SECTION B- HUMAN

GEOGRAPHY
Perspectives in Human Geography

MAY 21, 2021

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 1. Areal differentiation

Areal Differentiation (AD)

As the environment, topography, culture, language, human activities, and human

requirements, etc are not uniform everywhere on the earth, hence, it is not prudent or
suitable to make the standard model/theory to study/develop for all geographical
areas. In simple words, the development/study model of the plain area can not be
suitable for the development/study model of the hilly area.
The Main Idea to develop this concept was to give the importance of regional
geography, and it is against the standardization of Model/theory.
Areal differentiation is one of the perspectives of human geography in which
importance is given to the uniqueness of the geographical area rather than the standard
model creation. The first technical word " Areal Differentiation" was mentioned
by Hartshorne in his book " Nature of geography".
As per Hartshorne, each geographical area has its own uniqueness that differentiates
from other geographical areas, the study of the uniqueness and variation of a
geographical area (or region) comes under areal differentiation.
Three principles are used in areal differentiation.

1. Division of the geographical area into a region based on the uniqueness and
homogeneity over the space
2. Finding the generic principle of geographical characteristics
3. Study of the region by using different parameter comparison with near
proximate

The following are the main characteristics of AD

• Areal Differencentiation (AD) supports the study of a regional approach in

geography.
 • Each region has its own developmental model and that will be based on the
requirement and availability of resources in that region.
• In Areal differentiation, emphasized the study of the geographical phenomenon
of the region.

Criticism of Areal Differentiation:

• Areal Differentiation emphasized the study of the region, but the boundaries of
the region are not static. The demarcation of boundaries is one problem.
• In the age of globalization, boundaries have less meaning, no real region
exists.
• Boundaries of language, beliefs, culture are changing over time.
• It is difficult to do women's empowerment, as each region has a different belief
in the woman.
• Schaefer criticized both AD and exceptionalism in geography. He argued that
AD has made geography a complex subject. He supported the system approach
of geography. Common Model should be developed so that it can be applied
everywhere.

Despite criticism study of areal differentiation is very important in geography. The

reasons for the study are the following:

• Areal differentiation is against the generalization of the model, hence it gives

more importance to the regional approach.
• It is useful for solving and making regional level model, such as:
o Hill area development
o Tribal area development
o Coastal area development
o Backward area development
• In India, nowadays we are planning to develop 100 smart cities, the same
model cant be applied in all smart cities because each city has there own
importance. Examples:
o Varanasi smart city: it is a religious city, so importance should be given
to:
 ▪ Ganga Ghat development
▪ Classical Music development
▪ Varanasi Sari industries
▪ Temple, Streat cleanliness
▪ Communication, connectivity Security of foreign tourist, etc
o Kanpur smart city: In is an industrial center city, importance should be
given to:
▪ Textile & leather industries
▪ Hight transport facilities needed to easy movement of goods
▪ Need water conservation for textile & leather industry
▪ Water treatment plants needed to avoid water pollution from the
textile and leather industry.
• Areal differentiation can help to reduce the social disparity by regional
planning

2. Regional synthesis

Regional Synthesis(क्षेत्रीय संश्लेषण)

As in Areal differentiation, importance is given to the study of the region. In
Region Synthesis, importance is given to "process to study region", it explains
how the region should be studied. The following diagram shows the summary
of regional synthesis:
 Regional Synthesis

In one line:
Regional Synthesis =study(spatial, temporal, human)

An American Geographer, J.L Berry, explains the regional synthesis through

the geographical matrix.
In Geographical Matrix, there are three dimensions:

• Ist: Rows represent attributes

• 2nd: Columns represent locations
• 3rd: Time

In this matrix, each cell has a geographical fact.

The following diagram shows the basic features of the Berry geographical
matrix of the Delhi Region (in this matrix we considered matura location as
part of the Delhi region).
 Berry's Regional Synthesis

As per Berry geographical matrix, there are ten approaches to do regional

analysis and same are listed below:

1. Cells within rows show the spatial distributions of geographical

features. In the above geographical matrix, the first geographical feature
is temperature.
2. Cells within the column show the localized geographical features. In the
above geographical matrix, New Delhi localized regional analysis
variables are temperature, rainfall, and humidity.
3. Spatial variation can be studied by comparing two rows
4. Areal differentiation can be studied by comparing two column
5. Study of sub-matrix
 6. Study of spatial variation by comparing the same row through time
which is temporal-spatial covariation. Example caparison of the
present-day temperature of New Delhi with 100 years ago temperature.
7. We can get sequence occupancy of a particular location by comparing
the same column through time.
8. Comparing a row with another row across the time dimension
9. Comparing a column with other columns across the time dimension.
10. The comparison and study of sub-matrix across the time dimension

Importance of Regional Synthesis is the current time:

• Global temperature rise is not a sudden phenomenon and it is not

uniform worldwide. By using regional synthesis analysis one can
easily get a trend of temperature rise region-wise.
• It helps to study of sequence occupance of region
• Regional Synthesis help to analyze the regional disparity within and
with another region by comparing the economic variable across the
temporal analysis.

3. Dichotomy and Dualism in Geography

Dichotomy(विरोधाभास) and Dualism(द्वै तिाद ) in Geography

The literal meaning of dualism is two opposite views/aspects of the same subject.
Dichotomy happened when two views emerged on the same subject.
There are five dichotomies and dualisms in geography:

1. Contemporary vs Historical geography

2. Physical vs Human geography
3. Deterministic approach vs possibilistic approach
4. Regional vs System approach
5. Functional vs formal approach

Contemporary vs Historical geography:

Some geographers emphasized the importance of historical geography, as it deals with past
geographical features. Because of the following reason, the study of the historical aspect of
geography is needed:
 • We get information about the physical and cultural landscape evolution
• Evolution of settlement pattern through time, from unplanned settlements to planned
city planning
• Past hazardous data. example submergence and the emergence of the island, tsunami,
and earthquake destruction, etc.
• Geographical changes through time, for example, peneplain, plateau, the evolution of
mountain, etc

Some geographers emphasized the importance of the study of contemporary geography, as the
need of people has evolved, as geographers do not want to waste the energy and time to study
historical data.
Because of the following reasons, the study of contemporary geography is important:

• Due to climate change, there is a need for a sustainable way of planning.

• Solid waste management, plastic, pollutions are contemporary issues
• Due to technological advancement, now humans can create an artificial environment,
artificial minerals, many more.

Physical vs Human geography

The physical geography school of thought emphasized the study of geography as a separate
entity where the influence of man is neglected.

• Under Physical geography, we study the physical features of the earth.

• Study of landform, climate, vegetation, mountain building, etc, comes under physical
geography.

Environment role

The human geography school of thought emphasized the role of humans, culture, language,
society, etc, in geography. Under this:
 • Give more importance to man and environment relations. In physical geography,
humanly considered passive elements, but in human geography, man is active, passive,
or both. The same applied to the environment also, nature can be active, passive, or both.
• Under this, we study cultural geography, language, demographics, economic growth and
development, model theory related to industry and economic development, social study.

Human role in Human geography

Deterministic approach vs possibilistic approach

For the deterministic approach of geography, please refer to the following page:

• Environmental Determinism
• Determinism in Human Geography

For the Possibilistic approach, please refer to the following page:

• Possibilism in Geography

Regional vs System approach

In regional geography of thought emphasized the study of geography as region-wise.
For more please refer to the following page:
 • Areal Differentiation
• Regional Synthesis

System geography, we study the earth as a whole rather than a region.

• SYSTEM ANALYSIS IN GEOGRAPHY

Functional vs formal approach

Previous years question asked in UPSC mains geography optional paper.

• Discuss the contemporary paradigms of Geography. (2017, 20

marks)

4. Determinism
Determinism (वियवतिाद) in human geography

Determinism in human geography, I will say, is the first perspective in human geography. In
India, we say that our destiny is written by God, we cannot change it.
In the same line, Center idea of determinism are:

• Activities of human are the result or product of the physical world

environment. Examples are:
o The potato crop is grown in the cold season and paddy crop grow in rainy season
in north India and paddy crop is grown in all the years in some part of the West
Bengal.
o In Arab Countries, due to desert, thawb dress is originated.
o In India, Rajasthani people wear a turban in his head to protect from extreme
sunlight

• Environments control the course of human action. Human action is not supreme, the
environment decides what people should do. Examples are:
o People flew a safer place after flood, drought, tsunami, etc.
o Climate change is also environmental control over human activities, and now
countries are changing development activities in a sustainable way.
• The difference in human behaviors can be explained by the difference in natural
environments. Examples are:
o Peoples eat rice in the hilly area as they need more energy to climb hill and rice
is easily available in the hilly region. Plain area peoples eat wheat as they need
low energy & wheat can be easily grown in the plains region.
 o Tribal people do worship of plant, animal, river, etc, as their livelihood is
dependent on the forest.

Geographical thought in Support of Determinism:

The following geographer supported the determinism philosophy:

• Darwin: Survival of the fittest

• Aristotle: As per Aristotle views
o Cold climate region people: Brave and powerful but weak-minded.
o Hot climate region people: Physically weak and timid but high in intelligence.
• Strabo: Roman geographer explains how, slope, relief, climate.all were work of nature
• Al Masudi: In Syria, gay and humorous people found in water abundance area, dry area
people are short-tempered
• Carl Ritter,: narrow eyelids of Turkish people were the effect of the desert in humans
• Humboldt: The mode of life of mountainous people is different from plain areas.

Criticism :

• Spate Criticized, environments themselves are meaningless without man,

environments do not exist.
• In deterministic, man is regarded as a passive element, this is not true. A man by his
efforts is a creature of his own environments.
• Ratzel said, two ethnic groups in the same location, may have different living
standards.
• The same environment has a different meaning for different people based on family
background culture.
• People living in passes are robbers, it is an overgeneralization of nature

You may also want to read:

• Humboldt and Ritter Contribution in Modern Geographical thought

• Contribution of Arab Geographer in geographical thought UPSC

Previous years question asked in UPSC mains geography optional paper.

• "Ellen Churchill Semple is an ardent supporter of Determinism." Explain. (2013, 15

marks)
 5. Environmental Determinism:

Environmental Determinism:
As per Environmental Determinism, Surrounding Environment is the main
deciding factor of human behavior, and differences in human behavior can be
noticed by differences in the environment around the world.

As per an American geographer, Ms. Ellen Churchill Semple in her book "
Influences of Geographical Environment":

• Man is the product of the Earth's surface

o Habitat of human is made by the environment
o Activities of human are decided by the environment
• People living in Mediterranean regions are:
o Enthusiasm, happy & Simple
• Those people living in the Mountain are:
o Brave & bold
o Simple & Honest
o but having conservative and orthodox, they do not do innovation.
o Generally, robbers character found in people living in
mountainous passes
• Whereas Plain area people:
o Liberal, Innovative, Progressive and adopt new ideas quickly
o Clever and they make fools to others but cowards

As per another Americal Geographer, Huntington, in his book" The

Principles of Human Geography":

• Human Behavior is decided by the climate of a particular region.

• Variation in Civilization supremacy is also bound by climate.
• Variation in climate led to variation in the culture.
• Religion and racial character are the product of climate
• A 20-degree temperature is an ideal climate condition for high mental
and physical productivity.
o Northeast USA, UK, and northwest Europe are the best climates
for innovation and living
o The industrial revolution started in this region
 • Ancient civilizations developed in the fertile river valley of the mild
climate. Examples :
o Indus valley civilization in the banks of Indus river
o Mesopotamia Civilization in the banks of the Nile river
o Chineses Civilization in the banks of the Yellow river
• Mongolian attacker attitude due to the harsh climate in Mangole
• People living in hot, humid, and harsh weather are:
o lazy, inefficient, timid, suspicious

Criticism

• Man is not a passive animal, man can create and change the natural
environment. The following are the examples:
o Dam building
o River linking
o Artificial Raining
o Green Revolution
o Hydroculture, Soilless farming
o Greenhouse Agriculture
• There can be two ethnic/ race groups in the same location and the same
climate.
• The same Environment has a different meaning to different people, it is
up to people how they are using it. Examples:
o The locations & Climate of Israel & Jordan is the same, but Israel
is more developed due to innovation and people's attitude wheres
Jordan is lacking.
o Natural & mineral resources are lacking in Japan, however, they
are developed.
o Rich natural resource in Africa, however, they are poor.

6. Neo Determinism( Stop and Go Determinism):

Neo Determinism( Stop and Go Determinism)

An Australian geographer, Taylor, given the concept of Neo-determinism.

As per Taylor :

• A human can change the environment through various innovations and

activities, but there is a limit to change by a human, the environment
compels them to stop. Examples are:
o Climate change: Men are polluting the environment by wrong
practice to achieve high growth in a cheap way. But there is a limit
 to growth. Through climate change, nature compels humans to
correct his action against the environment.
o Wrong agriculture practice in Punjab, Hariyana, and Rajsthan,
now productivity in these regions is reducing.
o Now Jakarta is submerging in the ocean, due to the
Overexploitation of groundwater.
o Overexploitation of groundwater and wrong practice in the
conservation of water, creating a water crisis in many cities in the
world, Chennai is the latest example.
o Recently Kerala flood is the result of overexploitation of western
ghats.
• The environment is like a traffic controller, a man can accelerate, slow,
or stop the development program of the country but he cannot go
against the plan of the environment.
• He suggested that the best development program fo any country is laid
by the physical environment.
• In the long run, a nature plan is best
• Nature is neutral but human must know the plan of the environment
• Prudent people follow the nature plan, nature is not a complete dictator

7. Possibilism in Geography:
Possibilism(ससससससस ) in Geography
The concept of Possibilism came as a reaction to environmental determinism. In
environment determinism, the human was made as a passive element. Possibilism
theory says the world is full of possibilities, it is up to man how they are using it.
Examples,

• Despite the scarcity of basic natural resources such as water, they innovated
drip irrigation systems and now Israel considered a developed country.
• In India, we are doing rice cultivation in Rajashtan despite having desert

Mr. Febvre opposed the concept of determinism, and give his own concept of
possibilism theory in geography.
As per Febvre 's possibilism concept:
 • There are no necessities but everywhere possibilities
• Nature provides many possibilities, and possibilities can be increased through
knowledge, innovation, and technological advancement
• Man is not a passive element, man is the active agent. Man can create, alter,
destroy the environment
• Man is the not product of the environment, man is the product of culture and
the environment

The French geographer, Vidal de Lablache, supported the possibilism

philosophy, according to Lablache:

• Lifestyle is the product of civilization

• Cultural, Ethical variation found in a similar environment, it is not due to the
dictates of the physical environment but is the result of variation in habit,
values, attitudes
• The environment is not a dictator, it is only an advisory. Examples:
o Man can grow vegetable, without the use of soil under hydroponics
o Tea, coffee, rubber can be grown in Tundra under artificial conditions.
o Environment limits some possibilities but gives other possibilities
▪ The environment prevents rice cultivation in the rain-fed area
but gives other possibilities that are the cultivation of
Bajara, barley, etc

Support of possibilism:
Please refer to the critic section of determinism on the below page:

• Environmental Determinism
• Determinism in Human Geography
 Criticism of Possibilism:

• Possibilism has overemphasized the role of culture and civilization. The role of
the environment is neglected, it may lead to environmental loss.
• Will be environmental problems if we act against nature. Examples,
o Climate change due to pollution, Greenhouse gas emission
o Landslide, earthquake due to dam building in a hazardous prone area
o Flood due to silting of the river that is due to mining, deforestation
o Dengue outrage in part of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana due to
waterlogging around the canal.
• There are not unlimited possibilities in all-region. Possibilities vary from region
to region.
• Possibilities are not economically viable against the environment. For
example, rice cultivation in the rainfed area is possible but not economically
viable

8. Positivism in human geography

Positivism (ससससस्‍ससससससस) in human geography

Positivism is a philosophical thought, where assertions are validated by the use of
logic, science, maths, facts, etc. Positivism came into existence after the French
revolution(1789), and it rejects philosophical thought which is based on emotions
and imagination.

Positivism thought was developed by Auguste Comte. As per Auguste Comte, the
development of social or individual thought happened in three phases:

• Phase 1:
o it is believed that each event is done by God.
• Phase 2:
o Usage of historical fact, Karma philosophy, etc, to validate the event
o Indian believe that because of his/her previous life karma, they suffered
or gained
• Phase 3:
o Research is being done on the finding of event cause.
o The scientific method used such as :
▪ Experience
 ▪ Inspection
▪ Test
▪ Classification
o To validate the events like:
▪ Day-night
▪ Seasonal changes
▪ Rainfall
▪ Solar and Lunar eclipse
▪ Tsunami, tides, earthquake

The following are the main points in positivism:

• No place of religious, cultural belief, if not logically and scientifically correct.

Example:
• Positivism rejects the caste system, untouchability.
• If anyone will prove that the caste system, untouchability is logically correct
under scientific and mathematically than under positivism, it will be accepted.
• Positivism also rejects women's inferiority, as women's treatment varies from
culture to culture.
• It is based on “Fact speak themselves” Philosophy
• Data and fact analysis are done in each assertion. If you say, Singapore is a
developed country, then positivism’s people do not believe you, they will
check fact & figure on your assertion, then assertion will be validated.
• Supported simple, easy, and mathematical language
•

Criticism :

• Human feeling, emotions, belief is no place in positivism

• All the events and facts can not be proved
Major boost:

• The quantitative revolution is based on positivism.

9. Spatial and Locational analysis

Spatial and Locational analysis in Human Geography
The spatial and locational analysis is the quantitative tool of
the quantitative revolution, it is based on the Positivism approach of
geography.

Spatial vs Locational analysis:

In Spatial analysis, the focus is on the spatial arrangement of phenomena that
are the organizational center (node), network, interaction /flow, distance,
relative distance, etc.
In Locational analysis, the following analysis is done in particular
locations :

• Population and demographic

• Migration,
• Industries and types of Industries
• Literacy and school, college infrastructure

The major contribution to the spatial and locational analysis is done by Peter
Haggett. He suggested five-component initially and later added the sixth
component on locational analysis. The following logical sequence
should be while analysis of the region:

• Identifying the major organization center or nodes

• Study of connection and flow across space
• Study of the network along with the flow
• Make the hierarchical structure of the organization center
• Surface analysis should be done between nodes
 • Finally, diffusion down the hierarchy, along with the networks, and
along the surface.

Importance of spatial and locational analysis:

• For checking the project viability and scope

• Getting comprehensive information regarding the project, for example,
the assessment of
• Industrial corridor
• Bullet train
• Fright corridor
• Administrative structure
• Backward area development
• GDP analysis

Criticism of Locational analysis:

Same as a quantitative revolution.

10. Quantitative Revolution

Quantitative Revolution(सससससससससस ससससससस)

During the 1960s, there was a crisis in geography because of the following reasons:

• Earlier, geography provided a limited scope of learning. As the definition of

geography was:
 o Geography=earth + graphy= description of earth surface. The big
question was, now we had studied the earth's surface, what will be the
next? what should be taught in geography?
• In 1948, Harward University closed down its geography department
• The importance of geography was being questioned.
• Geography was merely descriptive in nature, absent of statistics, data,
mathematics, etc
• Most of the theories were borrowed from other subjects. Examples:
o The Malthusian theory is borrowed from an essay written by an English
cleric, Thomas Robert Malthus.
o Nebular Hypothesis theory was taken from a philosophy subject.

Because of the above reasons, Use of the abstract model using the statistical and
mathematical technique in geography to make the subject more objective is
collectively known as the " Quantitative Revolution" in geography.

Quantitative tool
Basic Assumptions in the Quantitative Revolution Model:

• Man is considered a rational element who always tries to maximize the profit
• Man has infinite knowledge
• Space as an isotropic surface
• Exclusion of culture, belief, custom, attitude, traditions, choice, religious
values, social values

Basis of the Quantitative Revolutions

The following geographical approaches are the basis of the quantitative revolution:

• Positivism
• Functionalism
• Schaefer views

Methods used in Quantitative Revolutions

• Spatial and Location analysis

• System analysis

Models developed under QR

• Christaller model
• Weber industrial location theory
• Won Thunen crop intensity model
• Rank size rule
 • Migration model gravity
• Central place theory

Merits of Quantitative Revolution Methods:

It is based on rational, mathematical, observed data that can be verified.

It made it easy to choose the industrial location

Limitations of QR

• The decision of man is not always a profiting motive

• No place of religion, values, belief
• Capitalist views
• No place of the subjective decision of human

11. System analysis in Geography

System analysis in Geography
What is the system in geography?
In geography, the system is comprised of all elements connected with a
specific link. The following are the characteristics of the system:

• The system may be open or closed, for examples:

o Open system: Earth, ocean, forest, atmosphere, etc
o Closed system: Culture of Andaman & Nicobar tribes
• System change through time, for example:
o Earlier, the system was dominant by the environment and
animals
o Nowadays, the system was dominant by human
• Structure of the system:
o Elements. For example, the element of the Ocean system will be
water, temperature, vegetation, fishes, salinity, acidity, ice, dept,
coastal areas, etc.
 o Linkage, for example, Paddy productivity is linked with soil,
water, moisture, fertilizer, etc.
o Inputs:
▪ input will be null if a closed system
▪ input varies if an open system
o Output: behavioral change of system:
▪ Cascading effect
• Each element is interlinked by other elements. The change in one
element or link, the effect can be seen in the whole system, for
example:
o the whole earth affects if the percentage of CO2 changes in the
atmosphere.
o no lives in the ocean without vegetation
o animal and vegetation are interdependent
o In the governance system, the public and politicians, officers, all
are interdependent.
• The system has many subsystems, for example, the subsystem of
ocean systems are:
o Coastal subsystem
o Deep ocean substem
o Coldwater & Worm water subsystem, etc

System Approach and System analysis?

In geography, the system approach is one approach used to find out the
causes and function of the geographical phenomenon, by studying all the
interlinked components as a whole.
System analysis is the tool to analyze the system and its components to
understanding the complex phenomenon. For example, why migration
happening? under system analysis, the following component will be included
in the study:

• The population of the concerned region

• Growth of population
• Economic activities and availability for livelihood
• Law and order situation
• Freedom
• Education and health facilities
• City size, distance, etc
 • Types of migration

By using these components, we can get the whole picture of migration, we can
see the migration changing pattern by changing the components because each
component of interlinked,
for example:

• What will be migration, if education & health facilities increased and

economic& social freedom decreases?

Principles of General system :

• Study of the subsystem is needed to understand the complex system

• Some geographical system is naturally controlled and regulated,
example changes of the season due to earth revolution around the
sun and rotation around own axis.
• But when human is involved in the general system, then it increases the
complexity and hampers the autoregulation. For example, now the
global temperature is rising due to climate change is happening because
of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions.
Challenges in System Analysis:

• Very complex to analyze the open system because of many component

and linkages
• Demarcation of the boundary of the system and identification of the
components of the system is challenging. For example, it is hard to
demarcate the boundary of the Tata Salt market
• Anthropogenic actions are adding complexity to the geographical
system.

Importance of System analysis

• Easy to analyze complex system through system analysis

• Many outgoing problems can be well analyzed and can be
predicted by system analysis, such as:
o Environment degradation
o Climate change
o Migration
o Naxalism problems
o Poverty
o Unemployment
o Quantitative revolution is based on System analysis

Criticism of System Analysis:

• No place of religious belief, morality, ethics in system analysis

 12. Exceptionalism and Schaefer views
What is exceptionalism in geography?
As many geographers namely Immanuel Kant and Carl Ritter believed that geography is a unique
subject, it is not like other subjects such as physics. In physics, we can make one model that can be
applied everywhere ( not in the whole universe) but in geography, there is no such model that can be
applied in every region. Examples:

• Model for city development is not fitted for hill area development and vice versa
• Singapore model of education is not fitted in the Indian education model
• Chinese child policy is not suitable for Europe.
• Chinese development model can not be replicated in India

Hence it is a unique subject, this uniqueness is called exceptionalism in geography.

Schaefer views
Schaefer published an " Exceptionalism in geography: A Methodological Examination ".
In his article:

• He rejected the exceptionalism view in geography

• He rejected the uniqueness of geography
• As in physics also, the model is not absolute, the same model can not be true
in space, underground, water, etc
• In the same logic, geography is like physics
• If all the parameters of the phenomenon analyzed, then a good model can be
developed the same as physics, for example, now we are able to predict
rainfall timing and intensity of rainfall after collecting all the relative
parameters such as moisture in air, wind, pressure, etc.
• Christaller model, Von Thunen, and Weber industrial location model are proof
that geography can have a model that can be applied everywhere.
• He supported Positivism and system analysis in geography.
• He supported the use of mathematics and statistic in the geographical model

13. Behaviouralism and Mental map

 Behaviouralism in Geography
Why Behaviouralism developed?
Because of the following reasons:

• It developed due to the reaction of the quantitative and positivist approach,

As the quantitative revolution considered humans as economic rationality,
however the same is not true as per behaviouralism.
o As per Wolpert's study, optimal farming practice is not done by
Swedish farmers although having very fertile and productive land, they
were satisfied with 60 % productivity.
o Indian farmers also used excess fertilizer that reduces the long-run
productivity of the land.
o From the above two examples, we can say humans are not profit
maximizers but merely satisficers.
• The decision of humans is subjective in nature, can not be quantified as per
the quantitative tool.
• As the quantitative revolution reject the role of human values, belief, culture,
etc in decision making, but the reality is different, the contribution of values,
culture, religion in the human decision can be seen in daily life. For example, a
temple visit is a totally religious decision, not an economic decision, and varies
from person to person and this decision can be subjective in nature.

Mental Map:

• Each person has their own perception of the environment and the same is
dependent on his moral, pre-knowledge, cultural, social, and economic
background, an environmental image is created in the human mind of each
individual, which is also called a Mental Map. Each people have their
own Mental Map, for example,
o Each people have a route map from home to office and that will vary
from person to person
o Work planning and prioritizing for the day is also a mental map.
• There is high bonding on a mental map and actual decision-making. People
make decisions based on their mental map, for example, route selection from
office to home vary person to person, the selection is based on his mental
map.
Basic Concept in Behaviouralism:
The following diagram shows the basic concept of behaviouralism:

Basic Concept in Behaviouralism

The human decision is subjective in nature:
In reality, as we know human behavior is dynamic in nature, the same thing that is
liked by today can be disliked by tomorrow by the same person. The human decision
is subjective in nature and can not quantify. Human behavior or choice is not only
influenced by profit as the quantitative approach consider but also by:

• Preknowleged
• Morality, ethics
• Culture, religion
• Time or situation
• Economic need

Some people give more importance to time than money, for example:
Some people take a costly flight to save time, and some people travel by passenger
train to save money.

Interdisciplinary Subject
In behavioralism, geography subject is considered as an interdisciplinary subject,
Geography= Psychology + Sociology + Science

Man and environment Relations

As per behaviouralism, man and the environment are dynamically interrelated. The
following diagram shows the summed of behavioralism.
 Behaviouralism in Geography

The following main points are:

• Man and the environment are dynamically interrelated

• Environment act as a dual role
• In an objective environment, the same perception provided to all human, for
example,
o if there is raining outside, the rain for everyone will be the same.
• In the behavioral environment, knowledge, values, and culture are different
for different people, each person perceived the environment differently, for
example, mineral in the tribal area,
o Tribal want to conserve the forest as they use it, they do not want to
mine
o But industry care the mining, not forest conservation
o here environment perception is different for tribes and industry.

Support of Behavioralism
 • On the support of the behavioral approach, Kirk asserted that:
o In a similar geographical environment, the meaning of the same
information would be different for people of a different culture, ethnic,
race, and economic background people.
o Each society perceived differently and act differently to the same piece
of information about the resource, space, and environment.
• Wolpert gives two concepts on the support of behaviouralism
o The satisficers concept, as we already discussed in the first paragraph
of this post.
o Criticism views the gravitation migration principle, he asserted
migration largely depends on personal choice, women rarely want to
migrate, and a parent whose children are in school does not want to
migrate, despite economic opportunities.
• Glibber White, in his flood study, asserted that people mark the boundary of
the river flood, they believed that flood will not cross this boundary. Because
of this pre-knowledge and overconfidence, the flood does more destruction
than aspected.

Criticism

• This approach is more theoretical and psychological rather than scientific.

• Model cant not be developed using this approach, not a practical approach
• Some terminology like objective and subjective environment perception is
loosely defined

14. Humanism approach in geography

Humanism approach in geography

Kirk was the first to give the humanist view in geography and later Chinese American geographer,
Mr. Y.F. Tuan gave more weight to this approach.

The following are the main points on Humanism geography:

• It is against the quantitative, positivism, and locational analysis approach, as they neglected the
role of religion, ethics, values, personal knowledge, etc.
• Human feeling, values, culture, etc can not be codified in the statistical tool such as map, lines,
graph, etc
• Humanism does not consider man as an economic person
 • Human is not a machine, they can improve their life by participatory observation,
discussions, thinking & acting.
• It considers geography as the study of the earth as the home of the human being, the main
focus should be the study of peoples' reactions to the environment rather than study to the
earth.

As per Tuan, humanistic geography is based on four main principles :

• Human awareness, humans are aware of their environment, they know the weather, climate,
soil, water availability, and other local phenomena. The perfection of awareness of the
environment may vary from person to person, but more or less they aware of the environment.
• Human work as agency:
o The human takes a prudent decision base on his knowledge.
• Human consciousness:
o For example, human sentiment towards motherland or family is on types of
consciousness.
o It is very helpful to understand the feeling of people, human consciousness also varies
from human to human.
o It drives towards the actual meaning of humanities,
• Human has creativity, they can change the environment through innovation, and it is also
supported by possibilism, for the example,
o Dubai city is developed in the desert.
o Agriculture in a rainfed and deserted area

Humans and environments have a very complex relationship. Tuan tried to explain this complex
relation by using five themes.
Tuan gives five themes and these are shown in the following diagrams.
 Tuan five themes

• Geographical knowledge:
o Each people and animal have their own mental map of the environment based on
geographical knowledge of the particular location. Examples,
▪ Mental map of tribal people, they know the location of herbs, trees, water
storage, etc.
▪ Animals in the forest have a mental map, they returned home after day-long
grazing.
▪ Animal know where to hide while raining
▪ Animal or men fear to go some particular place as they know it dangerous to go.
▪ Migratory bird such as Siberian cranes has a mental map which helps them to
find the route to migrate.
• Territory and place:
o Some animals like dogs, tiger defend their territory.
o Some animal such as man becomes sentimental to his birthplace( we all do), people are
attached to his/her birthplace not because of economic reason because of the
sentiment.
• Crowding and privacy:
o Some people feel more secure in a crowded area, for example, recently in Hong
Kong, large crowded protesters protested in the airport of Hong Kong as they fear
suppression from the Chinese government, they feel more secure to protest on CCTV
areas in the airport.
o Crowding creates more tension in the geographical region.
 o Privacy also affects the thinking process, alone and stress-free people are more
innovative than stress full people
• Livelihood and economics:
o The main purpose of human activities is for livelihood and social prospects.
o Humanism geography differentiates the difference between livelihood and destroyed,
for example, the liquor ban in Bihar
• Religion:
o Religion is the way to bind people strongly by belief, faith, religious activities.
o In India,
▪ the meat business is done by generally Muslim
▪ Jains are generally traders

Criticism

• Man is not considered a rational person

• It considered humanism as separate geography and supported to study of
physical geography and human geography separately, in reality, the same is
not true, man and the environment are interrelated.
• This method is more subjective than objective, it is like social science.
• We do not know the humanistic explanation is true because can not be
objectified.

15. Radicalism in Geography

Radicalism in Geography
Why radicalism thought developed in geography?

• As positivism, Schaefer's view, and the quantitative approach supported rational-based thinking
and made humans profit-making. As the result, merit-based development happened in a specific
location, as results, inequality, regional disparity, gender, and racial discrimination increased
• During 1960, the Vietnam war, and discrimination against black people in the USA are the hot
reason for radicalism in geography.
• The socio-economic disparity in capitalist countries resulted in the rise of the radicalism
approach in geography.

In 1969, professor Peet in his magazine, written many articles of the support of radicalism in geography.

The following are the main philosophy in radicalism:

• Supported the Labour values and against the free and merit-based approach.
 • It believed only in economic class, the importance of religion, morals, culture, personal choice is
not given.
• Equal opportunity and treatment of women in the home, workplace, religious place, and
political system.
• Support women participation in geography
• Opposed colonialism and the quantitative revolution
• Supported welfare and humanism geography
• Opposed profit motive development
• Women geography
• Discussion about women working conditions, negligence, patriarchal society,
• Against capitalist and supported socialism against nationalism, America for American against
white supremacy disclosure of European loot in a poor country
• Rejected the racial and climatic supremacy theory, such as northeast America and western
Europe are the best climate region for the best brain.

Criticism

• Against the line of geography

• Less flexible and hard to implement
• It supports the Marxism philosophy and the Marxism philosophy was not
succeeded in USSR

16. Welfare approaches in geography

Welfare approaches

The welfare approach in geography was developed against quantitative and locational analysis. As
quantitative and location analysis is similar to the capitalist policy, it created many social and economic
problems, and welfare approach is developed to make positive changes of common men, and it deals
with social and economic justice such as:

• Inequality
• Poverty
• Gender discrimination
• Women inferiority
• Crime
• Education and health care facilities.
• Welfare for all
• Environment control & Sustainable planning
For example, the main victim of inflation would be poor people, development should be focus to reduce
inflation at an optimum level.

Approaches in welfare geography

There are two approaches to welfare geography.

• Descriptive approach
• Process-oriented approach

Descriptive approach:
The descriptive approach is used to identify injustice & inequality in a particular population in a
particular area. For example, identifying the beneficiary of toilet construction, fertilizer subsidy.
The descriptive approach is based on the following principles, it is shown in the diagram.

Welfare approaches

• Who?
 o Identifying the subgroup of the population to whom should give preferential treatment
or give overburden, for example, for the welfare of the society, the poor should get the
subsidy and the rich should pay tax.
• What?
o Who gets what, what should be given to the targeted population? it can be:
▪ Cloth, Food grains, House
▪ Water, roads, LPG
▪ Education, health, social justice, etc
• Where?
o Who gets where it deals with identifying the region of the target and welfare should be
based on the region-specific. Livelihood and requirement of the different region are
different, for example,
▪ city planning model cant be implemented in the village
▪ Plain area development not suited in the hilly area
▪ Designing houses in the city is not fitted for the village.
• How?
o Who gets how it deals with the process involved in welfare geography, such as
▪ Top-down approach
▪ Bottom to Up approach
▪ what cost they are going to pay to get a particular service
▪ How much they are working to get basic service.

Process-oriented approach:

• It deals with how social and economic injustice existed in society.

• Why the richer segment of the population is getting richer day by day and the poorer are getting
poor day by day.

Contribution of geographer in welfare geography:

The following are:

• Pareto Optimality:
o Poor people can not be sustained or get better without at expense of
rich people. Someone must be compromised for the better of others.
o Pareto supported the special treatment of poor people for welfare, for
example, a subsidies scheme for the poor.
• Smith & Knox :
o Smith was the first geographer who coined welfare geography, and he
has written a book "welfare geography". He stated that:
o A quantitative tool such as GDP & GNP is not necessarily a direct
measurement of quality of life.
o There should be a qualitative tool such as the happiness index, HDI
(both later developed) to measure the welfare of society
 o The main focus in geography should be the focus on the welfare of
people.

17. Languages, Religions & Secularization in Geography

Language:
Language is the expression of ideas through speech sound combined into words. The
following are the importance of language:
Languages are the main source of cultural consideration
Culture practice, moral values, literature, etc pass on from generation to generation
through language.
Language is one of the variables in the demarcation of regions, for example, most of
the Indian states are created based on language.

Dialect:

It is a particular form of language that is limited to the geographical or social region.

Language of the world:

Religion
Communities of the same supernatural belief and moral values that bind people
together are religious.

Why the study of religion is needed in geography?

• Religious festivals, food, and ceremonies are shaped by the physical

environment.
• It helps the study the religion & environment relation
• Religion supports Sustainable development, environment conservation, and
improve the welfare of the population.

Diffusion of religion

The Major religion of the world was originated in a small area but spread to a large
part of the world by:

• Invasion, for example, Islam

• Conquering
• Missionary, for example, Buddhism, Christianity
 • Politically imperialism
• Expansion of political boundaries
• Migration of population

Secularization
Secularization is the process to make :

• People logical
• Improve a scientific study
• Remove the dominance of religious institutions and symbols from society.
• To separate religion from state.
• Cultural shifts in society and make the society free from superstition
• Communal harmony

18. Language |Perspectives in Human Geography

Language is the way of human communication in written or voice forms. There are
more than 7000 major languages in the world.
As per the India census, There are 22 scheduled languages and 100 non-
scheduled languages that are spoken by more than 1 lakh population.
In the beginning, languages are originated at a particular place and diffusion of
language happens with the spread of the population from that place.
For example,

• The Latin language was originated from the italic tribals group in Latium areas
of Italy. At present, many languages derived from the Latin language such as
French, Spanish, Italian, Portugues, German are diffused all over the world.
• Apart from India, the Hindi Language is also spoken in Nepal, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Fiji, Singapore, South Africa. It is due to the diffusion of the Hindi
language through the migration of Hindi speakers.

Today language can have many languages tomorrow. In Medieval times, the
Hindustani language gets converted to Hindi and Urdu. In ancient times, the Sanskrit
language gets converted into many languages such as Hindi, Rajasthani, Marathi,
Maithili, Braj, Odiya, Bengali, Bhojpuri, etc.
Diffusion of language:
Diffusion of language happens in the following ways:

• Migration
 • Government Policy
• Language shift

Migration:
The language also spread with the Migration of people. For example, during colonial
times, a large number of Indian labor is migrated to Maldive and Fiji and as of now,
Hindi has a widely spoken language in these countries.

Government Policy:
Government policy to promote a particular language will enhance the diffusion
process of language. For example,

• During the Mughal era Farsi, the Arabic language spread in India.
• English was introduced during the colonial period in many countries during
colonial times resulted in the diffusion of the English language.

Language Shift:

The convergence of many languages in one place resulted in the dominance of

majoritarian language and the extinction of minority languages.
In the world, the majority of languages can be grouped int six major language groups.
 Major language groups of the world

Six largest language group in the world:

• Indo European
o 450 languages, largest speakers
o Europe, Russia, central Asia, northern Indian subcontinent, north, and
South America.
• Afro Asiatic :
o Nearly 400 languages
o West Asia and Northern Africa
• Niger-Congo:
o largest genetic variation having more than 1500 language family
o A large part of Africa in the central and eastern parts.
• Sino Tibetan :
o More than 455 languages
o Areas: Himalayan region of India, Burma, and China
• Austronesian :
o more than 1200 language family
o Areas: from Madagaskar to East Pacific Ocean comprises of southeast
Asian nations, Newzeland.
• Trans New Guineas:
 o More than 500 language family
o New Guinea and neighboring islands located in the north of Australia.

Major language group of India

The following are major language groups are in India:

• Indo Aryan language family in northern India

 • Dravidian family in southern India
• Tibeto Burman family in NorthEast in the Himalayan region
• Munda or Autrofamily in central India, mainly tribal speaker.

Language Hotspots:
The language hotspot concept was developed by Dr. Anderson and David Harrison. It
is areas where:

• Very High level of linguistic diversity both in the number of language family
and genetic diversity( within language family).
• Average high level of endangered
• Low level of prior documentation

High level of linguistic diversity:

• Roman language family has a high level of genetic diversity: that includes
French, Spanish, Italian, Portugues, German.

Average high level of Endangered:

• The language will be endangered if only elderly speakers are left that they do
not pass on to the younger generation.

Low level of documentation:

 Endangered Language Hotspot of World

• If grammar, dictionary, text to audio, not documented properly then that

language will have a low level of documentation.

Endangered language hotspot:

The following are the region where a large number of language is going to extinct due
to language shift and other diffusion processes of language.

• Northwest Pacific plateau in the USA, Canada

• Southwest Oklahoma in the USA
• Central South America
• Northern Australia Eastern Siberia

Extinction of language:
 • More than 3500 languages in the world and more than 40 languages in India are
heading to extinction as only a few thousand speakers are left.

Why do we need to conserve the language:

• When a language dies, a way of life dies, a way of thinking disappears, culture
also disappears. The death of the last speaker means the loss of the cultural
biosphere.
• A famous Kannada person rightly said India is a country where illiterate
workers speak five to seven languages and literate persons only speak one.
• There is an immense knowledge gap, indigenous people know more about local
life forms than society. For example, most tribal societies are oral societies.
Language is the heart of culture and without language culture transmission
from generation to generation could not possible. As per UNESCO, by the end
of 21 century, 90% of the world languages will disappear due to the expansion
of majoritarian languages. Language shift causes the extinction of a language,
language shift means people are leaving their own language and learning the
• preference to the English language over the local language.

Reasons for language extinction:

• The spread of the dominant language and retreat of a minority language is the
major cause of language extinction.
• Schools generally teach in the majority tongue. For example, most of the
teaching in India is in Hindi and English.
• India has many oral societies and they do not have written text and they used to
transfer custom, the ritual to the next-generation orally.

What can be done to conserve language;

• Technology can be used to record the endangered language.

• Extra efforts are needed to promote literature, art, culture, music in an
endangered language.
 • All types of literature must be translated into regional and endangered
languages.

19. Major Cultural Realms of world

What is Culture?
Culture is the way of the life of people. For example, the way of life of Indian people
such as food, cloth, moral values, is different from European people hence culture is
different. Based on the geographical influences, the following two types of culture
are:

Culture type

Folk culture :
It changes region to region, for example, Indian culture is different from European or
Latin culture.

Popular culture:
It is spread across the world, for example, as of now wearing jeans is popular culture.

Each culture has some geographical area of influence and this area is called the
realms of that culture. The following are the major cultural realms of the world:

• North America
• Latin America
• European Realm
• Soviet Russia
• Arab Realm
• Black Africa
• South Asia or the Indian realm
 • Japan

20. Human Development Index ( HDI ) in Geography

Human Development Index
As in welfare and radical approaches emphasized to focus on the wellbeing of people rather than a
quantitative measure. HDI is one of the indexes that measure the quality of life of the population. HDI is
a comparative measurement tool that measures life expectancy, literacy, and standard of living
worldwide.
The following are included to measure the wellbeing of people:

• Real freedom of people

• Freedom to choose the profession, education, politics, etc
• Economic opportunities
• Free from any type of discrimination such as gender, race, caste, etc.
• The standard of life includes access to basic amenities such as food, clean water, toilet, basic
infrastructure, house, schools, hospitals, etc.

It was developed by Pakistani economics Mr. Mahbub ul Haq and later Indian economics Mr. Amartya
Sen work on the capabilities and functioning of the HDI.
The human development index is the geometric mean of the three normalized indices.

HDI =geometric mean of ( Life expectancy index, education index, income index)

As of now, HDI is being published by the UNDP ( United Nations Development Programme). In 2018, HDI
Ranking are:

• 1st: Norway
• 2nd: Switzerland
• 3rd: Australia
• 130: India, HDI values: 0.640

India performance in HDI

HDI values in India are not uniformly in all-region. The following characteristics are:

• Kerala ranks first in the Indian state having 0.784 HDI values which are higher than Mexican HDI
values.
• Bihar rank last in the Indian state having 0.566 which is equivalent to Pakistani HDI values.

Limitation of HDI

• It does not include the women empowerment

• Public Security and Crime not included
• Gender discrimination, racial discrimination, etc not included