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Strategic Management and Business Policy, 14e (Wheelen)
Chapter 6 Strategy Formulation: Situation Analysis and Business Strategy
1) SWOT is an acronym that stands for Strategy, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats.
Answer: FALSE
Difficulty: Easy
Chapter Objective: Organize environmental and organizational information using a SWOT
approach and the SFAS matrix
2) SWOT analysis by itself is not a panacea for strategy.

Answer: TRUE
Difficulty: Moderate
3) The goal is to find a propitious niche so well suited to the firm's internal and external
environment that other corporations are not likely to challenge or dislodge it.
Answer: TRUE
4) The first firm through a strategic window can occupy a propitious niche and discourage
competition (if the firm has the required internal strengths).
Answer: TRUE
AACSB: Reflective Thinking
5) One company that has successfully found a propitious niche is Frank J. Zamboni & Company,
the manufacturer of the machines that smooth the ice at ice skating rinks.
Answer: TRUE
Difficulty: Difficult
AACSB: Analytical Thinking
6) Niches can grow and change over time.

Answer: TRUE
1
Copyright © 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
7) If a mission does not provide a common thread for a corporation's businesses, managers might
be unclear about where the company is heading.
Answer: TRUE
AACSB: Application of Knowledge
8) The TOWS Matrix illustrates how the external opportunities and threats facing a particular
corporation can be matched with that company's internal strengths and weaknesses to result in
four sets of possible strategic alternatives.
Answer: TRUE
9) SO strategies attempt to take advantage of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses.

Answer: FALSE
10) Business strategy focuses on improving the competitive position of a company's or business
unit's products or services within the specific industry or market segment that the company or
business unit serves.
Answer: TRUE
Difficulty: Easy
Chapter Objective: Understand the competitive and cooperative strategies available to
corporations
11) Cost leadership is the ability of a company or business unit to design, produce, and market a
comparable product more efficiently than its competitors.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
12) A cost leader's lower costs allow it to continue to earn profits during times of heavy
competition.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
2
13) An example of a company following a cost focus strategy is Potlach Corporation, who makes
house brands of toilet paper for Safeway and other grocery store chains.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
14) One risk of a cost leadership strategy is that the technology for production or of products
may change.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
15) An example of a company that was "stuck in the middle" is K-Mart as they tried to imitate
both Walmart's low-cost strategy and Target's differentiation strategy.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
16) Based on the eight dimensions of quality discussed in the text, serviceability is defined as the
product's ease of repair.
Answer: TRUE
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
17) Most entrepreneurial ventures follow focus strategies.

Answer: TRUE
corporations
18) The strategic rollup was developed in the mid-1990s as an efficient way to quickly
consolidate a fragmented industry with the resulting large firm creating economies of scale.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
3
19) Rollups are not synonymous with traditional mergers and acquisitions.
Answer: TRUE
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
20) One danger of D'Aveni's concept of hypercompetition is that it may lead to an overemphasis
on short-term tactics over long-term strategy.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
21) One skill required of the cost leadership strategy is a strong marketing ability.
Answer: FALSE
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
22) Tight cost control is an organizational requirement for a cost leadership strategy.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
23) The only way to gain competitive advantage within an industry is to use a competitive
strategy.
Answer: FALSE
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
24) Alliances take more financial resources and involve more risk than do acquisitions and going
it alone.
Answer: FALSE
corporations
25) Those companies using cooperative strategies are generally not able to gain a competitive
advantage.
4
Answer: FALSE
corporations
26) The two general types of cooperative strategies are collusion and strategic alliances.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
27) In tacit collusion, there is no direct communication among competing firms.

Answer: TRUE
corporations
AACSB: Ethical Understanding and Reasoning
28) Collusion is the active cooperation of firms within an industry to reduce output and raise
prices in order to get around the normal economic law of supply and demand.
Answer: TRUE
corporations
29) Too much partnering experience with the same strategic partners generates diminishing
returns over time and leads to reduced performance.
Answer: TRUE
Chapter Objective: Identify the basic types of strategic alliances
30) A licensing arrangement is an agreement in which the licensing firm grants rights to another
firm in another country or market to produce and/or sell a product.
Answer: TRUE
Difficulty: Easy
31) A value chain partnership is a loose alliance with several distributors for the short term.
Answer: FALSE
5
32) One success factor to a strategic alliance is the ability to identify likely partnering risks and
deal with them when the alliance is formed.
Answer: TRUE
33) The concept that advocates management's attempt to find a strategic fit between external
opportunities and internal strengths while working around external threats and internal
weaknesses is called
A) environmental analysis.
B) position analysis.
C) strategic evaluation.
D) objective analysis.
E) situation analysis.
Answer: E
Difficulty: Easy
34) The particular capabilities and resources a firm possesses and the superior way in which they
are used is called
A) differentiating capabilities.
B) distinctive competencies.
C) situational proficiency.
D) core competencies.
E) distinctive characteristics.
Answer: B
35) An acronym for the assessment of the external and internal environments of the business
corporation in the process of strategy formulation/strategic planning is
A) PET.
B) MBO.
C) SWOT.
D) SBU.
E) ROI.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
6
36) The T in SWOT represents
A) threat.
B) tactic.
C) tautology.
D) task.
E) time.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
37) The text authors note that the essence of strategy is

A) opportunity divided by strengths minus weaknesses.
B) strength divided by opportunity.
C) threat divided by capacity.
D) threat divided by opportunity.
E) opportunity divided by threat.
Answer: A
38) All of the following reflect criticisms of the SWOT analysis EXCEPT
A) it uses no weights to reflect priorities.
B) it only requires a single level of analysis.
C) it provides a rational link to strategy implementation.
D) it uses ambiguity in words and phrases.
E) it generates lengthy lists.
Answer: C
39) In the development of a SFAS matrix, the first step is to

A) enter the ratings of how the company's management is responding to each of the strategic
factors.
B) calculate the weighted scores.
C) list the most important EFAS and IFAS items.
D) indicate short-term goals for the duration.
E) enter the weights for all of the internal factors.
Answer: C
7
40) A corporation's specific competitive role which is so well-suited to the firm's internal and
external environment that other corporations are NOT likely to challenge or dislodge it.
A) strategic fit
B) propitious niche
C) common thread
D) business screen
E) implicit strategy
Answer: B
41) According to the text, unique market opportunities that are available for only a particular
time are called
A) situational occasions.
B) critical openings.
C) strategy implementation.
D) strategic windows.
E) trigger points.
Answer: D
42) One company that has successfully found a propitious niche is

A) Coca-Cola.
B) PepsiCo.
C) Frank J. Zamboni & Company.
D) Walmart.
E) Disney.
Answer: C
43) The technique that illustrates how management can match the external opportunities and
threats with its strengths and weaknesses to yield four sets of strategic alternatives is called a(n)
A) IFAS Table.
B) EFAS Table.
C) SFAS Table.
D) TOWS Matrix.
E) Issues Priority Matrix.
Answer: D
8
44) In a TOWS Matrix, SO Strategies

A) are generated by thinking of ways in which a company or business unit could use its strengths
to take advantage of opportunities.
B) attempt to take advantage of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses.
C) are basically defensive and primarily act to minimize weaknesses and avoid threats.
D) consider a company's or unit's strengths as a way to avoid threats.
E) are ways to get strategists to think "out of the box."
Answer: A
45) In a TOWS Matrix, ST Strategies

Answer: D
46) In a TOWS Matrix, WT Strategies

Answer: C
47) Business strategy focuses on

A) ensuring that the company maintains the existing market share that it has historically enjoyed.
B) improving the competitive position of a corporation's products or services within the industry
or market segment served.
C) providing adequate shareholders' return on investment.
9
D) preventing the competition from gaining a competitive edge by undermining their marketing
plan.
E) recovering the competitive lead by using all available resources that the company can provide.
Answer: B
corporations
48) Business strategy is composed of

A) corporate and competitive strategy.
B) functional and divisional strategy.
C) competitive and cooperative strategy.
D) corporate and cooperative strategy.
E) divisional and competitive strategy.
Answer: C
corporations
49) Which of the following is NOT one of the questions that development of a competitive
strategy should raise?
A) Should we compete on the basis of lower cost?
B) Should we compete head-to-head with major competitors?
C) Should we differentiate our products or services on some basis other than cost?
D) Should we compete by garnering political support of influential leaders?
E) Should we compete in a niche market that we can satisfy which is superior to that of the
competition?
Answer: D
corporations
50) According to Porter, the generic competitive strategy that reflects the ability of the
corporation or its business unit to design, produce, and market a comparable product more
efficiently than its competitors is called
A) competitive scope.
B) differentiation.
C) cost leadership.
D) diversification.
E) focus.
Answer: C
corporations
10
51) What are the three generic competitive strategies that Porter promotes as the means for
outperforming other corporations in a particular industry?
A) competitive scope, differentiation, and focus
B) diversification, concentration, and competitive scope
C) cost, competitive scope, and focus
D) concentration, cost leadership, and differentiation
E) cost leadership, differentiation, and focus
Answer: E
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
52) According to Porter, the generic competitive strategy that reflects the ability to provide
unique and superior value to the buyer in terms of product quality, special features, or after-sale
service is called
B) differentiation.
C) focus.
D) diversification.
E) cost leadership.
Answer: B
corporations
53) According to Porter, the term that applies to the breadth of a company's or business unit's
target market is called
B) differentiation.
C) focus.
D) diversification.
E) cost leadership.
Answer: A
corporations
54) Walmart, as a discount retailer, is an example of a company following which of Porter's

competitive strategies?
A) differentiation
B) cost leadership
C) differentiation focus
D) competitive advantage
E) cost focus
11
Answer: B
corporations
55) Apple is an example of a company following which of Porter's generic competitive

strategies?
A) cost leadership
B) differentiation
C) cost focus
D) competitive scope
E) diversification
Answer: B
corporations
56) Which of Porter's competitive strategies recommends that a company emphasize a particular
buyer group or geographic market and attempts to seek a cost advantage in its targeted segment?
A) differentiation
B) cost leadership
E) cost focus
Answer: E
corporations
57) In manufacturing toilet paper for grocery store chains (and avoiding competing directly
against Charmin), Potlach has followed which of Porter's generic competitive strategies?
A) differentiation
B) cost leadership
E) cost focus
Answer: E
corporations
58) Orphagenix, a small biotech firm, avoids head-to-head competition with large
12
pharmaceutical companies by developing orphan drugs to target diseases that affect fewer than
200,000 people. This is an example of which of Porter's generic strategies?
A) differentiation
B) cost leadership
E) cost focus
Answer: C
corporations
59) Which of Porter's competitive strategies concentrates on seeking differentiation in a

particular buyer group, product line segment, or geographic market?
A) differentiation
B) cost leadership
E) cost focus
Answer: C
corporations
60) When a company following a differentiation strategy ensures that the higher price it charges
for its higher quality is not priced too far above the price of the competition, the company is
using the process of
A) low-cost differentiation.
B) cost leadership.
C) cost proximity.
D) basic differentiation.
E) price fixing.
Answer: C
corporations
61) Which of the following is NOT one of the risks of a cost leadership strategy?
A) The technology that the organization has been using changes.
B) Achieving excessive success causes jealousy amongst competitors.
C) Competitors can achieve viable imitations.
D) Other bases for cost leadership erode.
E) Proximity in differentiation is lost.
Answer: B
13
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
62) Which of the following is NOT one of the risks of the focus strategy?
A) The target segment's structure erodes.
B) The segment's differences from other segments narrow.
C) The advantages of a broad line increase.
D) Focusers exit the industry.
E) Demand disappears for the product in the target segment.
Answer: D
corporations
63) According to Porter, a business unit in a competitive marketplace with no generic

competitive strategy is
A) achieving synergy.
B) practicing innovative leadership.
C) stuck in the middle.
D) not goal directed.
E) last in line.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
64) Most entrepreneurial ventures follow

A) differentiation strategies.
B) focus strategies.
C) no strategies.
D) cost leadership strategies.
E) all of the above
Answer: B
corporations
65) Which of the following is NOT one of the eight dimensions of quality?
A) serviceability
B) durability
C) performance
D) value
E) features
14
Answer: D
corporations
66) A car's cruise control, known as a "bell and whistle," is an example of which of the eight
dimensions of quality?
A) performance
B) features
C) reliability
D) durability
E) aesthetics
Answer: B
corporations
15
67) The focus strategies will likely predominate when many small and medium sized local
companies compete for relatively small shares of the total market in a(n)
A) united industry.
B) fragmented industry.
C) consolidated industry.
D) isolated industry.
E) integrated industry.
Answer: B
corporations
68) As an industry matures while overcoming fragmentation and becomes dominated by a small
number of large companies, it tends to become a(n)
A) united industry.
B) fragmented industry.
C) consolidated industry.
D) isolated industry.
E) integrated industry.
Answer: C
corporations
69) A method developed in the mid-1990s as an efficient means to quickly consolidate a

fragmented industry can be referred to as a
A) merger.
B) strategic rollup.
C) cost strategy.
D) differentiation strategy.
E) focus strategy.
Answer: B
corporations
70) As an industry becomes hypercompetitive, firms initially respond by

A) raising entry barriers.
B) moving into untapped markets.
C) attacking the strongholds of other firms.
D) competing on cost and quality.
E) working their way to a situation of perfect competition.
Answer: D
16
corporations
71) The book Hypercompetition was written by

A) Porter.
B) D'Aveni.
C) Mintzberg.
D) Maslow.
E) Drucker.
Answer: B
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
72) The last stage of a hypercompetitive industry is reached when the remaining large global
competitors
A) raise entry barriers.
B) move into untapped markets.
C) attack the strongholds of other firms.
D) compete on cost and quality.
E) work their way to a situation of perfect competition in which no one has any advantage and
profits are minimal.
Answer: E
corporations
73) According to D'Aveni

A) except for a few stable industries, strategy initiatives do not provide sustainable competitive
advantage.
B) hypercompetition is rare.
C) it is enough to gain competitive advantage by being the lowest cost competitor.
D) the theory of hypercompetition is not supported by any research.
E) the American home appliance industry was immune to hypercompetition.
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
74) Porter recommends that a division with tight cost control, frequent detailed control reports, a
well structured organization, and quantitatively based incentives is required for which of the
following generic competitive strategies?
A) focus
B) differentiation
17
C) cost leadership
D) focus differentiation
E) concentration
Answer: C
corporations
75) If it is to be successful, Porter advises that a division possess strong marketing abilities,
product engineering, a creative flair, strong capability in basic research and a corporate
reputation for quality or technological leadership, for which one of the following generic
competitive strategies?
A) focus
B) differentiation
C) overall cost leadership
D) vertical growth
E) concentration
Answer: B
corporations
76) Product engineering, creative flair, and strong cooperation from channels are commonly
required skills and resources for which of Porter's generic strategies?
A) cost leadership
B) differentiation
C) cost leadership focus
D) differentiation focus
E) collusion
Answer: B
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
77) Intense supervision of labor, sustained capital investment and access to capital are commonly
required skills and resources for which of Porter's generic competitive strategies?
A) cost leadership
B) differentiation
E) collusion
Answer: A
Difficulty: Easy
18
corporations
78) Amenities to attract highly skilled labor, scientists, or creative people is a common
organizational requirement for which of Porter's generic competitive strategies?
A) cost leadership
B) differentiation
E) collusion
Answer: B
corporations
79) Incentives based on meeting strict quantitative targets is a common organizational

requirement for which of Porter's generic competitive strategies?
A) cost leadership
B) differentiation
E) collusion
Answer: A
corporations
80) According to Barney, under which condition would tacit collusion most likely be successful?
A) There is a large number of identifiable competitors.
B) Costs are not similar among firms.
C) One firm tends to act as the price leader.
D) Sales are characterized by a high frequency of large orders.
E) There are low barriers to entry in the industry.
Answer: C
corporations
AACSB: Reflective Skills
81) When firms follow each other's lead to reduce the level of competition such as GE and
Westinghouse did in steam turbines, it is referred to as
A) explicit collusion.
B) a strategic alliance.
C) a mutual service consortium.
19
D) conscious parallelism.
E) partnering.
Answer: D
corporations
82) A secret salary cap was the contention in a 2012 collusion lawsuit filed against
A) KFC.
B) the National Football League.
C) GE.
D) Major League Baseball.
E) ESPN.
Answer: B
corporations
83) Jet airplane manufacturers often enter into strategic alliances to

A) obtain new capabilities.
B) obtain access to specific markets.
C) reduce financial risk.
D) reduce political risk.
E) preserve autonomy.
Answer: C
84) The "cell" chip created by IBM, Sony Electronics, and Toshiba was a result of pooling their
resources in a
A) joint venture.
B) licensing arrangement.
C) value-chain partnership.
D) mutual service consortium.
E) competitive advantage.
Answer: D
85) Disadvantages of joint ventures include all of the following EXCEPT

A) loss of control.
B) lower profits.
C) probability of conflicts with partners.
20
D) likely transfer of technological advantage to the partner.
E) mutual dependence.
Answer: E
86) When P&G (the maker of Folgers and Millstone coffee) worked with Mr. Coffee, Krups, and
Hamilton Beach to market Home Café, they engaged in a
A) joint venture.
B) licensing arrangement.
D) mutual service consortium.
E) competitive advantage.
Answer: C
87) In licensing arrangements

A) the licensee can gain technical expertise.
B) companies can be aided in entering new countries directly.
C) the licensee might become a competitor to the licensing firm.
D) companies should never license their distinctive competencies.
E) all of the above
Answer: E
88) Tacit collusion

A) involves direct communication among competing firms.
B) is most likely to be successful if there are many competitors.
C) is seen with conscious parallelism as practiced by GE and Westinghouse.
D) is not illegal.
E) is most effective when the industry does not have a firm that acts as a price leader.
Answer: C
corporations
89) Collusion
A) may be explicit.
B) may be tacit.
C) is illegal when explicit.
D) can be illegal even when tacit.
E) all of the above
21
Answer: E
corporations
90) The active cooperation of firms within an industry to reduce output and raise prices to get
around the normal law of supply and demand is referred to as
A) a strategic alliance.
B) collusion.
C) a strategic roll up.
D) a merger.
E) licensing.
Answer: B
corporations
91) The two general types of cooperative strategies are

A) competitive and functional.
B) collusion and competitive.
C) strategic alliances and collusion.
D) strategic alliances and competitive.
E) competitive and collusive alliances.
Answer: C
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
92) Which of the following is NOT a reason companies or business units may form a strategic
alliance?
A) to obtain access to specific markets
B) to reduce financial risk
C) to reduce political risk
D) to set prices in the industry
E) to learn new capabilities
Answer: D
93) The kind of strategic alliance in which there is a partnership of similar companies in similar
industries who pool their resources to gain a benefit that is too expensive to develop alone is the
A) joint venture.
B) licensing agreement.
22
D) mutual service consortia.
E) holding company.
Answer: D
Difficulty: Easy
94) Which strategy has been used successfully by Yum! Brands to establish KFC and Pizza Hut
restaurants across the globe?
A) joint venture
B) licensing arrangement
C) strategic alliance
D) marketing strategy
E) value-chain partnership
Answer: B
95) The kind of strategic alliance in which a company forms a strong and close long-term
relationship for mutual advantage with a key supplier or distributor is the
A) joint venture.
B) licensing agreement.
D) mutual service consortia.
E) holding company.
Answer: C
96) Which of the following is NOT considered a strategic alliance success factor?
A) Have a clear strategic purpose.
B) Operate with short-term time horizon.
C) Agree on an exit strategy for when the partners' objectives are achieved or the partnership
fails.
D) Minimize conflicts among the partners by clarifying the objectives.
E) Identify likely partnering risks and deal with them when the alliance is formed.
Answer: B
23
97) What is a propitious niche? Provide an example of a firm that has been able to successfully
occupy a propitious niche.
Answer: A propitious niche is an extremely favorable niche that is so well suited to the firm's
internal and external environment that other corporations are not likely to challenge or dislodge
it. A niche is propitious to the extent that it currently is just large enough for one firm to satisfy
its demand. After a firm has found and filled that niche, it is not worth a potential competitor's
time or money to also go after the same niche.
One company that has successfully found a propitious niche is Frank J. Zamboni & Company,
the manufacturer of the machines that smooth the ice at ice skating rinks. Before the machine
was invented, people had to clean and scrape the ice by hand to prepare the surface for skating.
So long as Zamboni's company is able to produce the machines in the quantity and quality
desired at a reasonable price, it's not worth another company's effort to go after Frank J.
Zamboni's propitious niche.
98) Explain the four combination strategies that may be generated from the TOWS Matrix.
Answer: The TOWS Matrix results in four combination strategies as follows:
SO Strategies are generated by thinking of ways in which a company or business unit could use
its strengths to take advantage of opportunities.
ST Strategies consider a company's or unit's strengths as a way to avoid threats.
WO Strategies attempt to take advantage of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses.
WT Strategies are basically defensive and primarily act to minimize weaknesses and avoid
threats.
99) What are Porter's four generic strategies?

Answer: Cost leadership is a lower-cost competitive strategy that aims at the broad mass market
and requires "aggressive construction of efficient facilities, vigorous pursuit of cost reductions
from experience, tight cost and overhead control, avoidance of marginal customer accounts, and
cost minimization in areas like R&D, service, sales force, advertising, and so on." Because of its
lower costs, the cost leader is able to charge a lower price for its products than its competitors
and still make a satisfactory profit.
Differentiation is aimed at the broad mass market and involves the creation of a product or
service that is perceived throughout its industry as unique. The company or business unit may
then charge a premium for its product.
Cost focus is a low-cost competitive strategy that focuses on a particular buyer group or
geographic market and attempts to serve only this niche, to the exclusion of others. In using cost
focus, the company or business unit seeks a cost advantage in its target segment.
24
Differentiation focus concentrates on a particular buyer group, product line segment, or
geographic market. In using differentiation focus, the company or business unit seeks
differentiation in a targeted market segment.
corporations
100) Discuss competitive strategy differences between a fragmented and a consolidated industry.
Answer: In a fragmented industry, there are many small- and medium-sized local companies
that compete for relatively small shares of the total market. Focus strategies will likely
predominate in a fragmented industry. Fragmented industries are typical for products in the early
stages of their life cycle. If few economies are to be gained through size, no large firms will
emerge and entry barriers will be low — allowing a stream of new entrants into the industry.
As an industry matures, fragmentation is overcome and the industry tends to become a

consolidated industry dominated by a few large companies. Although many industries begin
fragmented, battles for market share and creative attempts to overcome local or niche market
boundaries often increase the market share of a few companies. After product standards become
established for minimum quality and features, competition shifts to a greater emphasis on cost
and service. Slower growth, overcapacity, and knowledgeable buyers combine to put a premium
on a firm's ability to achieve cost leadership or differentiation along the dimensions most desired
by the market. Research and development shifts from product to process improvements. Overall
product quality improves, and costs are reduced significantly.
corporations
101) What is the impact of hypercompetition on competitive advantage?

Answer: Hypercompetition reflects the increasing difficulty of sustaining a competitive
advantage over time. As a result of this erosion of competitive advantage, companies must
constantly work to improve their advantage. Firms must constantly seek new ways to lower costs
and add value to their products and services.
Difficulty: Easy
corporations
102) Discuss the reasons a firm may form a strategic alliance.

Answer: A firm may form a strategic alliance to obtain or learn new capabilities, to obtain
access to specific markets, to reduce financial risk, or to reduce political risk.
103) What are cooperative strategies?

Answer: Cooperative strategies are used to gain competitive advantage within an industry by
25
working with other firms. The two general types of cooperative strategies are collusion and
strategic alliances. Collusion is the active cooperation of firms within an industry to reduce
output and raise prices in order to get around the normal economic law of supply and demand. A
strategic alliance is a partnership of two or more corporations or business units to achieve
strategically significant objectives that are mutually beneficial.
corporations
104) What are the types of alliances that businesses can engage in?
Answer: The types of alliances that businesses can engage in include a mutual service consortia,
a joint venture, a licensing arrangement, and a value-chain partnership. A mutual service
consortium is a partnership of similar companies in similar industries that pool their resources to
gain a benefit that is too expensive to develop alone. A joint venture is a "cooperative business
activity, formed by two or more separate organizations for strategic purposes, that creates an
independent business entity and allocates ownership, operational responsibilities, and financial
risks and rewards to each member, while preserving their separate identity/autonomy." A
licensing arrangement is an agreement in which the licensing firm grants rights to another firm in
another country or market to produce and/or sell a product. The licensee pays compensation to
the licensing firm in return for technical expertise. A value-chain partnership is a strong and
close alliance in which one company or unit forms a long-term arrangement with a key supplier
or distributor for mutual advantage.
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CHAPTER IV
HAYDN, MOZART, AND BEETHOVEN
The ‘Viennese period’ and the three great classics—Joseph
Haydn; Haydn’s clavier sonatas; the Variations in F minor—W. A.
Mozart; Mozart as pianist and improvisator; Mozart’s sonatas; his
piano concertos—Ludwig van Beethoven; evolution of the modern
pianoforte—Musical qualities of Beethoven’s piano music;
Beethoven’s technical demands; his pianoforte sonatas; his piano
concertos; conclusion.
The association of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven with Vienna

affords historians a welcome license to give to a conspicuous epoch
in the development of music a local habitation and a name. Their
work is commonly granted to constitute a more or less definite era
known as the Viennese period. All three speak, as it were, a
common idiom. There is a distinct family likeness between their
separate accomplishments. They were personally acquainted.
Haydn and Mozart were warm friends, despite the difference in years
between them. Mozart was among the first in Vienna to recognize
the greatness latent in Beethoven, who later was for a while even the
pupil of Haydn. Moreover, all three reckoned among their friends the
same families, even the same men and women. The three great men
now sit on golden chairs, enshrined in the same niche, Beethoven
considerably to the fore.
The insulation which circumstances of time and space may seem to

have woven about them proves upon investigation to be quite
imperfect. To begin with, Bach was but a year dead, D. Scarlatti still
alive, and Rameau with more than a decade yet to live when Haydn
was writing his first mass and along with it clavier sonatas for the
benefit of his few pupils. Mozart had written his three immortal
symphonies in 1786, before Emanuel Bach had ceased publishing
his sonatas for Kenner und Liebhaber. On the other end, Moscheles
was a famous though very young pianist before Beethoven had half
done writing sonatas; and Carl von Weber’s Freischütz had begun to
act upon the precocious Richard Wagner before Beethoven had
completed his ninth symphony, his last sonata, his great mass and
his great quartets.
Merely as regards pianoforte technique the period was a transitional

one. Even the Beethoven sonatas as late as opus 27 were published
for either harpsichord or pianoforte. Both Mozart and Beethoven
were influenced by men who, in a narrow sense, seem far more than
they to belong to a modern development. Clementi, for example,
deliberately burned his harpsichords and clavichords behind him in
the very year Beethoven was born, and from then on gave up his life
to the discovery of new possibilities and effects upon the pianoforte,
by which his pupils Cramer and Field paved the way for Chopin.
Yet, all signs to the contrary, the Viennese period remains a period of
full fruition, and this because of the extraordinary genius of the men
whose works have defined it. Each was highly and specially gifted
and poured into forms already made ready for him a musical
substance of rare and precious quality. In considering keyboard
music we have to deal mostly with this substance, in fact with the
musical expression of three unusual and powerful personalities.
It is to be regretted that Haydn and even Mozart have been in no

small measure eclipsed by Beethoven. This is especially true of their
keyboard music. It may be questioned whether this be any more just
for being seemingly natural. There are many reasons to account for
it. The most obvious is the more violent and fiery nature of
Beethoven, his explicit and unusual trials. These, wholly apart from
his music, will for ever make the study and recollection of him as a
man of profound interest. Haydn can urge but a few young years of
hardship for the human sympathy of generations to come. Mozart’s
disappointments, so sickening to the heart that puts itself in tune with
him, have after all but the ring of hard luck and merit disregarded, to
which the weary world lends only a passing ear. But Beethoven’s
passionate nature, his self-inflicted labor of self-discipline, his
desperate unhappiness and the tragic curse of his deafness, are the
stuff out of which heroes are made.
So his music, reflecting the man, is heroic in calibre. Even its humor
is titanic. It will impress by its hugeness and its force many an ear
deaf to more engaging and more subtle language. Its poignancy is
unmistakable, nearly infallible in its appeal; so that Beethoven is a
name with which to lay even the clod under a spell.
But another reason why Mozart and Haydn lie hidden or but partly
perceived in the shade of Beethoven, is more recondite, is, in fact,
paradoxical. This is no other than the extreme difficulty of their
music. Clara Schumann, writing in her diary of the music of Richard
Wagner, which she rejected in spite of the world’s acclaim,
conceived that either she or the world at large had gone mad. To one
who writes of the difficulties of Haydn’s and Mozart’s sonatas a
similar idea is likely to occur. At the present day they are put into the
hands of babes and sucklings, in whose touch, however, there is no
wisdom. Yet if ever music needed a wise hand, it is these simple
pieces; and a lack of wisdom has made them trivial to the world.
The art of the pianist should be, as Emanuel Bach declared, that of
drawing from his instrument sounds of moving beauty, beautiful in
quality, in line and in shading. His tools are his ten fingers which he
must train to flexibility, strength and security. It is right that as soon
as he can play a scale or shake a trill, he should put his skill to test
upon a piece of music. So the teacher lays Haydn and Mozart under
the clumsy little fingers of boy and girl. ‘Stumble along there on your
way to great Beethoven, whom you must approach with firm and
tested stride.’ That is the burden of the pædagogic lay. It echoes in
the mind of riper age, Haydn and Mozart have been put aside, like
the perambulator, the bib and the high table chair; or, like toys, are
brought out rarely, to be smiled upon.
If they are toys, then maturity should bring a sense of their exquisite
beauty and meaning, and may well shudder at the destruction youth
made imminent upon them. This it all too rarely does, because only
ten fingers in ten thousand can reveal the loveliness of these
sonatas, and because, also, ears are rare that now delight in such a
revelation. You must give to fingers the skill to spin sound from the
keyboard that is like the song of birds, or, if more vocal, is more like
the voice of fairies than the voice of man. It is easier to make
thunder; and even mock thunder intimidates. So your player will
pound Beethoven, and lightning will flash about his head as the
sarcastic Heine fancied it about Liszt’s. Some will scent sacrilege
and cover their ears from the noise. But let the soulless man play
Mozart and his hearers will cover their mouths, as all well-bred
people are trained to do when boredom seeks an outlet.
Technically Haydn and Mozart may be held to have condemned their

music to the sort of galley-service it now performs. Both wrote
perhaps the majority of their sonatas for the use of their pupils. Bach
wrote the ‘Well-tempered Clavichord’ with what seems to be the
same purpose; but Bach’s aim was constantly to educate and to
expand the power of the students under his care; whereas both
Haydn and Mozart may be often suspected of wishing rather to
simplify their music than to tax and strengthen the abilities of their
high-born amateurs. There is something comical in the fact that even
with this most gracious of intentions both were occasionally accused
of writing music that was troublesome, i.e., too difficult. Haydn may
have been grieved to be found thus disagreeable. Mozart’s letters
sometimes show a delicate malice in enjoyment of it. But one can
hear Beethoven snort and rage under a similar reproach.
Yet the wonder is that sonatas so written should be today full of

freshness and beauty. This they undoubtedly are. Composed
perfunctorily they may have been, but the spirit of music is held fast
in most of them, no less appealing for being oftener in smiles than
tears. And if to evoke this spirit in all her loveliness from a box of
strings chance to be the ideal of some player, let him take care to
bring to the sonatas of Haydn and Mozart the most precious
resources of his art and he will not call in vain.
I
The prevalent mood in Haydn’s music is one of frank cheerfulness.
His native happy disposition, his kindliness and his ever-ready, good-
natured humor, won him friends on every hand. These qualities in his
music recommended it to the public. For the public wanted light-
hearted music. Italian melody had won the world. Haydn’s happy,
almost jovial melodies and his lively, obvious rhythms spread over
the world almost as soon as he began to write.
From the start, however, he treated his art seriously. He was never a
careless writer, though he had the benefit of little regular instruction.
Clavier sonatas he had composed for his pupils were so much
copied and circulated in manuscript that a piratical publisher finally
decided money could be made from them. He had written quartets
for strings, which were received with favor at soirées given by
Porpora and men of rank. He won the approval of men like
Wagenseil, Gluck, and Dittersdorf. All his work, though simple, is
beautifully and clearly done.
He was not, like Mozart and Beethoven, a great player on the

harpsichord or piano. In this respect, and, indeed, in many others, he
is a little like Schubert. Both men wrote extremely well for the
keyboard. The music of both has an unusual stamp of spontaneous
originality. In Haydn’s music as in Schubert’s the quality of folk-
melodies and folk-rhythms is very distinct. In spite of most obvious
differences in temperament and in circumstances, they speak of the
same race unconsciously influenced by Slavic elements.
The collection of thirty-four sonatas for pianoforte published by

Peters includes, with perhaps one exception, the best of his work for
that instrument alone. On looking over them one cannot but be
struck by the general similarity of any one to the others. Some are
more frankly gay, more boyish, than others; some tempered by
seriousness. It may be added, however, that those of a later period
do not seem generally more profound than those of an earlier one.
The later ones are more elaborate, sometimes musically more
complicated, but a single mood is on the whole common to them all.
The same is in part true of Mozart’s sonatas. Except as these show

distinct traces of the various influences under which he came from
time to time, they do not differ strikingly from each other. There is
over both Haydn’s and Mozart’s keyboard music a normal cast of
thought, as there is over the music of Couperin. In this they suffer by
comparison with Beethoven, as Couperin suffers by comparison with
Bach. One would have no difficulty in choosing ten Beethoven
sonatas, each one of which is entirely distinct from the others, not by
reason of form or style or content, but by reason of a very special
emotional significance. One could not choose ten Haydn sonatas of
such varied character. One does not, in other words, sit down to the
piano with a volume of Haydn sonatas, expecting to confront a
wholly new problem in each one, to meet a wholly new range of
thought and feeling, passing from one to the other. One looks for the
same sort of thing in each one, and with few exceptions one finds it.
To what is this due? To the nature of the man or to the circumstances

under which most of the sonatas were written? Or is it due to public
taste of the day and the consequent attitude of the man towards the
function of music? To answer these questions would lead us far
afield. But it is doubtless in large measure owing to this fact that
Haydn, and Mozart too, have been thought to concern themselves
primarily with form in music. And Beethoven has again and again
been described as the man who overthrew the supremacy of the
formal element in music, to which his predecessors are imagined to
have sworn prime allegiance.
It is a great injustice so to stigmatize Haydn and Mozart. The beauty

of their music is far more one of spirit than one of form. In his own
day Haydn was thought to be an innovator, not in the matter of form,
but in the spirit with which he filled forms already familiar. This may
be said to be the spirit of humor. Weitzmann[30] cites an interesting
passage in the Musikalisches Handbuch for the year 1782 which
speaks of Haydn as ‘A musical joke-maker, but like Yorick, not for
pathos but for high comic; and this in music most exasperating
(verzweifelt sehr). Even his adagios, where the man should properly
weep, have the stamp of high comedy.’ And a most joyous humor
fills the Haydn sonatas full to overflowing. That is the secret of the
charm they will exert on any one who takes the time to study them
today, a charm which has little to do with formal perfection.
Let us look into a few of the sonatas. Most of them were written
between 1760 and 1790. The few written earlier than 1760 are so
obviously teaching pieces that, though they won him fame, we need
not trouble to study them. Take, however, a sonata from the set
published in 1774, known as opus 13, in C major (Peters No. 15).
The whole first movement is built upon two rhythmical phrases which
by their lilt and flow cannot fail to delight the dullest ear. There is the
dotted sixteenth figure of the first theme, a theme frankly melodious
for all its rhythmical vivacity; and later the same opening notes, with
playful triplets added. Nothing profound or serious about it, but yet a
wealth of vitality; and nearly all accomplished with but two voices.
The adagio seems not at all conspicuous, yet compare it with an

adagio of Clementi to see how much genuine life it has. Then the
rapid little last movement, with its rocking, tilting figures, all as
sparkling as sunlight. Here again, only two voices in most of the
movement.
Another sonata in the same set in F major (Pet. 20) is a little more
developed. The quick falling arpeggio figures following the first
theme are a favorite, comical device of Haydn’s. The second theme,
if so it may be called, is only a series of scampering notes, with a
saucy octave skip at the end; the whole full of smiles and laughter.
The fine harp-like runs in the development section are reminiscent of
Emanuel Bach. Haydn is noticeably fond of sudden and abrupt
changes of harmony. There is one in the first section of this
movement. But often he is surprisingly chromatic, more subtle in
harmony than the naïve character of his music would lead one to
expect him.
In the opus 14, published in 1776 by Artaria, there are some joyous
sonatas. The first theme of one in G major (Pet. 11) suggests
Schubert by its sweetness. There is a minuet instead of a slow
movement, and the final presto is a theme with lively variations. The
Alberti bass on which the fourth variation floats is irresistibly naïve.
Another sonata in E-flat seems richer. It is hardly less naïve and less
humorous than the others in the set, but there is a warmer coloring.
The overlapping imitations in the fourth, fifth, and sixth measures are
strangely poignant, especially as they appear later in the
restatement. There is a minuet instead of a slow movement, of which
the trio is especially beautiful. The way in which the first phrase
seems to be prolonged into five measures, once more suggests
Schubert.
It is, of course, nearly impossible to characterize the sonatas in

words, or to distinguish any striking feature in one which may not be
found in another. There are two sonatas in E-flat (Pet. 1 and 3)
among the last he wrote. These appear at first sight more profound
than the earlier ones, but it is hard in studying them to find them so.
They are more fully scored, more fully developed, perhaps more
moderately gay. But it is still the Haydn which spoke in the earlier
ones. Premonitions of Schubert are again evident in the second of
these sonatas (Pet. 3), in the second section of the slow movement,
and in the brief passage in E-flat minor in the minuet. There are very
fine moments in the first movement, too. It will be observed that the
second theme is very like the first. This is frequently the case with
Haydn, a feature which points to his dependence on Emanuel Bach.
Even in his symphonies it shows itself, conspicuously in the great
symphony in D major, No. 7, in Breitkopf and Härtel’s edition. In the
sonata in question, however, there is no lack of secondary material
of varied and decided character; for example, the transitional section
between the first and second themes; the broad closing theme of the
first section, with its alternate deep phrases and high answers; and
the carefully wrought measures which open the development
section.
The effect of the measures which bring this section almost to a close
and then lead on into the recapitulation is almost magical. We
approach the romantic. The strange power of silence in music is
nowhere better employed, a power which the old convention of
constant movement had kept concealed, at least in instrumental
music. Mention has been made of the pauses in Emanuel Bach’s
music and in Clementi’s; but here in Haydn’s sonata is a passage of
more than twenty measures in which silence seems to reign.
Something calls on high and there is silence. Then from some deep
down range there is a faint answer. And so the high calls across
silence to the deep, again and again, as if one without the other
might not prevail against some spirit of silence.
Such a passage as this, and many another in Haydn’s music,

suggest Beethoven. One is quick to exclaim, ‘Ah! this foreshadows
the great man to come!’ Almost as if the music had no merit but by
comparison. Yet Haydn’s music should be taken at its own value.
Only in that way may the charm of it, and the genuine beauty as well,
be fully appreciated. Surely it has a life and a spirit all its own,
without which music would be poorer.
Only one clavier work of special significance, apart from the sonatas,
remains to be mentioned. This is a very beautiful series of variations
on a theme in F minor. They present, of course, the familiar features
of Haydn’s style, clear and ‘economic’ part-writing, perfect balance
and lucidity in form, abrupt, unprepared chords, furnishing what
Hadow has aptly called ‘points of color’; and still, smooth, chromatic
progressions which are somehow naïve. The theme itself is in two
sections, with a ‘trio’ section in F major, full of ascending and
descending arpeggio figures which seem in Haydn’s music like the
warble of a bird’s song, odd little darts and flurries of sound. There is
over the whole a changing light of plaintive and gay which is rather
different from the perpetual sunshine of the sonatas.
It is needless to say that the theme undergoes no such
metamorphosis in the course of the variations as Bach’s theme in his
Goldberg Variations. The accompaniment may be said to remain
practically the same throughout the set. The first variation leads the
melody through half-steps, in syncopation, and numerous trills are
brought in to beautify the almost too ingenuous major section. In the
second variation the melody is dissolved, so to speak, into a clear
stream of rapid counterpoint which curves and frets above and below
the familiar accompaniment. The final restatement of the theme
leads by abrupt soft modulations into a long coda in which traces of
the theme still linger. The whole set makes up a masterpiece in
pianoforte literature, and may be ranked as one of the most beautiful
pieces of music in the variation form.
II
Mozart’s keyboard music is astonishingly different from Haydn’s.
Because both men have fallen into the obscurity of the same
shadow, one is likely to speak of them as if both were but a part of
one whole. The differences between them are not merely matters of
detail. In fact they may resemble each other more in detail than in
general qualities. The spirit of Mozart’s music is wholly different from
the spirit of Haydn’s. If with Haydn we may associate a frank good
nature and something of the peasant’s sturdiness, in Mozart’s music
we have to do with something far more subtle, far more graceful, and
almost wholly elusive. It has been said of Mozart’s music that its
inherent vitality is all-sufficient to a listener. In other words, there is
neither any need nor any desire to interpret it, either in terms of
another art or as an expression or a symbol of human emotion. It is
perhaps unique in being sheer sound and nothing else. It is the
thinnest gossamer spun between our ears and stillness. It is of all
music the most ethereal, the most spiritual, one might almost say the
least audible.
His life was utterly different from Haydn’s. To begin with, he was
twenty-four years younger. He was most carefully and rigorously
trained in his art, from infancy, by his father and by the greatest
musicians in the world, whom he met on his triumphant tours over
Europe. As a child he was all but adored in Vienna, in all the great
cities of Italy, in London, in Paris, and in Brussels. As a youth fortune
began to forsake him. He was not so much neglected as
unappreciated. He was underpaid, harassed by debt. He was without
an established position, chiefly apparently because in the nature of
things he could not be but young. He died at last in Vienna, in more
or less miserable circumstances, at the age of thirty-five. Thus a life
could end that in early years had been the marvellous delight of
nearly a whole world.
He was always a virtuoso as well as a composer. He played the

violin excellently; he played the piano as no man in his time could
play it and as perhaps no man has played it since. His playing was
not so much distinguished by brilliance as by beauty. The quality of
his tone was of that kind which once heard can never be forgotten. It
haunted the minds of men long after he was dead. Even the memory
of it brought tears.
His compositions give only a slight idea of what the range of his
playing was. He seems to have moved people most at times when
he improvised. This he would often do in public, according to the
custom of the day; but in private, too, he would often go to his piano
and pour his soul out hour after hour through the night in improvised
music of strange and unusual power. Something of the quality of
these outpourings seems to have been preserved in the fantasia in C
minor. The sonatas and rondos have little of it. Neither have the
concertos. Franz Niemetschek, one of his most devoted friends and
author of the first of his biographies, said, as an old man, that if he
dared ask the Almighty for one more earthly joy, it would be that he
might once again before he died hear Mozart improvise. The
improvisations of Beethoven, marvellous as they were, never took
just the place of Mozart’s in the minds of those who had been
privileged to hear the younger man as well.
Mozart did not compose his piano music at the piano, as Schumann
and Chopin did. The improvisations were not remembered later and
put down in form upon paper. They seem to have been something
apart from his composing. He wrote music away from the piano, at
his desk, as most people write letters—in the words of his wife. Most
of the sonatas, too, were written for the benefit of pupils. Few of
them make actually trying demands upon technical brilliance. Their
great difficulty is more than technical, or than what is commonly
regarded as technical—strength, velocity, and endurance. Yet no
music more instantly lays bare any lack of evenness or any stiffness
in the fingers. Mozart cared little for a brilliant style. His opinion of
Clementi has already been mentioned. He preferred rather a
moderate than an extremely rapid tempo, condemned severely any
inaccuracy or carelessness, likewise any lack of clearness in rhythm.
But, above all, he laid emphasis on a beautiful and singing quality of
tone.
His avoidance rather than cultivation of brilliancy alone makes his

music often suggest the harpsichord. There is an absence of the
technical devices then new, which have since become thoroughly
associated with the pianoforte style. Yet from 1777 Mozart devoted
himself to the pianoforte. An instrument made especially for him,
which he invariably used in his many concerts in Vienna, has been
preserved. The keyboard has a range of five octaves, from the F
below the bass staff to the F above the treble staff. The action is very
light, the tone rather sharp and strong. It can be damped, or
softened, by means of a stop which pulls a strip of felt into position
between the strings and the hammers.
Concerning the pianoforte sonatas it may be said again that few

depart from a normal, prevailing mood. Some are exceptional.
Knowing his great gift of improvising and how rich and varied his
improvisations were, it is perhaps a temptation to read into them
more definite emotions than are really implied. Yet it is easy to pick
from the later sonatas at least three which not only differ
considerably from the earlier sonatas, but differ likewise from each
other. Nevertheless, two or three traits are common to them all. They
mark Mozart’s sonatas distinctly from Haydn’s and, indeed, from all
other sonatas.
First, there is rare melodiousness about them all. The quality of the
melodies is hard to analyze. There is little savor of the folk-song, as
there is in many of Haydn’s melodies. They are not so clearly cut,
not, in a way, of such solid stuff. Neither, on the other hand, have
they a peculiar germinating vigor which we associate with
Beethoven. They seem to spin themselves as the music moves
along. The movements seem to flow rather than grow. Mozart was
none the less a great contrapuntist, one of the greatest among
composers. But his music seems strangely to pass through
counterpoint, not to be built up of it. It has therefore a quality of
litheness or supple flexibility which distinguishes it from that of other
composers and gives it a preëminent grace. In this regard it is akin
only to the music of Couperin and Chopin.
In the second place, the harmonic coloring is subtle and suggestive.

His music seems to play about harmonies rather than with them. The
simplest chords and modulations have a sort of shimmer. An
instance in orchestral music comes to mind—the second themes in
both the first and last movements of the inspired symphony in G
minor, particularly the treatment of the second theme in the
restatement section of the last movement. The effect is due largely
to the chromatic half-steps through which his melodies glide,
noticeably into cadences, and to the same chromatic hovering about
tonic, dominant and subdominant chords. Oftener than not the fine
thread of his melody only grazes the notes proper to its harmony,
touching just above or below them in swift, light dissonances.
Frequently the harmonic foundation is of the simplest kind.
Modulations to remote keys or vague drifting of the whole harmonic
fabric, such as one finds, for instance, in the first pages of the
Fantasia in C minor, are rare. Usually the harmonic foundation is
astonishingly simple. It is the wholly charming unwillingness of the
melodies to be flatly chained to it that gives the whole such an
elusive color.
There is a wealth of passing notes, of anticipations and suspensions,
of every device which may aid melody to belie its unavoidable
relations to harmony. These take from most of his pianoforte music
all trace of commonplaceness. Most of it has a graceful distinction
which we may call style. Take even the opening theme of the great
sonata in A minor. The nature of the theme is bold and declamatory;
yet the very first note avoids an unequivocal allegiance to the
harmony by a D-sharp. Or observe in the last movement of the
sonata in C minor (K. 457) how the short phrases of the melody not
only anticipate the harmony in beginning, but delay acknowledging it
again and again.
In the third place, the scoring of Mozart’s sonatas is usually lighter

than that of Haydn’s. We have to do with a finer set of fingers, for
one thing, which are unexcelled in lightness and sweetness of touch,
fingers which prefer to suggest oftener than to declaim. The
treatment of inner voices is more airy. One thinks again of Couperin
and even more of Chopin. There is a better understanding of
pianoforte effects, not effects of brilliance but of delicate sonority
combined with grace. The last movement of the sonata in A minor
just mentioned, is a masterpiece of style, and yet for the most part is
hardly more than a whisper of sound. The passage work in the last
movement of a beautiful sonata in F major (K. 332), the chord figures
of the Piu allegro section of the Fantasia, even the F-sharp minor
section of the familiar Alla Turca are the work of a man with an
unusually fine sense of what fitted the pianoforte. Mozart also
expected more of the left hand than Haydn expected. In all his
pianoforte music there is more delicacy than there is in Haydn’s,
more sophistication, too, if you will. It is more difficult to play.
Of the many sonatas, rondos and fantasias only a few may be

discussed in detail. Three sonatas written before Mozart settled in
Vienna, in 1781, are very fine. These are in A minor (K. 310), in A
major (K. 331) and in F major (K. 332). That in A minor was written in
1778. The first movement is more stentorian than Mozart’s music
usually is. It is dominated by a strong rhythmical motive throughout,
used with fiery effect in the development section over a series of
rumbling pedal points. There is something assertive and martial
about it, like the ring of trumpets over a great confusion. The second
theme seems to be but an expression of energy in more civilian
strain. It is perilously near virtuoso stuff; but the movement as a
whole is splendid by reason of its force. It is Mozart in a very unusual
mood, however.
The second movement is a picture in music, according to Mozart

himself, of a charming little girl, who has ‘a staid manner and a great
deal of sense for her age.’ Yet something of the boldness of the first
movement still lingers. The mood is beautifully lyrical and poetic, the
style, however, very free and broad. It lacks the intimate tenderness
of most of Mozart’s slow movements. The last movement is magical.
The fine, delicate scoring, the short phrases, as it were breathless,
the beautiful shifting of harmonies, the constantly restless unvaried
movement, weave a texture of music that must make us ever wonder
at the nature of the mysterious, elusive spirit that whispers all but
unheard behind so much of Mozart’s music.
The sonata in F major and that in A major were written the following
year, and are of strikingly different character, both speaking of the
Mozart whose playing was long remembered for its quality of heart-
melting tenderness. Unlike the first movement of the A minor sonata,
the first movement of the F major is full of a variety of themes and
motives. It is rather lyrical in character. The first theme has a song-
like nature; and a beautiful measure or two of folk-song melody
makes itself heard in the transition to the second theme, which is
again lyrical. The development section opens with still another
melody. There is an oft-repeated shifting from high register to low.
The whole is wrapped in a veil of poetry. The slow middle movement
is unexcelled among all slow movements for purity of style, for
perfection of form, for refinement, but also tenderness of sentiment;
and the last movement flows like a brook through Rondo Field. One
cannot choose one movement from the others as being more
beautiful either in spirit or workmanship; and the three together
compose one of the flawless sonatas of pianoforte literature.
The more familiar sonata in A major is more irregular. It has, by the
way, no movement in the triplex form. The first is an air and
variations. It has long been a favorite with amateur and connoisseur
alike. The naïve beauty of the air is irresistible. The variations throw
many traits of Mozart’s style into prominence, particularly in the first
and fifth, his love of entwining his harmonies, so to speak, with
shadows and passing notes. The scoring of the fourth is wonderfully
beautiful. The sixth is perhaps unworthy to follow the fifth. After the
almost inevitable monotony of the variation form, it is perhaps to be
regretted that the second movement, a minuet, continues the key of
the first. The movement itself is of great charm. The trio is happily in
D major. One would be glad to have it in any key, so exquisite and
perfect is its beauty. The last movement, a rondo alla Turca, takes up
the key of A again. That it is in minor, not major, hardly suffices to
break the monotony of tonality which may threaten the interest of the
sonata as a whole. The rondo is engagingly jocund, but more
ordinary than Mozart is elsewhere likely to allow himself to be.
Two later sonatas have a more serious allure than these earlier
ones. That in C minor (K. 457), composed in 1784, is commonly
considered his greatest sonata. Why such a distinction should be
insisted upon, it is difficult to see. The C minor sonata is more
weighty than the others, but is it for that reason greater? Must music
to be great, hint of the tragic struggles of the soul? Such is the merit
often ascribed to this sonata, as if there were no true greatness in a
smile. Without setting up a standard of the great and the trivial in
music, we may grant that the work has a compelling force. Let us not
liken it to Beethoven. It still has the charm of which only Mozart was
the master, that charm which remains one of the intangible,
inexplicable things in music.
A sonata in F major (K. 533) was composed in 1788. The whole

work is characterized by a possibly too prominent contrapuntal
ingenuity. There is besides a boldness in harmonies, especially in
the slow movement, which makes one wonder into what strange
lands Mozart strayed when he sat improvising at the keyboard.
The sonatas as a whole rest, as we have said, upon a harmonic
foundation which is relatively simple. The great Fantasia in C minor
differs from them in this regard more than in any other. If, as Otto
Jahn suggested in his ‘Life of Mozart,’ this fantasia may offer us
some suggestion of what Mozart’s improvisations were like, we may
be sure that such outpourings wandered into harmonies rich and
strange.
The fantasia was composed in 1785, the year after the C minor
sonata, to which it was at one time thought to have been intended as
an introductory movement. An earlier fantasia in D minor is
fragmentary. It ends abruptly and leaves an impression of
incompleteness on the mind of the listener. The C minor fantasia is
without definite form, but the return of the opening motive at the end
gives it a logical balance. It divides itself into five or six sections. The
tempo is not very fast in any one of them, but there is an uneasy
current of unrest running under the whole.
It would be foolish to attempt an analysis of what may be its

emotional content. It calls for no such analysis, but stands as
another instance of the strange power Mozart’s music has to satisfy
of itself alone. It must remain, like his other work, mysterious and of
secret origin. Only one section is given a key-signature. The others
are without harmonic limitation. Perhaps the opening section, and
the brief part of it repeated at the end, are the most impressive. The
motive out of which they are built is of unfathomable significance;
their harmonies rise and fall as slowly and mysteriously as the tide.
Of the quality of other more melodious sections, of the occasional
charm and grace that here and there rise, as it were, on the wings of
light; of the passionate harmonies that die away into silence before
the slow opening motive returns inexorably, nothing can be said.
There comes over it in memory the light that never was on land or
sea. It is a poet’s dream.
III
We have now to consider the pianoforte concertos which as a whole
may be taken to be the finest of his works for the instrument. They
were written primarily for his own use, seventeen of them in Vienna
between 1783 and 1786, some earlier, however, and a few later.
They are concertos in the modern sense, not like the concertos of
Sebastian Bach. In the latter we find the clavier treated in much the
same style as the orchestra or the tutti, as it was, and still is,
generally called. In the Mozart concertos, on the other hand, the solo
instrument is given a rôle which will show off to the best its peculiar
qualities. The Vivaldi form of concerto, such as Bach used, was a
modified rondo; that is to say, there was one chief subject, usually
announced at the beginning by the tutti. This subject properly
belonged to the tutti, and the solo instrument was given various
episodes of contrasting material, between which the orchestra
usually was introduced with ritornelles based upon the chief subject.
The whole was a sort of dialogue between soloist and orchestra.
The form of the concerto which Mozart used was clearly as follows:
an expanded triplex form for the first movement, a slow movement in
song form, and a rondo of the French type for the finale. Moreover,
he used the solo instrument not only alone, but with the orchestra; in
such cases writing a brilliant sort of fioritura for it, which added a
special and distinct color to the ensemble. Such a form of concerto
was apparently first employed by Christian Bach in London. From
him Mozart learned the use of it. He was not, therefore, as has often
been stated, the true ‘father’ of the modern concerto. Nevertheless it
was he who first used the form with enduring success, and it may be
considered as his special contribution to the standard musical forms.
A brief outline of the first movement of one of his concertos will

illustrate the manner in which the triplex form was used in all of
them, and in which, with few modifications, it has continued to be
used by most composers. Let us take the wonderfully delightful
concerto in A major (K. 488). The movement opens with a long
section for the orchestra. The first theme is announced at once.
Later comes the lovely second theme, in the tonic key, be it noted.
There is then a short coda, and the orchestra comes to a full tonic
cadence and allows the piano to take up the music. The function of
this orchestral introduction is to introduce the two themes out of
which the movement now proceeds to build itself, conforming pretty
closely to the triplex model.
The piano has the first theme practically alone, the orchestra merely
suggesting an inner voice in the harmony from time to time. In the
transitional passage to the dominant key which follows, the piano
serves chiefly to spin a few figures over the chords carried by the
orchestra. Then the piano has the second theme, now in the
dominant, alone; after which it is repeated by the orchestra, the
piano adding a touch of ornamental color here and there. Pianoforte
and orchestra now play together, the piano taking the rôle of soloist
in a series of scales and figures. A full cadence in E major ends the
first section.
The development section is not long. It will be noticed that the pianist
is really soloist through it all, the delicate figure work which he has to
perform being always evident above the harmonies or themes of the
orchestra.
The long opening section for orchestra at the beginning of the

concerto is cut down to a few measures in the restatement. The
transitional passage between first and second themes is very much
shortened likewise. Finally, after the music has progressed duly
according to the conventions governing the restatement section in
the triplex form, the orchestra makes a pause. Here the pianist is
supposed to play what is known as a cadenza—a long passage
usually testing both him and his instrument to the limit of their
abilities. These cadenzas were commonly improvised, and in them
Mozart must have displayed the greatness of his power both as a
musician and as a player. The cadenza came to an end with a long
trill, after which the orchestra, usually without the piano, added the
completing coda.
The second and third movements were usually in some simpler form.
The second was most frequently an aria, the third a rondo. The
whole was primarily a piece for the virtuoso, while the orchestra,
save when announcing themes or playing ritornelles, served mainly
as an accompaniment to the brilliant soloist. It might well, be it
understood, carry on the thematic development of the music, thus
leaving the pianist free to weave every sort of arabesque; but from
now on the concerto was a form of music which was deliberately
planned to show off the special qualities of a solo instrument.
It was almost inevitable that in most concertos the genuinely musical

element should be regarded as of less and less importance. The
public expected, and indeed still expects, to hear or even to see a
virtuoso display the uttermost limits of his skill in such pieces. The
improvised cadenzas were in the hands of most players a nuisance
which marred the work as a whole beyond repair. But the Mozart
concertos, written as they were for occasions of his public
appearance, have a true musical value. We know enough of his
improvising to be sure that his cadenzas added and did not subtract
from this.
Their chief beauty is here, as in his other music, the melodious

freshness of his themes, the delightful subtlety of his harmony. The
constant stream of arabesque which the piano adds to this
intrinsically beautiful foundation is in the main simple. It is surprising
how little Mozart added to the virtuoso style of pianoforte literature,
even how little he made use of what, through Clementi and Dussek,
was already common property. There are practically no octave
passages, and no passages in double notes. He uses only scales,
arpeggios and trills.
But his art of combining these with the orchestra has never been
excelled. In this regard his concertos stand far above those of the
virtuosi like Hummel, Dussek, and John Field. Their tone-color is not
only that which the essentially colorless pianoforte can afford; it is a
beautiful interweaving of many colors. His treatment of the orchestra
is always distinguished, never haphazard or indifferent. Delicate as
the coloring may be to ears now accustomed to heavier and more
sensuous blendings, it is not watery and faded. It is still exquisitely
clear and suggestive. As the first of composers to make such

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Strategic Management and Business

Policy Globalization Innovation and

Strategic Management and Business Policy Globalization

Strategic Management and Business Policy Globalization

Strategic Management and Business Policy Globalization

Concepts in Strategic Management and Business Policy

Concepts in Strategic Management and Business Policy

Concepts in Strategic Management and Business Policy

Strategic Management and Business Policy Global 15th

Strategic Management Competitiveness and Globalization

2) SWOT analysis by itself is not a panacea for strategy.

6) Niches can grow and change over time.

9) SO strategies attempt to take advantage of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses.

17) Most entrepreneurial ventures follow focus strategies.

27) In tacit collusion, there is no direct communication among competing firms.

37) The text authors note that the essence of strategy is

39) In the development of a SFAS matrix, the first step is to

42) One company that has successfully found a propitious niche is

44) In a TOWS Matrix, SO Strategies

45) In a TOWS Matrix, ST Strategies

46) In a TOWS Matrix, WT Strategies

47) Business strategy focuses on

48) Business strategy is composed of

54) Walmart, as a discount retailer, is an example of a company following which of Porter's

55) Apple is an example of a company following which of Porter's generic competitive

59) Which of Porter's competitive strategies concentrates on seeking differentiation in a

63) According to Porter, a business unit in a competitive marketplace with no generic

64) Most entrepreneurial ventures follow

69) A method developed in the mid-1990s as an efficient means to quickly consolidate a

70) As an industry becomes hypercompetitive, firms initially respond by

71) The book Hypercompetition was written by

73) According to D'Aveni

79) Incentives based on meeting strict quantitative targets is a common organizational

83) Jet airplane manufacturers often enter into strategic alliances to

85) Disadvantages of joint ventures include all of the following EXCEPT

87) In licensing arrangements

88) Tacit collusion

91) The two general types of cooperative strategies are

99) What are Porter's four generic strategies?

As an industry matures, fragmentation is overcome and the industry tends to become a

101) What is the impact of hypercompetition on competitive advantage?

102) Discuss the reasons a firm may form a strategic alliance.

103) What are cooperative strategies?

The association of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven with Vienna

The insulation which circumstances of time and space may seem to

Merely as regards pianoforte technique the period was a transitional

It is to be regretted that Haydn and even Mozart have been in no

Technically Haydn and Mozart may be held to have condemned their

Yet the wonder is that sonatas so written should be today full of

He was not, like Mozart and Beethoven, a great player on the

The collection of thirty-four sonatas for pianoforte published by

The same is in part true of Mozart’s sonatas. Except as these show

To what is this due? To the nature of the man or to the circumstances

It is a great injustice so to stigmatize Haydn and Mozart. The beauty

The adagio seems not at all conspicuous, yet compare it with an

It is, of course, nearly impossible to characterize the sonatas in

Such a passage as this, and many another in Haydn’s music,

He was always a virtuoso as well as a composer. He played the

His avoidance rather than cultivation of brilliancy alone makes his