VCE Biology Study Design 2022–2026 Updated – version 1.

Unit 3: How do cells maintain life?

In this unit students investigate the workings of the cell from several perspectives. They explore the
relationship between nucleic acids and proteins as key molecules in cellular processes. Students
analyse the structure and function of nucleic acids as information molecules, gene structure and
expression in prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and proteins as a diverse group of functional
molecules. They examine the biological consequences of manipulating the DNA molecule and
applying biotechnologies.

Students explore the structure, regulation and rate of biochemical pathways, with reference to
photosynthesis and cellular respiration. They explore how the application of biotechnologies to
biochemical pathways could lead to improvements in agricultural practices.

Students apply their knowledge of cellular processes through investigation of a selected case
study, data analysis and/or a bioethical issue. Examples of investigation topics include, but are not
limited to: discovery and development of the model of the structure of DNA; proteomic research
applications; transgenic organism use in agriculture; use, research and regulation of gene
technologies, including CRISPR-Cas9; outcomes and unexpected consequences of the use of
enzyme inhibitors such as pesticides and drugs; research into increasing efficiency of
photosynthesis or cellular respiration or impact of poisons on the cellular respiration pathway.

The application of ethical understanding in VCE Biology involves the consideration of approaches
to bioethics and ethical concepts. Further explanation of these terms can be found in the ‘Terms
used in this study’ section on pages 16 and 17.

A student-designed scientific investigation related to cellular processes and/or responses to

challenges over time is undertaken in either Unit 3 or Unit 4, or across both Units 3 and 4, and is
assessed in Unit 4, Outcome 3. The design, analysis and findings of the investigation are
presented in a scientific poster format as outlined on pages 11 and 12.

Area of Study 1
What is the role of nucleic acids and proteins in maintaining
life?
In this area of study students explore the expression of the information encoded in a sequence of
DNA to form a protein and outline the nature of the genetic code and the proteome. They apply
their knowledge to the structure and function of the DNA molecule to examine how molecular tools
and techniques can be used to manipulate the molecule for a particular purpose. Students
compare gene technologies used to address human and agricultural issues and consider the
ethical implications of their use.

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Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the relationship between nucleic
acids and proteins, and evaluate how tools and techniques can be used and applied in the
manipulation of DNA.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and
the related key science skills on pages 7–8 of the study design.

Key knowledge

The relationship between nucleic acids and proteins

 nucleic acids as information molecules that encode instructions for the synthesis of proteins:
the structure of DNA, the three main forms of RNA (mRNA, rRNA and tRNA) and a
comparison of their respective nucleotides
 the genetic code as a universal triplet code that is degenerate and the steps in gene
expression, including transcription, RNA processing in eukaryotic cells and translation by
ribosomes
 the structure of genes: exons, introns and promoter and operator regions
 the basic elements of gene regulation: prokaryotic trp operon as a simplified example of a
regulatory process
 amino acids as the monomers of a polypeptide chain and the resultant hierarchical levels of
structure that give rise to a functional protein
 proteins as a diverse group of molecules that collectively make an organism’s proteome,
including enzymes as catalysts in biochemical pathways
 the role of rough endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus and associated vesicles in the export
of proteins from a cell via the protein secretory pathway

DNA manipulation techniques and applications

 the use of enzymes to manipulate DNA, including polymerase to synthesise DNA, ligase to
join DNA and endonucleases to cut DNA
 the function of CRISPR-Cas9 in bacteria and the application of this function in editing an
organism’s genome
 amplification of DNA using polymerase chain reaction and the use of gel electrophoresis in
sorting DNA fragments, including the interpretation of gel runs for DNA profiling
 the use of recombinant plasmids as vectors to transform bacterial cells as demonstrated by
the production of human insulin
 the use of genetically modified and transgenic organisms in agriculture to increase crop
productivity and to provide resistance to disease.

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Area of Study 2
How are biochemical pathways regulated?
In this area of study students focus on the structure and regulation of biochemical pathways. They
examine how biochemical pathways, specifically photosynthesis and cellular respiration, involve
many steps that are controlled by enzymes and assisted by coenzymes. Students investigate
factors that affect the rate of cellular reactions and explore applications of biotechnology that focus
on the regulation of biochemical pathways.

Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the structure and regulation of
biochemical pathways in photosynthesis and cellular respiration, and evaluate how biotechnology
can be used to solve problems related to the regulation of biochemical pathways.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and
the related key science skills on pages 7–8 of the study design.

Key knowledge

Regulation of biochemical pathways in photosynthesis and cellular respiration

 the general structure of the biochemical pathways in photosynthesis and cellular respiration
from initial reactant to final product
 the general role of enzymes and coenzymes in facilitating steps in photosynthesis and cellular
respiration
 the general factors that impact on enzyme function in relation to photosynthesis and cellular
respiration: changes in temperature, pH, concentration, competitive and non-competitive
enzyme inhibitors

Photosynthesis as an example of biochemical pathways

 inputs, outputs and locations of the light dependent and light independent stages of
photosynthesis in C3 plants (details of biochemical pathway mechanisms are not required)
 the role of Rubisco in photosynthesis, including adaptations of C3, C4 and CAM plants to
maximise the efficiency of photosynthesis
 the factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis: light availability, water availability,
temperature and carbon dioxide concentration

Cellular respiration as an example of biochemical pathways

 the main inputs, outputs and locations of glycolysis, Krebs Cycle and electron transport chain
including ATP yield (details of biochemical pathway mechanisms are not required)
 the location, inputs and the difference in outputs of anaerobic fermentation in animals and
yeasts
 the factors that affect the rate of cellular respiration: temperature, glucose availability and
oxygen concentration

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Biotechnological applications of biochemical pathways

 potential uses and applications of CRISPR-Cas9 technologies to improve photosynthetic
efficiencies and crop yields
 uses and applications of anaerobic fermentation of biomass for biofuel production.

Unit 4: How does life change and respond to challenges?

In this unit students consider the continual change and challenges to which life on Earth has been,
and continues to be, subjected to. They study the human immune system and the interactions
between its components to provide immunity to a specific pathogen. Students consider how the
application of biological knowledge can be used to respond to bioethical issues and challenges
related to disease.

Students consider how evolutionary biology is based on the accumulation of evidence over time.
They investigate the impact of various change events on a population’s gene pool and the
biological consequences of changes in allele frequencies. Students examine the evidence for
relatedness between species and change in life forms over time using evidence from paleontology,
structural morphology, molecular homology and comparative genomics. Students examine the
evidence for structural trends in the human fossil record, recognising that interpretations can be
contested, refined or replaced when challenged by new evidence.

Students demonstrate and apply their knowledge of how life changes and responds to challenges
through investigation of a selected case study, data analysis and/or bioethical issue. Examples of
investigation topics include, but are not limited to: deviant cell behaviour and links to disease;
autoimmune diseases; allergic reactions; development of immunotherapy strategies; use and
application of bacteriophage therapy; prevention and eradication of disease; vaccinations;
bioprospecting for new medical treatments; trends, patterns and evidence for evolutionary
relationships; population and species changes over time in non-animal communities such as
forests and microbiota; monitoring of gene pools for conservation planning; role of selective
breeding programs in conservation of endangered species; or impact of new technologies on the
study of evolutionary biology.
The application of ethical understanding in VCE Biology involves the consideration of approaches
to bioethics and ethical concepts. Further explanation of these terms can be found in the ‘Terms
used in this study’ section on pages 16 and 17.

A student-designed scientific investigation involving the generation of primary data related to

cellular processes and/or how life changes and responds to challenges is undertaken in either Unit
3 or Unit 4, or across both Units 3 and 4, and is assessed in Unit 4, Outcome 3. The design,
analysis and findings of the investigation are presented in a scientific poster format as outlined on
pages 11 and 12.

Area of Study 1
How do organisms respond to pathogens?
In this area of study students focus on the immune response of organisms to specific pathogens.
Students examine unique molecules called antigens and how they illicit an immune response, the
nature of immunity and the role of vaccinations in providing immunity. They explain how

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technological advances assist in managing immune system disorders and how immunotherapies
can be applied to the treatment of other diseases.

Students consider that in a globally connected world there are biological challenges that can be
mediated by identification of pathogens, the prevention of spread and the development of
treatments for diseases.

Outcome 1
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the immune response to specific
antigens, compare the different ways that immunity may be acquired and evaluate challenges and
strategies in the treatment of disease.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 1 and
the related key science skills on pages 7–8 of the study design.

Key knowledge

Responding to antigens
 physical, chemical and microbiota barriers as preventative mechanisms of pathogenic
infection in animals and plants
 the innate immune response including the steps in an inflammatory response and the
characteristics and roles of macrophages, neutrophils, dendritic cells, eosinophils, natural killer
cells, mast cells, complement proteins and interferons
 initiation of an immune response, including antigen presentation, the distinction between self-
antigens and non-self antigens, cellular and non-cellular pathogens and allergens

Acquiring immunity
 the role of the lymphatic system in the immune response as a transport network and the role
of lymph nodes as sites for antigen recognition by T and B lymphocytes
 the characteristics and roles of the components of the adaptive immune response against both
extracellular and intracellular threats, including the actions of B lymphocytes and their
antibodies, helper T and cytotoxic T cells
 the difference between natural and artificial immunity and active and passive strategies for
acquiring immunity

Disease challenges and strategies

 the emergence of new pathogens and re-emergence of known pathogens in a globally
connected world, including the impact of European arrival on Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples
 scientific and social strategies employed to identify and control the spread of pathogens,
including identification of the pathogen and host, modes of transmission and measures to
control transmission
 vaccination programs and their role in maintaining herd immunity for a specific disease in a
human population
 the development of immunotherapy strategies, including the use of monoclonal antibodies for
the treatment of autoimmune diseases and cancer.

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Area of Study 2
How are species related over time?
In this area of study students focus on changes to genetic material over time and the evidence for
biological evolution. They consider how the field of evolutionary biology is based upon the
accumulation of evidence over time and develop an understanding of how interpretations of
evidence can change in the light of new evidence as a result of technological advances, particularly
in molecular biology. Students consider the biological consequences of changes in allele
frequencies and how isolation and divergence are required elements for speciation. They consider
the evidence for determining the relatedness between species and examine the evidence for major
trends in hominin evolution, including the migration of modern human populations around the
world.

Outcome 2
On completion of this unit the student should be able to analyse the evidence for genetic changes
in populations and changes in species over time, analyse the evidence for relatedness between
species, and evaluate the evidence for human change over time.

To achieve this outcome the student will draw on key knowledge outlined in Area of Study 2 and
the related key science skills on pages 7–8 of the study design.

Key knowledge

Genetic changes in a population over time

 causes of changing allele frequencies in a population’s gene pool, including environmental
selection pressures, genetic drift and gene flow; and mutations as the source of new alleles
 biological consequences of changing allele frequencies in terms of increased and decreased
genetic diversity
 manipulation of gene pools through selective breeding programs
 consequences of bacterial resistance and viral antigenic drift and shift in terms of ongoing
challenges for treatment strategies and vaccination against pathogens

Changes in species over time

 changes in species over geological time as evidenced from the fossil record: faunal (fossil)
succession, index and transitional fossils, relative and absolute dating of fossils
 evidence of speciation as a consequence of isolation and genetic divergence, including
Galapagos finches as an example of allopatric speciation and Howea palms on Lord Howe
Island as an example of sympatric speciation

Determining the relatedness of species

 evidence of relatedness between species: structural morphology – homologous and vestigial
structures; and molecular homology – DNA and amino acid sequences
 the use and interpretation of phylogenetic trees as evidence for the relatedness between
species

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Human change over time

 the shared characteristics that define mammals, primates, hominoids and hominins
 evidence for major trends in hominin evolution from the genus Australopithecus to the genus
Homo: changes in brain size and limb structure
 the human fossil record as an example of a classification scheme that is open to differing
interpretations that are contested, refined or replaced when challenged by new evidence,
including evidence for interbreeding between Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis and
evidence of new putative Homo species
 ways of using fossil and DNA evidence (mtDNA and whole genomes) to explain the migration
of modern human populations around the world, including the migration of Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander populations and their connection to Country and Place.

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