Immunopathogenesis of Atopic Dermatitis Focus On I
Immunopathogenesis of Atopic Dermatitis Focus On I
Immunopathogenesis of Atopic Dermatitis Focus On I
Abstract: Atopic dermatitis is a chronic, recurrent inflammatory skin disorder manifesting by ec-
zematous lesions and intense pruritus. Atopic dermatitis develops primarily as a result of an epi-
dermal barrier defect and immunological imbalance. Advances in understanding these pathoge-
netic hallmarks, and particularly the complex role of interleukins as atopic dermatitis drivers, re-
sulted in achieving significant therapeutic breakthroughs. Novel medications involve monoclonal
antibodies specifically blocking the function of selected interleukins and small molecules such as
Janus kinase inhibitors limiting downstream signaling to reduce the expression of a wider array of
proinflammatory factors. Nevertheless, a subset of patients remains refractory to those treatments,
highlighting the complexity of atopic dermatitis immunopathogenesis in different populations. In
this review, we address the immunological heterogeneity of atopic dermatitis endotypes and phe-
notypes and present novel interleukin-oriented therapies for this disease.
3. Interleukins in AD
Abnormal expression of interleukins plays a crucial role in the pathogenesis of AD
[5]. Imbalance in the pro- and anti-inflammatory signals stimulates the vicious cycle of
AD by triggering cutaneous inflammation, itch, and secondary impairment of the epider-
mal barrier [2,9]. Interleukins are produced by immunocompetent cells, such as T helper
(Th) cells, Langerhans cells, and keratinocytes.
in other dermatological conditions, including psoriasis [13,23], systemic sclerosis [24], and
squamous cell carcinoma [25].
Furthermore, Toll-like receptors (TLR) signaling is an important response of the in-
nate immunity, regulating Th1/Th17 and Th2 function in AD [26]. TLRs are activated by
danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), microbe-associated molecular patterns
(MAMPs), pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs), and xenobiotic-associated
molecular patterns (XAMPs) [27,28]. TLRs together with ILs are participating in the ho-
meostasis of infections, autoimmune disorders, and cancers [28]. Moreover, TLRs and IL-
1 receptors share the TIR domains and build a superfamily of versatile alarm mediators
[27,28]. Th1/Th17 cells are mediated by activation of TLR2/TLR3/MAV in keratinocytes,
TLR7/TLR8/TLR9 in dendritic cells, and TLR2/TLR4 in monocytes, which trigger pro-in-
flammatory cytokine production and T cell differentiation [26]. In contrast, Th2 response
is initiated by impaired TLR2 function and leads to loss of skin barrier integrity [26], The
disrupted innate immunity with Th2 dominance is important in the acute phase of AD.
Fibroblasts may secrete IL-1, IL-8, IL-11, and IL-38 [29,32,34]. Secreted IL-1 is strongly
pro-inflammatory and leads to lymphocyte activation and macrophage stimulation [32].
IL-8 targets neutrophils, basophils, macrophages, mast cells, and keratinocytes, causing
superoxide and granule release, neutrophil chemotaxis, and angiogenesis [29]. On the
other hand, IL-11 was shown to inhibit pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, while the
anti-inflammatory IL-38 enhances keratinocyte differentiation [29,34].
5. Endotype-Phenotype Correlation
Up-to-date classification of AD encompasses the distinction of patients’ subgroups
based on the phenotype and/or the endotype [6]. The former is a classical approach, in
which the course and prognosis can be categorized based on the clinical features some-
times referred to as stigmata. The most common examples include total IgE serum con-
centration, xerosis, white dermographism, palmar hyperlinearity, and Dennie-Morgan
folds [6]. This classification may be additionally based on clusters of common serum bi-
omarkers, allergy type (immediate or delayed hypersensitivity reactions [51]), and skin
barrier status [6].
Endotype classification is based on the underlying molecular mechanisms. The dis-
tinction of endotypes is a more contemporary approach and is essential for personalizing
the treatment [6,52]. Optimally, AD phenotypes should be substantiated by identifying
the underlying molecular endotype. For example, ichthyosis constituting minor Hanifin-
Rajka criteria [53] for AD is now known to result from filaggrin loss-of-function mutations
[6]. Figure 1 summarizes the current paradigm on the activation of major Th subpopula-
tions in different phases and endotypes of AD.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 781 5 of 22
Figure 1. Current paradigm on the activation of major Th subpopulations in different phases and
endotypes of AD. The immunological imbalance is interdependent with epidermal barrier defect,
which produces the vicious cycle of AD. Legend: AD—atopic dermatitis, ↔—no effect, ↑—upregu-
lation, ↑↑—significant upregulation, ↓—downregulation.
5.2. Ethnicity
Ethnicity and race are overlapping terms, with race based on inherited physical char-
acteristics and ethnicity based on belonging to a group of ancestral origin [58]. The effect
of ethnicity on the clinical picture of AD must be interpreted in the context of the quality
and access to healthcare, socioeconomic status, and exposition to environmental factors
(allergens, air pollution, chemical exposure) [59]. Notwithstanding, racial influence was
found to be a strong factor determining the clinical picture of AD with significant differ-
ences among European American, Asian, and African American patients [7,59].
Compared to the European American population, Asian patients with AD tend to
show increased Th17/Th22 responses, while the Th2 axis is similarly activated. This trans-
lates to high expression of IL-4, IL-5, IL-17, IL-19, and IL-22 [6,58,60]. Filaggrin mutations
are less prevalent among Asian individuals in comparison to American Europeans [58].
Different cytokine profiles are thought to result in the distinct phenotype of Asian AD.
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 781 6 of 22
This is reflected by the frequently observed psoriasiform reaction pattern involving epi-
dermal hyperplasia and marked parakeratosis in histology. Clinically, adult patients of
Japanese origin and those with a dark complexion more often develop prurigo-like lesions
and follicular papules [61,62].
African American patients with AD present Th1/Th17 attenuation and Th2/Th22
skewing, which results in lower expression of IFN-γ and IL-17 than in patients of Ameri-
can European descent. This could possibly intensify the Th2-driven immunological im-
balance resulting in a tendency for a more severe course of AD and IgE production [58,63].
Nevertheless, the prevalence of filaggrin loss-of-function seems to be lower in African
Americans [6,58]. At the same time, Staphylococcus aureus colonization was found more
frequently among African American children with AD [59]. The latter could be a risk fac-
tor for barrier dysfunction and allergen sensitization. Data in the literature further suggest
that concomitant allergic contact dermatitis is less prevalent in dark skin phototypes, pos-
sibly due to less prominent Th1 reactions and lower cutaneous permeability [62,64].
Based on studies conducted in the United States [65] and the United Kingdom [66],
the prevalence and severity of AD seem higher in African American children in compari-
son to European American children [67]. Masked erythema in patients with skin of color
may contribute to a late diagnosis of AD [59,68]. This is also associated with the underes-
timation of AD severity in African American children when common scoring systems are
used [59]. Finally, different evolution of skin lesions in dark phototypes should be consid-
ered, particularly the resolution of AD with post-inflammatory hypopigmentation [59,69].
5.3. Age
Children show age-dependent evolution of the underlying AD endotype. Initially,
Th2 response predominates due to a lack of Th1 counterregulation, which translates to
acute, exudative lesions [70]. Gradually, the Th22 axis becomes activated, reflecting a pro-
gressive tendency for lichenification [52]. Some studies of children with AD also identified
a merged Th2/Th17-merged profile, associated with an increased IL-19 expression and
possible psoriasiform inflammatory pattern [7]. Importantly, skewed immune responses
with insufficient activation of Th1 axis in young children with AD make them particularly
susceptible to infectious complications such as impetigo, eczema herpeticum, and mol-
luscum contagiosum [61].
The evolving immunology of AD seems to underlie the changes in the morphology
and distribution of skin lesions [2]. In infants, the lesions favor the face and extensor as-
pects of the extremities. Children over two years develop subacute lesions in the flexural
folds. Finally, adolescents over 12 years and adults tend to present lichenified eczema of
the flexures, face, hands, feet, and the back of the neck. Aside from the shift in immuno-
logical responses, this may also result from changes in the activity of sebaceous glands
and the microbiome composition [52].
5.4. Gender
Sex hormones were shown to modulate immune responses. In general, male hor-
mones such as testosterone tend to exert anti-inflammatory effects, whereas female hor-
mones such as estrogen and progesterone are pro-inflammatory [71]. More specifically,
testosterone seems to attenuate Th2 response, while estrogen and progesterone show pro-
pensity to downregulate Th1 response and exacerbate Th2-mediated inflammation. Ad-
ditionally, estrogens probably affect the function of dendritic cells and type 2 innate lym-
phoid cells and enhance their function in allergic diseases [72,73]. This could potentially
result in a higher prevalence and severity of AD in females, which is often transiently
reflected during menstruation or pregnancy [74]. Nevertheless, epidemiological studies
regarding the prevalence and severity of AD in men and women are conflicting. Data in
the literature suggest that AD until the age of 65 years is more prevalent in females,
whereas in the population over 65 years in males [71]. The immunological background of
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 781 7 of 22
this observation is not fully elucidated. Importantly, overlap with other modulating fac-
tors and possible concomitant endotypes (e.g., ethnicity) should be considered.
7. Diagnostics
The heterogeneity of AD endotypes and phenotypes translates to challenges in es-
tablishing distinct disease biomarkers. Furthermore, AD shares histological features with
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 781 8 of 22
Figure 2. Mechanism of action of novel medications for AD. Monoclonal antibodies have large mo-
lecular weight and complex structure, which entails their extracellular function. They are
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 781 9 of 22
characterized by highly specific inhibition of single interleukins or interleukin receptors. Small mol-
ecules act as intracellular kinase inhibitors, which limits downstream transduction of pro-inflam-
matory signals and subsequent transcription of a wide range of interleukins aggravating AD.
Traloki-
Th2 cells, T cells, NKT cells,
Promotion of B cell isotype switching; regulation of the numab
IL-13 mast cells, basophils, eosino-
antiparasitic response Lebriki-
phils
zumab
Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2023, 24, 781 10 of 22
Dupilumab
Keratinocytes, macrophages,
dendritic cells, fibroblasts,
adipocytes, smooth muscle Activation of mast cells and basophils → overproduc-
IL-33 Etokimab
cells, endothelial cells, bron- tion of proinflammatory cytokines
chial epithelium, osteoblasts,
intestines
group vs. 5.7% in all lebrikizumab groups), herpesvirus infections (3.8% vs. 3.5%), and
conjunctivitis (0% vs. 2.6%) were not commonly reported.
In 2022, Zhang et al. [136] published a systematic review and meta-analysis of seven
randomized controlled trials evaluating the use of two IL-13 inhibitors, tralokinumab and
lebrikizumab, in adult patients with moderate-to-severe AD. Compared to the placebo,
both lebrikizumab and tralokinumab had greater improvement in EASI score (mean dif-
ference −20.37, 95%CI −32.28, −8.47). Both inhibitors had acceptable safety profiles, but
their use was associated with a higher risk of conjunctivitis than placebo.
Importantly, both tralokinumab and lebrikizumab target the Th2 axis. Therefore, as
in the case of dupilumab, some patients might not adequately respond to therapy. Due to
the limited time of observation, the phenomenon of insufficient response should be pro-
gressively evaluated across different populations.
Of note, the efficacy of fezakinumab was higher in patients with higher AD severity.
This could reflect that progressive activation of the Th22 response correlates with the
course of the disease. Most described AD endotypes share the common pathway of Th22
activation. However, considering the particularly important role of Th22 in Asian and Af-
rican American AD, fezakinumab could be particularly efficient in those endotypes.
response was significantly higher in the abrocitinib 100 mg group (40% vs. 12%; p < 0.0001)
and abrocitinib 200 mg group (63% vs. 12%; p < 0.0001) compared to placebo. Serious AEs
were reported in 3% of patients in the abrocitinib 100 mg group, 3% of patients in the
abrocitinib 200 mg group, and 4% of patients in the placebo group. In adolescents and
adults with moderate-to-severe AD, monotherapy with oral abrocitinib once daily was
effective and well tolerated.
In another phase III, double-blind trial by Bieber et al. [151], patients were randomly
assigned to the following groups: abrocitinib 200 mg, abrocitinib 100 mg, dupilumab
group, and placebo group. At week 12, an IGA response was observed in 48.4% of patients
in the 200 mg abrocitinib group, 36.6% in the 100 mg abrocitinib group, 36.5% in the dupi-
lumab group, and 14.0% in the placebo group (p < 0.001 for both abrocitinib groups vs.
placebo). Moreover, EASI-75 response was observed in 70.3%, 58.7%, 58.1%, and 27.1%,
respectively (p < 0.001 for both abrocitinib groups vs. placebo). Regarding pruritus, a 200
mg dose of abrocitinib was superior to dupilumab. The most common AEs included nau-
sea and acne.
9. Conclusions
The pathogenesis of AD is strictly associated with the imbalance in the interleukin
network. This entails other molecular processes resulting in the development of AD le-
sions. Recent advances highlighted the heterogeneity of AD immunopathogenesis in dif-
ferent populations, which correlates with the heterogeneous clinical features of this dis-
ease. Tailoring the treatment to the endotypes of AD is a promising strategy that could
limit the rates of nonresponders and reduce the worldwide burden of this disease. This
can be achieved by optimizing the treatment using novel pharmaceuticals such as biolog-
ics and small molecules.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.B.; writing and original draft preparation, J.N., K.M.
and L.B.; review and editing, L.B., A.W.-B., J.C., M.O. and L.R. All authors made substantial contri-
butions to drafting the paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the
manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: No new data were created or analyzed in this study. Data sharing is
not applicable to this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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