedule, and include several overtime payments.
Cartage fee—Certain large instruments require the company to pay for instrument
transportation (e.g., harp and double bass).

Call the AFM and request a copy of the most current standard recording agreement. Request
a schedule of payments.

Lead Singer Fee

Lead singers for sound recordings (albums or singles) are paid through the musicians’ union
(AFM). Royalty artists’ fees differ from that of a singer who is a work-for-hire employee and
receives no royalties. Overdubs warrant additional fees. (Singers are paid through SAG when
recording music that will be used in films; they are paid through AFTRA when recording music
that will be used on DVDs and radio projects, such as commercials.) Study union agreements
for scale payment schedules.

Background Singers’ Fees

Background singers for recordings used on records are paid through the AFM. There are
additional fees for overdubbing. Consult the union agreement for proper rates. A contractor
may be required, depending on the number of singers.

Tape Costs
If analog tape is used, which is highly unusual, substantial tape charges will be incurred.
(Producers often record and edit in a digital program such as Pro Tools, and transfer the mixes
to analog tape prior to mastering.)Estimate the number of tape reels needed for the album. If
twelve songs are being recorded, at least twelve reels will most likely be used. Calculate the
cost of making safety copies of tapes prior to shipping the original masters to various studios
for overdubs or mixing in this scenario. Figure the cost of making a composite reel of the final
takes before shipping; it might be possible to fit all of the takes (final recordings) onto two
reels. (If you budget for digital tape, the calculations will be different.)
 It is cost-effective to create stereo mixes, or several stereo mixes, on the multitrack, before
shipping a tape for overdubs. This leaves many open tracks for overdubbing. When the tape is returned,
bounce the overdubs onto the master tape.

Copies
Include the cost of making digital or analog copies of the audio and the data. Estimate the cost
of daily rough mixes, final mixes, and backup storage copies. The information, both audio and
data, can be stored on DVDs, hard drives, and cloud storage. It is best to ALWAYS store data
in multiple locations.

Mastering Costs
Include the cost of mastering and making copies in the budget. Call several mastering labs and
request rate sheets. Mastering costs are usually based on an hourly studio rate, which includes
the services of a mastering engineer. (For independent projects, some mastering engineers will
negotiate an “all-in” deal and not charge an hourly rate.)

Music Copying
Music copyists’ fees are paid based on the AFM union scale for copyists. The AFM agreement
must be studied to determine the exact scale. The payment is based on the number of pages
copied.

Producers’ Creative Fees

Creative fees or advances against royalties vary, according to the demand for the producer and
how in-demand he or she is at the time of the production. As part of this exercise, calculate an
average fee (or advance against royalties) for a midline producer. Creative fees, or advances,
are usually calculated on a per-song basis.

Orchestration, Arranging, and/or Programming Fees

It is possible that each of the above fees becomes a separate item within the budget. It depends
on the requirements of the project. For instance, a Michael Bublé album might need the
services of an orchestrator, an arranger, and a synthesizer programmer.
 Some copyists charge more than scale.

Research producers’ fees. Advances are recoupable against producers’ royalties.

Engineering Fees
Most independent recording engineers charge an hourly fee. Engineers who are contracted to
record and/or mix an entire album might offer a reduced rate. Negotiating an “all-in” rate (one
fee) is rare because it is difficult to estimate the total number of engineering hours required. (It
might be feasible if the engineer receives a royalty. The “fee” then becomes an advance against
royalties.)

Instrument and Additional Rentals

Instrument-rental companies supply large and unusual instruments, additional microphones, and
special signal processing gear for recording sessions. (High profile engineers usually own
equipment and charge an additional rental fee.) Calculate the number of hours for which
additional equipment will be needed. (The average union session runs 3 hours.) Musical-
instrument rental companies are located in major markets; they also rent audio gear. (Search
online for rate sheets.) Estimate additional gear rentals on a per-song basis.

Travel
Calculate all travel (airline tickets, auto rentals, car service, etc.), food, and hotel expenses.
For this exercise, assume that a band has to travel to New York from the Midwest.

Miscellaneous Expenses
Figure at least 10% of the budget for unexpected additional expenses.

Video Production Costs

This is usually a separate budget.
 Conclusion
All union contracts are intricate. It is wise to hire a professional who knows how to properly
calculate the various union scale payments. If a contract is not filed on time or if there are
mistakes, large fines might be levied against the production company.
All musicians and singers are required to be in good standing with the unions (e.g., dues are
paid) prior to recording sessions. Companies are fined for hiring musicians or singers whose
dues are delinquent, for not reporting a session prior to the session (informing the unions that a
session is going to take place on a certain date and in a specific location), or additional
reasons. The items included in this budget are standard. Add additional items, if necessary.
23

An Opinion

The life of the arts, far from being an interruption, a distraction, in the life of a nation, is close to the center of a
nation’s purpose—and is a test of the quality of a nation’s civilization.
—John F. Kennedy

Global purchases of CD-Rs (recordable CDs) have far exceeded the purchase of prerecorded
music albums. Like most music executives, I believe that this information confirms the
seriousness of illegal copying of copyright-protected material.
It is ironic to think that an industry that has partially developed the technology to transform
entertainment into a digital medium and made the technology available to the average consumer
has also contributed to an economically disastrous and seemingly uncontrollable situation.
There are several reasons for the decline in global sales. The two most prominent are the
free downloading of music (illegal peer-2-peer file sharing) from the Internet, and physical
counterfeiting.
If illegal peer-2-peer Web sites are shut down, the doors will open on similar Web sites;
many such services already exist. My view is that the problem will most likely not be tackled
by combating technology with counter-technological solutions. Unfortunately, an answer to
these problems has not been found.
According to the RIAA (The Recording Industry Association of America) approximately 30 billion songs were illegally
downloaded on file-sharing networks between 2004 and 2009.

The RIAA believes that three major factors have to be addressed if the recorded-music
business is to begin to heal.

1. Educating the public. The public must be made aware that free downloading is illegal and
tantamount to stealing.
2. More flexible music licensing. The public must be able to purchase music at a reasonable
cost.
3. Tougher antipiracy enforcement.

Supreme Court Sides With Biz in Grokster Case

June 27, 2005, Susan Butler, New York
Grokster case in favor of the entertainment industry, reversing the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals opinion.
The court held that developers of software violate federal copyright law when they provide computer users with the
means to share unauthorized movie and music files from the Internet.
At issue in the case was whether Grokster and StreamCast, which operated—and continue to operate—the
decentralized peer-2-peer file-sharing networks Grokster and Morpheus, respectively, should be secondarily liable for the
copyright-infringing activities of their users who have shared millions of unauthorized music and movie files.
 Counterfeiting CDs
Professional organized-crime rings manufacture counterfeit CDs in the millions of units per
year. The majority of them are produced in Malaysia and Pakistan. Although governments
throughout the world are trying to eradicate CD pirates, the amount of product that has made its
way into virtually every country has contributed to a disastrous global downturn in legitimate
sales.
In addition, the competition from other forms of electronic media, which includes video
games, mobile phone ringtones and ringbacks, and DVD-videos, has contributed to the decline
of revenue in the global music industry.

Ringtones and Ringbacks

It is believed that 85% of ringtones, used in mobile phones, are illegally downloaded.
Ringtones and ringbacks is a lucrative business, and business models include downloading hit
songs, along with music videos. This, once again, involves copyright infringement.

Transition
The music business has been going through a remarkable transition, which has affected the
industry worldwide. The industry has been attempting to fight free downloading by offering
legitimate, user-friendly legal downloading, containing a large repertoire of licensed tracks at
a reasonable cost to the consumer. In my opinion, if a consumer can download music without
paying, no matter how low the cost, the consumer will elect to illegally download the music.
Children illegally download music and films for their parents who are often not Internet savvy.
Parents are supposed to be role models, but unfortunately, many are not setting an example for
their children.
Legitimate online music services, such as iTunes, offer licensed product for downloading.
Companies such as Amazon.com are legitimate Web sites that allow consumers to purchase
physical CDs and DVDs as well as download.
It is nearly impossible to stop hackers from breaking codes. Various companies are
experimenting with new Internet business paradigms in hopes of finding solutions that will be
acceptable to the consumer.

Registering Logos and Other Protections

Register logos and company names. To protect a company name, the company logo, as well as any
identifiable lettering associated with the company, contact the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office in
Washington, D.C. for further information. Internet domain names can be registered with the Internet Network
 Information Center at www.internic.net and the Domain Registry at www.domainregistry.com.

Conclusion
Music piracy must be stopped. Only international cooperation can help facilitate a solution,
and government intervention is helping to seize the fabrication of counterfeit music. At the risk
of sounding naive, continuing to educate the public may be, at the least, a first step.Cusam, te
alignie ndignim perepe natur, et aperiorior solor atur sit eari to ipic tem. It ant omnimincia ni
ime sam hilit, con plab iunt, volum autem fugiat liquis que voloren danimo derumqui totae
quodit etur sitaepel et qui temped untur aute res magni ad mos et ma veliscium iundendaecto
volupta tiamus ra sum labore nectores mi, iunturi oreptat uriaepelest quatur, am as inullabo.
Nam quo comnisquam veliqui ut as rendit res nonessit eaquae comnimod essi ut la pro beritae
millandam, nonse quas ut omnis eum quis ut aut vo
24

Epilogue

Music gives a soul to the universe, wings to the mind, flight to the imagination, and life to everything.
—Plato

Even with myriad problems facing the music industry, its future is encouraging and exciting.
New business paradigms create new opportunities. Producers and artists have the ability to
create and sell music without signing an agreement with a record label or production company.
The Internet and the future of digital distribution present numerous opportunities. Ringtones,
ringbacks, Satellite, Internet (which includes music streaming), cable, and HD radio and music
for video games offer new opportunities to independent production companies, record labels,
and other copyright owners and content providers.
The fundamental difference between 2011 and the preceding eras can be reduced down to
the phrase “control of your own destiny.”—George Howard (former president of Rykodisc)

The free, ad-supported on-demand music streaming service Spotify has been highly successful in
a number of European companies. In July 2011, Spotify launched its service in the United States. It is too
early to tell if the company will achieve the same success in the U.S. it has elsewhere.

New business models offer outlets for music producers to sell music that is not considered
to be in the mainstream. Music lovers seek out companies specializing in unusual and inventive
music. Some musical styles may not be distributed through major outlets because the sales
potential is limited. Small companies have low overheads and consequently can afford to sell
fewer units than a major company, yet still derive a substantial profit. Digital downloading is
less costly for the consumer since there is no manufacturing cost and companies can afford to
sell the music for less than a traditional physical copy.
Learning record production helps a music producer produce all genres of music. Once the
basic production concepts have been learned, adapting to the idiosyncrasies of producing
music for films, corporate videos, game music, commercials, and additional musical genres is
relatively simple.
 A solid musical and technological background is not always necessary to a successful music
producer, but a trained producer has more opportunities than someone with limited musical and
technological skills. Versatility can sometimes mean survival!
Students who are willing to “woodshed” (a musician’s expression that means a dedication to
practice and study) develop the tools that will enable them to maintain a rewarding career in
music.
Music production cannot be taught. It is based upon innate talent. What can be taught are the
components of a well-crafted production. Executing this book’s recommended assignments
will help students develop their talent. The information and techniques discussed throughout
this book, along with additional study, will become a part of a producer’s creative psyche.

Current U.S. Music Industry Considerations

There are certain issues that music industry professionals should support since they affect the
U.S. music business. As of the writing of this book, the following items are being discussed in
the U.S. Congress:

The Local Radio Freedom Act

The United States is the only country in the developed world that does not permit
performers and copyright owners of recordings (labels, etc.) from collecting royalties from
terrestrial radio airplay. Because the U.S. does not pay this royalty, foreign territories
withhold similar royalty payments to U.S. performers and copyright owners of sound
recordings. Several hundred million dollars per year are being withheld.

Creativity and Innovation Resolution

This government mandate would force mobile device manufacturers and wireless carriers
to include terrestrial broadcast radio tuners in new mobile devices. This should not be a
law but a choice by the manufacturers.

Combating Online Infringement and Counterfeits Acts (COICA)

There are multiple websites that sell recordings without paying the proper royalties. Many
of these websites are foreign and based out of the U.S. This infringement of trademark and
digital piracy costs the U.S. an estimated one hundred billion dollars a year. Advocate that
the U.S. government block these websites.

The FAA Air Transportation Modernization and Safety Improvement Act

When going through airport security, many musicians are prohibited from taking musical
instruments on airplanes. It is possible that if their instruments are stored in the baggage
 area, the instruments could be damaged.
A national policy, which would apply to all domestic carriers, would help musicians make
a decision on how to transport their instruments.
Concern and involvement in current and future legislation that affects the music business is
vital to the interests of all music industry professionals.
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About the Author

Michael Zager holds the positions of the Dorothy F. Schmidt Eminent Scholar in Performing
Arts, Professor of Music and Director of the Commercial Music Program at Florida Atlantic
University in Boca Raton, Florida. He previously taught at the Mannes College of Music, a
division of New School University, in New York City. A graduate of the University of Miami
and the Mannes College of Music, Zager has received 3 Fulbright Specialist Grants awarded
by the U.S. Department of State Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, 2 Visiting
Professor Grants in Thailand, and served 3 terms as a member of the Board of Governors of
the Florida Chapter of The Recording Academy (Grammy Awards). He is the author of 2
editions of Writing Music for Television and Radio Commercials (and more): A Manual for
Composers and Students and the first edition of Music Production: For Producers,
Composers, Arrangers, and Students (both published by Scarecrow Press).
He has produced, composed, and/or arranged original music in a wide range of musical
idioms, including albums, commercials, and television, and source and theme music for major
motion pictures.
Zager has produced Grammy Award–winning artists: Whitney Houston, Cissy Houston,
Peabo Bryson, Luther Vandross, Denise Williams, Jennifer Holliday, Joe Williams, Arturo
Sandoval, Herb Alpert, Olatunji, and The Spinners. Some of his original scores and original
studio recordings of Whitney Houston, The Spinners, and The Michael Zager Band reside in
the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum in Cleveland, Ohio.
His recording awards for producing, composing, and/or arranging include: 13 gold or
platinum records, Golden Boot Award (France), Europe 1 Award (France), Olé Award
(Spain), 2 BMI Citations of Achievement, given for most performed songs on radio in a given
year, a Grammy Award nomination for “Cupid/I’ve Loved You for a Long Time,” performed by
The Spinners, and a nomination for producer of the year by the Golden Music Awards, in
Nashville. Zager produced Daniel Ray Edwards, who was nominated for best new artist by the
Golden Music Awards in Nashville, as well as “You Win Again,” which was nominated for
single of the year by the Golden Music Awards in Nashville. The Golden Music Award, in
Nashville, also nominated his label for Best Independent Record Label of the Year.
His television awards include a Platinum Video Award for the ABC Television Network
series ABC FUNFIT with Mary Lou Retton, and a Daytime Emmy Award for ABC FUNFIT
with Mary Lou Retton. Jay-Z, Missy Elliott, 50 Cent, and many more artists have sampled his
songs.
Zager has composed and/or arranged more than 400 commercials. His clients have included
Dr Pepper, MCI, Masterlock, Cablevision, Buick, Acura, IBM, Schlitz Malt Liquor (sung by
Kool & the Gang, The Spinners, .38 Special, and The Chi-Lites), Bounce (sung by Whitney
Houston), Crystal Light (sung by Raquel Welch), Budweiser, Crest, Kodak, Ivory Shampoo,
Maxwell House Coffee, Clearasil, Lancôme, Volvo, Burger King, Oscal (featuring Olympic
Gold Medalist Peggy Fleming), and Burlington Coat Factory.
His advertising awards include a Clio Award, 3 International Film Festival awards, 3 Art
Directors Club awards, and a Mobius Advertising award. For many years he produced the
American Advertising Federation Hall of Achievement Awards in New York.