NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY

CHAPTER
24 04

The Vedic Age

Sources Class-VI New NCERT Chap 4 (What Books and Burials Tell us), Class-VI Old NCERT Chap 3 (Life in the Vedic Age),
Class-IX Old NCERT Chap 3 (Early Iron-Age Civilisation), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 8 (The Advent of Aryans and
Age of Rig Veda), Class-XI Old NCERT Chap 9 (Transition to State and Social Formation)

The Vedic Age refers to the period when the Vedic Later such specimens occur in Hittite inscriptions
Sanskrit texts were composed in India. in Anatolia (Turkey) from the 19th to the 17th
It is the age of the Aryans who are supposed to have centuries BC.
migrated from Central Asia into the Indian Aryan names appear in Kassite inscription of about
sub-continent in several stages during 2000 to 1600 BC from Iraq and in Mitanni inscription of the
1500 BC. 14th century BC from Syria. But so far no such
inscriptions have been found in India.
Advent of the Aryans in India The Aryans migrated to India in several stages. The
earliest stage is represented by the Rig Vedic people,
The term ‘Aryan’ literally means the ‘best’ or
who appeared in the sub-continent in about 1500 BC.
‘eminent’. It is not evident that all the earliest Aryans
belonged to one race, but their culture was of the
same type. They were distinguished by their common Vedic Literature
language. They spoke the Indo-European languages. The Vedic literature gives us a clear idea of the
Originally, the Aryans seem to have lived areas of political, social and economic life of the Aryans and
Southern Russia to Central Asia. They used horses their conflict with the non-Aryans.
and their swiftness enabled them and some allied
people to make successful advent in West-Asia from Four Vedas
about 2000 BC onwards. The Vedic literature can be classified into the four
The Rig Veda gives information about the Aryans in Vedas i.e., the Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva and their
India. The term ‘Arya’ appeared 36 times in this text Vedangas, the Brahamansa, the Aranyaksa and the
and generally indicates a cultural community. Upanishads.
The Rig Veda is the earliest text of the The Vedas are the large bodies of religious text that
Indo-European languages and has many things in are composed of Vedic Sanskrit and originated in
common with the Avesta, which is the oldest text in ancient India.
the Iranian language. The two texts use the same They form the oldest scriptures of Hinduism and the
names for several gods and even for social classes. oldest layer of Sanskrit literature. The Vedas are said
Also, the earliest specimen of the Indo-European to have passed on through verbal transmission from
language is found in an inscription of about 2200 BC one generation to the next. Therefore, they are also
from Iraq. known as Shruti.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
25

Rig Veda Atharva Veda

It is the oldest Veda and depicts the life of early Atharva Veda was also compiled between 1000 BC to
Vedic people in India. It was compiled between 600 BC. It concerns with magic spells to ward off evil
1500 BC to 1000 BC. spirits or dangers.
Its text consists of 1028 hymns (Sukta) which are It is classified into 20 khandas or books, with 711
divided into ten Mandalas or books. hymns.
— Mandala I is primarily dedicated to Indra and It contains Shaunaka and Paippalada recensions.
Agni. Varuna, Surya, Mitra, Rudra and Vishnu The Upaveda of Atharva Veda is Shilpa Veda.
have also been mentioned.
— Mandalas II – VII form the oldest part of the Rig Brahamanas
Veda Samhita and are called ‘family books’ as The Brahamanas are the prose texts that explain the
they are ascribed to particular families of rishis. hymns in the Vedas.
— In Mandala VIII, the hymns are dedicated to
In addition to explaining the symbolism and meaning of
various gods and have been mostly composed by the Samhitas, Brahmana literature also provide
the Kanva clan. scientific knowledge of the Vedic period, including
— In Mandala IX, all the hymns are dedicated observational astronomy altar construction and geometry.
entirely to Soma. Each Veda has one or more of its own Brahmanas.
— Mandala X contains Nadi Stuti Sukta praising the
— Aitareya or Kaushitaki Brahamanas were allotted to
rivers. It also contains Nasadiya Sukta and Purush the Rig Veda,
Sukta. It contains hymns that are traditionally
— Tandya and Jaiminiya Brahamanas to Sama veda
chanted during marriage and death rituals.
— Taittiriya and Shatpatha Brahamanas to Yajur Veda
The Upaveda of Rig Veda is the Ayurveda.
— Gopath Brahamanas to the Atharva Veda for
Sama Veda detailing.
The Sama Veda or the Veda of Chants is the
collection of verses drawn from the Rig Veda. These Aranyakas
verses are provided with musical notations and are The Aranyakas are the philosophies written mainly for
intended as an aid to the performance of sacred the forest-dwelling hermits and their disciples. They are
songs. appendices to Brahamanas.
It was compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC. They can be considered as the bridge between the
Recensions or Branches (Shakhas) of the Sama Veda Brahamanas that talk about ritual sacrifices and the
are Kauthuma, Ranayaniya and Jaiminiya Upanishads that talk about knowledge and spirituality.
(Talavakara).
The Upaveda of Sama Veda is the Gandharva Upanishads
Veda. The Upanishads contain philosophical ideas about the
sacrifice, body and universe. There are 108 Upanishads.
Yajur Veda
The concepts of ‘Atman’ and ‘Brahman’ are majorly
Yajur Veda (Worship or ritual knowledge) was explained by Upanishads.
compiled between 1000 BC to 600 BC.
It deals with the procedure for the performance of Vedangas
sacrifices. It is further divided into : Vedangas are limbs of Vedas and are written for how to chant
— Shukla Yajur Veda/ Vajasaneya / White Yajur Vedas properly. There are six Vedangas, as follows :
Veda It contains only the mantras. It contains the ■ Siksha Vedanga, which covers phonetics (sounds)

Madhyandina and Kanva recensions. ■ Nirukta Vedanga, which covers etymology (origin of

— Krishna Yajur Veda / Black Yajur Veda It words)

includes mantras as well as prose explanations/ ■ Chandas Vedanga, which covers Metrics

commentary. It contains Kathaka, Maitrayani, ■ Vyakarana Vedanga, which covers Grammar

Taittiriya and Kapishthala recensions. ■ Jyotisha Vedanga, which covers Astrology

■ Kalpa Vedanga, which covers Rituals

The Upaveda of the Yajur Veda is the Dhanur Veda.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
26

Upavedas The whole region in which the Aryans first settled in

Indian sub-continent called the Land of the Seven
There are four Upavedas which are Ayurveda (Veda
Rivers.
about life), Gandharva Veda (Veda about music),
Shilpa Veda (Veda about architecture) and The word Samudra is mentioned in the Rig Veda but
Dhanurveda (Veda about archery and warfare). it mainly denotes a collection of water.
Some school of thoughts consider Arthashastra as Rivers and Their Ancient Names
fifth Upaveda.
Ancient Name Modern Name
Sutra Sahitya Vitasta Jhelum
The period of 600 BC to 300 BC is known as period of Askini Chenab
Sutra, when various literatures of Sutras were written. Parushim Ravi
Sutras first appear in the Vedic literature known as
Vipasa Beas
Brahamana and Aranyaka.
Sutudri Sutlej
It was a period of general upheaval of social, political
and religious thought occurred in India. Gomati Gomal
Kubha Kabul
Six Sutras
Sadanira Gandak
Sutra Description Saraswati Ghaggar
Kalpa Sutra It contains the sacrificial practice and systematic
sutras. Vedic Polity
Srautasutras It contains teaching of the performance of the It was a nomadic system of government in which the
great sacrifices. military element was strong.
Sulvasutras It is related to geometry and mathematics. The administrative machinery of the Aryans in the
Gruhasutras It contains rules of domestic life.
Early Vedic period worked with the tribal chief in the
centre, because of his successful leadership in war.
Dharmasutras It has various customs and social duties. He was called rajan. The king’s post had become
hereditary.
The rajan was a kind of chief and he did not exercise
Vedic Age (1500-1000 BC) unlimited power, as he had to reckon with the tribal
The age of the Vedic Period or Rig Vedic Period organisation.
corresponds with the date of the composition of the The king was called the protector of his tribe. He
Rigvedic hymns. This date has been fixed between protected its cattle, fought wars and offered prayers to
1500 BC and 1000 BC. gods on its behalf.
Geographical Knowledge of Vedic Age Several tribal or the clan-based assemblies such as
the sabha, samiti, vidatha, gana, etc, are mentioned
The earliest Aryans lived in the geographical area in the Rig Veda. They exercised deliberative, military
covered by Eastern Afghanistan, North-West frontier and religious functions.
province, Punjab and parts of Western Uttar Pradesh.
The two most important assemblies were the sabha
Some rivers of Afghanistan such as the river Kubha and the samiti. The most important functionary
and the river Indus (Sindhu) and its five branches, are seems to have been the purohita.
mentioned in the Rig Veda.
The two priests who played a major part in the time
The Sindhu is the river par excellence of the Aryans of Rig Veda are Vasishtha and Vishvamitra.
and it is repeatedly mentioned in Rig Veda. Vishvamitra composed the Gayatri Mantra to widen
Another river, the Saraswati, is called Naditama or the Aryan world.
the best of the rivers in the Rig Veda. It is identified The next important functionary seems to be the
with the Ghaggar-Hakra channel in Haryana and senani. The Rig Veda does not mention any officer for
Rajasthan. administering justice. But it was not an ideal society.
Rig Vedic description shows it to be the Avestan river There were cases of theft and burglary and especially
Harakhwati or the Helmand river in South the theft of cows.
Afghanistan from where the name Saraswati was Spies were employed to keep an eye on such
transferred to India. antisocial activities. The officer who enjoyed
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
27

authority over a large pasture ground was called Social Divisions

vrajapati. He led heads of the families called
The conquest of the indigenous inhabitants by the
kulapas, or the heads of the fighting hordes called
Aryans contributed most to the creation of social
gramanis, to battle. In the beginning, the gramani
divisions is Early Vedic age.
was just the head of a small tribal fighting unit.
The Dasas and the Dasyus conquered by the Aryans,
The king did not maintain any regular or standing
were treated as slaves and shudras.
army, but in times of war he bring together a militia
whose military functions were performed by Varna was the term used for colour. It seems that the
different tribal groups called vrata, gana, grama, Aryans were fair and the indigenous inhabitants were
sardha. dark in complexion.
Probably, the chiefs received voluntary offerings The tribal chiefs and the priests acquired a larger share
from the people called bali. of the booty and they naturally grew at the cost of their
kinsmen, which created social inequalities in the tribe.
Vedic Society Gradually, the tribal society was divided into three
Kinship was the basis of social structure in the Early groups i.e., warriors, priests and the people.
Vedic society. A man was identified by the clan to The fourth division, the shudras appeared towards the
which he belonged, as can be seen in the names of end of the Rig Vedic period. Slaves were given as gifts
several Rig Vedic Kings. to the priests. They were mainly women slaves.
People gave their primary loyalty to the tribe, which In the age of the Rig Veda, differentiation based on
was called jana. The term jana occurs at about 275 occupations had started, but this division was not very
places in the Rig Veda and the term janapada or sharp.
territory is not used even once. Unequal distribution of the spoils of war created social
The people were attached to the tribe, since the inequalities and this helped the rise of princes and
kingdom was not yet established. priests at the cost of the common tribal people. But
Another important term which stands for the tribe in since economy was mainly pastoral and not
the Rig Veda was Vis; it is mentioned 170 times in the food-producing, the scope for collecting regular
text. It is evident that family in Early Vedic phase tributes from the people was very limited.
was indicated by the term griha. Tribal elements in society were stronger and social
The Rig Veda shows some consciousness of the divisions based on collection of taxes or accumulation
physical appearance of people. Varna was the term of landed property was absent. The society was still
used for colour, which provided the identity mark for tribal and largely egalitarian.
the social order. Rig Veda mentions arya and dasa
varna. Findings of Bhagwanpura
■ A site called Bhagwanpura has been excavated in
Rig Vedic society was a patriarchal society. In the
Haryana and in all these cases Painted Grey Ware have
Rig Veda, no desire is expressed for daughters,
been found.
though the desire for children and cattle is a repeated
theme in the hymns. The birth of a son was desired
■ Findings of Bhagwanpura ranges from 1600 BC to 1000
BC which is also roughly the period of the Rig Veda.
and people prayed to the gods especially for the
brave sons to fight the wars.
■ A thirteen-roomed mud house have been discovered at
Bhagwanpura. Cattle bones have been found in good
Position of Women quantity in all these sites and in Bhagwanpura horse
bones have also been found.
Women were given opportunities for spiritual and
intellectual development. They could attend
assemblies and also used to offer sacrifices. Vedic Economy
The institution of marriage was established, although There are so many references to the cow and the bull in
symbols of primitive practices survived. There are the Rig Veda. The Rig Vedic Aryans can be called
some instances of polygamy. predominantly a pastoral people.
The practice of levirate (Practice of marrying Most of their wars were fought for the sake of cows.
brother’s widow) and widow remarriage is in the The terms for war in the Rig Veda is gavishthi or
Rig Veda. search or cows.
There are no instances of child-marriage. The The cow seems to have been the most important form
marriageable age in the Rig Veda seems to have been of wealth. Gifts made to priests usually consist of cows
16 to 17; although it is not mentioned specifically. and women slaves.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
28

The Rig Vedic people possessed better knowledge of

Aryan-Dasyu Conflicts
agriculture. They knew sowing, harvesting and
■ The Dasyus in the Rig Veda represent the original
threshing and also had knowledge about the different
inhabitants of the country and an Aryan chief who
seasons. overpowered them were called Trasadasyu.
The Rig Veda mentions artisans such as the carpenter, ■ The Aryans came into conflict with the indigenous
the chariot-maker, the weaver, the leather worker, the inhabitants called the dasas, dasyus, etc. The Rig Veda
potter, etc. mentions the defeat of Sambara by a chief called
Early Vedic age was rural in nature. Aryans did not Divodasa, who belonged to the Bharata clan.
live in cities. ■ The Aryan chief was soft towards the dasas, but strongly
hostile to the dasyus. The term dasyuharta, (slaughter
Vedic Religious Life of the dasyus), is repeatedly mentioned in the Rig Veda.
■ According to tradition, the Aryans were divided into
The Aryans personified natural forces and looked five tribes called panchajana but there might have been
upon them as living beings for which they gave other tribes also. The Aryans fought amongst
human or animal forms. themselves also.
The dominant mode of worshipping the Gods was ■ The famous Battle of Ten Kings or the Dasrajan
through the recitation of prayers and offering of Yudha was fought between the tribe Bharatas, led by
sacrifices. king Sudas and the Confederacy of the other ten tribes
– Puru, Yadu, Turvasa, Anu, Druhyu, Alina, Paktha,
Offerings of vegetables, barley, etc were made to
Bhalanas, Shiva and Vishanin.
Gods, but in Rig Vedic times, the process was not ■ The former five are said to be Aryan tribes while the
accompanied by any ritual. latter five are said to be Non-Aryan tribes.
They did not worship gods for their spiritual uplift or ■ The Bharatas emerged victorious in the battle, which
for ending the miseries of existence. They asked was fought on the banks of river Parushni (present
mainly for praja (children), pashu (cattle), food, Ravi).
wealth, health etc.

Important Vedic Gods Important Ratnis and Other Important Officials

The most important divinity in the Rig Veda is Indra. Official Description
Indra was called Purandara or breaker of forts. Indra Purohita Chief priest, also sometimes referred to as the
played the role of a warlord, leading the Aryan Rastragopa
soldiers to victory against the demons. There are 250 Senani Supreme Commander of the Army
hymns devoted to him in the Rig Veda. He is
considered to be the rain god and thought to be Vrajapati Officer Incharge of the Pasture Land
responsible for causing rainfall. Jivagribha Police Officer
The second position is held by Agni (fire god) to Spasas/Dutas Spies, who also sometimes worked as
whom 200 hymns are devoted. In Vedic times, Agni messengers
acted as a kind of intermediary between the Gods and Gramani Head of the Village
the people.
Kulapati Head of the Family
The third important position is occupied
by Varuna who personified water. Varuna was Madhyamasi Mediator of Disputes
supposed to uphold the natural order and whatever Bhagadugha Revenue Collector
happened in the world was thought to be the
Sangrihitri Treasurer
reflection of his desires.
Mahishi The Chief Queen
Soma was considered to be the God of plants and an
intoxicating drink. Suta Charioteer
Maruts was considered as the God of the storm. Govinartana Keeper of Games and Forests
Some female divinities such as Aditi and Usha are Palagala Messenger
also mentioned in Rig Veda who represented the
Kshatri Chamberlain
appearance of the dawn.
Akshavapa Accountant
But they were not prominent in the time of the Rig
Veda. In the patriarchal set-up, the male Gods were far Sthapati Chief Judge
more important than the female Goddesses. Takshan Carpenter
NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
29

Later Vedic Age (1000-600 BC) Later Vedic Polity

Around 1000 BC, the use of iron appeared in Eastern In Later Vedic times, Rig Vedic popular assemblies lost
Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh importance and royal power increased.
and Rajasthan. Iron is referred to as Shyama or The vidatha completely disappeared. The sabha and
Krishna ayas in the later Vedic texts. samiti continued to hold the position, but their
Excavations show that iron weapons such as character changed. They came to be dominated by
arrow-heads and spear-heads came to be chiefs and rich nobles.
commonly used in Western Uttar Pradesh from In this phase, women were no longer permitted to
about 800 BC onwards. attend the sabha and it was now dominated by nobles
With iron weapons the Vedic people may have and brahmanas.
defeated the few adversaries that may have faced The formation of bigger kingdoms made the chief or the
them in the upper portion of the doab. king more powerful.
Agriculture and various crafts enabled the later In the beginning each area was named after the tribe
Vedic people to lead a settled life. which settled there first. At first, Panchala was the
Although the term nagara is used in later Vedic name of a people and then it became the name of a
texts, beginnings of towns can be traced towards the region.
end of the later Vedic period. The term Rashtra, which indicates territory, first
The later Vedic period saw certain important appears in the period. Traces of the election of the chief
changes such as the beginning of territorial or the king also appear in Later Vedic texts.
kingdoms. Wars were fought not only for the The king’s influence was strengthened by rituals. He
possession of cattle but also for the territory. performed the Rajasuya sacrifice, which was supposed
The predominantly pastoral society of early Vedic to confer supreme power. He performed
times had become agricultural. The tribal the ashvamedha yajna, which meant unquestioned
pastoralists came to be transformed into peasants control over an area in which the royal horse ran
who could maintain their chief with frequent uninterrupted.
tributes. The shudras were still a small serving He also performed the Vajapeya or the chariot race, in
order. which the royal chariot was made to win the race
The tribal society broke up into a varna-divided against his kinsmen. All these rituals impressed the
society. people with the increasing power and prestige of the
king.
Geographical Expansion During During this period collection of taxes and tributes seems
Later Vedic Age to have become common. They were probably deposited
with an officer called Sangrihitri.
The Aryans expanded from Punjab over the whole of
Western Uttar Pradesh covered by the However, even in Later Vedic times the king did not
Ganga-Yamuna doab. In the beginning, they lived possess a standing army. Tribal units were assembled in
between the Saraswati and the Drishadvati rivers. times of war.
The Kurus occupied Delhi and the upper portion of Later Vedic Economy
the doab, the area called Kurukshetra or the land
Agriculture was the chief means of livelihood of the
of the Kurus.
Later Vedic people. Later Vedic texts mention about use
Gradually, they amalgamated with a people called of oxen to the plough.
the Panchalas who occupied the middle portion of
The Shatapatha Brahmana speaks at length about the
the doab. They set up their capital at Hastinapur
ploughing rituals. Janaka, the king of Videha and father
situated in the district of Meerut (Uttar Pradesh).
of Sita, lent his hand of the plough. Balarama, the
The Mahabharata war of this age is supposed to brother of Krishna, is called Haladhar or ‘wielder of the
have been fought around 950 BC. plough.’
The Later Vedic people succeeded in the second The Vedic people continued to produce barley, but
phase of their expansion because they used iron during this period rice and wheat became their chief
weapons and horse drawn chariots. crops.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
30

In this age, the Vedic people came to be acquainted Certain sections of artisans such as Rathakara or
with rice in the doab for the first time. It is chariot-maker enjoyed a high status and were entitled
called Vrihi in the Vedic texts. to the sacred thread ceremony.
The Vedic texts also refer to the seas and sea
Position of Women
voyages.
Women were generally given a lower position in the
This suggests some kind of commerce which may
Later Vedic societies.
have been stimulated by the rise of new arts and
crafts in Later Vedic age. Some women theologians took part in philosophic
discussions and some queens participated in
Copper was one of the first metals to be used by the
coronation rituals, but ordinarily women were thought
Vedic people. Copper objects have been found in
to be inferior and subordinate to men.
painted grey ware sites. They were used mainly for
war, hunting and ornaments.
The Later Vedic people were acquainted with four Different Types of Marriages
types of pottery - black and red ware, black-slipped Asura Marriage by purchase.
ware, painted grey ware and red ware. Gandharva Marriage by the consent of two parties ; a
special form of it was syamvara or self-choice.
The last type of pottery was most popular and its use
Brahma Marriage of a duly dowered girl to a man of the
has been found almost all over Western Uttar
same varna with Vedic rites and rituals.
Pradesh.
Daiva Father gives the daughter to the sacrificial priests as
part of fee or dakshna.
Later Vedic Society Arsa A token bride-price of a cow and a bull is given.
The Later Vedic society came to be divided into four
Prajapati Marriage without dowry and bride-price.
varnas called the brahmanas, kshatriyas, vaishyas
Paisacha It is seduction of a girl while asleep, mentally
and shudras. deranged or drunk, hence it can hardly be called a
The growing cult of sacrifices enormously added to marriage.
the power of the brahmanas, Kshatriya constituted Rakshasa Marriage by capture.
Warrior class.
The vaishyas constituted the common people and
they were assigned to do the production functions
Rise of New Social Order
such as agriculture, cattle-rearing, etc. The institution of gotra appeared in later Vedic times.
Literally, gotra means the cow-pen or the place where
Towards the end of the Vedic period, they began to
cattle belonging to the whole clan are kept. But in
engage in trade. The vaishyas appear to be the only
course of time, it signified descent from a common
tribute-payers in Later Vedic times.
ancestor.
All the three higher varnas shared one common
People began to practise gotra exogamy (Marriage
feature i.e., they were entitled to upanayana or
outside gotra).
investiture with the sacred thread according to the
Vedic mantras. Ashramas or four stages of life were not well
established in Later Vedic times. In the post-Vedic
The fourth varna was deprived of the sacred thread
texts, four ashramas were of Brahmachari (student),
ceremony and the recitation of the Gayatri Mantra.
Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (retired) and
With this, discrimination began with shudras.
Sanyasa or ascetic who completely renounced the
Aitareya Brahmana, is a text of the Later Vedic worldly life.
period. In this text, Shudra is called the servant of
Only the first three are mentioned in the Later Vedic
higher caste, to be made to work at will by another
texts; the last or the fourth stage had not been well
and to be beaten at will.
established in Later Vedic times though ascetic life
Generally, the Later Vedic texts draw a line of was not unknown.
demarcation between the three higher orders on the
Even in post-Vedic times only the stage of the
one hand and the shudras on the other.
householder was commonly practised by all the varnas.
 NCERT Notes INDIAN HISTORY
31

Pushan, who was supposed to look after cattle,

The Sixteen Sanskaras
regarded as the god of the shudras.
1. Garbhadhana – Ceremony for conception.
–
People worshipped gods for the same material
2. Pumsavana To secure the birth of male
reasons in this period as they did in earlier times.
child.
– However, the mode of worship changed
3. Simantonayana Parting the hair.
considerably. Prayers continued to be recited, but
4. Jatakarma – Natal rites (Ceremony for a they ceased to be the dominant mode of pleasing the
newborn child). gods as in earlier times.
5. Namakarana – Ceremony for naming the
child.
Sacrifices became far more important and they
– assumed both public and domestic character. Public
6. Nishkramana First outing (Exposure to Sun).
–
sacrifices involved the king and the whole of the
7. Annaprasana First feeding with boiled rice
community.
in the 6 months.
8. Chudakarana – Arrangement of the hair tuft. Sacrifices involved the killing of animals on a large
– scale. They were accompanied by formulae which
9. Karnavedha Piercing the earlobes.
had to be carefully pronounced by the sacrificer. The
10. Vidyarambha – Learning the alphabet. sacrificer was known as the yajamana, the performer
11. Upanayana – Holy thread ceremony. of yajna.
12. Vedarambha – First study of the Vedas. These formulae and sacrifices were invented,
13. Keshanta and – Cutting the hair. adopted and elaborated by the priests.
Ritusuddhi
The brahmanas claimed a monopoly of priestly
14. Samavartana – Graduation ceremony knowledge and expertise. They invented a number of
(on returning home after
rituals, some of which were adopted from the
completing studentship).
– non-Aryans.
15. Vivaha Marriage.
– Cows, gold, cloth and horses were given as sacrificial
16. Antyeshti Funeral.
gifts.
Sometimes the priests claimed portions of territory
Religious Life of Later Vedic Age as dakshina, but the grant of land as sacrificial fee
In the Later Vedic period, Aryan culture developed was not well established in the Later Vedic period.
under brahmanical influence. The Shatapatha Brahmana states that in the
The cult of sacrifice central of this culture was ashvamedha, North, South, East and West all should
accompanied by rituals and formulae. be given to the priest.
The two prominent Rig Vedic gods, Indra and Agni, lost Kingdoms of the Later Vedic Period
their importance in Later phase.
Kingdom Location
Prajapati the creator, come to occupy the supreme
position in the Later Vedic age. Panchal Badayun and Farrukhabad in Uttar
Pradesh
Some of the other minor Gods of the Rig Vedic period
also came to the forefront. Rudra, the god of animals, Kushinagar Northern region of Uttar Pradesh
became important in Later Vedic times. Kashi Modern Varanasi
Vishnu came to be conceived as the preserver and Koshal Ayodhya in Uttar Pradesh
protector of the people who now led a settled life Uttara Madra Near Amritsar
instead of a semi-nomadic life as they did in Rig Vedic
Southern Madra Kashmir
times.
Eastern Madra Near Kangra
In addition, some objects began to be worshipped as
symbols of divinity; signs of idolatry appear in later Kekaya On the bank of Beas River East of Gandhar
Vedic times. kingdom

As society became divided into social classes, some of Gandhara Rawalpindi and Peshawar and parts of
North-East Afghanistan.
the social orders came to have their own deities.