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Integrated Marketing
Communications,
Strategies, and Tactical
Operations in Sports
Organizations
Manuel Alonso Dos Santos

Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Chile
A volume in the Advances in

Marketing, Customer Relationship
Management, and E-Services
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Alonso Dos Santos, Manuel, 1981- editor.

Title: Integrated marketing communications, strategies, and tactical
operations in sports organizations / Manuel Alonso Dos Santos, editor.
Description: Hershey : Business Science Reference, [2019]
Identifiers: LCCN 2018031911| ISBN 9781522576174 (hardcover) | ISBN
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Subjects: LCSH: Communication in marketing. | Marketing--Technological
innovations. | Sports administration.
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Evaluating the Gaps and Intersections Between Marketing Education and the Marketing ...
Margarida M. Pinheiro (University of Aveiro, Portugal) Ana Estima (University of Aveiro,
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Advanced Methodologies and Technologies in Digital Marketing and Entrepreneurship

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Multifaceted Explorations of Consumer Culture and Its Impact on Individuals and Society
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The Role of Language and Symbols in Promotional Strategies and Marketing Schemes
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Editorial Advisory Board
Mario Alguacil Jiménez, Catholic University of Valencia, Spain
Ferran Calabuig, University of Valencia, Spain
Jerónimo García Fernández, University of Seville, Spain
Rómulo González, University of Valencia, Spain
María Huertas González, University of Valencia, Spain
Orlando Llanos Contreras, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Chile
David Parra Camacho, Catholic University of Valencia, Spain
Vicente Prado, University of Valencia, Spain
Jesyca Salgado Barandela, University of Vigo, Spain
Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................. xv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................ xix
Section 1
Communication and Corporate Social Responsibility
Chapter 1
Decision Factors in the Strategy of Sports Sponsorship in Spain...........................1
Guillermo Sanahuja Peris, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Magdalena Mut Camacho, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Eva Breva Franch, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Carlos Campos López, Universidad de Extremadura, Spain
Chapter 2
Golden Medals: The Impact of Individual Social Responsibility on Sports
Corporate Reputation............................................................................................25
Veronica Baena, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Spain
Marina Mattera, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Spain
Section 2
Management Applied to Sports Companies and Events
Chapter 3
Self-Presentation, Interaction, and Marketing of Chinese Athletes on Social
Media: A Study of Men’s National Table Tennis Team.......................................48
Yanfan Yang, Peking University, China

Chapter 4
City Marketing Using Sport Events: The Case of Pontevedra and Two
Editions of the Spanish Swimming Master Championship..................................68
Ángel Barajas, National Research University Higher School of
Economics, Russia
Patricio Sanchez-Fernandez, University of Vigo, Spain
Chapter 5
An Update on the Marketing of the F1 Singapore Grand Prix Post 2014............91
Y. X. P. Phua, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
H. K. Leng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Chapter 6
Boosting Football Club Brands Through Museums: The Experience of
Mondo Milan......................................................................................................110
Marta Massi, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Chiara Piancatelli, SDA Bocconi School of Management, Italy
Piergiacomo Mion, SDA Bocconi School of Management, Italy
Section 3
Experience and Behavior in Sporting Events
Chapter 7
Getting Supporter Engagement in Sports: The Role of Digital and Mobile
Marketing in the Real Madrid F.C......................................................................130
Chapter 8
Relationship Between Satisfaction and Social Perception of the Negative
Impacts of Sporting Events.................................................................................147
David Parra Camacho, Universidad Católica de Valencia, Spain
Juan Manuel Núñez Pomar, Universidad de Valencia, Spain
Josep Crespo Hervás, Universidad de Valencia, Spain
Chapter 9
Sport Atmospherics’ Influence on the Event Experience...................................172
Mauro Palmero, University of Missouri, USA
Kelly Price, East Tennessee State University, USA

Chapter 10
The Intention of Attending a Sporting Event Through Expectation
Disconfirmation and the Effect of Emotions.......................................................223
Manuel Alonso Dos Santos, Universidad Católica de la Santísima
Concepción, Spain
Steve Baeza, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Chile
Jonathan Cuevas Lizama, Universidad Católica de la Santísima
Concepción, Chile
Chapter 11
The Marketing Implications of Up-and-Coming Sports and of Official
International Sports Rating Systems...................................................................241
Raymond T. Stefani, California State University – Long Beach, USA
Compilation of References............................................................................... 264
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 319
Index................................................................................................................... 323
Detailed Table of Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................. xv
Acknowledgment................................................................................................ xix
Section 1
Communication and Corporate Social Responsibility
Chapter 1
Decision Factors in the Strategy of Sports Sponsorship in Spain...........................1
Guillermo Sanahuja Peris, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Magdalena Mut Camacho, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Eva Breva Franch, Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Carlos Campos López, Universidad de Extremadura, Spain
This chapter responds to how companies decide their sports sponsorship strategy.
Initially, a theoretical review was carried out on the actual research to date on the
subject, which led to fieldwork that combined quantitative and qualitative techniques.
In the first place, the managers and executives of 40 Spanish companies were surveyed.
In the qualitative phase, discussion groups and in-depth interviews were carried
out. The results obtained have been divided into findings for large companies and
SMEs, respectively. The main finding has confirmed that sponsorship has basically
a strategic motivation at its onset and an economic one in its execution.
Chapter 2
Golden Medals: The Impact of Individual Social Responsibility on Sports
Corporate Reputation............................................................................................25
Marina Mattera, Universidad Europea de Madrid, Spain
This chapter conducts an in-depth study regarding European football clubs’ marketing
strategies and brand management approaches in order to evaluate customers’
perceived ethicality and how consumers value corporate social responsibility

activities. Specifically, the case of European football clubs is evaluated during the
2013-2018 period. The evolution of the value of the top 20 football teams in 2013
were considered as they are the most valuable ones, and most renowned in terms
of worldwide supporters and revenues. Furthermore, the success of the top three
teams, Manchester United, FC Barcelona, and Real Madrid FC, were studied. The
findings highlight how European football clubs should incorporate corporate social
responsibility into their marketing strategy, combining it with their own players’
approaches, in order to increase their value and reputation.
Section 2
Management Applied to Sports Companies and Events
Chapter 3
Self-Presentation, Interaction, and Marketing of Chinese Athletes on Social
Media: A Study of Men’s National Table Tennis Team.......................................48
Yanfan Yang, Peking University, China
This chapter explored the characteristics of Chinese athletes’ self-presentation

and para-social interaction on social media using Goffman’s self-presentation and
para-social interaction theories. With the policies consciously supporting sport
promotion in China, how to balance the commercialization and national glories,
even the entertainment part is the linchpin of this. A content analysis of 552 Weibo
posted by 10 male Chinese table tennis athletes was conducted. Results found that
many Weibo posts are about interactivity (33%), especially with their teammates or
coaches. Athletes also tend to be more personal on social media by posting amusing
or emotional tweets. All showed that they present themselves as more of a marketing
one but still under the frame of “the whole nation system.” Only a few Weibo were
promotional (9%), indicating that the potential of achieving market objectives has not
come to athletes’ full awareness. Suggestions are athletes enhance the relationship
with fans so as to enlarge the influence of themselves and the sport per se.
Chapter 4
City Marketing Using Sport Events: The Case of Pontevedra and Two
Editions of the Spanish Swimming Master Championship..................................68
Ángel Barajas, National Research University Higher School of
Economics, Russia
Patricio Sanchez-Fernandez, University of Vigo, Spain
Sport events have become a key element in revitalizing tourism and a valuable
instrument for city marketing managers. This is true not only for mega-events but
also for medium and small-size events. This chapter focuses on two editions of the

same sport event as an example of how it can be used for these purposes. The authors
have chosen the Spanish Swimming Master Championship celebrated in the city
of Pontevedra in 2011 and 2015. The choice of the city is justified by its concern
about celebration of sport events during the last decade as a means of promoting
the city and increasing tourism.
Chapter 5
An Update on the Marketing of the F1 Singapore Grand Prix Post 2014............91
Y. X. P. Phua, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
H. K. Leng, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
In 2008, the inaugural Formula One SingTel Singapore Grand Prix was held as
the first night-time race in the history of Formula One Grand Prix. The purpose
of this chapter is to provide readers with a better understanding of how the F1
Singapore Grand Prix markets itself. The chapter begins by examining the history
behind motor sports racing events in Singapore. This is followed by a review of the
marketing activities of the F1 Singapore Grand Prix. The last section describes an
analysis of spectators’ blogs. The analysis suggests that the marketing of the event
had been successful as there was a high level of awareness of the event. However,
the analysis also indicated that there were spectators who were more interested in
the concerts held in conjunction with the race. In 2014, there was a change in title
sponsor from Singtel to Singapore Airlines. This chapter provides an update on the
marketing of the event post 2014 from an earlier version published in Strategies in
Sports Marketing: Technologies and Emerging Trends.
Chapter 6
Boosting Football Club Brands Through Museums: The Experience of
Mondo Milan......................................................................................................110
Marta Massi, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Italy
Chiara Piancatelli, SDA Bocconi School of Management, Italy
Piergiacomo Mion, SDA Bocconi School of Management, Italy
This chapter focuses on the relatively recent phenomenon of the creation of museums
by football clubs and discusses the role of football club museums as “branding
platforms.” The authors review the case of Mondo Milan, an innovative museum
founded in 2014 by A.C. Milan, to illustrate how the development of football club
museums represents a marketing strategy aimed at boosting the club brand and
broadening the club customer base. The analysis of the case—supported by an
interview with the Marketing and B2C Sales Director of Mondo Milan—shows how
football club museums represent an opportunity not only for generating revenue but
also for attracting new market segments that can engage in the history and values
of the club and enhancing their brand awareness and image.

Section 3
Experience and Behavior in Sporting Events
Chapter 7
Getting Supporter Engagement in Sports: The Role of Digital and Mobile
Marketing in the Real Madrid F.C......................................................................130
This chapter attempts to provide a better understanding of the impact that sport
marketing is having on achieving customer engagement. To accomplish this goal,
the case of the Real Madrid F.C., estimated at having over 200 million supporters
worldwide, is analyzed. Moreover, the team is among the top three clubs of the world
in terms of followers and engagement on social media. As regards brand value, the
Real Madrid F.C. is worth more than any team in the world. The combination of the
aforementioned factors made the Real Madrid F.C. the appropriate brand to choose for
this study, representing a leading organization in sports, business, and marketing. A
number of methods were used to collect data for this study; specifically, information
about the team was gathered by repeatedly browsing its website, Facebook, Twitter,
Instagram accounts, and apps. Data from interviews published in business press and
posts were also compiled. Additionally, a focus group was conducted to discuss the
customer engagement of Real Madrid’s fans.
Chapter 8
Relationship Between Satisfaction and Social Perception of the Negative
Impacts of Sporting Events.................................................................................147
David Parra Camacho, Universidad Católica de Valencia, Spain
Juan Manuel Núñez Pomar, Universidad de Valencia, Spain
Josep Crespo Hervás, Universidad de Valencia, Spain
Sporting events can be important stimulators of the cities that host them. The aim of
this chapter is to find the relationship established between the residents’ perception
of the negative impacts associated with the holding of three sporting events in the
same city and the degree of satisfaction with their hosting them. A total of 567
subjects in Valencia (Spain) were interviewed. A questionnaire composed of nine
items about possible negative impacts and an indicator of overall satisfaction with
the celebration of the event was used for this work. The results showed that the
residents’ perception of the possible waste of taxpayers’ money associated with
the construction of event facilities showed a significant prediction in explaining the
degree of satisfaction with the holding of sporting events.

Chapter 9
Sport Atmospherics’ Influence on the Event Experience...................................172
Mauro Palmero, University of Missouri, USA
Kelly Price, East Tennessee State University, USA
This chapter discusses traditional and online atmospherics as a sport marketing

strategy. Though with traditional retail roots, atmospherics have emerged as a
strategy that may be utilized in the physical, online, and mobile sport environments.
A comprehensive review of major traditional and sports atmospheric variables, online
atmospheric variables including augmented and virtual reality, and applications to
sport are discussed. In addition, the spectator experience cycle is introduced with
atmospheric correlations. The purpose of the chapter is to explain why traditional
and online atmospherics are important to the sport industry and to demonstrate
how sport marketers may use physical, online, or mobile atmospherics to enhance
spectator experience, increase loyalty, impact attitude, consumer choice, and impact
purchase behavior. In addition, the chapter is meant to emphasize the importance of
atmospherics to ultimately achieve sport promotional/marketing objectives. Finally,
future research directions are recommended.
Chapter 10
The Intention of Attending a Sporting Event Through Expectation
Disconfirmation and the Effect of Emotions.......................................................223
Manuel Alonso Dos Santos, Universidad Católica de la Santísima
Concepción, Spain
Steve Baeza, Universidad Católica de la Santísima Concepción, Chile
Jonathan Cuevas Lizama, Universidad Católica de la Santísima
Concepción, Chile
This chapter examines the intenion of attending a sporting event using a cognitive-
affective model. By using a survey at an international event, the authors show
that emotions have a direct effect on satisfaction and an intermediary effect on
the expectation disconfirmation and satisfaction and finally disconfirmation and
satisfaction on the intention of attending the sport event. These results suggest that
the organizers of sport events should pay special attention to emotional management
before and during the activity.
Chapter 11
The Marketing Implications of Up-and-Coming Sports and of Official
International Sports Rating Systems...................................................................241
Raymond T. Stefani, California State University – Long Beach, USA

To effectively market the major international sports, those sports are identified
along with their special characteristics. Further, widely available official ranking
information about the best nations and individuals at those sports are located so that
the special features of each ranking system can be creatively used to arouse spectator
and sponsor interest. The three primary sources of recognition are identified: the
International Olympic Committee, which recognizes 122 sports; SportAccord (also
known as GAISF), which recognizes those plus another 21 sports; while Wikipedia
lists those plus another 26 widely played sports for a total of 169. The immense
popularity of the up-and-coming e-sports (electronic sports) strongly suggest
opportunities for marketing. The 108 sports with ratings systems are covered in the
sequence—36 object sports, 59 independent sports, 9 combat sports, and 4 mind
sports—followed by the special implications that present themselves for effective
marketing. Marketing guidance is then presented for the 61 sports without a rating
system. Links to all 169 sports are identified, providing a wealth of individual and
team information along with the official ratings. References, internet links, and
definitions of all key terms are listed at the end of this chapter.
Compilation of References............................................................................... 264
About the Contributors.................................................................................... 319
Index................................................................................................................... 323
xv
Preface
The importance and professionalization of management in sports organizations

continue to be on the rise in recent decades. Likewise, the academic literature
concerning this area of research has grown up. In this sense, several factors explain
the increased focus on sports management. Firstly, the general public’s interest in
wellness keeps growing, leading to an increased demand for sports services. In this
context, sports services offerings have surged and the professionalization of the sector
is required in order to provide higher quality standards. Secondly, the average budget
of sports services companies has dramatically increased. Some college stadiums
in the United States are larger and offer better facilities than many clubs in Spain’s
prestigious La Liga. Lastly, sports managers are increasingly professionalized since
the strategies, techniques and tactics approached by other business sectors cannot
be per se applied to the sports industry. In this context, the direct extrapolation of
common techniques used in other sectors is hindered by the specificities of the
sports industry.
Considering all of the above, the main purpose of this book is to update readers
on the latest academic and professional breakthroughs in strategic and tactical sports
management. The author expects this work to help new sports managers develop
their skills with regard to this business sector with a high demand for qualified
professionals. In many chapters, this book also targets professional sports managers
interested in learning the latest trends with regard to measurements, strategies and
applications of new and relevant advances in the sports industry. Finally, the author
hopes that researchers on sports management approach this book as a tool to learn
the latest methodological and conceptual innovations.
This book consists of 11 chapters organized in three sections titled as follows:
1) Communication and Corporate Social Responsibility, 2) Management Applied
to Sports Companies and Events, and 3) Experience and Behavior in Sporting
Events. Each section tackles the challenges faced by sports management from three
different perspectives.
Preface
The first section is devoted to the impact of corporate social responsibility and
sponsorship communication actions. Social responsibility in business is not limited
to companies which offer products and services unrelated to the sports industry.
In the sports industry, sports companies assess the possible benefits derived from
the aforementioned actions in order to reach and influence their target audience.
However, only in the last decade, CSR has begun to receive attention from the
academic discipline of sport management. Even if sponsorship is an advertising
communication technique that has been receiving significant attention, research is
still scarce with regard to sponsorship management (especially from the perspective
of the sponsored party).
The first chapter is titled “Decision Factors in the Strategy of Sports Sponsorship
in Spain” and examines the sponsorship from a strategic approach. Most studies on
sports sponsorship assess its effectiveness and performance. However, research on
the strategic choice of a sponsorship from the perspective of the sponsored party is
rather scarce. This work examines the extant literature with regard to this area of
knowledge and then performs a qualitative analysis involving 40 relevant companies
in Spain. Results reveal different incentives and goals for small and large companies.
The second chapter, “Golden Medals: The Impact of Individual Social
Responsibility on Sports Corporate Reputation,” examines two qualitative studies
analyzing the different perceptions of sports fans with regard to the effects of corporate
social responsibility actions taken by the most significant La Liga clubs in recent
decades: Real Madrid and Barcelona. Results show that professional sports clubs
and competitions boast dedicated resources to approach specific CSR programs in
order to raise public awareness with higher, improved effectiveness compared with
companies operating in other business sectors.
The second section examines the management of sports companies and events
mostly from a marketing perspective. These events have dramatically developed in
the last decade and they are not limited to major sporting events, this significant
expansion also includes small and medium-sized local events which impact the image
of the city and the local and regional economies through the effects of tourism. In
this sense, fans and tourists are drawn to pre and post-event attractions such as the
museum of Italy’s A.C. Milan.
The third chapter, “Self-Presentation, Interaction, and Marketing of Chinese
Athletes on Social Media: A Study of Men’s National Table Tennis Team,” aims
to examine how the Weibo social network approached by athletes and the resulting
interactions with their fans impact sports development, sponsorship and the image of
athletes. Authors conclude that Chinese athletes have not yet developed interaction
and communication strategies in order to promote sports and brands through social
media.
xvi
Preface
The fourth chapter, “City Marketing Using Sport Events: The Case of Pontevedra
and Two Editions of the Spanish Swimming Master Championship,” analyzes
marketing management with regard to a small event across two editions. Authors
highlight how the sporting event serves as a political and economic strategy to
differentiate the local tourist offering. In this sense, defining the profile of the
expected event visitors is key to reach the objectives of the city.
The fifth chapter, titled “An Update on the Marketing of the F1 Singapore Grand
Prix Post 2014,” provides an update on the marketing of the event post 2014 based
on an earlier version published in Strategies in Sports Marketing: Technologies
and Emerging Trends. This chapter examines the different marketing actions with
regard to said sporting event assessing the change of the sponsor from Singtel to
Singapore Airlines, the history of the event and the media resonance through an
analysis of the blogs of the audience.
The sixth chapter, “Boosting Football Club Brands Through Museums: The
Experience of Mondo Milan,” explores the case of the A.C. Milan official museum.
Authors analyze this brand communication strategy as a marketing communication
tool developed to boost the brand, making supplementary income, attracting new
market segments, and retaining and expanding the customer base.
The last section of this book is titled “Experience and Behavior in Sporting
Events.” The last four chapters of the book approach the challenges associated
with the experience of consumers of sporting event and services and the behavior
of the audience.
The seventh chapter, “Getting Supporter Engagement in Sports: The Role of
Digital and Mobile Marketing in the Real Madrid F.C.,” focuses on assessing the
impact of the marketing strategy of Real Madrid football club through an analysis
of the communication strategy on social media, websites, mobile apps, focus groups
and newspapers. Authors reveal new avenues for marketing actions and highlight
the importance of digital and mobile marketing in order to retain and attract fans.
Chapter 8, “Relationship Between Satisfaction and Social Perception of the
Negative Impacts of Sporting Events,” examines the relationship between the
perception of the negative impacts related to the celebration of sporting events and
the level of satisfaction of the residents of the city hosting said events. Authors report
that residents’ perceptions with regard to the economic investment in sporting events
and facilities serve as reliable predictors of the level of satisfaction associated with
the celebration of sporting events.
Chapter 9, “Sport Atmospherics’ Influence on the Event Experience,” assesses
the environment of the sporting event and its impact on customer experience, both
online and physically. The main purpose of this chapter is to analyze the customer
xvii
Preface
experience cycle and the atmospheric correlations. In this sense, the impact of the
atmospheric factors on the sports industry and sports marketing professionals is
also examined.
Chapter 10, “The Intention of Attending a Sporting Event Through Expectation
Disconfirmation and the Effect of Emotions,” proposes a model of consumer behavior
based on the disconfirmation of expectations with regard to sporting events, that
is, the level of positive or negative satisfaction drawn from the difference between
what was expected and what is received. In general, the literature suggests a direct
relationship between disconfirmation, which is the satisfaction and loyalty within a
cognitive affective model, and intention. The sample used in this empirical analysis
was identified through 637 participants attending a sporting event.
Finally, Chapter 11, “The Marketing Implications of Up-and-Coming Sports
and of Official International Sports Rating Systems,” identifies, diversifies and
shares information regarding the different characteristics of the main international
sports. It is worth noting the focus on eSports. This chapter includes marketing
recommendations for 61 sports which do not offer a ranking system while also
identifying links to 169 sports, providing a considerable amount of individual and
team information as well as the respective rankings.

xviii
xix
Acknowledgment
Thank you for investing your time and attention in this book. I hope it is useful
to you as a practical guide for developing, implementing, and evaluating sport
marketing strategies.
This book was not only inspired by colleagues; it was also directly written by their
active involvement in its development.

Section 1
Communication and
Corporate Social
Responsibility
1
Chapter 1
Decision Factors in
the Strategy of Sports
Sponsorship in Spain
Guillermo Sanahuja Peris
Universitat Jaume I, Spain
Magdalena Mut Camacho

Eva Breva Franch

Carlos Campos López

Universidad de Extremadura, Spain
ABSTRACT
This chapter responds to how companies decide their sports sponsorship strategy.
Initially, a theoretical review was carried out on the actual research to date on the
subject, which led to fieldwork that combined quantitative and qualitative techniques.
In the first place, the managers and executives of 40 Spanish companies were surveyed.
In the qualitative phase, discussion groups and in-depth interviews were carried
out. The results obtained have been divided into findings for large companies and
SMEs, respectively. The main finding has confirmed that sponsorship has basically
a strategic motivation at its onset and an economic one in its execution.
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-5225-7617-4.ch001
Copyright © 2019, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
Decision Factors in the Strategy of Sports Sponsorship in Spain
INTRODUCTION
The bridges between company and sport are becoming more numerous. The latest
trends in human resources are focused on moving leadership capacity from the
dressing-room to the board room, bringing the spirit of sacrifice of a long-distance
runner up to the career of a professional, or the tactics of a cyclist squad-team to the
building of a multi-disciplinary team. However, traditionally the main link between
business and sport has been sponsorship. An effective way to transfer sports values
to a brand.
Its origins go back to the classical world when Greek merchants customarily
collaborated economically with the athletes, with the aim of forging links and
increasing their commercial relationships. Centuries later, and since the second
industrial revolution, modern sponsorship has been growing in parallel with the
implementation and development of advertising and promotion. Since the end of the
nineteenth century, the modern Olympic games, rowing competitions, and Formula
One racing have had trademark activities associated with them.
In fact, in just over a century, sports sponsorship has evolved substantially
from a basic concept of brand exposure to sophisticated branding strategies and
emotional relationships with various audiences. In recent years, the decline in
conventional advertising, the saturation of audiences, or today’s multi-screen life
have encouraged many companies to redistribute their investment in media, and
back communication formulas based on experience and conversation. In this way,
sponsorship as a relationship vehicle has had to reinvent itself, so that today has
become a communicative trend worldwide that grows year after year. According to
the US consultancy firm Internacional Events Group (IEG) study “What Sponsors
want & where dollars will go in 2018” global investment in sponsorship has grown
from $43.1 billion in 2008 to $65.8 billion in 2018.
Like music, culture or social action, sport is a scenario that allows brands to
establish friendly, non-invasive contacts which bring social value to the public. In
this sense, sport is an opportunity for strong emotional involvement, attracting the
attention of a large public. For a long time in Spain, programmes that have led the
annual media rankings with the highest audiences are sporting ones. The leadership
of the press is dominated by sports newspapers, and athletes are in an overwhelming
majority of Spain’s most famous and appreciated “top” personalities.
However, investment in Spain has not followed the same path as the global trend.
The crisis has punished investment in almost all channels of advertising; sponsorship
has also suffered a drastic decline in the last eight years. But the recession has led
the communications and marketing departments to reconsider their strategies,
analyse their investments and pursue efficiency. This has led to an advancement and
improvement in the knowledge of those responsible for sponsorship in companies.
2
In this context, investment has evolved from the mere pursuit of brand awareness to
the pursuit of deeper and more multi-faceted objectives such as: being the axis of
brand positioning, the association of values, the strengthening of corporate culture,
a generator of relationships, a revenue source and acting as ambassador in new
commercial territories.
Different sports properties such as clubs, federations, competitions, events,
athletes from many disciplines, can be the best partner for large multi-national
companies, and also SMEs, to achieve their communicative goals, from local to
international milestones. Institutional programmes such as “Spain Compete”, tax
breaks or events of exceptional interest, as well as private initiatives, try to channel
funds from business into sport.
From this necessary dialogue between business and sport arises a purpose, namely,
to investigate and answer those questions that help a better understanding of the
factors that lead to an optimum approach of an updated and renovated sponsorship.
BACKGROUND
When developing this research, it is important to briefly review the basic concepts
of sports sponsorship as a contact space between advertiser brands and consumers.
Basic Concepts About Sponsorship
According to Meenaghan (2001), sponsorship is a communication technique that

differs from advertising in that consumers: a) have a very favourable view of
sponsorship, b) consider sponsorship as more humane and more supportive than
advertising, and (c) sponsorship is a more subtle and indirect form of communication
with an ability to generate long-term image benefit versus a simple short-term sales
increase.
As Maxwell and Lough (2009) recall, sports sponsorship was initially seen as a
form of advertising without saturation. However, nowadays, given the substantial
number of companies involved in sponsorship deals, “the landscape of sports
marketing has evolved into a replica of the saturated advertising environment seen
in traditional media” (pp. 190).
In this sense, sponsorship has also become a territory saturated with brands.
Therefore, in recent years strategies and actions have been sophisticated when
implementing sponsorships. In the words of Jensen and Cornwell (2017) “Today,
brand marketers are increasingly seeking opportunities that allow their brands to
break through the clutter and stand alone atop the multitude of other sponsors of
events and other sponsored properties” (pp.408).
3
Objectives of Sponsorship Today
Hidalgo, Poblete, Vasquez and Baeza (2014) develop in the article “Effect of image
transmission in Sports Sponsorship in Chile” a great journey about the objectives
that brands have traditionally sought in relation to sponsorship. The central issues are
improving the image, increasing knowledge, increasing brand preference, improving
sales or offering hospitality opportunities. In addition, there are now sponsorship
initiatives that include internal audiences as a recipient of the action with the aim
of improving the corporate culture, alignment with the values of the company
and productivity (Sawatari, 2013; Ladousse, 2009) clearly in tune with the trends
indicated by the consultant Edelman in his studies on trust (2018) in organizations
where they place the employee at the center of the strategy.
Lough and Irwin (2001) introduced the concept of sponsorship life cycle, raising
it as a measure of how, as sports properties mature, so do the objectives of their
sponsors. The sponsorship lifecycle begins with goals of image and visibility on
the part of sponsors of less mature sports properties, and progress towards more
market-related goals such as increasing sales and market share in sponsors of more
mature sports properties.
Bruhn and Holzer (2015) went deeper into sponsorship’s theoretical construct
and argue that it has been largely evaluated with respect to image (Woo-Young,
Youngjin & Minjung, 2014; Walker, Hall, Todd & Kent, 2011), personality (Lee &
Cho, 2008), or associations of a general nature (Pracejus & Olsen, 2004).
Finally, Greenhalgh and Greenwell (2013) claimed that to increase the likelihood
of a sponsorship proposal being accepted and supported, “sports marketing
professionals need to understand the objectives that a potential sponsor is trying to
achieve through a sponsorship” (pp.102).
The Relationship Between Sponsor and Sponsored
Cousens, Babiak and Bradish (2006) pointed out that the interaction between the
parties benefit both the company and the sporting organisation because they work
to achieve common goals, beyond the individual ones. They also emphasised
that interaction is not limited to negotiation but rather to key agreements, such as
assessment methods, management and interaction expectations, duration of the
relationship and the mutual benefits of the partnership.
Approaching the field of sponsorship operation and implementation, Farrelly
(2010) suggested that sports sponsorship be conceived as a B2B mutually beneficial
4
relationship between a sponsor and a sport or a sports-person. Cousens, Babiak and

Bradish (2006) argued for a holistic approach that gave sponsorship relationships
consideration not only with respect to the tangible assets available to firms, such as
media exposure, signage or the presence of logos on T-shirts, but also to intangible
assets and the ability of both parties to successfully manage, as well as expand, the
sponsorship agreement within a dynamic global sports industry.
Cousens, Babiak and Bradish (2006) developed a structure to evaluate inter-
organisational relationships that occur between sports organisations and their
sponsors. These exchange relationships are qualified as essential for the achievement
of both the parties’ objectives. To achieve this, they used relational marketing and
its characterising principles, namely, long-term relationships and the willingness
of both parties to help each other through inter-organisational links. However, they
stressed that their application to the context of sponsorship had generally failed,
due to the limitation of its vision being focused on traditional assets and proposals.
Douvis, Sarli, Kriemadis and Vrondou (2015) also underlined that research on
the decision-making process in terms of sponsorship is scarce and, as researchers
do not agree, there is an abundance of opinion on the subject, indicating that little
research has been undertaken on the process of selection, and the development of
sponsorship, as seen by both parties: the sponsor and the sponsored.
The Need to Constantly Investigate the

Evolution of Sponsorship
O’Reilly and Lanfrance Homing (2013) pointed out that there is little research on
the implementation of sponsorship, and reiterated that a key aspect of it is known as
activation, which refers to the additional investment made by the sponsor, beyond the
amount paid to take over the sponsorship rights. This figure is customarily considered
as a ratio of the additional investment to the sum cost of the rights. In their study,
these researchers sought to answer the following three questions: a) what leads to
effective activation of sponsorship? b) what are the best activation tactics? and c)
how much should be spent on activation to achieve the desired results?
Misener and Doherty (2014) also emphasized the fact that sponsorships are a
critical resource for non-profit sports organisations that are increasingly experiencing
great pressures to generate funding beyond their traditional sources of income. They
recalled, citing Daellenbach, Davies and Ashill (2006), that there had been a lack of
attention to the nature of the relationships between these two participants. Hence,
they considered it important “to understand the nature of the relationship between
non-profit sports organisations and sponsors” (pp.493).
5
Previous Studies on Sponsorship in Spain
Modern and professional management in sports organizations came to Spain with the
21st century. Until then, Spanish sports clubs had extremely simple organizational
structures. As of the year 2001, the clubs begin to sophisticate their marketing
and sponsorship areas, importing professionals from other sectors. Although the
whole field of sport has been professionalized, until a few years ago (Sanahuja &
Blay, 2015) it could be said that Spanish sports clubs were some distance from the
Anglo-Saxon avant-garde in terms of sports management, today everything seems
to indicate that There is increasing proximity between what happens in the countries
of southern Europe and the United States.
This lack of professionalism until a few years ago, the lack of a strong consultancy
sector in the field of sports marketing and a certain distance from the university
to the world of sponsorship, have made it possible until 2015 to have a rigorous
and deep study In Spain on this subject. Does this mean that there has been no
precedent or investigation in Spain about sports sponsorship? Of course not. From
the academy, different doctoral theses have emerged that have analyzed issues or
specific areas in relation to sponsorship such as the automobile sector (Torres,
2008), effectiveness (Barreda, 2009), the relational perspective (Femenía, 2012),
the impact with the major international events (Recio, 2016) or comparisons with
other countries (Beltrán, 2016). In addition, some consultants such as Havas Sport
& Entertainent or SPSG have developed studies limited to Spanish territory whose
public part has allowed to know the most notorious brands associated with sports.
Objectives of This Investigation
In view of this theoretical and observational scenario, this research intends to present
a useful, public and rigorous first approach to the state of sponsorship in Spain.
Therefore, the following specific objectives are proposed:
• Find the motivations that lead companies to choose sponsorship as a

communication tool.
• Define the goals that these companies emphasise when activating a
sponsorship.
• Describe the linkage of the sponsorship with the strategy of the company.
These objectives were explored within the range of differences that exist in the
practice of sponsorship between large Spanish multinationals and SMEs.
6
MATERIALS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The research methodology used in the study was initiated with a theoretical approach
that served as a reflection platform for field work, consisting of qualitative interviews
and quantitative questionnaires.
As a starting point, a theoretical literature review produced relevant data and
results from previous studies on the topic. Furthermore, the theoretical conclusions
have been analysed on an empirical basis; to comply with an empirical evaluation,
the methodology design was based on relevant statistical and mathematical analysis
techniques to comply with the objectives. Under this approach, the research combined
quantitative and qualitative techniques, hereunder justified and summarised in the
following images:
Quantitative Stage
In the preliminary stage, a questionnaire was used as a study tool as proposed by

Sierra (1994; pp.304); it consists of observing facts and events transmitted through the
participants’ very own words. Moreover, it allows the study area to be broadened and
allows for a considerable number of questions to be included. The questionnaire that
was put together was aimed at professionals in charge of sponsorship, communication
and marketing; as a structured questionnaire, it comprised 10 questions that served
as a link between specific objectives and the reality of the observed sample (Sierra,
1994; pp.305).
The universe was made up of Spanish companies or those that operate in Spain
and which carry out sports sponsorship as part of their communication and marketing
strategies. According to Infoadex, in 2014 there were 264 companies that invested
in sponsorship. It is conceded however that there may be organisations whose
sponsorship investment may not be reflected in the Infoadex report. The sample that
Figure 1. Methodological development of research
7
was selected was drawn from two distinct groups. An initial sample was made up
of 100 large national companies with a turnover worth more than 50 million Euro,
whereas a subsequent sample comprised 20 national firms that generated turnovers or
had budgets worth less than 50 million Euro. Both cases did not involve probabilistic
samples, and as such, the degree of error cannot be gauged; these were the criteria
established by the researchers and have served to define the interest groups in the
study (Morales, 2012).
The selection of 100 large companies was based on three objective sources as
follows:
• The 2014 Infoadex Study.

• Reports on brands associated with sport: SAI (Sponsorship Awareness Index)
published by SPSG Consulting and Top 5 de Territorios Deportivos belonging
to Havas Sports & Entertainment.
• Sponsorships of sport properties (clubs, events, federations, or competitions)
at a wholly professional level.
The SMEs were selected as a sample indicative of intent and were useful in terms
of their visibility and track record in the field of sponsorship. The sample size was
limited to ten companies, mainly due to their inevitable heterogeneity and the general
difficulty that is experienced in obtaining responses from this type of organisation.
Our attention is drawn to the fact that total “representativeness” cannot be drawn
from this sample. Notwithstanding this, it may be a reasonable surveying method
or approximation to SMEs practices.
The questionnaire comprised ten questions and an average of fifteen minutes
was estimated to be necessary to answer them. There were also other questions
about quality control or identification, including turnover to ascertain the size of the
company1. The answers to the questions were organised into categories that were
necessarily chosen by each respondent (Sierra, 1994; pp. 307) and in some of them
more than one option was allowed.
The field work was carried out from April 20 to June 16, 2015. In that period, 120
companies were contacted via e-mail with an invitation to complete the questionnaire;
the persons targeted were selected professionals and in case of doubt telephone contact
was made. After the field work period, analysis was carried out based on statistical
processing platforms for each of the two samples (large company and SME).
Of the total of companies contacted, 30 large companies and 10 SMEs answered
our request. Additionally, eigth large companies partially completed the questionnaire
and were hence discarded from participating in the study. A further 14 companies
refused to participate for assorted reasons. The remaining 48 large companies gave
8
no response to our questionnaire request and made no comments in this regard.

Despite difficulties encountered in obtaining responses a representative level of
11.5% was obtained. All in all, the companies that participated were:
Of the total, nine companies belong to the agri-food and beverage industry,
eigth to the financial services industry, five to the automotive industry, three to
distribution, two to textiles, two to energy, while the rest correspond to a range of
industries including transport, technology, construction and capital goods.
Qualitative Stage
This function of this stage is to make comparisons with the findings of the
quantitative stage as well to offer prospective analysis and description in relation to
those sponsorship management methods conducive to more efficient performance.
In keeping with our main study objectives, a universe was defined as professionals
Table 1. Large companies
Table 2. SMEs
9
Figure 2. Distribution by productive sectors of the sample
who have daily and direct “hands on” involvement in the field that was of interest
to us. With their input, a sample of convenience, considered to be representative of
the universe of this study, was established.
Furthermore, the sample was defined as non-probabilistic and it is conceded that
it may lead to bias in the sample choice process; however, this type of sampling is
the most appropriate for qualitative studies which seek to delve more deeply into the
information obtained, rather than paying more attention to attaining high statistical
representativeness; in this sense, its non-probabilistic nature is justified.
When selecting the sample, greater emphasis was given to experience and
knowledge of sport sponsorship. Following from this, a strategic or convenience-based
sampling process was chosen whereby the choice of sampling units meet subjective
criteria, in accordance with the objectives of our research. Under this approach, a Panel
of Experts made up of recognised professionals in sport sponsorship was selected.
Table 3. Members of panel of experts
10
The panel undertook debate and reflection sessions in the quantitative phase by
using a direct observation technique: the interview.
The semi-directed open interview was carried out in accordance with the
qualitative approach used in empirical discourse research. This is in line with Ortí
(1990) who offered an empirical approach to social realities based on the deep
comprehension of the significant and the interpretation of motivation in social actors,
thereby revealing their internal orientation. Simultaneously, this approach is useful
in: “capturing, contextualising and interpreting, within specific cultural constructs,
the basic attitudes and motivations of different social groups”.
In designing the whole questionnaire procedure as well as deciding on the questions
to be asked, it was essential to adopt a work methodology based on creativity,
observation and seeking out knowledge. By drawing on these three premises, a
questionnaire was elaborated; its aim was to obtain reliable and sufficient information
from which conclusions could be drawn.
Following the guidelines for questionnaire design by Iñaki de Miguel (1997),
our approach to language use combined the researcher’s perspective with that of
interviewee; it was essential that the language style had to be clear and direct. There
had to be simplicity in the way the questions were written, yet they had to target
specific points of interest. “The essence of scientific knowledge is all about revealing
what lurks under the appearance of reality, the deliberate and misleading veneer
of reality, under which we find a latent flow of true behaviour, of what is really
happening. Without a shred of doubt, it goes without saying, we are referring to
human behaviour which is not free from the prejudices and veneers aimed at hiding
its true nature. We can advance hence, through a terrain fraught with uncertain logic”.
The set of conflicting findings drawn from the quantitative and qualitative stages
have led to final conclusions that have synthesized the factors in decision-making
when sports sponsorship strategies are considered in Spain.
RESULTS
The field work results contributed to the overall study results. One must bear in mind
that information was obtained from each group selected, large companies on the one
hand and SMEs on the other; the same applied to each methodology used and hence
results were obtained for both the quantitative and qualitative stages respectively.
11
Large Companies
The choice of sponsor was equally divided; there were proactive companies that
scanned the market for an option while there were others that opted for a tailor-made
solution and evaluated proposals from different promotors.
Should no proposal meet their needs, the strategy of waiting for one to appear,
was slightly greater than the option of creating the company’s own sponsorship
platform: 54% compared to 46%. Once a sponsorship decision was made, in most
cases, companies continued to scan the market; a significant 21% preferred to focus
on the sponsorship proposal and went back to scanning the market as agreement
periods approached their termination.
In a sponsorship decision, the most influential assessment was made by the
department in charge (53%) and it was neither the owner’s, nor board of director’s,
nor the consulting firm’s preference. The primary motivation in a sponsorship
decision was the question of corporate identity and image, followed by turnover.
Tax incentives were not determinant when adopting a sponsorship but they were
nonetheless considered. Similarly, when it came to defining objectives in a sponsorship
process, two aspects were notable: “strengthening corporate image and brand position”
(31%), followed by “generating business opportunities” (19%).
Regarding the efficacy and security levels of the sponsored companies, sponsors
show a first preference for events (28% / 29%), competitions (21% / 24%) and clubs
(20% / 20%). Federations are perceived as the least efficient, while sports stars are
perceived as prone to carrying the highest risk. Large companies overwhelmingly
avoided preferring male-dominated sports.
Figure 3. The activity (or activities) that your company has sponsored in recent
years was/were decided on the basis of ?? (Large companies)
12
Figure 4. What is you company’s main motive in deciding to invest a sporting

sponsorship? (Large companies)
Figure 5. What are the main objectives in deciding upon your company’s current
sponsorship? (Large companies)
13
Figure 6. Which organisatiosn and activities do you think are better suited to lowering
risk in your company’s sponsorship? (Large companies)
Sponsorship is mainly integrated in the marketing strategy (57%) or to a lesser

extent, the general company plan (18%). In only 11% of cases was it linked to a
communication plan.
SMEs
SMEs normally select their sponsorship option after receiving proposals from
various promotors; there were no instances of them taking the initiative to create
or promote a sponsorship option.
In deciding on sponsorship, the assessment with the greatest influence was that
given by the owner or board of directors (58%). The main motive in making the
decision was its connection with the organisation’s identity and image, followed by
its passion for a given sport. Fiscal incentives are not determinant but are nonetheless
considered when deciding to participate in sponsorship; notwithstanding this, a
noteworthy 40% have never considered it.
In relation to spelling out objectives, three main points stood out: “strengthening
corporate image and brand position” (31%), “generate business opportunities” (19%)
and “enhance the visibility of the company” (19%).
14
Figure 7. How is your company’s sponsorship integrated in its communication,

marketing or CSR Policies? (Large companies)
Figure 8. The activity (or activities) that your company has sponsored in recent
years was/were decided on the basis of ??... (SMEs)
15
Figure 9. What is you company’s main motive in deciding to invest a sporting

sponsorship? (SMEs)
Figure 10. Which organisatiosn and activities do you think are better suited to
lowering risk in your company’s sponsorship? (SMEs)
16
In relation to the efficacy and security levels of the sponsored entities, SMEs
have a first preference for clubs (33% / 27%), followed by events (25% / 20%) and
in third place, competitions (13% / 13%). Federations are perceived as less efficient,
while the option of sports stars are perceived as prone to higher risks.
SMEs companies overwhelmingly avoided a preference for male-dominated
sports; however, 30% of SMEs stated they do so as these are the options that are
more often made available. Sponsorship is integrated in the general company plan
(40%) or in its marketing strategy (40%).
On the other hand, the panel of experts analysed data from the in-depth interviews
and made the following reflections. Deciding about sponsorship is a relevant issue.
Castrejana affirms that it is “quite interesting and necessary to pin-point where
the decision is made, who decides about the sponsorship”. In this regard, Cebrián
celebrates that “the decision regarding a sponsorship is made by the department in
charge. Conversely, should this matter be decided upon the owner’s preferences, it
would really make no sense. If owners are intelligent, specialists need to be contracted
to help them define and work on priorities”.
In relation to taking the initiative to create sporting events should no sponsorships
adjust to a company’s needs, Beltrán concludes: “In modest sport settings it is very
unlikely that a company will take the initiative to contact a club; it’s the club itself
that must constantly be on the lookout for sponsorship options. Therefore, visibility
is so important”. Along similar lines, Mancebo points out: “The result for active
sponsorship search seems to be a rather high percentage. In my view, there are far
Figure 11. How is your company’s sponsorship integrated in its communication,

marketing or CSR Policies? (Large companies)
17
more companies that simply wait for a sponsorship proposal from a sport entity to
emerge instead of designing their own sponsorship platform. In my experience, in
Spain there would be no more than five sponsorship initiatives expressly undertaken
by companies”.
Another question that caught the experts’ attention was the influence of tax
breaks when it came to making sponsorship decisions. Villarejo stresses that “it’s
extraordinary that many companies are unaware of or show no interest in tax
incentives”. Mancebo reacts to this affirmation confirming that “in large companies
they do indeed know about tax breaks and in fact such decisions are often made in
their financial departments, as normally happens for events that have nationwide
interest.” Beltrán highlights however that in SMEs there is a general lack of awareness
of tax incentive programmes.
The unbending preferences of certain sports properties has also generated debate
and criticism. Mancebo points out “the rather high percentage showing a marked
preference for sponsoring clubs, because when you commit to a club or a sports
star, you are linked to their performance and sporting achievements; the possibility
that the team may go down to second division, even lose, etc. There’s always a risk,
but the exception is when you are with the larger clubs”. Cebrián highlights that “to
me, the evaluation given for federations is highly significant. Specific cases in these
kinds of organisations may have affected the rest and this perception may have its
origin in mistaken past practices”.
Regarding the question about preference for male-dominated sports, Beltrán
concurs with the rest of the panel experts: the result is challenged in the sense that
“the response given as not preferring male-dominated sports is all about political
correction. It does not reflect what actually happens”.
CONCLUSION
In the light of the analysis underpinned by a theoretical framework, and in view

of the results set forth herein, several conclusions can be drawn in relation to the
objectives established in the study.
Motivations of Sponsorship
The first objective revolved around gauging companies’ motivations when making
a sponsorship choice as a communication tool. We discovered that the choice of
sponsorship usually come as a response to a sporting entity’s proposal and not as
much as a brand’s own initiative. The decision is backed by the department in charge
of this area. In the process, consultant specialists intervene, though in some cases,
18
their activities have been challenged on the grounds of intrusiveness and unfair
competition in the industry.
The main reason this technique is promoted, is the need to establish a differentiated
identity, as well as clear brand positioning, even though the desire to generate business
cannot be overlooked. Visibility or exposure remain on a secondary plane. For large
companies, events and competitions are the most feasible modes of sponsorship.
Federations are the least efficient sporting properties, a perception that may be
greatly put down to recent cases of questionable management.
Sponsorship Goals
Regarding the decision to invest in a sponsorship, the evaluation with biggest

influence came from the department in charge of this matter (53%) and not the
owners’ preference or that of the Board of Directors and neither the assessment
of a consulting firm. The foremost reason in deciding about sponsorship was the
role played by corporate identity and the image projected by the organisation,
while sales was the secondary one. On the other hand, taxation incentives are not
determinant factors when considering a sponsorship but the pros and cons in this
area are nonetheless weighed up. Similarly, when it comes to identifying objectives
in developing a sponsorship, two aspects are highlighted: “strengthening corporate
image and brand position (31%) and “generating business opportunities” (19%).
In relation to the efficacy and security of the sponsored entities, the sponsors’
preferences were in the first place: events (28% / 29%), followed by competitions
(21% / 24%) and club sponsorships (20% / 20%).
In relation to defining what are the objectives put in place by companies in
embarking upon a sponsorship, the research shows that even though there may
be a whole host of reasons for large companies, most of them based on strategic
considerations. Such companies’ investment in sponsorship is geared at attaining
specific business objectives and to achieve them, specific departments are created;
it also entails an activation plan that has been previously designed, even though
companies with questionable criteria persist.
Corporate Strategy and Sponsorship
The last objective examined in this study was to describe the connection between
sponsorship and the evaluation by a company. The sponsorship in big companies
is mainly integrated in the marketing strategy (57%) or to a lesser extent in the
general plan of the company (18%). Only 11% they link to the communication plan.
In SMEs, sponsorship is integrated into the plan of the company (40%) or in the
Marketing strategy (40%).
19
Finally, it can be stated in a synthetic way that currently the large Spanish
companies have an advanced methodology when it comes to making decisions in this
area. Sponsor from a strategic point of view, linking your investment to objectives,
creating specific departments and previously designing an activation plan, although
companies still survive whose criteria - as some participating experts affirm - are
questionable. On the other hand, it is evident that there is a gap in the management
of sponsorship between large companies and SMEs. The latter undertake projects
in this area in a more tactical or personalistic way. They do not have specialized
departments and do not usually use agencies.
One of the future challenges will be to continue with these studies on sponsorship
to progressively build trust among SMEs, so that they assume that this formula
of communication between brands and consumers is able to achieve objectives
strategically. The Spanish sport that is out of the big spots and competitions will
thank you. They need the involvement and investment of private companies to
survive in the market and compete in the field
REFERENCES
Barreda, R. (2009). Eficacia de la transmisión de imagen en el patrocinio deportivo,

una aplicación expeerimiental. Academic Press.
Beltrán Gallego, S. (2016). Los casos de los clubes de fútbol de Primera División de
la Liga de Fútbol Profesional de España y de la Premier League. Academic Press.
Bruhn, M., & Holzer, M. (2015). The role of the fit construct and sponsorship
portfolio size for event sponsorship success. A field study. European Journal of
Marketing, 49(5/6), 874–893. doi:10.1108/EJM-09-2012-0517
Cousens, E., Babiak, K., & Bradish, C. E. (2006). Beyond sponsorship: Re-framing
corporate-sport relationships. Sport Management Review, 9(1), 1–23. doi:10.1016/
S1441-3523(06)70017-1
Daellembach, K., Davies, J., & Ashill, J. (2006). Understanding sponsorship and
sponsorship relationships-multiple frames and multiple perspectives. International
Journal of Nonprofit and Voluntary Sector Marketing, 73.
De Miguel, I. (1997). Cómo se diseñan los cuestionarios. In Manual del perfecto
sociólogo. Academic Press.
20
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Le lendemain il causait avec tout le monde et tout faisait
espérer les meilleurs résultats d’une prompte guérison, il
passe une bonne nuit et le matin du 14 à 6 heures est frappé
d’une embolie cérébrale (au moment où personne ne s’y
attendait nullement) et n’a repris connaissance.
Je suis resté jusqu’à ses dernier moments auprès de lui, et
je n’ai pas eu la chance de le voir reprendre ses sens une
seconde.
Ce que je puis dire c’est que rien n’a été négligé et qu’il a
été très bien soigné. Il paraissait très heureux.
Il en était à son avion cinq boches abattus officiellement et
en avait quatre autres en réalité mais non confirmés—plus un
ballon captif d’observation qu’il avait attaqué et enflammé: et
les nombreux bombardements du début sur voisin où il était
toujours le premier prêt à partir et des fois le seul qui allait
droit au but.
Malgré tous les dangers parsemés sur sa route et après
avoir pris tant de soins et d’attention il nous est enlevé (il ne
comptait que des amis sincères et dévoués) et juste au
moment où il était arrivé au but: Médaille Militaire, Légion
d’Honneur et Croix de Guerre qu’il avait si noblement
gagnées.
C’est une grande perte pour l’armée Française et aussi
pour nous, car il nous rapportait avec son amitié l’honneur du
devoir et la bravoure du bon soldat.
Il a été ramené à Luxeuil, où un service funèbre a été
célébré au milieu de ses amis; il a été accompagné par ses
nombreux camarades avec toutes les honneurs.
Après avoir appris la maladie grave de Monsieur nous
sommes restés quelques jours sans nouvelles causé par le
déplacement de l’escadrille, et nous avons été très heureux,
Monsieur Frédéric et moi, quand il a reçu une cable lui
annonçant que Monsieur Prince allait mieux et que tout
danger était écarté.
Á present Monsieur Frédéric est avec nous, et vous pouvez
compter sur moi pour que je fasse tout ce qu’il me sera
possible pour lui, et espérant que l’on aura le bonheur de voir
la signature de la paix en bonne santé, je termine.
Monsieur et Madame, si vous désiriez d’autres
renseignements, je me ferais un devoir de vous les donner, et
c’est avec plaisir que je vous donnerai tous les
renseignements possibles.
Recevez, Monsieur et Madame, mes respectueuses
salutations.
Votre dévoué serviteur,
Michel Plaa Porte,
Mécanicien Escadrille, N. 124, Secteur 16.
Cover of a French Periodical
IV
FROM HIS FATHER
Memories of my younger son Norman are so tender and fragrant

that his bereaved father may well feel some hesitation in recording
them for publication lest they may seem to those who never enjoyed
intimate relations with him to have been inspired by absorbing
parental pride and affection rather than by less partial and
disinterested judgment. If there may be any warrant for this
impression it will be readily allowed that the sacrifice of this young
life in a great cause and the commingled pride and sorrow
occasioned by such a martyrdom furnish adequate occasion for the
warmest eulogy. To know Norman well was to love him and admire
his fine traits of mind, heart, and soul.
I hardly know when our real companionship began. When he was
yet a little boy, just emerging from the nursery, Norman was wise and
resourceful beyond his young years. He was always reading and he
was persistently inquiring about things worth knowing. His youthful
self-reliance is amusingly illustrated by an incident when he was but
about eleven years of age. He asked for a private tutor to teach him
Latin, and he felt so sure of the kind of an instructor he wanted that
he took upon himself the somewhat responsible task of obtaining
one without advice or assistance. Having found one willing to accept
the position Norman at once proceeded to put him through a
preliminary examination to test his professional capacity.
Norman Prince, Frederick Henry Prince, Jr., Frederick Henry Prince
Describing this incident the tutor writes: “Norman came to me for

work in Latin when I had no reasonable hours at my disposal for him.
At my recommendation he sought the services of another tutor, but
he soon came back to me in considerable perturbation. With his
quick, incisive, convincing sentences he described Mr. Smith’s
inefficiency in Latin, and declared his complete despair of ever
getting his tutor over six books of Virgil in two weeks. Not to be
caught again by the self-assurance of a tutor, he asked, ‘Can you
really read Virgil, Mr. Woodbury, and if so how fast can you read it?’
Determined to keep within the speed limit and not to disappoint him,
I said, restrainedly, that I thought I might read ten lines a minute. His
eyes glistened with expectancy, but with caution he inquired, ‘Really,
Sir? May I time you, Sir?’ With my consent he pulled out a stop-
watch, and finding I could slightly better my estimate, he won me
over by his irresistible arts of persuasion to give him the hours from
seven to eight in the morning and nine to ten in the evening. These
were unseasonable hours for so young a lad, but he never failed to
be ready for work at the beginning and at the close of the day until
his task was completed. Through his vivacity and his cleverness and
his unfailing good nature he became very popular with the dozen or
more fellows who were tutoring with me that summer. Between him
and me there developed a friendship which to me was a source of
great enjoyment and has now become a treasured memory.”
This incident serves to show that Norman’s precocity was
mitigated by a well-developed sense of humor as well as a playful
mischievousness. There was a merry twinkle in his eyes, denoting
that he was not always to be taken too seriously in his search for
knowledge.
A marked trait of Norman’s early youth was his dashing intrepidity.
He began hunting when he was but seven and he never showed a
sign of fear. I can see him now in my mind’s eye mounted on his
spirited chestnut thoroughbred riding as straight and true as any of
the older hunting men. An accident that happened to him and his
brother Frederick before they went to school at Groton illustrates the
fearlessness of both of them in their childhood. It was a morning
appointed for a meet and the rain was falling in torrents, making the
riding cross-country more than ordinarily dangerous, so that I
deemed it prudent to tell my sons that perhaps it might be better for
them not to join us that day. They dearly loved the sport, and I
remember how the tears came to the eyes of Norman when he
heard my gentle warning, though, as the event proved, he did not
take it any too seriously. On my return home that evening I found
Norman in the care of a surgeon with a broken thigh, while his
brother had a broken collar-bone, the result of fast riding on the
slippery turf. Regardless of the dangerous conditions against which
they had been warned they had taken not only to hunting but to
racing and by accident they had pulled into each other at the finish
where both were violently thrown. As they lay stunned on the ground
Frederick was the first to gain consciousness and he shortly heard
Norman murmuring jokingly, “Fred, I think I’m dead. How do you
feel?” Not even this playful disregard of parental counsel operated to
check a certain degree of admiration for such an exhibition of calm
nerve under painful circumstances. Norman’s interest in hunting and
racing witnessed no abatement when he took to aviation, or even
after he had experienced some of that stern joy that warriors feel. A
post-script to one of his letters from the front in France made the
naïve inquiry:
“How did my horse run at the Country Club meeting?”
Another marked feature of Norman’s personality was his gracious
and attractive bearing under any and all circumstances. To his quick
intelligence and dash he added a courtesy and graciousness of
manner that charmed all those with whom he came in contact,
whether at home or abroad, at work or at play, in the rough-and-
tumble of life or in the drawing room. His savoir faire which seemed
his by instinct, gave him a charm that was rare to meet.
Concours Hippique
About all the notable characteristics that marked Norman’s earlier

youth remained with him as he grew older, showing a constantly
progressive development. This was particularly the case as to his
alert mentality and his remarkable capacity for acquiring knowledge
easily and quickly. As a student he could hardly be called
exceptionally studious in the sense of being closely attached to his
text books, but what he lacked in studious habits he more than made
up for by the facility with which he grasped any subject that invited
his attention. This accomplishment of his was demonstrated in a
gratifying way when he was at Groton preparing for college. He was
given an opportunity to join his brother for a year of study abroad,
but he asked that he might take his entrance examinations for
college before going. The next examinations were only a week or
two ahead, and Norman still had another year at Groton before his
turn would come in regular course. Having obtained the requisite
permission of the Groton and Harvard authorities thus to anticipate
his work he underwent the examinations at once, though he was
then but 15 years old. He passed them all without a condition and
without any uneasy apprehension on his part, apparently.
Having achieved this triumph he went abroad, studying for a time
in Germany and at Oxford, subsequently entering Harvard in the
sophomore year. At college, as at school, he acquitted himself
creditably and was graduated with high honors. He subsequently
took the degree of Bachelor of Laws at the Harvard Law School in
due course.
It was at this time that he became an enthusiastic devotee of
aviation, and when an opening came for him to begin the active
practice of the law, he preferred to give his attention to the science
and practice of aerial navigation with the Wright brothers and with
Starling Burgess at Marblehead. Knowing something of the perils of
aviation, particularly during the early stages of its development in this
country, and apprehending that its fascinations for Norman might
prove more or less perilous, as well as tending to distract his
attention from the more serious concerns of life, I sought by every
means to dissuade him from giving so much of his attention to it, but
his ambition to distinguish himself as an aviator made it difficult for
him to pay due heed to my serious counsel, and I subsequently
found that he had been experimenting for some time with flying
machines in high altitudes under an assumed name in order to
escape detection and an undesired notoriety.
Recalling these venturesome incidents in Norman’s early career
as an amateur aviator, I sometimes think that perhaps fate had
reserved him for the cause to which he finally gave his life and that
the character of this service was that for which he had shown such a
passionate fondness and aptitude, despite all obstacles and
discouragements. Worldly success won by the ordinary plodding
methods meant little to him. He aspired to hitch his wagon to a star.
He cared nothing for the privileges of wealth, even though they might
be within his reach, and he envied no man his success in whatever
honorable lines he might elect for himself. His ambition was to
achieve something worth while and he gave all his energies to the
accomplishment of that purpose.
Considering these predominant traits of Norman’s character, as
well as his achievements, I conclude that he could hardly have
wished for a nobler fate than that which finally befell him on a
battlefield of France.
Speaking for Norman’s mother I would say in her behalf:
“Light sorrows speak—great grief is dumb.”
A mother’s grief for the loss of a dearly beloved son is too deep to
find adequate expression in words. Memories of Norman’s tenderly
affectionate nature, of his fine character, his charming personality
and his unfailing buoyancy and cheerfulness are so real, so vivid,
and so abiding that it is difficult to realize that he has gone. Although
he has indeed gallantly sacrificed his young life for a cause he dearly
loved, his mother cherishes the firm faith that the fine spirit thus
displayed by him remains undaunted and unquenched, and that it is
still the blessed privilege of those near and dear to him to continue to
enjoy this sweet belief.
A further measure of consolation has been found in the many and
tender messages of sympathy that have come from near and far,
testifying to the warm appreciation of Norman’s rare qualities as they
were revealed in his life, and to the general admiration of his heroic
self-sacrifice. These messages have helped to comfort and sustain
the bereaved family.
Frederick Henry Prince.
V
A COMRADE’S TRIBUTE
In a contribution to the World’s Work, James R. McConnell, a

sergeant-pilot of the original American Escadrille, gave the following
graphic description of the engagement in which his comrade Prince
lost his life. It is a pathetic circumstance that but a short time after he
had written this tribute, Sergeant McConnell himself met the same
fate as that which befell his American comrade, his dead body
having been found within the German lines where he had fallen in an
aerial combat with the enemy.
“On the 12th of October, twenty small aeroplanes flying in a

‘V’ formation, at such height that they resembled a flock of
geese, crossed the Rhine River, where it skirts the plains of
Alsace, and, turning north, headed for the famous Mauser
works at Oberndorf. Following in their wake was an equal
number of larger machines, and above these darted and
circled swift fighting ’planes. The first group of aircraft was
followed by British pilots, the second by French, and four of
the battle ’planes were from the American Escadrille. They
were piloted respectively by Lieut. de Laage, Lufberry,
Norman Prince and Masson. The Germans were taken by
surprise, and as a result few of their machines were in the air.
The bombardment fleet was attacked, however, and six of our
’planes were shot down, some of them falling in flames. As
the full capacity of a Nieuport machine allows but a little more
than two hours in the air the avions de chasse were forced to
return to their own lines to take on more gasoline. The
Nieuports having refilled their tanks, went up to clear the air of
any German machines that might be hovering in wait for the
returning raiders. Prince found one, and promptly shot it
down. Lufberry came upon three and he promptly disposed of
them.
“Darkness was rapidly coming on, but Prince and Lufberry
remained in the air to protect the bombarding fleet. Just at
nightfall, Lufberry made for a small aviation field near the
lines, known as Corcieux. Slow-moving machines, with great
planing capacity, can be landed in the dark, but to try to feel
for the ground in a Nieuport, which comes down at about a
hundred miles an hour, usually means disaster. Ten minutes
after Lufberry landed, Prince decided to make for the landing
field. He spiraled down through the night air and skimmed
rapidly over the trees bordering the Corcieux field. In the dark
he did not see a high-tension electric cable that was stretched
just above the tree tops. The landing gear of his airplane
struck it. The machine snapped forward and hit the ground on
its nose. It turned over and over. The belt holding Prince
broke, and he was thrown far from the wrecked ’plane. Both
of his legs were broken and he suffered other injuries. Despite
the terrific shock and intense pain, Prince did not lose
consciousness for a time. He even kept his presence of mind,
and gave orders to the men who had run to pick him up.
Hearing the hum of a motor, and realizing that a machine was
in the air, Prince told them to light fires on the field. ‘You don’t
want another fellow to come down and break himself up the
way I’ve done,’ he said.
“Lufberry went with Prince to the hospital in Gerardmer. As
the ambulance rolled along Prince sang to keep up his spirits.
He spoke of getting well soon and returning to service. It was
like Norman. He was always joyous and energetic about his
flying. Even when he passed through the harrowing
experience of having a wing shattered, the first thing he did
on landing was to busy himself about getting another fitted in
place. No one thought Prince was mortally injured in the
accident, but the next day he went into a coma; a blood clot
had formed on his brain. Captain Haaf, in command of the
aviation groups of Luxeuil, accompanied by our officers,
hastened to Gerardmer. Prince, lying unconscious on his bed,
was named a second lieutenant and was then and there
decorated with the Legion of Honor. He already held the
Médaille Militaire and the Croix de Guerre.
“Norman Prince died on the 15th of October. His body was
brought back to Luxeuil and he was given a funeral similar to
Rockwell’s. It was hard to realize that poor Norman had gone.
He was the founder of the American Escadrille, and every one
in it had come to rely on him for inspiration. He never let his
spirits drop, and he was always on hand with encouragement
for others. I do not think Prince minded going. He wanted to
do his part before being killed and he had more than done it.
He had, day after day, freed the line of Germans, making it
impossible for them to do their work, and five of them he had
shot to death.
“Two days after Prince’s death, the Escadrille received
orders to leave for the Somme. The night before the
departure, the British gave the American pilots a farewell
banquet and toasted them as their guardian angels. They
keenly appreciated the fact that four men from the American
Escadrille had brought down many Germans, and had cleared
the way for their squadron returning from Oberndorf. The
Escadrille passed through Paris on its way to the Somme
front. The few members who had machines flew from Luxeuil
to their new post. At Paris the pilots were reënforced by three
other Americans, among whom was Frederick H. Prince, Jr.,
who had completed his training and had come over to serve
in aviation with his brother Norman.”
Camp Norman Prince
VI
HIS BROTHER’S SERVICE
It was the proud privilege of both the Prince brothers to give their
active services to France on the battle fronts. Having passed their
boyhood and early youth together, performing the same tasks and
enjoying the same recreations, Frederick and Norman developed
similar ambitions and aptitudes, particularly in their more strenuous
activities. Moreover, they had obtained in part their early education in
France, and the call to the French colors at the outbreak of the war
appealed almost as strongly to them as to the patriotic Frenchmen.
Norman’s early experience as an aviator at home and abroad gave
him a temporary advantage over Frederick in that he already had the
preliminary training for service in the aviation corps in which both
desired to enlist. He was consequently first of the two to realize his
heart’s desire and to take the oath of allegiance to France and her
cause. It was with pardonable hesitation that permission was
subsequently given by his parents to their only other son to join
Norman in the perilous aviation service but it was freely given, with
an appeal for God’s blessing, and Frederick sailed for France with
Norman on the latter’s return from his Christmas furlough at home in
1915. He underwent the rigorous training at the Pau aviation school
and began his active service at the front in the late summer, flying at
first with the intrepid Captain Guynemer, at the latter’s invitation, and
subsequently joining the Lafayette Squadron on the western front.
He won the high esteem of his comrades for his courage and manly
bearing, performing his duty with joyous enthusiasm and taking
active part in twenty-two aerial engagements during the ensuing five
months. When Norman fell at Luxeuil, it was a trying moment to
Frederick, who had lost his only brother and the companion of his
lifetime, but he promptly offered his services to France in his
brother’s place and he fought with the Lafayette Escadrille until he
came home on a short furlough. He subsequently returned to France
to rejoin his Squadron with courage undaunted, and with unflagging
faith in the ultimate triumph of the cause he loved and for which he
was proud to be actively enlisted.
Frederick Henry Prince, Jr., with his Nieuport

VII
FROM THE FRENCH ENVOYS
On the occasion of the reception given by the Commonwealth of

Massachusetts and the City of Boston to the French Envoys who
came to this country in an official capacity, the patriotic devotion and
sacrifice of Norman Prince were gracefully alluded to by the Envoys
who included in their number M. René Viviani, Minister of Justice,
Marshal Joffre, Vice-Admiral Chocheprat and the Marquis de
Chambrun, Deputy, and descendant of Lafayette. At the lunch in
Faneuil Hall, given by the City of Boston, Vice-Admiral Chocheprat,
in his reply to the Mayor’s address of welcome, paid a touching
tribute to “Mr. Frederick H. Prince’s son Norman, the gallant young
aviator who sacrificed his life for France, and the cause of the Allies.”
Thereupon Marshal Joffre arose from his seat at the table and
placing his hand over his heart made a bow to the young hero’s
father, who sat by the Marshal’s side and who was acting as
chairman of the reception committee.
Subsequently at the reception given to the Envoys at the Boston
Public Library, M. Viviani, in concluding his graceful response to
Governor McCall’s address of welcome, said:
“I salute that young hero, Norman Prince, who has died after
having fought not only for France, but for America, because we have
the same ideals of right and liberty.”
M. Henri Franklin Bouillon, French Minister of International Affairs,
who made an official visit to this country later on, took occasion to
express his admiration of this fine American aviator. Speaking
subsequently at a public gathering in London of his observations in
America he said: “I cannot better express to you the sentiment of the
American people than by quoting that young American hero Norman
Prince, who, in acknowledging a salute to the American aviators in
Paris, said, ‘We have done what we have done; you must judge us
by our hearts.’”
VIII
MESSAGES OF CONDOLENCE AND
APPRECIATION
As Norman Prince was among the first of the American volunteers

offering their services to France and to make the supreme sacrifice
for her cause, it was but natural that his fate occasioned widespread
and deeply sympathetic comment. The mournful tidings served in no
small measure to bring home to the American people a more
adequate realization of the fact that it was a World War that was
waging on the European battle-fields and that the sooner this
situation was recognized here the better for the cause of civilization
everywhere. The messages of sympathy and appreciation were as
numerous and universal as they were fervent and sincere. They
found expression in the press, in the pulpit and in the forum, and the
name of this hero came to be accepted as a fitting symbol of
patriotism and self-sacrifice. Few of these messages were more
tender and appreciative than those which came from Norman’s
comrades in the aviation service in France. Commanders and
subordinates were alike in this respect. A message from the
comrades gathered at his bedside when he died said:
“Norman passed peacefully away this morning. He died like

the brave man he was. He was more than a brother to us. We
are all heartbroken.”
The French Government took formal and appreciative notice of the

event, the representative of the French Army in this country sending
this message to the family:
“The French Government transmits to you expressions of
its deep and sorrowful sympathy on the occasion of your
son’s glorious death. In my name as Military Attaché
representing the French Army in the United States, I desire to
say that his death has been for all his French comrades a
cause of profound grief. It is with the greatest admiration that
we have seen all these gallant young Americans risking and
giving their lives for the cause of France. Their memory
deserves to be kept in the hearts of our compatriots as is that
of Lafayette in this country.
“We bow gratefully and respectfully before his grave.”
Representing the British Admiralty, Rear-Admiral Alfred E. A.

Grant sent this message from London: “It was splendid of him to
come over to fight for the Allies. You could have felt nothing but pride
to have heard how his commanding officers speak of him—of his
popularity with all his comrades; how gallantly and faithfully he
performed his duties and how deeply his loss is regretted by all who
knew him.”

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