The Mystery of Sanskrit Names of Buddhist Lands

The Mystery of Sanskrit names of Buddhist lands
Dr Uday Dokras
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Sri Ksetra, Piu, Bagan (pagan), Suvarnabhumi, all Sanskrit names are tell- tale signs that
these territories were under the influence of Hinduism.
1. Sri Ksetra means Holy land or holy territory
2. Piu or Pyu means beloved.
3. Bagan means Garden
4. Pagan if in case Bagan is now (today) referred to as Pagan or Pakan would mean a
DRIVER such as one who drives a Chariot. Commonly referred to Sun God who
rides a Chariot of fire.
LORD SURYA AND HIS CHARIOT :
In Hindu mythology, Surya travels through the sky on a seven-horse, twelve-spoked chariot,
driven by Arun (the brother of Garud), with its arrival heralded by Usha, the goddess of
Dawn. Sun begins its journey in the Northern Hemisphere (Uttarayan) .
Adityas - The 12 Solar gods :
Oldest Vedic texts describe Surya alongwith 11 other brothers collectively known as the
Adityas. Adityas form a group of solar deities and are so named because they are the sons of
Kashyap and Aditi. They form the main body of the Hindu pantheon and are comprised of:
Ansh (Due share),

Aryaman (Nobility),
Bhaag (Due inheritance),
Daksh (Ritual skill),
Dhatri/Tvashtar (Skill in crafting),
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Mitra (Friendship),
Pushan/Ravi (Prosperity),
Savitra/Parjanya (Power of word),
Surya/Vivasvan (Social law),
Varun (Cosmic fate),
Vaman (Cosmic law).
In Vedas, Surya is considered in high esteem and is referred to as Surya Narayan and at
various times, as the eye of Mitra or Varuna, the cosmic law-keepers.In India of course
different dynasties trace their lineages from the Sun with Shri Raam as a descendant of Surya,
thus belonging to the Suryavansh or the Solar Dynasty. The Ramayan also declares Surya as
the father of the Vanar King Sugriv just as the Mahabharat describes Karna, as the son of
Kunti and Surya. Perhaps, amongst the Aryans, the blonde, blue-eyed lineages migrating from
the Steppes represented the Descendants-of-the-Golden-Sun.
Surya has two wives Sangya and Chhaya (literally the shadow) and through them has the
folowing children: Shani (Saturn), Yamraj (Lord-of-Death), Yamuna, Tapti, Ashwini Twins
and the eldest of these Vaivasvat Manu, the First Man in the current Age or Manvantar.The
Shatapath Brahman [7.1.1.37] states that - This World (Earth) is verily spherical and while
installing the Garhapataya altar the ritualists meditate on the same. Similarly, the shlokas
[7.4.1.10] and [9.1.2.40] describe the Sun as spherical. The Surya-Siddhant [12.12-29]
expressly states that the Universe itself is shaped like an oblong sphere!The references to
Surya's chariot, in a similar manner, can provide us not only information about the ancient
Hindus' religious and cosmological beliefs but also about their Science and Astronomical
acumen.
Chariot of the Sun-God :
Various scriptures describe the Celestial chariot of the Sun. Rig Veda [1.35] says:
आ कृष्णेन् रजसा वर्तमानो निवेशयन्न अमृतं मर्त्यं च ।

नय॥
हिरण्ययेन सविता रथेना देवो याति भुवनानि पयन
Throughout the dusky firmament advancing,

Laying to rest the immortal and the mortal,
Borne in his golden chariot he cometh,
Savitar, God who looks on every creature.
Vedic texts clearly mention Seven horses of Surya who are called - Gayatri, Brhati, Usnik,
Jagati, Tristup, Anustup and Pankti. The Rig Veda [1.164.1-5] says:
A seven-named horse draws the three naved wheel,

Seven steeds draw the seven-wheeled chariot,
Wise poets have spun a seven-strand tale,
And glorified this Heavenly calf, the Sun.
The seven horses represent Seven days of the week and also seven colors of the light.There
are two reasons I believe this is the case - One, the seven horses/mares of Surya's chariot are
ALL of DIFFERENT Colors; Secondly, many times, they are represented as One horse/mare
with SEVEN HEADS.
Other scriptures talk in a similar vein and describe the chariot of the Sun-god in much detail.
Although Arun-deva sits in front of the sun-god and is engaged in driving the chariot, he
looks backward toward the sun-god. The chariot has a SINGLE wheel with 12 spokes and is
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yoked to seven horses.
Sixty thousand saintly persons named Valkhilyas, each the size of a thumb, are located in
front of the sun-god and offer him prayers. The Gandharvs and Pannags sing in front of him,
Apsaras dance before the chariot while Nishachars and Yakshas follow and guard it. These
seven groups of fourteen associates arrange the proper times for regular snow, heat and rain
throughout the universe and are responsible for maintaining the Seasons on Earth!
The Surya Siddhant further states:
'The carriage of the sun-god’s chariot is estimated to be 3,600,000 yojans [1 Yojan = 14.6
Km] long and one-fourth as wide. In his orbit, the sun-god traverses a distance of 95,100,000
yojans at the speed of 2,000 yojans and two krosas in a moment.'
Scholars have used such references to calculate the speed of rotation of the Sun as well as its
revolution! The Devi Bhagawat Puraan elaborates further in a description of Mount Meru and
its surroundings:
O Nârad! Mont Meru is situated towards the north of all the Dvîpas and Varshas. So
whenever any person sees the Sun rise he calls that side “east.” If the Sun travels in 15
(fifteen) Ghatikâs, the distance from Indrapurî to Yamapurî, He is said to travel within that
time a distance equal to 2¼ Kotis, 12½ lakhs and 25000 Yojans (22695000 Yojans).
Here, we also find the relevance of other aspects of the Sun's chariot. The SINGLE WHEEL
of the chariot represents ONE YEAR or the Samvatsar while the 12 spokes represent 12
months! The THREE-naves of the wheel more likely than not represent the three points of an
elliptical orbit!
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II
I N T R O D U C T I O N
Origin and Development of Sanskrit

If you want to learn one of the oldest languages in the world in 2022, you’d be wise to choose
one of the oldest languages still spoken today.
Usefulness combined with a rich linguistic history?
Timeline of the world’s oldest languages spoken today

1. Egyptian: 2690 BC – Present (circa. 4700 years old)
2. Sanskrit: 1500 BC – Present (circa. 3500 years old)
3. Greek: 1450 BC – Present (circa. 3500 years old)
4. Chinese: 1250 BC – Present (circa. 3300 years old)
5. Aramaic: 1100 BC – Present (circa. 3100 years old)
6. Hebrew: 1000 BC–200 CE, 1800 – Present (circa. 3000 years old)
7. Farsi: 522 BC – Present (circa. 2500 years old)
8. Tamil: 300 BC – Present (circa. 2300 years old)
9. Korean: no later than 57 BC – Present (circa. 2100 years old)
10. Italian: as a descendent of Latin, 100 BC – Present (circa. 2100 years old)
Bonus: Arabic: roughly 100 CE – Present (circa. 1900 years old)
These elegant and ancient languages have long histories. They’ve changed and adapted over
the centuries and millennia. And today, you can learn them and still find companions to make
conversation with.
The world’s 10 oldest languages in the world
1. Egyptian – 2690 BC (circa. 4700 years old)

The first known language ever was a proto-language on the African continent, and the first
known proto-writing system was created in Nigeria.
So, it is perhaps no surprise that the oldest language on this list is also from and used in
Africa – Egyptian. The first known complete sentence in Ancient Egyptian was recorded in
roughly 2690 BCE, making it over 4700 years old.
While the Egyptian language by and large hasn’t been spoken by regular people since the
nineteenth century (which is, sadly, why you don’t see a lot of hieroglyph keyboards for sale,
as cool as that would be), it is technically still in use today.
The language descended from Ancient Egyptian that survives today is called Coptic, and it’s
primarily used as the liturgical language of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and
the Coptic Catholic Church.
But hey, that’s pretty remarkable, especially after over 4500 years!
2. Sanskrit – 1500 BC (circa. 3500 years old)

With its oldest texts dating back to around 1500 BCE, Sanskrit is probably the second oldest
language in the world still being used today.
Like Coptic, Sanskrit is largely used in religious texts and ceremonies that persist today, with
a place in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism.
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However, Sanskrit words and phrases are also frequently used by bureaucratic institutions –
from missile names to school mottos – in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and other parts
of South and Southeast Asia.
Interestingly, several thousand people report Sanskrit as their first language on India’s census
each time it’s performed, though it’s believed no one speaks it as their first language today.
Why?
Researchers think some individuals list it as a sort of aspirational mother tongue.

Regardless of whether or not anyone’s actually speaking Sanskrit at home, there are certainly
people who speak and read it as a second language in India and beyond, with entire
universities dedicated to the study of Sanskrit.
And, as well as its use in prayer and meditation, it’s also in use in modern literature and
music, and in conversation through loan words that have made their way into other languages
around the world.
3. Greek – 1450 BC (circa. 3500 years old)

Moving forward just a hair in time, Greek is probably the oldest language still spoken as a
primary, day-to-day language. While Modern Greek has evolved significantly from the Greek
spoken in ancient times, the language of Greece today is a definitive descendant of the
language of Homer and those who came before him… way before him.
The works of Homer are believed to have been composed between the seventh and eighth
centuries BC. Mycenaean Greek, the first attested (meaning, essentially, confirmed by
linguists) iteration of Greek first appeared in 1450 BCE, 700 or so years before The
Odyssey hit the scene. And today, contemporary Greek has approximately 13.5 million native
speakers. Not too shabby after almost 3,500 years.
4. Chinese – 1250 BC (circa. 3300 years old)

Another competitor for both oldest written language and oldest spoken language still in use
today, Chinese is definitely both useful and backed by a long, rich history.
The first attested Old Chinese goes back to a set of inscriptions on oracle bones dated to
roughly 1250 BCE.Of course, there are many different language varieties and dialects in
China today, so Chinese is a fairly broad term here – but many of today’s most used varieties
(including Mandarin and Cantonese) fall within the Sino-Tibetan language family and are
descended from the Old Chinese. After all, Mandarin is the single most spoken language in
the world today, with over 1.1 billion speakers.
5. Aramaic – 1100 BC (circa. 3100 years old)
In the quest for the oldest living language in the world, those not versed in the culture of
Iran, Iraq, Lebanon, Syria, and Turkey might not expect Aramaic to appear on the list.
However, Aramaic is quite ancient – the Aramaic alphabet was the precursor to both the
Hebrew and Arabic alphabets.
But Aramaic, the language spoken by Arameans in ancient Syria and first attested in 1100
BC, has survived well into its 4th millennium. In fact, among these oldest languages in use
today, it’s actually more lively of a living language than Sanskrit or Coptic. There are
somewhere between 800,000 and 1,000,000 speakers of Neo-Aramaic languages in the world
today. Who knew?
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6. Hebrew – 1000 BC (circa. 3000 years old)
Speaking of the Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew was first attested only around 100 years after
Aramaic, in 1000 BCE, making it another member of the ‘Oldest Language Still in
Use’ Club.
Hebrew is, perhaps, unique on this list as a language that ceased to be a common mother
tongue for some time, but was eventually successfully revived as a living language.
Hebrew was primarily used for religious texts, correspondence and communications between
Jewish people who otherwise did not share a language from around the second century CE
onwards.
It was revived as a spoken language by activists in the nineteenth century, starting in
Germany. Today, there are over nine million speakers of modern Hebrew, about five million
of whom speak it as a first language. Pretty cool!
7. Farsi – 522 BC (circa. 2500 years old)
While not the earliest known language in the Indo-Iranian language family, Farsi is the
longest surviving spoken language of the Iranian family of languages. It takes its roots from
Old Persian, which was first attested somewhere between 522 and 486 BCE.
According to the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at UNC Chapel Hill,
, there are roughly 70 million native Farsi speakers and 110 million speakers of the language
total around the world today. There are communities of native Farsi speakers in Iran still
today, but also in Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Russia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and
Uzbekistan – as well as in Persian diasporic communities worldwide.
8. Tamil – 300 BC (circa. 2300 years old)

One of the official languages of Singapore, Sri Lanka, and the state of Tamil Nadu in
southern India, Tamil is another wonderful language with a long and storied history.
It’s frequently cited as the language in India – if not the world – that has the most direct line
back to its classical roots, in terms of how it has evolved over time.
And, with over 75 million native speakers, it’s certainly no exaggeration to say it remains in
use as a common first language. According to Russian Linguist Dr. Mikhail S. Andronov,
Tamil descended from Proto-Dravidian, a proto-language reconstruction, which may have
been in use as far back as the fourth millennium BCE – and which, if true, would make it the
oldest language on this list! But it’s a little hard to prove. What we do know is that Old Tamil
can be attested back to 300 BC. Which is still nothing to scoff at.
Tamil, oldest language or not, is certainly ancient. And a handy language to speak, if you’re
thinking about dropping by the southern part of India, Sri Lanka, or Singapore!
9. Korean – no later than 57 BC – Present (circa. 2100 years old)
No top 10 list about the oldest language in the world still spoken today would be complete
without Korean, another language that dates back thousands of years. Spoken as the primary
language in both North and South Korea, there are at least 77 million native speakers of
Korean today.
There is some dispute about when exactly Proto-Koreanic language transitioned into Old
Korean, but it’s clear that by the Silla state, established in 57 BCE, there was a Koreanic
language or proto-language in use.
Interestingly, the older Korean writing system known as Hanja, based on Chinese characters,
can be dated back to 400 BC and the Gojoseon period when Ye-Maek, an extinct Koreanic
language from Manchuria and eastern Korea, was the common language. The Hangul
phonetic characters unique to the Korean language today weren’t developed until the fifteenth
century – they’re practically new!
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10. Italian (as descendent of Latin) – 100 BC (circa. 2100 years old)
Early Latin was used in the Roman Republic, certainly by 75 BCE, but possibly much earlier
(the Roman Republic was formed in 509 BC). After some deliberation, Italian made its way
on to the list as the most direct modern descendant of Latin – though any of the Romance
languages could have made it.
A Sanskrit-English dictionary, etymologically and philologically arranged, with special reference to

Greek, Latin, Gothic, German, Anglo-Saxon, and other cognate Indo-European languages.
Sanskrit is a language which is mother of all languages. Sanskrit, S-a-n-s-k-r-i-t, Sanskrit

language. So this is the original language of this..., not only of this planet. In other planets
also, this language is spoken. - Swami Prabhupada
Many people in India are familiar with the Indiana Jones of the famous Hollywood series, but
not with Sir William Jones, who lived in India for 11 years from 1783 and introduced to
Europe the antiquity and true merits of Indian literature, languages, history and culture.
He originally went to India to work as a supreme Court Judge in Calcutta. Proficient in many
European and Asian languages from an early age, he developed an interest in the study of
Indian culture and civilization. He found an outlet to his enlightened interests in the form of
the Asiatic Society of Bengal in Calcutta, which he established in 1784, with the support of
his friends and colleagues.
During this period, he made an exhaustive study of Indian history and literature and
published many books and papers of great merit on a wide range of subjects, which were
published subsequently in 1807, in Europe, into 13 volumes. Among the many projects he
undertook, worth mentioning were his translation of the Manu Smriti, some translations of
the woks of Kalidasa, translation of the Gita Govinda of Jaideva, his studies of Indian plants
and animal species, his exploration of Indian astronomy and ancient Indian sciences, his
paper on the Indian Classical Music delivered to an European audience and so on. Sir Jones
was the first to suggest that Sanskrit originated from the same source as Latin, Greek and
Persian, thus laying the foundation for the comparative study of what we now refer as the
Indo European languages.
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In 1786, while delivering his third lecture, Sir William made the following statement which
aroused the curiosity of many scholars and finally led to the emergence of comparative
linguistics. Noticing the similarities between Sanskrit and the Classical Languages of Europe
such as Greek and Latin he declared:
"The Sanskcrit language, whatever be its antiquity, is of wonderful structure; more perfect
than the Greek, more copious than the Latin, and more exquisitely refined than either, yet
bearing to both of them a stronger affinity, both in the roots of verbs and in the forms of
grammar, than could not possibly have been produced by accident; so strong indeed, that no
philologer could examine them all three, without believing them to have sprung from some
common source which, perhaps, no longer exists; there is a similar reason, though not quite
so forcible, for supposing that both the Gothick and the Celtick, though blended with a very
different idiom, had the same origin with the Sanskcrit; and the old Persian might be added to
the same family..." (Jones, Collected Works, Volume III : 34-5).
The Prot-Indo-European Language-PIE

The statement of Sir Jones was both revelatory and revolutionary. It shook the foundations of
the age old European belief that Hebrew was the source languages of all the world languages
and introduced a new concept which, a few decades later in the 19th century, led to the
comparative study of the origin and evolution of all the Indo European languages that
possible came from a common source, now referred as the Proto Indo European Language, or
simply PIE.
The Pioneers
Prominent among those who did the pioneering work in this field were the Danish philologist
named Rasmus Rask (1818), the German philologist named Franz Bopp, (1791- 1837), Fick
August, Ferdinand de Saussure, Jacob Grimm, Karl Brugmann of the neogrammarian school
and many more. The term Indo-European was actually coined by Thomas Young in 1914.
The word Prot-Indo-European language was used to designate the root or the source
language, which existed probably sometime in 7000 BC in a region about which we have no
common agreement, but which is considered by the majority to be Anatolia in Turkey,
otherwise known as Asia Minor or little Asia.(This view is however currently disputed by
some historians from India.)
What are these languages?

The following languages are supposed to have been derived from the Proto-Indo-European
Language and, after extensive research, have been classified into the following groups or
branches.
1 Indo- Divided into Indic (Indo-Aryan) comprising of

Iranian Sanskrit and its derivative languages
on one
side and the Iranian
languages most popular among them being Avestan,
Persian and Pashto
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2 Baltic, Lithuanian, Latvian, etc.
3 Slavic Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croatia, etc.
4 Armenian Albania
5 Greek
6 Celtic Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton;
7 Italic Latin and its descendants.
8 Romance Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and

languages others.
9 Germanic, German, English, Dutch, and the Scandinavian

language
10. Anatolian Hittite, Palaic, and Lydian, Cuneiform Luwian,

Hieroglyphic Luwian, and Lycian.
Hitite is now extinct, but considered by many as the
oldest IE language with written records
(1700 BC).
This author disagrees with this observation and the
reasons are sited elsewhere.
11 Tocharian Also called Tocharish, was spoken in northern Chinese

Turkistan during 1st century AD,
written in a form of Brahmi and used by the Buddhists.
The Proof
What proof do we have to suggest that these languages had a common ancestor.? Firstly the
linguists were able to find some most widely shared common words among these languages.
These words give credence to the theory that they all emerged from the same source. Readers
can verify a list of such words from the links we have provided at the end of this article.
Secondly, in order to understand how, over a period of time, the languages acquired distinct
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characteristics of their own and also gave birth to other languages, the linguists tried to study
the origin and evolution of the various words of each language and their possible connection
with similar words in other comparable languages. Their attempts yielded irrefutable
evidence of their common origin and gradual evolution.
The Techniques
They accomplished this by studying possible mutations in the sounds and tones that were
associated with different words, the structure of the alphabet, the number, arrangement and
expression of the vowels and consonants in each comparable language and also the
comparative changes that might have taken place in other relevant areas such as the usage of
verbs, the nouns, the cases, the gender, the syntax and so on. In course of time they relied
upon two principal techniques, namely, the comparative method and the method of internal
reconstruction. The former led to the formation of Grimm's law (1822), Verner's law (1896)
and neogrammarian hypothesis (1857) etc., which enabled the linguists to compare certain
corresponding or comparable words from various languages in the family to understand their
origin and development. The Comparative method was very useful in reconstructing the
historical basis of many languages for which Latin was the source language. The method of
internal reconstruction relies upon the study of the structure of words, especially the
arrangements of consonants and vowels, in a given language all by itself
The Origins of PIE

Anatolia: According to the most commonly held view, the source language existed some
where near Caspian Sea in the Eastern region of Anatolia (present Turkey), also identified as
Asia Minor, some 8500 years ago (6500 BC). This theory is based upon the descriptions of
landscape and climate, description of some plants and trees used in agriculture and food
gathering, knowledge of the wheel, description of some domesticated animals and some tools
in the earliest known vocabulary of the derived languages. The available archaeological
evidence is in the form of excavations at Catal Huyuk in South central Turkey by the British
archaeologist James Mellaart, which revealed an ancient settlement belonging to the 6th or
7th Century BC of an advanced civilization who practiced hunting, observed fertility rites,
lived in mud-brick structures, engaged in trade and adorned their houses with wall paintings
and reliefs of geometric patterns, humans, and animals.
Other Possibilities
Dravidian Origin: Another view which is not accepted in the west, but which is proposed in
India is that the common proto language of Sanskrit was none other than some proto
Dravidian language or the language spoken by the Indus people. We are unable to make any
comments on this view, since very little work has been done in India on this subject to prove
or disprove the point. If you think that you have some useful information, which can throw
some light on this subject, you may help us with your comments or article or post a link to
our site.
Sanskrit Origin
We would be curious to know if any one provides us with any information on the theory or
the possibility that the source language for Sanskrit did not come from Asia Minor but from
within the subcontinent, and that an earlier version of Sanskrit itself was the source language.
Perhaps readers are aware that there has been a great deal of controversy among historians
about the origin and background of the Vedic people. (For more information on this theory,
please visit our history subsection, the link to which is available from our Hinduism Main
Page and read the articles written by Rajaram). However we believe that enough evidence is
yet to be gathered to accept the Indian origin of Sanskrit language.
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Independent origin and development: Another possibility is that there was never a common
root language, but only exchange and intermingling of words and expressions form one
language into another. This theory is based upon the following assumptions.
It is not uncommon for us to see languages borrowing heavily even today from one another.
We are very familiar with the process of the continuous permutations and combinations the
languages undergo, the way they influence and get influenced by the ever-changing nature of
the world around them. People do not generally switch over to new languages unless there are
very compelling reasons.
However this view is not acceptable because it fails to explain the fundamental similarities
that exist among the Indo-European languages, which cannot arise out of mere contact with
other languages. Besides, we are very much familiar with the historical process of old
languages giving way to new languages. In the Indian subcontinent itself after the emergence
of Sanskrit, several new languages evolved over a period of time and replaced their source
language almost to the point of the latter's complete elimination.
If so many new languages can evolve and develop in one region of the world, the possibility
of the evolution of new languages from a source language in different parts of the world
cannot be ruled out. We have therefore sufficient grounds to believe that the hypothesis put
forward by Sir William Jones more than two hundred year ago is correct and stands the test
of linguistic evidence.
There was PIE language but there was no migration of people from Anatolia: To draw an
analogy, if people all over the world are using the Microsoft Windows or the VB Script, it
does not mean that they have all descended from Bill Gates! It was possible that in the
beginning there was one language, perhaps the first language ever to be invented by a human
community in a region as vast as Europe and Asia combined, and in course of time, along the
trade routes, it might have gradually spread to other areas unaccompanied by any major
migration of populations to such areas.
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In other words the proto language might have spread to other areas, without major movement
of people and communities. It might have happened through migration of individual scholars,
ambitious warriors or small trading or nomadic communities. Endowed with the secret or the
special knowledge of the language, these people might have lured the local rulers or ruling
classes with the prospect of teaching the new language systematically in return for their
patronage and favors. The language they so brought and taught might have got integrated
with the local dialects in some places and in course of time might have also evolved into new
languages.
Skilled craftsmen, traders, scholars, poets, writers and warriors traveling to far away lands in
search of personal fortunes, recognition or royal favors was not entirely unknown in the
ancient world. We cannot say that this might have happened in every area or in case of every
language. But it might be true in some cases, like the south eastern movement of the language
to Iran, India and Chinese Tukistan. This broad based approach would also help us to address
satisfactorily some of the problems we encounter to explain the chronology and antiquity of
some of the oldest languages like Sanskrit.
Evaluation of the East European connection of Sanskrit

If we have to accept the theory that the proto IE came from outside India, then we need to
answer some questions regarding the chronology of ancient India very convincingly.
When exactly did this movement took place? Was it before or after the formation of the
Indus valley civilization?
In order to answer this question convincingly we need to resolve the problem with regard to
the antiquity and antecedents of the Indus people, what language they spoke and what legacy
they left behind. Presently there is no unanimity among Indologists about these matters.
Some recent developments in our understanding of Indian history suggest that the Indus
civilization was basically an Indian affair, with little or no influence from outside and that
they were probably the earlier cousins of the Vedic people, spoke a rudimentary form of
Sanskrit with some Dravidian elements and were experts in agriculture, metallurgy, urban
planning, trade and commerce.
The civilization probably began sometime around 6000 BC as farming and food gathering
communities spread over a vast area of the subcontinent, right up to the borders of Iran. It
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attained its peak status in two stages. In the first stage, probably around 4500 BC, it
developed into small village settlements and then evolved into well organized and flourishing
urban cities by 3500 BC or even before. The Indus people possibly lived in an area by the
Saraswathi River which is now extinct, before they migrated into other areas, forced by the
climatic changes.
The existence of the river Saraswathi is now established beyond doubt by satellite imagery.
The Indus people were great builders. Their civilization was neither a borrowed one nor a
superimposed one. It developed and evolved over a period of time on the Indian soil. It did
not disappear completely, although the cites were buried in the earth ravaged by some
unknown calamities, but was integrated into the Vedic culture in a peaceful way.
The Indus culture was probably succeeded by the early Vedic culture around 2500 BC with
Sanskrit as the principal language of communication, at least among the elite and ruling
classes of the society. By this time Sanskrit had already evolved into a full fledged language
as is evident from the earliest Sanskrit verses found in the Vedas.
If these dates are true, which are based upon the astronomical data available in the Vedic
scriptures, then we have to look afresh at the dates suggested by the European scholars to
explain the movement of the PIE into other areas. In our opinion, from the point of view of
the origin of Sanskrit, the PIE theory is not acceptable, unless we are able to place the first
movement of PIE in the direction of Iran and India, possibly around 5000 BC or even earlier.
In the same manner the earliest Indo European Language cannot be Hittite, whose suggested
date of origin was 1750 BC, but Sanskrit or an earlier version of Sanskrit which was in use as
early as 2500 BC or even before. In other words if we want to accept the Anatolian origin of
Sanskrit language, and place the south eastern movement of the Proto language from Anatolia
to India in the proper of scheme of things, we need to push back the possible period of its
occurrence by at least 3500 years to 5000 BC.
Conclusion
Drawing conclusions on a subject of this nature, with the kind of complexity involved in its
study and understanding, and justify such conclusions is a perilous task, and any attempt in
this direction is bound to invoke some criticism and disbelief. However for the sake of clarity
of our approach and thinking on this subject, and in view of the fact that much of the previous
study on this subject was lopsided and one sided, for the sake of balance, we would like to
undertake this hazardous task and present the following view points or conclusions.
1. There was a Proto- Indo-European language somewhere in the Caucasian Region.

2. The language might have either traveled to other parts of the Asia and Europe along with
migrating populations or individual traders and fortune seekers, and was adapted by various
local populations as their medium of communication. Over a period of time the language
underwent transformation in each area and developed its own distinct qualities, grammar,
idiom and sound patterns, influenced by the local needs, customs, climate, prevailing
languages and other factors.
3. In case of India and probably Iran the language might have traveled much earlier, probably
around 5000 BC and retained much of its old phonetic structure and syntax. by Jayaram
V----https://www.hinduwebsite.com/general/sanskrit.asp
13
O0o0o0o0o000o0
III
The Principalities of CHAMPA with Sanskrit names of Hindu Gods
Amaravati was located in present-day Châu Sa citadel of Quảng Ngãi Province. The
earliest mention of Amaravati is from an AD 1160 inscription at Po Nagar.
Closeup of the inscription in Cham script on the Po Nagar stele, 965. The stele describes feats by the
Champa kings///Statue of Shiva from Thap Banh It, Vijaya (now in Guimet Museum)
VIJAYA
Vijaya (meaning Victorious also known as Vijayapura) , is an ancient city in Bình Định
province, Vietnam. From the 12th century, it served as the capital of the Kingdom
of Champa until it was conquered by Dai Viet during the Champa–Dai Viet War of 1471.
Vijaya was centred on the lowland area along lower Côn River, in what is now the south
of Bình Định Province. To the east of the plain and near the estuary of the river is a strategic
and well-protected location for a port. This led to the rise of Cảng Thị Nại, one of the major
ports of Champa. The river leading up into the highlands to the west was important for the
trade with highland peoples supplying Champa with luxury goods such as eaglewood for
export. Vijaya's geography was also important for its agriculture. With one of the larger
rivers of Champa, its soils were more fertile than that of many other places. This allowed for
a relatively large concentration of people near the centre of Vijaya, which resulted in a
relatively large number of temples.
14
According to two noteworthy 15th century reports noted in Vietnamese grand chronicles,
the Toàn thư, Vijaya had a small number of households, just 2,500, or approximately 10,000
inhabitants. More accurate, the second report states that the city had about 70,000 people
living inside
HISTORY
Vijaya or Tumpraukvijaya is the area which is one of earliest landfalls of the Cham people in
what is now Vietnam. However, its architecture implies that it did not become important until
the 11th or 12th century. Records suggest that there was an attack on Vijaya's citadel from the
Vietnamese in 1069 (when Dai Viet was ruled by Lý Nhân Tông) to punish Champa for
armed raiding in Vietnam. The Cham king Rudravarman III was defeated and captured and
offered Champa's three northern provinces to Dai Viet (present-day Quảng Bình and Quảng
Trị provinces).
In Champa at the time there were two ruling kings–Parameśvaravarman and Rudravarman
III–in Nha Trang and Phan Rang, respectively. Rudravarman of Phan Rang had good relation
with the Chinese Song dynasty. None of them ever did manage to travel far north to counter
the Vietnamese. Northern Champa at that time was ruled by a Cham chief/warlord with title
Śrī Yuvarāja Mahāsenāpati, not related to the Parameśvaravarman–Bhadravarman–
Rudravarman family.
The Vietnamese raid in 1069 began embarking from a port in Hue on 28th day of the third
month, reached their destination of the third day of fourth month, then engaged with the
Cham. Sailing from Hue to Vijaya (Qui Nhon) within six days doesn't make sense. King Ðệ
Củ/Chế Củ had been fleeing into Cambodia (Zhenla), was then captured. They pillaged the
city of Indrapura (Phật thệ) for one month, then it took one month for them to return to
Hanoi. Michael Vickery insists that the 1069 Vietnamese raid did not target Vijaya, but
probably Châu Sa & Cổ Lũy citadels on the north and south banks of the Trà Khúc
River in Quảng Ngãi province. Châu Sa was a large port city named Amaravati, has the
temple of Chánh Lộ dating to eleventh century. He also speculates that Chế Củ was certainly
not king Rudravarman III, but a Cham chief somewhere in the north. The earliest mention of
Vijaya as a Cham city was dated to around 1153 to 1184, so the explicitly application of
Vijaya for a location of Champa prior that period should be considered an historical
anachronism.
Vijaya was involved in wars with Angkor (now Cambodia) in the 12th and 13th centuries.
Khmer military incursions into Champa were successful for some time and Suryavarman
II managed to subdue Vijaya in the 1145, deposing Jaya Indravarman III, but the Khmer were
later defeated in 1149. Vijaya was at times dominated by the Khmer king Jayavarman
VII. The Khmer king relied on Cham supporters for his successful military campaigns in both
Angkor and Champa.
Vijaya was captured by the Yuan army led by Mongol commander Sogetu in early 1283. The
Mongols were ultimately driven away, but the city was sacked. In 1377, the city was
unsuccessfully besieged by a Vietnamese army in the Battle of Vijaya. Major wars with
Vietnam were fought again in the 15th century, which eventually led to the defeat of Vijaya
and the demise of Champa in 1471. The citadel of Vijaya was besieged for one month in
1403 when the Vietnamese troops had to withdraw because of a shortage of food. [ The final
attack came in early 1471 after almost 70 years without major military confrontation between
Champa and Dai Viet. It is interpreted to have been a reaction to Champa asking China for
reinforcements to attack Dai Viet. [18] Much of Champa was dissolved after the 1471 Cham–
15
Vietnamese War; Vijaya was complete destroyed; while other southern principalities had a
protectorate-like status within Dai Viet.
Vijaya's architecture distinguishes it from other Champa centers, because it used a
combination of stone and brick elements, while most other Cham structures only used bricks.
This suggests some influence from Cambodian Angkor.[20] It also points to the relative
abundance of labour in Vijaya compared to other Champa centres of powers, because
processing stones for construction was more labour-intensive than the production of
bricks Vijaya's style of architecture seems to have been dominant throughout Champa for
some time, given the later classification of the architecture from the period between the 12th
and 14th centuries as the 'Binh Dinh style'.
Banh It Towers/Duong Long Towers
Early mention is made of Vijaya in an 1160 inscription at Po Nagar. The capital has been
identified with the archaeological site at Cha Ban. The associated port was at present-day Qui
Nhơn. Important excavations have also been conducted at nearby Tháp Mắm, which may
have been a religious and cultural centre. Vijaya became the political and cultural centre of
Champa around 1150s. It remained the center of Champa until 1471, when it was sacked by
the Việt and the center of Champa was again displaced toward the south. In its time, the
principality of Vijaya controlled much of present-day Quang Nam, Quang Ngai, Bình Định,
and Phú Yên (Aia Ru) Provinces.
Yanpunagara ( today’s Kauthara)

3. Yanpunagara ( today’s Kauthara) was located in the area of modern Nha
Trang (Aia Trang) in Khánh Hòa Province. Its religious and cultural centre was the temple
of Po Nagar, several towers of which still stand at Nha Trang. Kauthara is first mentioned in
an 784 AD inscription at Po Nagar. Today it is known as Nha Trang and is a coastal city
and capital of Khánh Hòa Province, on the South Central Coast of Vietnam. It is bounded on
the north by Ninh Hoà town, on the south by Cam Ranh city and on the west by Diên Khánh
District.
.
Historically, the city was known as Kauthara under rule of the Kingdom of Champa.
There is no word in Sanskrit called YANPU, neither in Vietnamese. Yanpu is a Mandarin
Word that means Main and Nagara in Sanskrit meand city. Therefore Yanpu-nagar would
mean Main City.
Panduranga
16
Panduranga is first mentioned in an 817 AD inscription at Po Nagar. It was located in
the area of present-day Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (Pan Rang) in Ninh Thuận and Bình Thuận
province. Panduranga with capital Parik, was the last of the Cham territories to be annexed
by the Vietnamese. It was the most autonomous, sometimes independent,
princedom/principality of Champa. Within the four principalities were two main clans: the
"Dừa" (means "coconut" in Vietnamese) and the "Cau" (means "areca catechu" in
Vietnamese). The Dừa lived in Amravati and Vijaya, while the Cau lived in Kauthara and
Panduranga. The two clans differed in their customs and habits and conflicting interests led
to many clashes and even war. But they usually managed to settle disagreements through
intermarriage.
The Cham principality of Panduranga had its center in Ninh Thuận province, but also
included much of what is now Bình Thuận province. Ninh Thuận is a province in the South
Central Coast region of Vietnam (sometimes seen as part of the Southeast region).
.Panduranga became the political centre of Champa after the fall of Vijaya in 1471. It
remained independent until 1832, when emperor Minh Mạng annexed it. Ninh Thuận was
merged into Bình Thuận province in 1976, together with Bình Tuy province, Ninh Thuận
became a separate province again in 1991.
Panduranga or Prangdarang was the rump state successor of the Champa kingdom, which was
destroyed by Vietnamese emperor Le Thanh Tong in 1471. Established by Bố Trì Trì, a
Cham general who fled to the south after northern Champa was annexed by Dai Viet. It stood
until late 17th century as the Nguyen lords of Cochinchina, a powerful Vietnamese clan,
vassalized it and put the Cham polity under the name Principality of Thuận Thành.
17
Previously, Pänduranga (known to medieval Chinese sources as Bīn
Tónglóng or Bēntuólàng) was an autonomous princedom inside Champa. From the 13th
century onward, it had been ruled by local dynasties that relatively independent from the
court of the king of kings at Vijaya, central Champa.
Early period
On 22 March 1471, after the loss of the capital Vijaya to the Vietnamese force under Le
Thanh Tong, a Cham general, Bố Trì Trì (T'chai Ya Ma Fou Ngan in Chinese annals), had
fled to Phan Rang and set up his own rule. On 29 March, he submitted to Thanh Tong as
vassal. Thanh Tong agreed, but he divided the Cham remnants into three smaller polities:
Kauthara, Panduranga, and the northern part of Central Highlands.[1] Champa was reduced in
six regions: Aia Ru (Phú Yên), Aia Trang (Khánh Hòa), Panrang (Phan Rang), Kraong (Long
Hương), Parik (Phan Rí Cửa) and Pajai (Phú Hài [vi]). Panduranga continued to send tribute
to the Dai Viet court until Mac Dang Dung usurped power from the Le in 1526.
The last diplomatic mission between Champa and China was arranged in 1543.
Revival
During the sixteenth century, as Dai Viet fragmented in the north, Panduranga Champa again
gained prosper from the rise of the international trade. Throughout the seventeenth century,
Cham merchants traded actively in Siam, Manila, Macao, Malacca, Johor, Pahang, Patani,
and Makassar. A Spanish record reported that "many Muslims live in Champa, whose Hindu
king wanted Islam to be spoken and taught, resulted in many mosques existed along with
Hindu temples. The Bani Cham religion was formed as a combination of Chamic-Hindu
traditions and Shi'a faiths.
In 1578, Panduranga assaulted Nguyen lord's domain near Đà Rằng River. In 1594, Champa
sent its troops to aid the Johor Sultanate in struggles against the Portuguese. Panduranga also
helped its neighbor Cambodia during the Cambodian–Spanish War, which resulted in
delivering a fiasco to the Spanish conquistadors. Governor of Malina, Luis Pérez
Dasmariñas (fl. 1593–96) sent a letter to the court of king Philip II in late 1595, antagonizing
the Cham king as "a vicious dangerous tyrant who was treacherous and full of evil deeds,"
while his second letter suggested that just around 200–300 Spanish soldiers and 500 local
mercenaries would be needed to conquer Champa. During that time, the Cham were
remembered by Spanish, Portuguese, and Dutch merchants and seamen as ferocious pirates of
the South China Sea who numerously boarded merchant ships, plundering cargos, kidnapping
crew members, and routinely taking European hostages to slavery.
In 1611, in an attempt to retake land from the Nguyen lord, Champa mounted an attack in
Phu Yen, but gained no success, and the Kauthara principality was lost to the Nguyen after a
counterattack. Albeit had been reduced to a small insignificant power 100 years ago, the
Cham polity was making its last remarkable successes in late 16th-early 17th century along
with the rising Islamic faith in Southeast Asia.
Later period
With the rise of nearby Hội An, most foreign traders now were leaving Champa. Japanese
seal trade ships ceased to trade with Champa in 1623. In 1611, lord Nguyen Phuc
Nguyen sent an army led by Văn Phong, a Cham defector, attacking Panduranga, annexing
the entire Kauthara Principality. Nguyen lord then resettled 30,000 Trinh POWs in Phu Yen.
During the reign of Po Rome (r. 1627–1651), Dutch merchants were allowed to freely trade
in the country. Po Rome was known for his sojourn study in Kelantan, Malay Peninsula, and
18
the conversion to Islam by his people. King Po Rome is an important deity that is still
venerated by the Cham today. The lunisolar sakawi calendar, was likely king Rome's best
combination of previous Cham Śaka era with the Islamic lunar calendar. In 1653 or 1655, Po
Nraup raided Phu Yen. Lord Nguyễn Phúc Tần responded by sending an army of 3,000 under
Hùng Lộc to invade Panduranga, arresting Po Nraup in front of French missionary Joseph
Tissanier (1618–1688). The Vietnamese then annexed Cam Ranh, set up Khánh Hòa
Province.
The Nguyen and Mạc lords from Dai Viet, who had heavily influenced on Cambodian
politics since the sixteenth century, have claimed Bien Hoa in 1658. Panduranga was
surrounded by Nguyen lord in both north and south.[13] In 1692, lord Nguyễn Phúc
Chu invaded Panduranga, arresting King Po Sout and renaming Panduranga to Trấn Thuận
Thành (Principality of Thuận Thành). The lord established Bình Thuận District inside the
Principality as free lands for ethnic Viet settler colonialism.[14] In December 1693, Cham
people revolted against Nguyen lord, calling for independence. Because of the movement's
pressures, Nguyễn Phúc Chu decided to abolish the Bình Thuận District in 1695, and agreed
to grant the Cham king autonomy
Ninh Thuận's topography is typical for the South Central Coast in that high mountains are
located not only near the western border to the Central Highlands, but also near the coast, the
highest of which is Chúa mountain (Vietnamese: Núi Chúa) at 1,040 metres (3,410 ft) in the
north east of the province. Several other peaks with heights up to 643 metres (2,110 ft),
including Đá Bạc mountain (Vietnamese: Núi Đá Bạc) in the south, are located along the
coast. The highest mountains are located at the borders to Khánh Hòa province and Lâm
Đồng province, with three mountains of over 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) and the highest at 1,652
metres (5,420 ft), Sương Mù mountain (Vietnamese: Núi Sương Mù).[2] Only a small part of
the province around Phan Rang has elevations of under 50 metres (160 ft). The province's
major river is the Dinh River, which flows through the main lowland of the province as well
as Phan Rang. It has several tributaries in the province and is connected to Don Duong Lake
in Lâm Đồng province.
19
Temples of Po Klong Garai, near Phan Rang; one of the best preserved shrines of the Cham, originally
dedicated to the god Shiva.
Ninh Thuận is subdivided into 7 district-level sub-divisions:
6 districts:
1. Bác Ái
2. Ninh Hải
3. Ninh Phước
4. Ninh Sơn
5. Thuận Bắc
6. Thuận Nam
1 provincial city:
 Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm (capital)
They are further subdivided into 3 commune-level towns (or townlets), 47 communes, and 15
wards.
Cham villages
Cham names for Cham villages in Ninh Thuận province are as follows (Sakaya 2014:755-
756).
 Thuận Nam District
o Ram Văn Lâm
o Aia Li-u: Phước Lập
o Aia Binguk: Nghĩa Lập (Chăm Jat)
o Pabhan: Vụ Bổn
o Palaw: Hiếu Thiện
 Ninh Phước District
o Hamu Craok: Bầu Trúc
o Caklaing: Mỹ Nghiệp
o Bal Caong: Chung Mỹ
o Hamu Tanran: Hữu Đức
o Thuen: Hậu Sanh
o Mblang Kathaih: Phất Thế
o Padra: Như Ngọc
o Cakhaok: Bình Chữ
o Boah Bini: Hoài Trung
o Boah Dana: Chất Thường
o Caok: Hiếu Lễ
o Mblang Kacak: Phước Đồng
o Baoh Deng: Phú Nhuận
o Katuh: Tuấn Tú
o Cuah Patih: Thành Tín
 Ninh Sơn District
o Cang: Lương Tri
 Phan Rang–Tháp Chàm
o Tabeng: Thành Ý
 Ninh Hải District
o Pamblap Klak: An Nhơn
o Pamblap Birau: Phước Nhơn
 Thuận Bắc District
o Bal Riya: Bỉnh Nghĩa
20
Tháp Po Rome, Ninh Thuận/// Tcham1
Much of what is now Bình Thuận province was part of the Cham principality of
Panduranga, which had its political centre in neighbouring Ninh Thuận province. It is located
on the country's South Central Coast. It is sometimes seen as part of the Southeast region.
The province is known for its scenery and beaches. There are also a number of sites of
archaeological significance. It was the last independent principality after the fall of Vijaya in
1471. Bình Thuận was later incorporated into Vietnam, while Ninh Thuận remained
independent longer, until 1832. Before 1976, Bình Thuận province was much smaller
because much of the west was in the separate Bình Tuy province). Bình Tuy, Bình Thuận and
Ninh Thuận were merged in 1976 to form Thuận Hải province. It was divided again into
Ninh Thuận and Binh Thuận in 1991, while Bình Tuy remained part of Bình Thuận Province.
Bình Thuận borders Lâm Đồng province in the north, Ninh Thuận province in the northeast,
and Đồng Nai and Bà Rịa–Vũng Tàu provinces in the west. Much of the borders with Lâm
Đồng and Ninh Thuận are mountainous, while much of the rest of the province is relatively
flat. However, there are several hills with a height of at least 200 m along the coast of the
province.. The highest peak in the province (1548m) is in northwestern Tánh Linh District,
near Lâm Đồng.
Phú Quý island is located around 120 km south-east of Phan Thiết. It is a separate district.
There are several much smaller islands off the coast of Bình Thuận, including Câu Island (cù
lao Câu) in the east, Lao Island (hòn Lao) at Mũi Né, and Bà Island (hòn Bà) in the west.
Bình Thuận has several rivers mostly originating in the province itself or in the highlands of
neighboring Lâm Đồng Province. Most flow into the East Vietnam Sea. Some of the major
rivers are the Luỹ River (Sông Luỹ) in the east, the Cái River (Sông Cái) in the centre, and
the Dinh River (Sông Dinh) in the west. La Ngà River (Sông La Ngà) flows through four
districts in the northwest of the province and is a major tributary of the Đồng Nai River.
[1]
The largest lake is Sông Quán Lake (hồ Sông Quán) in the centre of the province around
30 km north of Phan Thiết. Another major lake is Biển Lạc in the northwest region of the
province.
21
An arms-akimbo Panduranga (Vishnu) from Udaygiri Caves./// The central image at Vitthal Temple in
Pandharpur
22
IV
The Many Pur(as )of the Khmer Empire
Today, no city in Cambodia is called a pura. But all major cities in the ancient
Empires of Angkor and many in Funan and Chenla were “puras”
Pur means a town or settlement. Why the suffix pur has been translated as …PURA is not
understandable. It shows lack of knowledge of Sanskrit or other related languages.The
Chams, for instance, had the earliest pur.. Simhapura (605-757) Virapura (757-875)
Indrapura (875–982) and without the suffix towns such as Vijaya (982–1471) Kauthara polity
(757–1653) Panduranga polity (1471–1832).
Archaeological excavations at Tra Kieu (Simhapura), a early Lam Ap/Champa site, show that
the common assumption of Lam Ap as a merely "Indianized" polity is rather irrational and
fundamentally misunderstanding. Instead, evidence gathered from excavations displays a
fascinating, dynamic history of the early stages of formation of the Cham civilization, with
artifacts reflect cross multicultural influence and trade connections between early Champa
with ancient Eurasian powers such as the Han Empire, the Gupta Empire, the South
Indian Pallava dynasty, and the Mediterranean. The Gupta and Pallava ofcourse were Hindu
Kingdoms in what is today the territory of India.
The first king acknowledged in the inscriptions is Bhadravarman, who reigned from 380 to
413. At Mỹ Sơn, King Bhadravarman established a linga called Bhadresvara, whose name
was a combination of the king's own name and that of the Hindu god of gods Shiva. The
23
worship of the original god-king under the name Bhadresvara and other names continued
through the centuries that followed. Moreover, Bhadravarman's third inscription (C.
174, c. 4th–5th century AD) at Tra Kieu, which renders Old Cham, is the oldest surviving
text of any Southeast Asian language. The authorities of king Bhadravarman might have
spanned from nowadays Quảng Nam to Chợ Dinh, Phú Yên, near the Đà Rằng river.
Trà Kiệu was the first capital city of the Hindu Champa Kingdom, then named Simhapura,
from the 4th century to the 8th century CE. The site has been known to the western world
since the late 19th century Today nothing remains of the ancient city except the rectangular
ramparts. Bửu Châu or jade hill overlooks the site and is known as the citadel of the
Simhapura. There are also signs of a border wall for the ancient city, though it is currently
unknown if this was for defense, hierarchical segregation, irrigation, or something else
entirely.
Trà Kiệu also has two main ceramic phases: the first consists of basic ceramics for household
use and roof tiles marked with textile impressions. The second phase brings about the iconic
roof tiles with faces on them. There are two main theories about why the faces start appearing
on the tiles: the first is that Hinduism had such a strong influence that workers at Trà Kiệu
began carving faces into roof tiles. The second theory is that there was an Indian mask maker
who introduced and popularized the face motifs as this style of decoration on roof tiles.
Stone image of the god Visnu on display at the Museum of Cham Sculpture. (Da Nang) This Visnu gives
further evidence to the Hindu face motif theory.
24
At Mỹ Sơn, the name Campā occurs in the first time on a important Cham inscription code
named C. 96 dating from metaphysically year 658 AD
Consolidation under Prakasadharma and the Simhapura dynasty
Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary
In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of

Champa in Simhapura (Tra Kieu). He was a descendant of kings Gangaraja (r. 413 -?)
and Rudravarman I (r. 527–572). This lineage was known as the Gangaraja dynasty or the
Simhapura dynasty. He embarked a series of campaigns to subdue other Chamic kingdoms in
the south, and by 658 AD the kingdom of Champa (campādeśa) stretching from Quảng Bình
province in the north to present-day Ninh Hòa city, Khánh Hòa province in the south, was
unified under one ruler for the first time
Prakāśadharma organized the kingdom into administrative units known as viṣaya (district.
However, viṣaya also can be synonymous with dominion, kingdom, territory, region). At that
time there were two know districts: Caum and Midit. Each of them had a handful number
of koṣṭhāgāras – 'storage', could be understood as the source of stable income to upkeep the
worship of three gods. They could be rice fields, storehouses, and less likely treasures.
[52]
Prakāśadharma built numerous temples and religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn. One
structure is amazing decorated was dedicated to the Ramayana's author Valmiki by the king,
resembling a theme from the wedding of Sita in the Ramayana.
Prakāśadharma dispatched four diplomatic missions to the court of the Tang Empire in 653,
654, 669, and 670. Envoys and tributes were regularly sent to China by previous kings. The
seventh century saw Champa or Linyi from the eyes of the Chinese, became the chief
tributary state of the South, on a par with the Korean kingdoms of Kokuryo in the Northeast
and Baekje in the East — though the latter was rivaled by Japan.
Religious foundations at Mỹ Sơn
By the second half of the 7th century, royal temples were beginning to appear at Mỹ Sơn. The
dominant religious practice was that of the Hindu god Shiva, but temples were also dedicated
to Vishnu. Scholars have called the architectural style of this period Mỹ Sơn E1, in reference
to a particular edifice at Mỹ Sơn that is regarded as emblematic of the style. Important
surviving works of art in this style include a pedestal for a linga that has come to be known as
the Mỹ Sơn E1 Pedestal and a pediment depicting the birth of Brahma from a lotus issuing
from the navel of the sleeping Vishnu.
25
Stone pedestal of a temple with an Apsara dancer and a Gandharva musician (Trà Kiệu style)
In an important stone inscription dated 657, found at Mỹ Sơn, King Prakasadharma, who took
on the name Vikrantavarman I at his coronation, claimed to be descended through his mother
from the Brahman Kaundinya and the serpent princess Soma, the legendary ancestors of
the Khmer of Cambodia. This inscription underlines the ethnic and cultural connection of
Champa with the Khmer Empire, its perennial rival to the west. It also commemorates the
king's dedication of a monument, probably a linga, to Shiva. Another inscription documents
the king's almost mystical devotion to Shiva, "who is the source of the supreme end of life,
difficult to attain; whose true nature is beyond the domain of thought and speech, yet whose
image, identical with the universe, is manifested by his forms."
Temporary pre-eminence of Kauthara
Kathur means Hard and Cruel in Sanskrit. Katha means narrative or story. Kathura also
means head-quarters in Harnavi. What exactly was the pronounciation of Kathura and did it
lead to another (second) name with pur as the suffix is not known.The city of Pandurang
means
In the 8th century, during the time when the Chinese knew the country as "Huanwang", the
political center of Champa shifted temporarily from Mỹ Sơn southward to the regions of
Panduranga and Kauthara, centered around the temple complex of Po Nagar near
modern Nha Trang that was dedicated to the indigenous Earth goddess Yan Po Nagar. In 774,
raiders from Java disembarked in Kauthara, burned the temple of Po Nagar, and carried off
the image of Shiva. The Cham king Satyavarman (r. 770–787) pursued the raiders and
defeated them in a naval battle. In 781, Satyavarman erected a stele at Po Nagar, declaring
that he had regained control of the area and had restored the temple. In 787, Javanese raiders
destroyed a temple dedicated to Shiva near Panduranga. Pandurang is the name of Shiva and
is a manifestation. He is generally considered as a manifestation of the god Vishnu, or
his avatar, Krishna.
Purs in FUNAN
Even earlier to the Chams were cities suffixed with Pur in Funan (perhaps a Chinese
transcription of pnom, “mountain”) which was the first important Hinduized kingdom in
southeast Asia. It covered portions of what are now Vietnam, Thailand, and Cambodia.
Vyādhapura, (Sanskrit: “City of the Hunters”), capital city of the ancient Hindu kingdom of
Funan, which flourished from the 1st to the 6th century ad in an area that comprises modern
Cambodia and Vietnam.
Some scholars have advanced speculative proposal regarding the origin and meaning of the
word Funan. It is often said that the name Funan. Later Han pronunciations represents
26
a transcription from some local language into Chinese. For example, French scholar Georges
Coedès advanced the theory that in using the word Funan, ancient Chinese scholars were
transcribing a word related to the Khmer word bnaṃ or vnaṃ (modern: phnoṃ, meaning
"mountain").
However, the epigraphist Claude Jacques pointed out that this explanation was based on a
mistranslation of the Sanskrit word parvatabùpála in the ancient inscriptions as equivalent to
the Khmer word bnaṃ and a mis-identification of the King Bhavavarman I mentioned in
them as the conqueror of Funan. It has also been observed that in Chinese the
character 南 (pinyin: nán, Vietnamese: nam) is frequently used in geographical terms to mean
"South"; Chinese scholars used it in this sense in naming other locations or regions of
Southeast Asia, such as Annam.
Thus, Funan may be an originally Chinese word, and may not be a transcription at all.
Jacques proposed that use of the name Funan should be abandoned in favour of the names,
such as >
1.Bhavapura,
2.Aninditapura,
3.Shresthapura and
4.Vyadhapura, which are known from inscriptions to have been used at the time for cities in
the region and give a more accurate idea of the geography of the ancient Khmer regions than
the names Funan or Zhenla are unknown in the Old Khmer language.
INDIANIZATION of FUNAN
Gupta and Pallava Dynasties: It is also possible that Funan was a multicultural society,
including various ethnic and linguistic groups. In the late 4th and 5th centuries, Indianization
advanced more rapidly, in part through renewed impulses from the south Indian Pallava
dynasty and the north Indian Gupta Empire. The only extant local writings from the period of
Funan are paleographic Pallava Grantha inscriptions in Sanskrit of the Pallava dynasty, a
scholarly language used by learned and ruling elites throughout South and Southeast Asia.
These inscriptions give no information about the ethnicity or vernacular tongue of the
Funanese.
Funan may have been the Suvarnabhumi referred to in ancient Indian texts. Among
the Khmer Krom of the lower Mekong region the belief is held that they are the descendants
of ancient Funan, the core of Suvarnabhumi/Suvarnadvipa, which covered a vast extent of
Southeast Asia including present day Cambodia, southern Vietnam, Thailand, Laos, Burma,
Malaya, Sumatra and other parts of Indonesia.
In December 2017, Dr Vong Sotheara, of the Royal University of Phnom Penh, discovered a
Pre-Angkorian stone inscription in the Province of Kampong Speu Baset District, which he
tentatively dated to 633 CE. According to him, the inscription would “prove that
Suvarnabhumi was the Khmer Empire.” The inscription, translated, read: “The great King
Isanavarman is full of glory and bravery. He is the King of Kings, who rules over
Suvarnabhumi until the sea, which is the border, while the kings in the neighbouring states
honour his order to their heads”
The Capital City of Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter).
27
On the assumption that Funan was a single unified polity, scholars have advanced various
linguistic arguments about the location of its "capital".
 One theory, based on the presumed connection between the word "Funan" and the Khmer
word "phnom", locates the capital in the vicinity of Ba Phnoṃ near the modern
Cambodian town of Banam in Prey Veng Province.
 Another theory, propounded by George Coedès, is that the capital was a town identified
in Angkorian inscriptions as "Vyādhapura" (City of the Hunter). Coedès based his theory
on a passage in the Chinese histories which identified the capital as "Temu" ( 特
牧, pinyin: Tèmù); Coedès claimed this name represented a transcription from the Khmer
word "dalmāk", which he translated as "hunter." This theory has been rejected by other
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter".
scholars on the grounds that "dalmāk" means "trapper", not "hunter."
PUR of ANGKOR
Hall, K. R. (2019). In his book Maritime Trade and State Development in Early Southeast
Asia. United States: University of Hawaii Press talks about Suryavarman I who established
diplomatic relations with the Chola dynasty of south India (Tamilnadu) around 1012.
Suryavarman I sent a chariot as a present to the Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. It seems
that the Khmer king Suryavarman I requested aid from the powerful Chola Emperor Rajendra
Chola against the Tambralinga kingdom
And during his reign, 47 cities (known as 47 pura) were under the control of Khmer Empire.
Some of these names would never be known and some difficult to find on the knowledgebase
of the Internert. Angkor. ('Capital city'), was also known as Yasodharapura : यशोधरपुर in
28
Sanskrit, and was the capital city of the Khmer Empire. The city and empire flourished from
approximately the 9th to the 15th centuries.
 Hariharalaya. (early 9th cent.) The dwelling plave of HARI(Shiva)

 Lingapura: Koh Ker (9th cent.). Koh Ker is the modern name for an important city of the Khmer
empire. In inscriptions the town is mentioned as Lingapura (city of lingams) or Chok
Gargyar (translated as city of glance, or as iron tree forest).
 Yasodharapura (Angkor) (928–944)
Names in ancient Sanskrit of Khmer cities and sites have been changed to Khmer or
Cambodian language today:
 Phnom Kulen.
 Preah Khan of Kampong Svay.
 Beng Mealea.
 The Ancient City of Koh Ker.
 Banteay Chhmar.
 Prasat Preah Vihear.
 Kompong Thom: Sambor Prei Kuk.
 Oudong.
1. Sambalpur,
2. Berhampur,
3. Rairangpur,
4. Subarnapur,
5. Nagpur
6. Kanpur
7. Jamshedpur and many more far too many in fact.
In fact the word Pur and the word Nagar which means CITY is Sanskrit are inter-changeable
but the fact is that historically when one name was given it was seldom changed because it
created a geographic entity and point of reference where travellers could travel to and
remember those days people travelled by horses, on foot or other animals( including
humans).
29
Historical era Classical antiquity
• Earliest Pyu c. 2nd century BCE

presence in
Upper Burma
• Beikthano founded c. 180 BCE IV

• Pyu converted 4th century Sri
to Buddhism
• Burmese 22 March 638

calendar begins
• 2nd Sri Ksetra 25 March 739

Dynasty founded
• Rise of Pagan c. 1050

Empire
Ksetra (B c. 3rd to 9th century CE–c. 1050s)

Uday Dokras
Archaeological surveys have actually so far unearthed 12 walled cities, including five
large walled cities, and several smaller non-fortified settlements, located at or near the
three most important irrigated regions of precolonial Burma: the Mu River Valley in
30
the north, the Kyaukse plains in centre, and the Minbu region in the south and west of
the former two. The city-states were contemporaries of the Kingdom of
Funan (Cambodia) and (perhaps) Champa (southern
Vietnam), Dvaravati (Thailand), Tambralinga and Takuapa near the Kra Isthmus,
and Srivijaya (southeast Sumatra). All these statelets foreshadowed the rise of the
"classical kingdoms" of Southeast Asia in the second millennium CE.
Sri Kshetra located along the Irrawaddy River at present-day Hmawza, which was once a
prominent Pyu settlement. The Pyu occupied several sites across Upper Myanmar, with Sri
Ksetra recorded as the largest, the city wall enclosing an area of 1,477 hectares, although a
recent survey found it enclosed 1,857 hectares within its monumental brick walls, with an
extramural area of a similar size.
It was the largest Southeast Asian city before Angkor times.
There are 2 issues surrounging this area .

First is the dating of the archeological sites which put it between seventh and ninth
centuries AD, however recent scholarship suggests Pyu culture at Sri Ksetra was active
centuries before this.
Sri Ksetra is the site for much of the Pyu artistic legacy. The arrival of Buddhism into the Pyu
cities saw the increased artistic production, with very little surviving from the earlier period
of occupation. The vast arraying of surviving material indicates a rich visual culture that was
endorsed by the Pyu at Sri Ksetra. The Chinese pilgrims Hsuan-tsang in 648 and I-tsing in
675 mentioned the name of Sri Ksetra as “Shh-li-cha‟- t‟o-lo” and that it was a Buddhist
country.
The Pyu at Sri Ksetra declined in prominence around the ninth century AD. The final
mention of the Pyu is found at Pagan, with a twelfth century stone featuring inscriptions in
Pyu, Mon, Burmese and Pali.
The second is the nomenclature which is in Sanskrit. Piu is a Sanskrit word that means
Beloved or dear. Sri Ksetra Sanskrit श्री क्षेत्र, erroneously translated as . 'Field of Fortune' or
'Field of Glory, in fact consists of conjoint two words Sri which means divine and Ksetra
which means region.
Pyu city-states
Burmese legends greatly differ from the reconstruction of Pyu history by scholars. A widely
held belief, based on the interpretation of the extensive interdisciplinary evidence suggests
that Sri Ksetra was founded between the fifth and seventh centuries by the Pyu people. This
interpretation has been challenged by the scholars who have argued that it was occupied
earlier than these dates. Radiocarbon dating tested on charcoal found at Sri Ksetra produce
dates to between 50 – 200 AD, a timeframe that is significantly earlier than previously
considered. This early date in the first centuries of the first millennium AD would place the
Pyu as one of the earliest urbanised people in Southeast Asia. During two excavation seasons,
January to February 2015 and December 2015 to February 2016, led by Janice Stargardt in
Yahanda mound at Sri Ksetra, early sherds stamped with Buddhist motifs were found, later
dated c. 340 +/- 30 CE and Pyu culture cremation burials around 270 +/- 30 CE.
31
Sri Ksetra is the largest Pyu site discovered thus far (Beikthano and Sri Ksetra are the only
Pyu sites that have been extensively excavated. Other important Pyu cities as Maingmaw and
Binnaka could yield more artefacts with more extensive excavations). It occupied an area
larger than that of the eleventh century Pagan or nineteenth century Mandalay. The city walls
at Sri Ksetra are the largest of any Pyu settlements. Numerous ruined stupas and temples have
been discovered both inside and outside the city walls at Sri Ksetra. The three principal
stupas that are a feature of the Pyu landscape at Hmawza, Bawbaw gyi, Payama and Paya
gyi, are also located outside the walls.
In conjunction to archaeological evidence, there are a number of written records that mention
the Pyu, largely found in Chinese historical accounts. The earliest mention is the fourth
century AD account by Ch'ang Ch'u, with later accounts by Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang and
Yijing in the seventh century AD. In the eighth century AD Tang histories mentioned the
arrival at the court of an embassy from the Pyu capital in 801. While these written records
assist with the dating of Sri Ksetra and demonstrate cross-cultural interactions, they are
fragmented and cannot all be backed by other evidence.
Sri Ksetra was an important entrepôt between China and India. It was located on the
Irrawaddy, close to the sea, before the Irrawaddy delta had been formed. Ships from the
Indian Ocean travelled to Prome to trade with the Pyu and Chinese. [16] Trade with India
brought important cultural influences to Sri Ksetra, including the arrival of Buddhism, which
was imposed on existing belief systems. There is strong evidence of a rich Buddhist culture at
Sri Ksetra, along with the existence of Hindu religion.
Royal Names
Several inscriptions discovered at Sri Ksetra possess possible royal names and dynastic titles.
Below is a table of translated Pyu funerary inscriptions found on four stone burial urns,
excavated outside the city walls of Sri Ksetra from what is believed to be a royal burial site.
First translated by O. Blagden in 1917, these inscriptions give insights into Pyu kingship and
possible dating of Sri Ksetra.
Current inscriptional evidence indicate two distinct dynastic names,

1. Wikyama (Vikrama) and
2. Warman (Varman).
The first dynasty, called the Wikyama (Vikrama) Dynasty, is believed by G.H.
Luce and Than Tun to have launched the Pyu calendar with the epochal date of 22 March
638, which later became the Burmese calendar, in 640 AD. Given the evidence for the
32
dating of Sri Ksetra to earlier than the seventh century, it is likely that Pyu kings existed
prior to names mentioned on the burial urns. Burmese chronicle sources, on the other
hand, suggest the Sri Ksetra dynasty was established in 444 BC by King Duttabaung,
however no archaeological evidence has been from this early date.
Pyu city-states--- c. 2nd century BCE–c. 1050

Theravada Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism, Tantric Buddhism
CAPITALS
1. Halin
2. Beikthano
3. Sri Ksetra
Historiography
1. Pyu city-states 200 BCE – 1050 CE-

a. (Sri Ksetra Kingdom, Tagaung
Kingdom)
2. Mon kingdoms 825?–1057? CE
a. (Thaton Kingdom)
3. Arakanese kingdoms 788?–1406
4. Pagan Kingdom 849–1297

a. Early Pagan Kingdom 849–1044
5. Warring states period
a. Upper Myanmar 1297–1555
i. Myinsaing and Pinya
Kingdoms 1297–1365
ii. Sagaing Kingdom 1315–1365
iii. Kingdom of Ava 1365–1555
iv. Prome Kingdom 1482–1542
b. Hanthawaddy Kingdom 1287–1539,
1550–1552
c. Shan States 1215–1563
d. Kingdom of Mrauk U 1429–1785
6. Toungoo dynasty 1510–1752
a. First Toungoo Empire 1510–1599
b. Nyaungyan Restoration 1599–1752
7. Restored Hanthawaddy 1740–1757
33
8. Konbaung dynasty 1752–1885
The Pyu city-states were a group of city-states that existed from about the 2nd
century BCE to the mid-11th century in present-day Upper Myanmar (Burma). The
city-states were founded as part of the southward migration by the Tibeto-Burman-
speaking Pyu people, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of whom records are
extant. The thousand-year period, often referred to as the Pyu millennium, linked
the Bronze Age to the beginning of the classical states period when the Pagan
Kingdom emerged in the late 9th century. Piu is a Sanskrit word that means Beloved or dear.
The major Pyu city-states were all located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper
Burma: the Mu River Valley, the Kyaukse plains and Minbu region, around the confluence of
the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers. Five major walled cities- Beikthano,
Maingmaw, Binnaka, Hanlin, and Sri Ksetra- and several smaller towns have been excavated
throughout the Irrawaddy River basin. Hanlin, founded in the 1st century AD, was the largest
and most important city until around the 7th or 8th century when it was superseded by Sri
Ksetra (near modern Pyay) at the southern edge of the Pyu Realm. Twice as large as Halin,
Sri Ksetra was eventually the largest and most influential Pyu centre. Only the city-states of
Halin, Beikthano and Sri Ksetra are designated as UNESCO World Heritage Sites, where the
other sites can be added in the future for an extension nomination.
The Pyu realm was part of an overland trade route between China and India. The Pyu culture
was heavily influenced by trade with India, importing Buddhism as well as other cultural,
architectural and political concepts, which would have an enduring influence on the political
organisation and culture of Burma.[4] The Pyu calendar, based on the Buddhist calendar, later
became the Burmese calendar. The Pyu script, based on the Brahmi script, may have been the
source of the Burmese script used to write the Burmese language.
The millennium-old civilisation came crashing down in the 9th century when the city-states
were destroyed by repeated invasions from the Kingdom of Nanzhao. The Bamar people set
up a garrison town at Bagan (Pagan) at the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers.
Pyu settlements remained in Upper Burma for the next three centuries but the Pyu gradually
were absorbed into the expanding Pagan Kingdom. The Pyu language still existed until the
late 12th century. By the 13th century, the Pyu had assumed the Burman ethnicity. The
histories and legends of the Pyu were also incorporated to those of the Bamar.
In about the 2nd century BCE, the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people began to enter
the Irrawaddy River Valley from present-day Yunnan using the Taping and Shweli Rivers.
The original home of the Pyu is reconstructed to be Qinghai Lake, which is located in the
present-day provinces of Qinghai and Gansu.[10] The Pyu, the earliest inhabitants of Burma of
whom records are extant, went on to found settlements throughout the plains region centred
on the confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin Rivers that has been inhabited since
the Paleolithic. The Pyu realm was longer than wide, stretching from Sri Ksetra in the south
to Halin in the north, Binnaka and Maingmaw to the east and probably Ayadawkye to the
west. The Tang dynasty's records report 18 Pyu states, nine of which were walled cities,
covering 298 districts
Archaeology
The Pyu were the earliest people in Southeast Asia to welcome in and adapt to Brahmic
scripts in order to record their tonal language, inventing tonal markers. The Pyu shared a type
of urbanism on a wide variety of scales. They had walled spaces with one side sealed by a
34
water tank or a tank outside of the walls. In late prehistory, the Pyu settled for quite some
time in Beikthano in the Yin River Valley than the Nawin River Valley at Sri Ksetra, because
they proved their skills of water control using irrigation systems depended on their good
knowledge of the conditions in each locality and area. According to Stargardt in “From the
Iron Age to early cities at Srikestra and Beikthano, Myanmar” Journal of Southeast Asian
Studies, all the archaeology found a lot of major inscriptions on stone in phy language
survive at Sri Kestra (Pyu), Hanlin and near Pinle (Hmainmaw), and Pagan (Bagan). They
have strong evidence on the people were living in that century between the third-fourth and
fifth-sixth centuries CE. All the record was nominated by World Heritage UNESCO and
other historians. In this article, it mentioned and written also "Pyu" were among the earlies
people in Southeast Asia. As Stargardt acknowledges in that article, "Sri Kestra" contained
fields, irrigation canals, water tanks and iron-working sites, as well as monuments, markets
(and elusive habitation areas) both inside and outside walls, all these halls also provide
evidence of a powerful belief system in the elaborate provision of the dead”. In that article,
the author adds upon his research in other's article, they also recorded old photo of founded
place which is already surveyed in nine major burial terraces outside the southern city walls,
old Buddhist monuments including the complex at "Beikthano" city and the queen
"Panhtwar" cemetery.
Decline of Pyu city-states
It was a long-lasting civilisation that lasted nearly a millennium to the early 9th century until
a new group of "swift horsemen" from the north, the (Mranma) (Burmans) of the Nanzhao
Kingdom entered the upper Irrawaddy valley through a series of raids. Finally, in 832, the
Nanzhao warriors overran the Pyu country, and took away 3000 Pyu prisoners from Halin.
However, the Pyu and their culture did not disappear just because 3000 of them were taken
away. The size of the Pyu realm and its many walled cities throughout the land indicates a
population many times over. Indeed, no firm indications at Sri Ksetra or at any other Pyu site
exist to suggest a violent overthrow. It is more likely that these raids significantly weakened
the Pyu states, enabling the Burmans to move into Pyu territories. The evidence shows that
the actual pace of Burman migration into the Pyu realm was gradual. Radiocarbon dating
shows that human activity existed until c. 870 at Halin, the subject of the 832 Nanzhao raid.
The Burmese chronicles claim the Burmans founded the fortified city of Pagan (Bagan) in
849 but the oldest radiocarbon dated evidence at Pagan (old walls) points to 980 CE while the
main walls point to circa 1020 CE, just 24 years earlier than the beginning of the reign
of Anawrahta, the founder of Pagan Empire.
Burmans had overtaken the leadership of the Pyu realm by the late 10th century, and went on
to found the Pagan Empire in the middle of the 11th century, unifying the Irrawaddy valley
and its periphery for the first time. Nonetheless, the Pyu had left an indelible mark on Pagan
whose Burman rulers would incorporate the histories and legends of the Pyu as their own.
The Burman kings of Pagan claimed descent from the kings of Sri Ksetra and Tagaung as far
back as 850 BCE—a claim dismissed by most modern scholars.
Pyu settlements remained in Upper Burma for the next three centuries but the Pyu gradually
were absorbed and assimilated into the expanding Pagan Empire. The Pyu language still
existed until the late 12th century but by the 13th century, the Pyu had assumed the Burman
ethnicity and disappeared into history.
35
City-states
Pyu realm circa 800 CE, before the advent of the Mranma
Of the 12 walled cities excavated thus far, five are the remains of largest Pyu states:
Beikthano, Maingmaw, Binnaka, Halin and Sri Ksetra.
Beikthano
Beikthano situated in the irrigated Minbu region (near present-day Taungdwingyi) with
direct land access to the well-watered Kyaukse plains to its northeast, is the oldest urban site
so far discovered and scientifically excavated site. Its remains—the structures, pottery,
artefacts, and human skeletons—date from 200 BCE to 100 CE. Named after the Hindu
god Vishnu, the city may be the first capital of a culturally and perhaps even politically
uniform state in the history of Burma. It was a large fortified settlement, measuring
approximately 300 hectares inside the rectangular (3 km × 1 km (1.86 mi × 0.62 mi)) walls.
The walls and fortifications along it measured 6 metres (20 ft) thick, and are radiocarbon
36
dated to a period between 180 BCE and 610 CE. Like most subsequent cities, the main
entrance of the walls led to the palace, which faced east. Stupas and monastic buildings have
also been excavated within the city walls.
Maingmaw, also called Mong Mao (not to be confused with Mong Mao), located in the
Kyaukse region, was circular in shape, and has tentatively been dated to the first millennium
BCE. It is also sometimes called Pinle after the village near its modern site in Myittha
Township and should not the confused with Pinle Pyu, a speculated Pyu city in Southern
Myanmar. At 2.5 km (1.6 mi) in diameter and 222 hectares, Maingmaw is one of the largest
ancient cities on the entire Kyaukse plains. It has two inner enclosure walls, the outer of
which is square while the inner one is circular. The plan of a circle within a square suggest a
zodiac sign which represents a view of the heavens from the perspective of the sun, the
manner in which 19th century Mandalay was also conceptualised. At almost dead centre, a
19th-century temple called Nandawya Paya, which was probably built upon the ruins of an
ancient one. The city is bisected by a canal, thought to be contemporary to the city, though no
scientific dating has confirmed it. Excavations—the first of which was carried out in 1979—
have unearthed many artefacts, including jewellery, silver coins, and funerary urns. Many of
the artefacts such as the coins and funerary urns are virtually identical to those found
Beikthano and Binnaka.
Binnaka was located in the Kyaukse region, and virtually identical to its neighbour
Maingmaw in numerous ways. Its brick structures shared the same floor plan as those found
at Beikthano and other Pyu sites. Excavations have recovered pre-Buddhist artefacts, gold
necklaces, precious stone images of elephants, turtles and lions, distinctive Pyu pottery,
terracotta tablets with writing that strongly resembled the Pyu script, and various kinds of
acid-etched onyx beads along with others made of amber and jade. Also excavated are
distinctive silver coins identical to those found at Beikthano and Binnaka, stone moulds for
casting silver and gold ornamental flowers, a gold armlet in association with a silver bowl
that has Pyu writing on it, and funerary urns virtually identical to those found Beikthano and
Binnaka.
Both Maingmaw and Binnaka may have been contemporary of Beikthano. The chronicles,
which do not mention Beikthano at all, do mention the two, though not specifically as Pyu
cities. The chronicles state that the ruler of Binnaka was responsible for the fall of Tagaung,
the city identified by the chronicles as the original home of Burmese speakers. [24] Binnaka
was inhabited until about the 19th century, according to a Konbaung era palm-
leaf sittan (record) discovered there.
Halin Burma
37
Halin
Halin or Halingyi, located in the Mu valley, one of the largest irrigated regions of
precolonial Burma, is the northernmost Pyu city so far discovered. The earliest artefacts of
Halin—city's wooden gates—are radiocarbon dated to 70 CE. The city was rectangular but
with curved corners, and brick-walled. Excavated walls are approximately 3.2 km (2.0 mi)
long on the north–south axis and 1.6 km (0.99 mi) on the east–west. At 664 hectares, the city
was nearly twice the size of Beikthano. It has four main gates at the cardinal points, and a
total of 12 gates, based on the zodiac. A river or canal ran through the city. Traces of a moat
exist on all sides except the south, where it was probably not needed, as land was dammed
there to create reservoirs.
This design of the city influenced the city planning of later Burmese cities and the Siamese
city of Sukhothai. For example, the number of gates and configuration was also found in
subsequent major Burmese capitals such as the 11th century Pagan and 19th century
Mandalay. The city's configuration was also found at other contemporary cities such as
Maingmaw and Beikthano in the Pyu realm and Danyawaddy and Wethali in Arakan as well
as later cities such as Sukhothai, which emerged over a millennium later. Structural remains
of temples at Halin show that the design of city's temples influenced the 11th to 13th century
temples at Pagan. Excavated artefacts point to Halin's Pyu script to be the earliest writing in
the Pyu realm (and in Burma). It was based on an earlier version of the Brahmi script
(Mauryan and Guptan). Inscriptions at Sri Ksetra show a later version of the same script.
Known for the production of salt, a highly prized commodity in the first millennium, Halin
was superseded by Sri Ksetra as the premier Pyu city-state circa 7th century. By the Chinese
accounts, Halin remained an important Pyu centre until the 9th century when the Pyu realm
came under repeated attacks from the Nanzhao Kingdom. The Chinese records state that the
city was destroyed by the Nanzhao warriors in 832 CE, with 3000 of its inhabitants taken
away. However, radiocarbon dating reveals human activity to about 870 CE, nearly four
decades after the reported sack of the city.
Sri Ksetra KINGNGDOM
38
Bawbawgyi Pagoda at Sri Ksetra, prototype of Pagan-era pagodas
Sri Ksetra or Thaye Khittaya lit., "Field of Fortune" or "Field of Glory", located 8 km
(5.0 mi) southeast of Prome (Pyay) at present-day Hmawza village, was the last and
southernmost Pyu capital. The city was founded between the 5th and 7th centuries, although
during two of the recent excavations, January to February 2015 and December 2015 to
February 2016, led by Janice Stargardt in Yahanda mound at Sri Ksetra, sherds stamped with
Buddhist motifs were found, dated from c. 340 +/- 30 CE. and Pyu culture cremation burials
around 270 +/- 30 CE. Sri Ksetra likely overtook Halin as the premier Pyu city by the 7th or
8th century, and retained that status until the Mranma arrived in the 9th century. The city was
home to at least two dynasties, and maybe three. The first dynasty, called the Vikrama
Dynasty, is believed to have launched the Pyu calendar, which later became the Burmese
calendar, on 22 March 638. The second dynasty was founded by King Duttabaung on 25
March 739 (11th waxing of Tagu 101 ME).
Sri Ksetra is the largest Pyu site discovered thus far. (Only Beikthano and Sri Ksetra have
been extensively excavated. Other important Pyu cities as Maingmaw and Binnaka could
yield more artefacts with more extensive excavations.) It occupied a larger area than that of
the 11th century Pagan or 19th century Mandalay. Circular in design, Sri Ksetra was more
than 13 km (8.1 mi) in circumference and three to four km across, or about 1400 hectares of
occupied area. The city's brick walls were 4.5 metres (15 ft) high, and had 12 gates with
huge devas (deities) guarding the entrances and a pagoda at each of the four corners.
Sri Ksetra
It also has curving gateways, such as those found at Halin and Beikthano. In the centre of the
city was what most scholars think represented the rectangular palace site, 518 by 343 metres
(1,699 ft × 1,125 ft), symbolising both a mandala and a zata (horoscope), like in Maingmaw.
Only the southern half of the city was taken up by the palace, monasteries and houses; the
39
entire northern half consisted of rice fields. Together with the moats and walls, this
arrangement ensured that the city could withstand a long siege by enemies.
Sri Ksetra was an important entrepôt between China and India. It was located on the
Irrawaddy, not far from the sea as the Irrawaddy delta had not yet been formed. Ships from
the Indian Ocean could come up to Prome to trade with the Pyu realm and China. [26] Trade
with India brought deep cultural contacts. Sri Ksetra has yielded the most extensive remains
of Theravada Buddhism. Religious art suggests several distinct occupations with earlier
influences stemming from Southeast India and later influences from Southwest India while
9th century influences include those from the Nanzhao Kingdom. [29] Much of the Chinese
account of the Pyu states was through Sri Ksetra. Chinese pilgrims Xuanzang in 648
and Yijing in 675 mentioned Sri Ksetra in their accounts of Buddhist kingdoms of Southeast
Asia. The Tang histories mention the arrival at the court of an embassy from the Pyu capital
in 801
Tagaung Kingdom
A small but politically significant Pyu site is Tagaung located in Tagaung, Mandalay
Region (about 200-km north of Mandalay) where Pyu artefacts including funerary urns have
been excavated. Tagaung pottery is similar in size and cluster positions to other Pyu vessels
but is otherwise very different to those further south. This may indicate a degree of influence
from other sources or that it is markedly different from the central Pyu culture. [32] The
significance of Tagaung is due to the fact that the Burmese chronicles identify Tagaung as the
home of the first Burmese kingdom. Aside from Beikthano and Sri Ksetra, most Pyu sites
have not seen extensive or any excavation.
Pinle
The lost city described as Pinle Pyu -'Sea Pyu' is recorded as being located next to the sea.
Unlike many other small Pyu sites, the city is speculated to be large in size located
downstream from Sri Ksetra.
Some archaeologists believe that ruins near Ingapu, Ayeyarwady Region may be the location
of Pinle Pyu. Historian Phone Tint Kyaw led a team to study the area in 2009 and concluded
the site may be a Pyu site based on the use of Brahmi script , a script that dates towards the
third century BC, and the architectural similarities to other Pyu sites, particularly a site
in Shwedaung, Bago Region further up the Irrawaddy River. The ancient site itself was built
symmetrically on a mountain ridge designed around stupas and water features. Based on its
scale and the administrative societal structures of the Pyu period, the city would have been
built by a monarch, rather than a feudal lord. Its absence in the Bagan Kingdom's fourth
period records also indicates that the city likely fell into ruin well before the 11th century
AD. However, more evidence and investigation is required to analyze the ancient artifacts
found in the site.[35] Finds from another site nearby include paleolithic tools and fossilized
footprints, indicate that the overall area may be older than other Pyu sites.
Smaller Settlements
The New History of the Tang states the kigdom of Mi-ch'en sent an embassy to China in 805,
and was attacked by Nanchao in 835.
Many Pyu settlements have been found across Upper Burma in Myinmu Township, near the
mouth of the Mu river. One notable site is Ayadawkye Ywa in the Mu valley west of Halin
lies south of another recently discovered Bronze Age site called Nyaunggan. Further south
in Myingyan Township, west of Maingmaw, the Wati site (also spelled Wa Tee) is the
remnants of a circular walled city.
40
There were also Pyu settlements in Lower Burma that may have been ignored or overlooked
by the historical records aimed at legitimizing Upper Burmese kings' lineage. The Sagara
(Thagara) site in Dawei is one such site comparable to Tagaung. Archaeological excavations
in 2001 revealed several artifacts including terracotta urns in rice fields southeast of the
walled site. Near Sagara, the site of Mokti has also revealed similar artifacts. The stupa in
Sagara and votive tablets found at the site of Mokti are considered to have many 'Pyu'
cultural traits but other artifacts show evidence of many cultural influences.
Economy
Agriculture
The economy of the Pyu city states was based on agriculture and trade. All important Pyu
settlements were located in the three main irrigated regions of Upper Burma, centred on the
confluence of the Irrawaddy and Chindwin rivers: Halin in the Mu valley, Maingmaw and
Binnaka in the Kyaukse plains, finally Beikthano and Sri Ksetra at or near the Minbu district.
[25]
(The irrigation projects of the Pyu were later picked up by the Burmans.
King Anawrahta of Pagan would build irrigation projects in these three regions in the 1050s
to turn them into the main rice granaries of Upper Burma. They would give Upper Burma an
enduring economic base from which to dominate the Irrawaddy valley and its periphery in the
following centuries.[38]) The Pyu grew rice, perhaps of the Japonica variety.[39]
Trade[edit]
The Pyu realm was an important trading centre between China and India in the first
millennium CE. Two main trading routes passed through the Pyu states. As early as 128
BCE, an overland trade route between China and India existed across the northern Burma. An
embassy from the Roman Empire to China passed through this route in 97 CE and again in
120 CE.[40] But the majority of the trade was conducted by sea through the southern Pyu
states, which at the time were located not far from the sea as much of the Irrawaddy delta had
not yet been formed, and as far south as upper Tenasserim coast towns such as Winga,
Hsindat-Myindat, Sanpannagon and Mudon where Pyu artefacts have been found. (It is
insufficient to conclude however that the Pyu had administrative and military control over
these upper Tenasserim coastal towns.)[41] The ports connected the overland trade route to
China via present-day Yunnan.
The trading area of the Pyu states spanned across the present-day Southeast Asia, South Asia
and China. Artifacts from the 2nd century northwest India to Java and the Philippines have
been found at Beikthano.[41] Likewise, Pyu artefacts have been found along the coasts
of Arakan, Lower Burma, and as far east as Óc Eo (in present-day southern Vietnam).[42] The
Pyu also conducted trade and diplomatic relations with China. In 800 and 801–802, Sri
Ksetra sent a formal embassy, along with 35 musicians to the Tang court. According to the
Chinese, the Pyu used gold and silver coinage. But only silver coins have survived.[43]
Currency[edit]
A notable feature of the Pyu states is the minting and use of silver coinage. Originated in the
Pegu area, these coins date from the 5th century and were the model for most first
millennium coinage in mainland Southeast Asia. The earliest type of these coins is not
inscribed and depicts a conch on one side and a Srivatsa on the other. Many of the coins had a
small hole along the perimeter, and may have also been used as amulets. Remarkably, after
the use of coins ceased at the end of Pyu period in the late 9th century, coins did not reappear
in the Burmese kingdoms until the 19th century.[18]
Culture[edit]
Religion[edit]
41
Avalokiteśvara holding a lotus flower. Bihar, 9th century, CE. The
Pyu followed a mix of religious traditions.
The culture of Pyu city states was heavily influenced by India. Indian culture was most
visible in the southern Pyu realm through which most trade with India was conducted by sea.
The names of southernmost cities were in Pali or Sanskrit derived like Sri Ksetra (Thaye
Khittaya) and Vishnu (Beikthano). The kings at Sri Ksetra titled themselves as Varmans and
Varma. It was not just a southern phenomenon. To varying degrees, northern Pyu cities and
towns also became under the sway of Indian culture. The Burmese chronicles claim that the
founding kings of Tagaung were descended from no less than the Sakya clan of
the Buddha himself.[44][45]
By the 4th century, most of the Pyu had become predominantly Buddhist, though
archaeological finds prove that their pre-Buddhist practices remained firmly entrenched in the
following centuries. According to the excavated texts, as well as the Chinese records, the
predominant religion of the Pyu was Theravada Buddhism. The Theravada school prevalent
in the Pyu realm was probably derived from the Andhra region in southeast India, associated
with the famous Theravada Buddhist scholar, Buddhagosa.[44][45] It was the predominant
Theravada school in Burma until the late 12th century when Shin Uttarajiva led the
realignment with Ceylon's Mahavihara school.[46]
The archaeological finds also indicate a widespread presence of Tantric
Buddhism, Mahayana Buddhism and Hinduism. Avalokiteśvara (Lokanatha)
(called Lawkanat in Burmese; လောကနတ် [lɔ́ka̰ naʔ]), Tara, Manusi Buddhas, Vaiśravaṇa,
and Hayagriva, all prominent in Mahayana Buddhism, were very much part of Pyu (and later
the Pagan) iconography scene. Various Hindu Brahman iconography ranging from the Hindu
trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, to Garuda and Lakshmi have been found, especially in
Lower Burma.[44]
Non-Theravada practices such as ceremonial cattle sacrifice and alcohol consumption were
main stays of the Pyu life. Likewise, the greater prominence of nuns and female students than
in the later eras may point to pre-Buddhist notions of female autonomy. [47] In melding of their
pre-Buddhist practices to Buddhist ones, they placed the remains of their cremated dead in
pottery and stone urns and buried them in or near isolated stupas, a practice consistent with
early Buddhist practices of interring the remains of holy personages in stupas.[48]
Though their religious beliefs was a syncretic mix of many backgrounds, probably like in the
early Pagan period, the outlook of the Pyu reportedly was largely peaceful. Tang Chinese
records[which?][citation needed] describe the Pyu as a humane and peaceful people to whom war was
42
virtually unknown and who wore silk cotton instead of actually silk so that they would not
have to kill silk worms, and that many Pyu boys entered the monastic life at seven to the age
of 20.[2][49] To be sure, this peaceful description by the Chinese was a snapshot of the Pyu
realm, and may not represent the life in the city-states in general.
Language and script[edit]
Main articles: Pyu language (Burma) and Pyu script
The Myazedi inscription c. 1112–1113 in Pyu

The Pyu language was a Tibeto-Burman language, related to Old Burmese. But it apparently
co-existed with Sanskrit and Pali as the court language. The Chinese records state that the 35
musicians that accompanied the Pyu embassy to the Tang court in 800–802 played music and
sang in the Fan (Sanskrit) language. Many of the important inscriptions were written in
Sanskrit and/or Pali, alongside the Pyu script. Recent scholarship, though yet not settled,
suggests that the Pyu script, based on the Brahmi script, may have been the source of
the Burmese script used to write the Burmese language.[6] The Pyu sites have yielded a wide
variety of Indian scripts from King Ashoka's edicts written in north Indian Brahmi and Tamil
Brahmi, both dated to the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE, to the Gupta script and Kannada
script dated to the 4th to 6th centuries CE.[50][51]
Calendar[edit]
In addition to religion, the Pyu also imported science and astronomical expertise from India.
The Chinese records also report that the Pyu knew how to make astronomical calculations.
[2]
The Pyu calendar was based on the Buddhist calendar. There were two eras in use. The
first was the Sakra Era, which was adopted in the Pyu realm in 80 CE, just two years after the
new era had come into use in India. A second calendar was adopted at Sri Ksetra in 638,
superseding the Sakra Era. The calendar, the first day of which was 22 March 638, later
became the Burmese calendar, and is still in use in present-day Myanmar. (The existence of
two Pyu calendars has been cause for dispute among scholars trying interpret the dates on the
finds.)[52]
Architecture[edit]
Irrigation structures[edit]
The Pyu-era architectural practices greatly influenced later Pagan and Burmese architecture.
The techniques of building dams, canals and weirs found in pre-colonial Upper Burma trace
their origins to the Pyu era and the Pagan era. (Burmans likely introduced new water
management methods, especially the canal building techniques which became the prevailing
method of irrigation in the Pagan era.)[39]
City planning[edit]
43
The Pyu city plans, consisted of square/rectangles and circles, were a mix of indigenous and
Indian designs. It is believed that circular patterns inside the cities were Pyu while the
rectangle or square shape of the outer walls and the use of 12 gates were Indian in origin.
According to historian Cooler, "the adoption of Indian concepts of city planning incorporated
a belief in the efficacy of the world axis that connects the centermost point in a properly
constructed Mandala city with the city of the Gods above (Tavatimsa heaven) in order to
assure prosperity throughout the kingdom below".[18] Pyu-era city practices were the
forefathers of the latter-day Burmese city and palace designs down to the 19th century
Mandalay.[53]
Temple design[edit]
Shwezigon Pagoda (built in the 11th century) at Pagan,

based on earlier Pyu design
From the 4th century onward, the Pyu built many Buddhist stupas and other religious
buildings. The styles, ground plans, even the brick size and construction techniques of these
buildings point to the Andhra region, particularly Amaravati and Nagarjunakonda in present-
day southeastern India. Some evidence of Ceylonese contact is seen by the presence of
Anuradhapura style "moonstones" discovered at Beikthano and Halin. By perhaps the 7th
century, tall cylindrical stupas such as the Bawbawgyi, Payagyi and Payama had emerged at
Sri Ksetra.[53]
The Pyu architecture greatly influenced later Burmese Buddhist temple designs. For example,
temples at Sri Ksetra such as the Bebe and Lemyethna were prototypes for the later hollow
(gu) temples of Pagan. The floor plan of the 13th century Somingyi Monastery at Pagan was
largely identical to that of a 4th-century monastery at Beikthano. The solid stupas of Sri
Ksetra were in turn prototypes for Pagan's such as the Shwezigon, Shwehsandaw,
and Mingalazedi, and ultimately, the Shwedagon in modern Yangon.[53]
The city-states were mainly populated by the Tibeto-Burman-speaking Pyu people, who like
their cousins Burmans are believed to have migrated from the present Qinghai and Gansu
provinces in north-central China, via Yunnan.[10][54][55] Extensive external trade attracted
sizeable communities of Indians and the Mon, especially in the south. In the north, trickles of
Burmans may have entered the Pyu realm from Yunnan as early as the 7th century. (Modern
scholarship however holds that Burmans did not arrive in large numbers until the mid-to-late
9th century, and perhaps as late as the 10th century, according to radiocarbon dating of
Pagan's walls.)
The size of population of the Pyu realm was probably a few hundred thousand, given that the
17th and 18th century Burma (about the size of present-day Myanmar) only had about
2 million people and ruled by independent chiefs whom later styled themselves as kings, and
established courts largely modelled after the Indian (Hindu) concepts of monarchy.
Not all Hindu concepts such as divine kingship were fully adopted due to the presence of
Theravada Buddhism. It is not clear if a vassalage-overlord relationship existed between the
larger city-states and smaller towns. The Burmese chronicles mention alliances between the
states such as one between Beikthano and Sri Ksetra. By and large, each Pyu city-state
appeared to have controlled just the city itself.
44
The large size of the Pyu cities (660 to 1400 hectares) vis-a-vis Pagan (only 140 hectares)
suggests that much of the population resided within the walls, as corroborated by the Chinese
records. Archaeology in Pagan produced Pyu artefacts across a number of the settlements in
the enclosed complex dating to the first millennium, until approximately 1100 C.E. when a
shift to a monument-rich state and diffusion beyond walled boundaries is evident.
Current status of the finds
Aside from Sri Ksetra and Beikthano, the rest of the Pyu sites have not been extensively
excavated. The care of the sites falls under the purview of the Ministry of Culture's
Department of Archaeology. In November 2011, the Department reportedly was planning a
museum at Sri Ksetra, and working with the UNESCO to gain recognition for Sri Ksetra,
Beikthano and Halin as World Heritage Sites and the three old cities were recognised as
World Heritage Sites in 2014.
Tagaung Kingdom was a Pyu city-state that existed in the first millennium CE. In 1832, the
hitherto semi-legendary state was officially proclaimed the first kingdom of Burmese
monarchy by Hmannan Yazawin, the Royal Chronicle of the Konbaung
dynasty. Hmannan adds that the "kingdom" was founded by Abhiyaza of the Sakya clan of
the Buddha in 850 BCE, and that through Abiyaza, Burmese monarchs traced their lineage to
the Buddha and the first Buddhist (mythical) king of the world Maha Sammata.
[1]
Hmannan also introduces another Sakya prince Dazayaza who founded the second
Tagaung dynasty c. 600 BCE. The narrative superseded then prevailing pre-Buddhist origin
story in which the monarchy was founded by a descendant of a solar spirit and a dragon
princess.
Archaeological evidence indicates that Neolithic and Bronze Age cultures existed at
Tagaung, and a city-state founded by the Pyu emerged in the early centuries CE. The
chronicles, which likely represent the social memory of the times, repeatedly mention
multiple competing groups and migrations that Tagaung and the entire Pyu realm experienced
in the first millennium CE. The city-state became part of the Pagan Empire in the mid-1050s.
Legend
Map of northern India in the late Vedic period. The

location of Vedic shakhas is labelled in green.
Out of India
Tagaung came to be featured prominently in an effort by the early Konbaung kings to link the
origins of Burmese monarchy to the Buddha, and ultimately the first king of the world
in Buddhist mythology, Maha Sammata. Hmannan states that Prince Abhiyaza (Abhiraja)
of Kingdom of Kosala of the Sakya clan —the clan of the Buddha and Maha Sammata—and
his followers left their homeland, following a military defeat against their
neighbouring Kingdom of Panchala . They settled and founded a kingdom at Tagaung in
present-day northern Burma at the upper banks of the Irrawaddy river in 850 BCE.
First Tagaung dynasty
45
Hmannan does not claim that Abhiyaza had arrived in an empty land, only that he was the
first king. He had two sons, and died after a 25-year reign at Tagaung. The elder son Kanyaza
Gyi lost the throne to his younger brother Kanyaza Nge . Kanyaza Gyi ventured south, and
founded his own kingdom at Arakan in 825 BCE. Kanyaza Nge succeeded his father, and
was followed by a dynasty of 31 kings. Circa 600 BCE, Taruk marauders from Gandhara
sacked the city. (The invaders were from Yunnan. Taruk refers to the Mongo Tartar in
modern Burmese but in Old Burmese, it referred to anyone from the northeast. Gandhara was
the classical name of Yunnan adopted by the Buddhist kingdoms there) The 33rd king of
Abhiyaza line, King Binnaka Yaza was killed.
Monarchs of the Second Tagaung Dynasty
Hmannan continues that the fall of Tagaung led to tripartite division of the population. One
group moved down and settled at Thunapayanta which was then inhabited
by Pyus, Kanyans and Thets. Another group went southeast, and founded what would later be
known as the 19 districts of Kyaukse. They became known as the Binnaka line.
[4]
(Thunapayanta was located near present-day Pagan (Bagan), and the primary Pyu city-state
in Kyaukse was Maingmaw.[7]) A third group led by Naga Hsein, the queen of Binnaka Yaza,
remained at Tagaung.
The queen then met Dazayaza (Dhajaraja), of royal Sakya lineage who had recently settled in
Mauriya (somewhere in Upper Burma). She married him. Dazayaza and Naga Hsein built a
new capital at Old Pagan, close to Tagaung. A dynasty of 16 kings followed. Some time after
483 BCE, invaders from the east sacked the kingdom during the reign of Thado Maha Yaza,
the 17th and last king.
Tagaung legacy and linkage to later Burmese dynasties
But the Sakya lineage had not died out, Hmannan continues. In 503 BCE, the queen of the
last king of Tagaung, Thado Maha Yaza gave birth to twin blind sons, Maha
Thanbawa and Sula Thanbawa. The king was ashamed, and ordered them killed. The queen
hid her sons, and raised them in secret. Nineteen years later, in 484 BCE, the king found out
that the brothers were still alive, and again ordered them killed. The queen managed to put
the sons on a raft down the Irrawaddy. Adrift in the river, the brothers miraculously gained
sight with the help of the ogress.
In 483 BCE, the brothers founded another kingdom much farther down the Irrawaddy at Sri
Ksetra, near modern Pyay (Prome). Maha Thanbawa was the first king and ruled for six
years. He was followed by Sula Thanbawa, ruling for 35 years. He was followed by King
Duttabaung, son of Maha Thanbawa. Duttabaung ruled for 70 years. [11] In all, Sri Ksetra
lasted nearly six centuries.[5]
Around 107 CE, Thamoddarit, nephew of the last king of Sri Ksetra, founded the city
of Pagan (Bagan) (formally, Arimaddana-pura, lit. "the City that Tramples on Enemies").
[12]
The site reportedly was visited by the Buddha himself during his lifetime, and it was
where he allegedly pronounced that a great kingdom would arise at this very location 651
years after his death. Thamoddarit was followed by a caretaker, and then Pyusawhti in 167
CE. The connection to the Pagan dynasty was important because all later Burmese
dynasties, Myinsaing to Konbaung claimed lineage to the monarchs of Pagan.
The Abhiyaza story first appeared in Hmannan Yazawin (the Glass Palace Chronicle),
compiled in 1832. The Burmese chronicles down to the early 18th century, including Maha
Yazawin (the Great Chronicle) written in 1724, upon which Hmannan is heavily based, do
not mention Abhiyaza. Instead, the pre-Hmannan origin story of the Burmese monarchy
speaks of one Pyusawhti, son a solar spirit and a dragon princess, who later founded
46
the Pagan dynasty. Moreover, the Abhiyaza/Dazayaza stories were layered upon the oral
histories/legends of Tagaung and Sri Ksetra.
Historians trace the rise of Abhiyaza/Dazayaza stories to the 1770s, part of the early
Konbaung kings' efforts to promote a more orthodox version of Theravada Buddhism. The
trend gained ground under King Bodawpaya (r. 1782–1819) who, like his father Alaungpaya,
believed that he was the next Buddha, Maitreya. Though the king would later reluctantly gave
up his claim and acceded to his late father's claim, his purification drive devalued "local
sources of sanctity" in favour of "universal textual forms endorsed by the crown and
the monkhood", and "outlawed animal sacrifices atop Mt. Popa and other sacred sites while
female and transvestite shamans lost status." In the reign of his successor Bagyidaw in 1832,
the pre-Buddhist origin story of Pyusawhti was officially superseded with the Abhiyaza
story's "claims of royal descent from the clan of Gotama Buddha and thence the first
Buddhist king of the world, Maha Sammata".
The Chinese history book Yuanshi also recorded the name "Tagaung. But it just a small town
in north Burma. Chinese historian stated the name "Taruk" is evolved from Turk, thus the
Chinese invasion happened in 13 century known as First Mongol invasion of Burma. G. E.
Harvey said that it was probably Nanzhao's invasion in 754 AD. Anyway, Hmannan
Yazawin move it up to 6 BCE and became the history of Tagaung.
The late inclusion of Abhiyaza/Dazayaza stories did much damage to the credibility of the
chronicles to the European historians of the British colonial era. They outright dismissed
much of the chronicle tradition of early Burmese history as "copies of Indian legends taken
from Sanskrit or Pali originals", highly doubted the antiquity of the chronicle tradition, and
dismissed the possibility that any sort of civilisation in Burma could be much older than 500
CE.
Pyu city-states circah century

The Abhiyaza myth notwithstanding, evidence does indicate that many of the places
mentioned in the royal records have indeed been inhabited continuously for at least 3500
years. Neolithic and Bronze Age artefacts discovered at Kyan Hnyat (30 km south of
Tagaung) confirm human habitation at Tagaung in the same era (1st millennium BCE) of
both Tagaung dynasties reported in pre-Hmannan chronicles. To be sure, evidence of human
habitation is not the same as that of a city-state. Extant evidence indicates that Tagaung
47
emerged as a city-state (a triple-walled emerged as a city-state site on the east bank of the
Irrawaddy) only in the "early centuries CE". (However, Tagaung has not been extensively
excavated, and earlier evidence may yet emerge. Aside from Sri Ksetra and Beikthano, the
rest of the Pyu sites have not been extensively excavated.) Moreover, the states of Tagaung,
Sri Ksetra and Pagan all existed in the order, though not in the discrete fashion reported in the
chronicles. They were contemporary to each other for long periods.
Per extant
Period
State archaeological Notes
per Hmannan
evidence
After 483 BCE,

Tagaung next
c. 1st/2nd
appeared in the
Tagaung 850 – 483 BCE century – 11th
chronicles in 1061 CE,
century CE
and in 1364 CE as
cursory mentions.
c. 5th/7th Sri Ksetra then

483 BCE – 94
Sri Ksetra century – 11th became
CE
century CE modern Pyay (Prome)
c. 849/876 –
Pagan 107 – 1298 CE
1297 CE
The chronicles' pre-Buddhist stories represent the "social memory" of the times. [20] The "Pyu
realm" was inhabited by different ethnic groups such as Thet Kadu (Sak Kantu), Kyan
(Chin), Tircul (mainline Pyu). And the times were in flux evidenced by the repeated mentions
in the chronicles of ruptures and movement of groups to different regions. Tagaung existed as
a city-state until the early 11th century when it, according to G.H. Luce, was the "eastern
capital" of the Kadu people. But Htin Aung disagrees with Luce's "theory", pointing out that
there is no evidence to warrant the assertion. At any rate, the city-state then was conquered by
the Pagan Empire in the mid-1050s. It was one of the 43 forts established by
King Anawrahta in 1061.
48

The Mystery of Sanskrit Names of Buddhist Lands

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The Mystery of Sanskrit names of Buddhist lands

LORD SURYA AND HIS CHARIOT :

Adityas - The 12 Solar gods :

Ansh (Due share),

Chariot of the Sun-God :

आ कृष्णेन् रजसा वर्तमानो निवेशयन्न अमृतं मर्त्यं च ।

Throughout the dusky firmament advancing,

A seven-named horse draws the three naved wheel,

The Surya Siddhant further states:

Origin and Development of Sanskrit

Timeline of the world’s oldest languages spoken today

The world’s 10 oldest languages in the world

1. Egyptian – 2690 BC (circa. 4700 years old)

2. Sanskrit – 1500 BC (circa. 3500 years old)

Researchers think some individuals list it as a sort of aspirational mother tongue.

3. Greek – 1450 BC (circa. 3500 years old)

4. Chinese – 1250 BC (circa. 3300 years old)

5. Aramaic – 1100 BC (circa. 3100 years old)

8. Tamil – 300 BC (circa. 2300 years old)

A Sanskrit-English dictionary, etymologically and philologically arranged, with special reference to

Sanskrit is a language which is mother of all languages. Sanskrit, S-a-n-s-k-r-i-t, Sanskrit

The Prot-Indo-European Language-PIE

What are these languages?

1 Indo- Divided into Indic (Indo-Aryan) comprising of

3 Slavic Russian, Polish, Serbo-Croatia, etc.

6 Celtic Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Welsh, and Breton;

7 Italic Latin and its descendants.

8 Romance Italian, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Romanian and

9 Germanic, German, English, Dutch, and the Scandinavian

10. Anatolian Hittite, Palaic, and Lydian, Cuneiform Luwian,

11 Tocharian Also called Tocharish, was spoken in northern Chinese

The Origins of PIE

Evaluation of the East European connection of Sanskrit

1. There was a Proto- Indo-European language somewhere in the Caucasian Region.

The Principalities of CHAMPA with Sanskrit names of Hindu Gods

Banh It Towers/Duong Long Towers

Yanpunagara ( today’s Kauthara)

Ruins of the Mỹ Sơn Sanctuary

In 653, king Prakasadharman (r. 653–686) ascended the crown as Vikrantavarman I of

 Hariharalaya. (early 9th cent.) The dwelling plave of HARI(Shiva)

• Earliest Pyu c. 2nd century BCE

• Beikthano founded c. 180 BCE IV

• Burmese 22 March 638

• 2nd Sri Ksetra 25 March 739

• Rise of Pagan c. 1050

Ksetra (B c. 3rd to 9th century CE–c. 1050s)

There are 2 issues surrounging this area .

Current inscriptional evidence indicate two distinct dynastic names,

Pyu city-states--- c. 2nd century BCE–c. 1050

1. Pyu city-states 200 BCE – 1050 CE-

4. Pagan Kingdom 849–1297

Sri Ksetra KINGNGDOM

The Myazedi inscription c. 1112–1113 in Pyu

Shwezigon Pagoda (built in the 11th century) at Pagan,

Map of northern India in the late Vedic period. The

Pyu city-states circah century

After 483 BCE,

c. 5th/7th Sri Ksetra then

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