Semitic Languages - Wikipedia

3/27/24, 2:15 PM Semitic languages - Wikipedia
Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. They include Arabic,
Semitic
Amharic, Aramaic, Hebrew, and numerous other ancient and modern languages. They are spoken by
Geographic West Asia, North Africa,
more than 330 million people across much of West Asia, North Africa,[a] the Horn of Africa,[b][c]
distribution Horn of Africa, Malta
Malta,[d] and in large immigrant and expatriate communities in North America, Europe, and
Australasia. The terminology was first used in the 1780s by members of the Göttingen school of history, Linguistic Afro-Asiatic
who derived the name from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the Book of Genesis. classification
Semitic
Proto-language Proto-Semitic
Semitic languages occur in written form from a very early historical date in West Asia, with East Semitic
Akkadian and Eblaite texts (written in a script adapted from Sumerian cuneiform) appearing from Subdivisions East Semitic †
c. 2500 BCE in Mesopotamia and the northeastern Levant respectively. The only earlier attested West Semitic
languages are Sumerian and Elamite (2800 BCE to 550 BCE), both language isolates, and Egyptian
ISO 639-2 / 5 sem
(c. 3000 BCE), a sister branch within the Afroasiatic family, related to the Semitic languages but not
Glottolog semi1276 (https://glott
part of them. Amorite appeared in Mesopotamia and the northern Levant c. 2000 BC, followed by the
olog.org/resource/langu
mutually intelligible Canaanite languages (including Hebrew, Phoenician, Moabite, Edomite and
Ammonite, and perhaps Ekronite, Amalekite and Sutean), the still spoken Aramaic, and Ugaritic during oid/id/semi1276)
the 2nd millennium BC.
Most scripts used to write Semitic languages are abjads – a type of alphabetic script that omits some or
all of the vowels, which is feasible for these languages because the consonants are the primary carriers
of meaning in the Semitic languages. These include the Ugaritic, Phoenician, Aramaic, Hebrew, Syriac,
Arabic, and ancient South Arabian alphabets. The Geʽez script, used for writing the Semitic languages
of Ethiopia and Eritrea, is technically an abugida – a modified abjad in which vowels are notated using
diacritic marks added to the consonants at all times, in contrast with other Semitic languages which
indicate vowels based on need or for introductory purposes. Maltese is the only Semitic language Modern distribution of the Semitic languages
written in the Latin script and the only Semitic language to be an official language of the European
Union.
The Semitic languages are notable for their nonconcatenative morphology. That is, word roots are not
themselves syllables or words, but instead are isolated sets of consonants (usually three, making a so-
called triliteral root). Words are composed from roots not so much by adding prefixes or suffixes, but
rather by filling in the vowels between the root consonants, although prefixes and suffixes are often
added as well. For example, in Arabic, the root meaning "write" has the form k-t-b. From this root,
words are formed by filling in the vowels and sometimes adding consonants, e.g. ‫ ِكتاب‬kitāb "book", ‫ُكُتب‬
kutub "books", ‫ كاِتب‬kātib "writer", ‫ ُكّتاب‬kuttāb "writers", ‫ َكَتب‬kataba "he wrote", ‫ يكُتب‬yaktubu "he
writes", etc.
Name and identification

The similarity of the Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic languages has been accepted by all scholars since
medieval times. The languages were familiar to Western European scholars due to historical contact
with neighbouring Near Eastern countries and through Biblical studies, and a comparative analysis of
Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic was published in Latin in 1538 by Guillaume Postel.[4] Almost two
centuries later, Hiob Ludolf described the similarities between these three languages and the Ethiopian
Approximate historical distribution of Semitic
Semitic languages.[5] However, neither scholar named this grouping as "Semitic".[5]
languages
The term "Semitic" was created by members of the Göttingen school of history, initially by August
Ludwig von Schlözer (1781), to designate the languages closely related to Arabic, Aramaic, and Hebrew.[6][7] The
choice of name was derived from Shem, one of the three sons of Noah in the genealogical accounts of the biblical
Book of Genesis,[8] or more precisely from the Koine Greek rendering of the name, Σήμ (Sēm). Johann Gottfried
Eichhorn is credited with popularising the term,[9][10][8] particularly via a 1795 article "Semitische Sprachen"
(Semitic languages) in which he justified the terminology against criticism that Hebrew and Canaanite were the
same language despite Canaan being "Hamitic" in the Table of Nations:[11]
In the Mosaic Table of Nations, those names which are listed as Semites are purely names of tribes who
speak the so-called Oriental languages and live in Southwest Asia. As far as we can trace the history of
these very languages back in time, they have always been written with syllabograms or with alphabetic
script (never with hieroglyphs or pictograms); and the legends about the invention of the syllabograms
and alphabetic script go back to the Semites. In contrast, all so called Hamitic peoples originally used
hieroglyphs, until they here and there, either through contact with the Semites, or through their
settlement among them, became familiar with their syllabograms or alphabetic script, and partly adopted
them. Viewed from this aspect too, with respect to the alphabet used, the name "Semitic languages" is
completely appropriate.[12]
1538 comparison of Hebrew and
Arabic, by Guillaume Postel –
possibly the first such
representation in Western European
literature.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semitic_languages 1/18
Previously these languages had been commonly known as the "Oriental languages" in European literature.[13] In the 19th century, "Semitic" became
the conventional name; however, an alternative name, "Syro-Arabian languages", was later introduced by James Cowles Prichard and used by some
writers.[10]
History
Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples

Semitic languages were spoken and written across much of the Middle East and Asia Minor during the Bronze Age
and Iron Age, the earliest attested being the East Semitic Akkadian of Mesopotamia (Akkad, Assyria, Isin, Larsa
and Babylonia) from the third millennium BC.[14]
The origin of Semitic-speaking peoples is still under discussion. Several locations were proposed as possible sites
of a prehistoric origin of Semitic-speaking peoples: Mesopotamia, the Levant, Ethiopia,[15] the Eastern
Mediterranean region, the Arabian Peninsula, and North Africa. According to a 2009 study, the Semitic languages
originated in the Levant c. 3750 BC, and were introduced to the Horn of Africa c. 800 BC from the southern
Arabian peninsula, and to North Africa via Phoenician colonists at approximately the same time.[16][17] Others
assign the arrival of Semitic speakers in the Horn of Africa to a much earlier date.[18] According to another
hypothesis, Semitic originated from an offshoot of a still earlier language in North Africa and desertification made
its inhabitants to migrate in the fourth millennium BC into what is now Ethiopia, others northwest out of Africa
Chronology mapping of Semitic
into West Asia.[19] languages
The various extremely closely related and mutually intelligible Canaanite languages, a branch of the Northwest
Semitic languages included Edomite, Hebrew, Ammonite, Moabite, Phoenician (Punic/Carthaginian), Samaritan Hebrew and Ekronite. They were
spoken in what is today Israel and the Palestinian territories, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, the northern Sinai peninsula, some northern and eastern parts
of the Arabian peninsula, southwest fringes of Turkey, and in the case of Phoenician, coastal regions of Tunisia (Carthage), Libya, Algeria and parts of
Morocco, Spain and possibly in Malta and other Mediterranean islands. Ugaritic, a Northwest Semitic language closely related to but distinct from the
Canaanite group was spoken in the kingdom of Ugarit in north western Syria.
A hybrid Canaano-Akkadian language also emerged in Canaan (Israel and the Palestinian territories, Jordan,
Lebanon) during the 14th century BC, incorporating elements of the Mesopotamian East Semitic Akkadian
language of Assyria and Babylonia with the West Semitic Canaanite languages.[21]
Aramaic, a still living ancient Northwest Semitic language, first attested in the 12th century BC in the northern
Levant, gradually replaced the East Semitic and Canaanite languages across much of the Near East, particularly
after being adopted as the lingua franca of the vast Neo-Assyrian Empire (911–605 BC) by Tiglath-Pileser III
during the 8th century BC, and being retained by the succeeding Neo-Babylonian and Achaemenid Empires.[22]
Epic of Gilgamesh, an epic poem
The Chaldean language (not to be confused with Aramaic or its Biblical variant, sometimes referred to as from ancient Mesopotamia,
Chaldean) was a Northwest Semitic language, possibly closely related to Aramaic, but no examples of the language regarded as the earliest surviving
notable literature, written in
remain, as after settling in south eastern Mesopotamia from the Levant during the 9th century BC, the Chaldeans
Akkadian.[20]
appear to have rapidly adopted the Akkadian and Aramaic languages of the indigenous Mesopotamians.
Old South Arabian languages (classified as South Semitic and therefore distinct from the Central-Semitic Arabic)
were spoken in the kingdoms of Dilmun, Sheba, Ubar, Socotra and Magan, which in modern terms encompassed part of the eastern coast of Saudi
Arabia, and Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and Yemen. South Semitic languages are thought to have spread to the Horn of Africa circa 8th century BC where
the Ge'ez language emerged (though the direction of influence remains uncertain).
Common Era
Classical Syriac, a 200 CE[23] Eastern Middle Aramaic dialect,[24] used as a liturgical language in Mesopotamia, the
Levant, and Kerala, India,[25] rose to importance as a literary language of early Christianity in the third to fifth
centuries and continued into the early Islamic era.
The Arabic language, although originating in the Arabian Peninsula, first emerged in written form in the 1st to 4th
centuries CE in the southern regions of The Levant. With the advent of the early Arab conquests of the seventh and
eighth centuries, Classical Arabic eventually replaced many (but not all) of the indigenous Semitic languages and
cultures of the Near East. Both the Near East and North Africa saw an influx of Muslim Arabs from the Arabian
Peninsula, followed later by non-Semitic Muslim Iranian and Turkic peoples. The previously dominant Aramaic
dialects maintained by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians gradually began to be sidelined, however descendant
dialects of Eastern Aramaic (including Suret (Assyrian and Chaldean varieties), Turoyo and Mandaic) survive to this
day among the Assyrians/Syriacs and Mandaeans of northern and southern Iraq, northwestern Iran, northeastern
Syria and southeastern Turkey, with up to a million fluent speakers. Syriac is a recognized language in Iraq,
furthermore, Mesopotamian Arabic is one of the most Syriac influenced dialects of Arabic, due to Syriac, the dialect Example of Arabic calligraphy
of Edessa specifically, having originated in Mesopotamia.[26] Meanwhile Western Aramaic is now only spoken by a
few thousand Christian and Muslim Arameans (Syriacs) in western Syria. The Arabs spread their Central Semitic
language to North Africa (Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and northern Sudan and Mauritania), where it gradually replaced Egyptian Coptic
and many Berber languages (although Berber is still largely extant in many areas), and for a time to the Iberian Peninsula (modern Spain, Portugal
and Gibraltar) and Malta.
With the patronage of the caliphs and the prestige of its liturgical status, Arabic rapidly became one of the world's main literary languages. Its spread
among the masses took much longer, however, as many (although not all) of the native populations outside the Arabian Peninsula only gradually
abandoned their languages in favour of Arabic. As Bedouin tribes settled in conquered areas, it became the main language of not only central Arabia,
but also Yemen,[27] the Fertile Crescent, and Egypt. Most of the Maghreb followed, specifically in the wake of the Banu Hilal's incursion in the 11th
century, and Arabic became the native language of many inhabitants of al-Andalus. After the collapse of the Nubian kingdom of Dongola in the 14th
century, Arabic began to spread south of Egypt into modern Sudan; soon after, the Beni Ḥassān brought Arabization
to Mauritania. A number of Modern South Arabian languages distinct from Arabic still survive, such as Soqotri,
Mehri and Shehri which are mainly spoken in Socotra, Yemen and Oman.
Meanwhile, the Semitic languages that had arrived from southern Arabia in the 8th century BC were diversifying in
Ethiopia and Eritrea, where, under heavy Cushitic influence, they split into a number of languages, including
Amharic and Tigrinya. With the expansion of Ethiopia under the Solomonic dynasty, Amharic, previously a minor
local language, spread throughout much of the country, replacing both Semitic (such as Gafat) and non-Semitic (such
as Weyto) languages, and replacing Ge'ez as the principal literary language (though Ge'ez remains the liturgical
language for Christians in the region); this spread continues to this day, with Qimant set to disappear in another
generation.
Page from a 12th-century Quran

Present distribution in Arabic
Arabic is currently the native language of majorities from Mauritania to Oman, and from Iraq to the Sudan. Classical
Arabic is the language of the Quran. It is also studied widely in the non-Arabic-speaking Muslim world. The
Maltese language is a descendant of the extinct Siculo-Arabic, a variety of Maghrebi Arabic formerly spoken in
Sicily. The modern Maltese alphabet is based on the Latin script with the addition of some letters with diacritic
marks and digraphs. Maltese is the only Semitic official language within the European Union.
Successful as second languages far beyond their numbers of contemporary first-language speakers, a few Semitic
languages today are the base of the sacred literature of some of the world's major religions, including Islam
(Arabic), Judaism (Hebrew and Aramaic (Biblical and Talmudic)), churches of Syriac Christianity (Classical
Syriac) and Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Christianity (Ge'ez). Millions learn these as a second language (or an
archaic version of their modern tongues): many Muslims learn to read and recite the Qur'an and Jews speak and
study Biblical Hebrew, the language of the Torah, Midrash, and other Jewish scriptures. The followers of the
Assyrian Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Ancient Church of the East, Assyrian Pentecostal Church,
Approximate distribution of the
Assyrian Evangelical Church and the Syriac Orthodox Church speak Eastern Aramaic languages and use Classical
Semitic languages around the 1st
Syriac as their liturgical language. Classical Syriac is also used liturgically by the primarily Arabic-speaking century AD
followers of the Maronite Church, Syriac Catholic Church and was originally the liturgical language of the Melkites
in Antioch and ancient Syria.[28][29][30][31][32] Koine Greek and Classical Arabic are the main liturgical languages
of Oriental Orthodox Christians in the Middle East, who compose the patriarchates of Antioch, Jerusalem and Alexandria. Mandaic is both spoken
and used as a liturgical language by the Mandaeans. Although the majority of Neo-Aramaic dialects spoken today are descended from Eastern
varieties, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in two villages in Syria.
Despite the ascendancy of Arabic in the Middle East, other Semitic languages still exist. Biblical Hebrew, long extinct as a colloquial language and in
use only in Jewish literary, intellectual, and liturgical activity, was revived in spoken form at the end of the 19th century. Modern Hebrew is the main
language of Israel, with Biblical Hebrew remaining as the language of liturgy and religious scholarship of Jews worldwide.
In Arab-dominated Yemen and Oman, on the southern rim of the Arabian Peninsula, a few tribes continue to speak Modern South Arabian languages
such as Mahri and Soqotri. These languages differ greatly from both the surrounding Arabic dialects and from the languages of the Old South Arabian
inscriptions.
Historically linked to the peninsular homeland of Old South Arabian, of which only one language, Razihi, remains, Ethiopia and Eritrea contain a
substantial number of Semitic languages; the most widely spoken are Amharic in Ethiopia, Tigre in Eritrea, and Tigrinya in both. Amharic is the
official language of Ethiopia. Tigrinya is a working language in Eritrea. Tigre is spoken by over one million people in the northern and central Eritrean
lowlands and parts of eastern Sudan. A number of Gurage languages are spoken by populations in the semi-mountainous region of central Ethiopia,
while Harari is restricted to the city of Harar. Ge'ez remains the liturgical language for certain groups of Christians in Ethiopia and in Eritrea.
Phonology
The phonologies of the attested Semitic languages are presented here from a comparative point of view. See Proto-Semitic language#Phonology for
details on the phonological reconstruction of Proto-Semitic used in this article. The reconstruction of Proto-Semitic (PS) was originally based
primarily on Arabic, whose phonology and morphology (particularly in Classical Arabic) is very conservative, and which preserves as contrastive 28
out of the evident 29 consonantal phonemes.[33] with *s [s] and *š [ʃ] merging into Arabic /s/ ⟨‫ ⟩س‬and *ś [ɬ] becoming Arabic /ʃ/ ⟨‫⟩ش‬.
Proto-Semitic consonant phonemes[34]
Type Manner Voicing Labial Interdental Alveolar Palatal Lateral Velar/Uvular Pharyngeal Glottal
voiceless *p [p] *t [t] *k [k]
Stop emphatic (pʼ)[e] *ṭ [tʼ] *q/ḳ [kʼ] *ʼ,ˀ [ʔ]
voiced *b [b] *d [d] *g [ɡ]

Obstruent
voiceless *ṯ [θ] *s [s] *š [ʃ] *ś [ɬ] *ḫ [x~χ] *ḥ [ħ] *h [h]
Fricative emphatic *ṱ[f]/θ̣/ẓ [θʼ] *ṣ [sʼ] *ṣ́ /ḏ̣ [ɬʼ] (xʼ~χʼ)[g]

voiced *ḏ [ð] *z [z] *ġ/ǵ [ɣ~ʁ] *ʻ,ˤ [ʕ]
Trill *r [r]
Resonant Approximant *w [w] *y [j] *l [l]

Nasal *m [m] *n [n]
a. Arabic is one of the world's largest languages, spoken natively in West Asia and Africa by about 300 million speakers, and as a second language by perhaps another 60
million.[1]
b. Amharic has perhaps fifteen million speakers, in Africa probably fewer than only Arabic, Swahili, Hausa, and Oromo, and is the second most populous Semitic language,
after just Arabic. It is the lingua franca and constitutionally recognized national language of Ethiopia, and the national language of instruction of Ethiopian public education in
the primary grades.[2]
c. Tigrinya, not to be confused with the related but distinct language Tigre, is, like Amharic, a northern Ethiopian Semitic language, is spoken as a native language by the
overwhelming majority of the population in the Tigre province of Ethiopia and in the highland part of Eritrea (the provinces of Akkele Guzay, Serae and Hamasien, where the
capital of the state, Asmara, is situated). Outside of this area Tigrinya is also spoken in the Tambien and Wolqayt historical districts (Ethiopia) and in the administrative
districts of Massara and Keren (Eritrea), these being respectively the southern and northern limits of its expansion. The number of speaker of Tigrinya has been estimated at
4 million in 1995; 1.3 million of them live in Eritrea (around 50 percent of the population of the country), in 2008 by an estimated 5 million.[3] Hebrew speaking about ~5
million native/L1 speakers, Gurage has around 1.5 million speakers, Tigre has c. ~1.05 million speakers, Aramaic is spoken by around 575,000 to 1 million largely Assyrian
speakers).
d. Maltese has around 483,000 speakers,
e. Woodard (2008, p. 219) suggests the presence of an emphatic p in some disparate Semitic languages may indicate that such an emphatic was present in Proto-Semitic.
f. The emphatic interdental fricative is usually spelled *ṯ̣ but is replaced here by *ṱ for better readability.
g. Huehnergard (2003, p.49) presents a minority opinion that an ejective velar fricative existed in Proto-Semitic.
Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡ s/, /d͡ z/, /t͡ sʼ/, /t͡ ɬ/, /t͡ ɬʼ/, /t͡ θʼ/), as discussed in Proto-Semitic language
§ Fricatives.
This comparative approach is natural for the consonants, as sound correspondences among the consonants of the Semitic languages are very
straightforward for a family of its time depth. Sound shifts affecting the vowels are more numerous and, at times, less regular.
Consonants
Each Proto-Semitic phoneme was reconstructed to explain a certain regular sound correspondence between various Semitic languages. Note that
Latin letter values (italicized) for extinct languages are a question of transcription; the exact pronunciation is not recorded.
Most of the attested languages have merged a number of the reconstructed original fricatives, though South Arabian retains all fourteen (and has
added a fifteenth from *p > f).
In Aramaic and Hebrew, all non-emphatic stops occurring singly after a vowel were softened to fricatives, leading to an alternation that was often
later phonemicized as a result of the loss of gemination.
In languages exhibiting pharyngealization of emphatics, the original velar emphatic has rather developed to a uvular stop [q].
Regular correspondences of the Proto-Semitic consonants[3
Arabic Maltese Ugaritic Phoenician He
Proto Akka-
IPA Alt.
Semitic Written Classical[36] Modern Written Pronounce
dian Written Pronounce Written Translit. Written Biblical Tiberian
Transl.
ḇ,
*b [b] ‫ب‬ b /b/ b /b/ b 𐎁 b 𐤁 b b ‫ב‬ b5 /b/ /v/, /b/
b5
ḡ,
*g [ɡ] ‫ج‬ ǧ /ɟ ~ d͡ ʒ/9 /d͡ ʒ/11 ġ /d͡ ʒ/ g 𐎂 g 𐤂 g g ‫ג‬ g5 /ɡ/ /ɣ/, /ɡ/
g5
p̄ ,
*p [p] ‫ف‬ p̄ /f/ f /f/ p 𐎔 p 𐤐 p p ‫פ‬ p5 /p/ /f/, /p/
p5
ḵ,
*k [k] ‫ك‬ k /k/ k /k/ k 𐎋 k 𐤊 k k ‫כ‬ k5 /k/ /x/, /k/
k5
*ḳ [kʼ] ‫ق‬ q /ɡ ~ q/9 /q/12 q /ʔ ~ q/ q 𐎖 ḳ 𐤒 q q q ‫ק‬ q /q/ /q/
ḏ,
*d [d] ‫د‬ d /d/ d 𐎄 d 𐤃 d d ‫ד‬ d5 /d/ /ð/, /d/
d /d/ d5
*ḏ [ð] ‫ذ‬ ḏ /ð/ 𐎏 ḏ>d

z 𐤆 z z z ‫ז‬ z /z/ /z/
*z [z] ‫ز‬ z /z/ ż /z/ 𐎇 z
*s [s] s 𐎒 s 𐤎 ṡ s ṡ1 ‫ס‬ s /s/ /s/

‫س‬ s /s/ s /s/
*š [ʃ] š ‫ׁש‬ š /ʃ/ /ʃ/
𐎌 š
1 1 1
*ś [ɬ] ‫ش‬ š /ʃ/ x /ʃ/ š 𐤔 s š s ‫ׂש‬ ś /ɬ/ /s/
*ṯ [θ] ‫ث‬ ṯ /θ/ 𐎘 ṯ š ‫ׁש‬ š /ʃ/ /ʃ/
ṯ,
*t [t] ‫ت‬ t /t/ t /t/ t 𐎚 t 𐤕 t t ‫ת‬ t5 /t/ /θ/, /t/
t5
*ṭ [tʼ] ‫ط‬ ḫ /tˤ/ ṭ 𐎉 ṭ 𐤈 ṭ ṭ ṭ ‫ט‬ ṭ /tˤ/ /tˤ/
*ṱ [θʼ] ‫ظ‬ ṱ /ðˤ/ d /d/ 𐎑 ẓ13 > ġ
*ṣ [sʼ] ‫ص‬ ṣ /sˤ/ s /s/

ṣ 𐤑 ṩ ṣ ṩ ‫צ‬ ṣ /sˤ/ /sˤ/
𐎕 ṣ
*ṣ́ [ɬʼ] ‫ض‬ s̭ /ɮˤ ~ dˤ/ /dˤ/ d /d/
[ɣ]~
*ġ
[ʁ]
‫غ‬ ʻ̱ /ɣ ~ ʁ/ ḫ 𐎙 ġ,ʻ /ʁ/
għ /ˤː/ 𐤏 o̯ ʿ o̯ ‫ע‬2 ʻ2 /ʕ/
*ʻ [ʕ] ‫ع‬ ʻ /ʕ/ –4 𐎓 ʻ /ʕ/
𐎀, 𐎛,
*ʼ [ʔ] ‫ء‬ ʼ /ʔ/ – – –, ʾ ʼa, ʼi, ʼu10 𐤀 q̇ ʾ q̇ ‫א‬ ʼ /ʔ/ /ʔ/
𐎜
[x]~
*ḫ
[χ]
‫خ‬ h̭ /x ~ χ/ ḫ 𐎃 ḫ /χ/
ħ /ħ/ 𐤇 h ḥ h2 ‫ח‬2 ḥ2 /ħ/
*ḥ [ħ] ‫ح‬ ḥ /ħ/ –4 𐎈 ḥ /ħ/
*h [h] ‫ه‬ h /h/ h /ː/ – 𐎅 h 𐤄 ḣ h ḣ2 ‫ה‬ h /h/ /h/
*m [m] ‫م‬ m /m/ m /m/ m 𐎎 m 𐤌 m m m ‫מ‬ m /m/ /m/
*n [n] ‫ن‬ n /n/ n /n/ n 𐎐 n 𐤍 n n n ‫נ‬ n /n/ /n/
/ʀ/, /r/,
*r [ɾ] ‫ر‬ r /r/ r /r/ r 𐎗 r 𐤓 r r r ‫ר‬ r /r/
/ʀː/
*l [l] ‫ل‬ l /l/ l /l/ l 𐎍 l 𐤋 l l l ‫ל‬ l /l/ /l/
*y [j] ‫ي‬ y /j/ j /j/ y 𐎊 y 𐤉 j y j ‫י‬ y /j/ /j/
*w [w] ‫و‬ w /w/ w /w/ w 𐎆 w 𐤅 w w w ‫ו‬ w /w/ /w/
Note: the fricatives *s, *z, *ṣ, *ś, *ṣ́, *ṱ may also be interpreted as affricates (/t͡ s/, /d͡ z/, /t͡ sʼ/, /t͡ ɬ/, /t͡ ɬʼ/, /t͡ θʼ/).
Notes:
1. Proto-Semitic *ś was still pronounced as [ɬ] in Biblical Hebrew, but no letter was available in the Early Linear Script, so the letter ‫ ש‬did double duty,
representing both /ʃ/ and /ɬ/. Later on, however, /ɬ/ merged with /s/, but the old spelling was largely retained, and the two pronunciations of ‫ ש‬were
distinguished graphically in Tiberian Hebrew as ‫ ׁש‬/ʃ/ vs. ‫ ׂש‬/s/ < /ɬ/.
2. Biblical Hebrew as of the 3rd century BCE apparently still distinguished the phonemes ġ /ʁ/ and ḫ /χ/ from ʻ /ʕ/ and ḥ /ħ/, respectively, based on
transcriptions in the Septuagint. As in the case of /ɬ/, no letters were available to represent these sounds, and existing letters did double duty: ‫ ח‬/χ/
/ħ/ and ‫ ע‬/ʁ/ /ʕ/. In both of these cases, however, the two sounds represented by the same letter eventually merged, leaving no evidence (other
than early transcriptions) of the former distinctions.
3. Although early Aramaic (pre-7th century BCE) had only 22 consonants in its alphabet, it apparently distinguished all of the original 29 Proto-
Semitic phonemes, including *ḏ, *ṯ, *ṱ, *ś, *ṣ́ , *ġ and *ḫ – although by Middle Aramaic times, these had all merged with other sounds. This
conclusion is mainly based on the shifting representation of words etymologically containing these sounds; in early Aramaic writing, the first five
are merged with z, š, ṣ, š, q, respectively, but later with d, t, ṭ, s, ʿ.[37][38] (Also note that due to begadkefat spirantization, which occurred after this
merger, OAm. t > ṯ and d > ḏ in some positions, so that PS *t,ṯ and *d, ḏ may be realized as either of t, ṯ and d, ḏ respectively.) The sounds *ġ and
*ḫ were always represented using the pharyngeal letters ʿ ḥ, but they are distinguished from the pharyngeals in the Demotic-script papyrus
Amherst 63, written about 200 BCE.[39] This suggests that these sounds, too, were distinguished in Old Aramaic language, but written using the
same letters as they later merged with.
4. The earlier pharyngeals can be distinguished in Akkadian from the zero reflexes of *ḥ, *ʕ by e-coloring adjacent *a, e.g. pS *ˈbaʕal-um 'owner,
lord' > Akk. bēlu(m).[40]
5. Hebrew and Aramaic underwent begadkefat spirantization at a certain point, whereby the stop sounds /b ɡ d k p t/ were softened to the
corresponding fricatives [v ɣ ð x f θ] (written ḇ ḡ ḏ ḵ p̄ ṯ) when occurring after a vowel and not geminated. This change probably happened after
the original Old Aramaic phonemes /θ, ð/ disappeared in the 7th century BCE,[41] and most likely occurred after the loss of Hebrew /χ, ʁ/
c. 200 BCE.[note 1] It is known to have occurred in Hebrew by the 2nd century CE.[43] After a certain point this alternation became contrastive in
word-medial and final position (though bearing low functional load), but in word-initial position they remained allophonic.[44] In Modern Hebrew,
the distinction has a higher functional load due to the loss of gemination, although only the three fricatives /v χ f/ are still preserved (the fricative
/x/ is pronounced /χ/ in modern Hebrew).
6. In the Northwest Semitic languages, */w/ became */j/ at the beginning of a word, e.g. Hebrew yeled "boy" < *wald (cf. Arabic walad).
7. There is evidence of a rule of assimilation of /j/ to the following coronal consonant in pre-tonic position, shared by Hebrew, Phoenician and
Aramaic.[45]
8. In Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, [ħ] is nonexistent. In general cases, the language would lack pharyngeal fricative [ʕ] (as heard in Ayin). However, /ʕ/ is
retained in educational speech, especially among Assyrian priests.[46]
9. The palatalization of Proto-Semitic gīm /g/ to Arabic /d͡ ʒ/ jīm, is most probably connected to the pronunciation of qāf /q/ as a /g/ gāf (this sound
change also occurred in Yemenite Hebrew), hence in most of the Arabian peninsula (which is the homeland of the Arabic language) ‫ ج‬is jīm /d͡ ʒ/
and ‫ ق‬is gāf /g/, except in western and southern Yemen and parts of Oman where ‫ ج‬is gīm /g/ and ‫ ق‬is qāf /q/.
10. Ugaritic orthography indicated the vowel after the glottal stop.
11. The Arabic letter jīm (‫ )ج‬has three main pronunciations in Modern Standard Arabic. [d͡ ʒ] in north Algeria, Iraq, also in most of the Arabian peninsula
and as the predominant pronunciation of Literary Arabic outside the Arab world, [ʒ] occurs in most of the Levant and most North Africa; and [ɡ] is
used in northern Egypt and some regions in Yemen and Oman. In addition to other minor allophones.
12. The Arabic letter qāf (‫ )ق‬has three main pronunciations in spoken varieties. [ɡ] in most of the Arabian Peninsula, Northern and Eastern Yemen
and parts of Oman, Southern Iraq, Upper Egypt, Sudan, Libya, some parts of the Levant and to lesser extent in some parts (mostly rural) of
Maghreb. [q] in most of Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco, Southern and Western Yemen and parts of Oman, Northern Iraq, parts of the Levant
especially Druze dialects. [ʔ] in most of the Levant and Lower Egypt, as well as some North African towns such as Tlemcen and Fez. In addition
to other minor allophones.
13. ṱ can be written ẓ, and always is in the Ugaritic and Arabic contexts. In Ugaritic, sometimes assimilates to ġ, as in ġmʔ 'thirsty' (Arabic ẓmʔ,
Hebrew ṣmʔ, but Ugaritic mẓmủ 'thirsty', root ẓmʔ, is also attested).
14. Early Amharic might have had a different phonology.
15. The pronunciations /ʕ/ and /ħ/ for ʿAyin and Ḥet, respectively, still occur among some older Mizrahi speakers, but for most modern Israelis, ʿAyin
and Ḥet are realized as /ʔ, -/ and /χ ~ x/, respectively.
The following table shows the development of the various fricatives in Hebrew, Aramaic, Arabic and Maltese through cognate words:
Examples
Proto-Semitic Arabic Maltese Aramaic Hebrew
Arabic Maltese Aramaic Hebrew meaning
deheb
‫ذهب‬ ‫דהב‬ ‫זהב‬ 'gold'
*/ð/ *ḏ */ð/ ‫ذ‬ */d/ d */d/ ‫ד‬ –
‫َذَكر‬ ‫דכרא‬ ‫ָזָכר‬ 'male'
*/z/ ‫ז‬
miżien
‫موازين‬ ‫מאזנין‬ ‫מאזנים‬ 'scale'
*/z/1 *z */z/ ‫ز‬ */z/ ż */z/ ‫ז‬
‫زمن‬ żmien ‫זמן‬ ‫זמן‬ 'time'
sikkina
*/s/ ‫س‬ */s/ s ‫سكين‬ ‫סכין‬ ‫סכין‬ 'knife'
*/s/ *s */s/ ‫ס‬ */s/ ‫ס‬ xahar
*/ʃ/ ‫ش‬ */ʃ/ x ‫شهر‬ ‫סהר‬ ‫סהר‬ 'moon/month'
*/ɬ/ *ś */ʃ/ ‫ش‬ */ʃ/ x */s/ ‫ׂש‬ */s/ ‫ׂש‬ ‫عشر‬ għaxra ‫עׂשר‬ ‫עׂשר‬ 'ten'
sena
‫سنة‬ ‫ׁשנה‬ ‫ׁשנה‬ 'year'
*/ʃ/ *š */s/ ‫س‬ */s/ s */ʃ/ ‫ׁש‬ sliem
‫سالم‬ ‫שלם‬ ‫שלום‬ 'peace'
*/ʃ/ ‫ׁש‬
tlieta
‫ثالثة‬ ‫תלת‬ ‫שלוש‬ 'three'
*/θ/ *ṯ */θ/ ‫ث‬ */t/ t */t/ ‫ת‬ tnejn
‫اثنان‬ ‫תרין‬ ‫שתים‬ 'two'
dell
‫ظل‬ ‫טלה‬ ‫צל‬ 'shadow'
*/θʼ/1 *ṱ */ðˤ/ ‫ظ‬ */d/ d */tʼ/ ‫ט‬
‫ظهر‬ – ‫טהרא‬ ‫צהרים‬ 'noon'
*/t/ t art
*/sˤ~ts/1 ‫צ‬ ‫أرض‬ ‫ארע‬ ‫ארץ‬ 'land'
*/ɬʼ/1 *ṣ́ */dˤ/ ‫ض‬ */d/ d */ʕ/ ‫ע‬
‫ضحك‬ daħaq ‫עחק‬ ‫צחק‬ 'laughed'
‫صرخ‬ ‫צרח‬ ‫צרח‬ 'shout'

*/sʼ/1 *ṣ */sˤ/ ‫ص‬ */sʼ/ ‫צ‬
‫صبر‬ ‫צבר‬ ‫צבר‬ 'water melon like plant'
ħamsa
‫خمسة‬ ‫ַח ְמ ָׁש ה‬ ‫ֲח ִמ ָּׁש ה‬ 'five'
*/χ/ *ḫ */x~χ/ ‫خ‬ */ħ/ ħ –
‫صرخ‬ ‫צרח‬ ‫צרח‬ 'shout'
*/ħ/ ‫ח‬ */ħ~χ/ ‫ח‬

melħ
‫ملح‬ ‫מלח‬ ‫מלח‬ 'salt'
*/ħ/ *ḥ */ħ/ ‫ح‬ */ħ/ ħ ħolm
‫حلم‬ ‫חלם‬ ‫חלום‬ 'dream'
għorab
‫غراب‬ ‫ערב‬ ‫עורב‬ 'raven'
*/ʁ/ *ġ */ɣ~ʁ/ ‫غ‬ */ˤː/ għ għarb
‫غرب‬ ‫מערב‬ ‫מערב‬ 'west'
*/ʕ/ ‫ע‬ */ʕ~ʔ/ ‫ע‬

għabid
‫عبد‬ ‫עבד‬ ‫עבד‬ 'slave'
*/ʕ/ *ʻ */ʕ/ ‫ع‬ */ˤː/ għ sebgħa
‫سبعة‬ ‫שבע‬ ‫שבע‬ 'seven'
1. possibly affricated (/dz/ /tɬʼ/ /ʦʼ/ /tθʼ/ /tɬ/)
Vowels
Proto-Semitic vowels are, in general, harder to deduce due to the nonconcatenative morphology of Semitic languages. The history of vowel changes in
the languages makes drawing up a complete table of correspondences impossible, so only the most common reflexes can be given:
Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables)[47]

Arabic Aramaic Hebrew
pS Ge'ez Akkadian
4 1
Classical Modern usually /_C.ˈV /ˈ_. /ˈ_Cː2 /ˈ_C.C3
*a a a a ə ā a ɛ a, later ä a, e, ē5
e, i,
*i i i ə ē e ɛ, e ə i
WSyr. ɛ
*u u u u, o ə ō o o ə, ʷə6 u
*ā ā ā ā [note 2] ā later a ā, ē
ō
*ī ī ī ī ī i ī
*ū ū ū ū ū ū u ū
BA, JA ay(i), ē,
*ay ay ē, ay ayi, ay e ī
WSyr. ay/ī & ay/ē
ō, ō,
*aw aw ō, aw o ū
WSyr. aw/ū pausal ˈāwɛ
1. in a stressed open syllable

2. in a stressed closed syllable before a geminate
3. in a stressed closed syllable before a consonant cluster
4. when the proto-Semitic stressed vowel remained stressed
5. pS *a,*ā > Akk. e,ē in the neighborhood of pS *ʕ,*ħ and before r.
6. i.e. pS *g,*k,*ḳ,*χ > Ge'ez gʷ, kʷ,ḳʷ,χʷ / _u
Grammar
The Semitic languages share a number of grammatical features, although variation — both between separate languages, and within the languages
themselves — has naturally occurred over time.
Word order
The reconstructed default word order in Proto-Semitic is verb–subject–object (VSO), possessed–possessor (NG), and noun–adjective (NA). This was
still the case in Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew, e.g. Classical Arabic ‫ رأى محمد فريدا‬ra'ā muħammadun farīdan. (literally "saw Muhammad Farid",
Muhammad saw Farid). In the modern Arabic vernaculars, however, as well as sometimes in Modern Standard Arabic (the modern literary language
based on Classical Arabic) and Modern Hebrew, the classical VSO order has given way to SVO. Modern Ethiopian Semitic languages follow a different
word order: SOV, possessor–possessed, and adjective–noun; however, the oldest attested Ethiopian Semitic language, Ge'ez, was VSO, possessed–
possessor, and noun–adjective.[48] Akkadian was also predominantly SOV.
Cases in nouns and adjectives

The proto-Semitic three-case system (nominative, accusative and genitive) with differing vowel endings (-u, -a -i), fully preserved in Qur'anic Arabic
(see ʾIʿrab), Akkadian and Ugaritic, has disappeared everywhere in the many colloquial forms of Semitic languages. Modern Standard Arabic
maintains such case distinctions, although they are typically lost in free speech due to colloquial influence. An accusative ending -n is preserved in
Ethiopian Semitic.[note 3] In the northwest, the scarcely attested Samalian reflects a case distinction in the plural between nominative -ū and oblique -ī
(compare the same distinction in Classical Arabic).[50] Additionally, Semitic nouns and adjectives had a category of state, the indefinite state being
expressed by nunation.[51]
Number in nouns
Semitic languages originally had three grammatical numbers: singular, dual, and plural. Classical Arabic still has a mandatory dual (i.e. it must be
used in all circumstances when referring to two entities), marked on nouns, verbs, adjectives and pronouns. Many contemporary dialects of Arabic
still have a dual, as in the name for the nation of Bahrain (baħr "sea" + -ayn "two"), although it is marked only on nouns. It also occurs in Hebrew in a
few nouns (šana means "one year", šnatayim means "two years", and šanim means "years"), but for those it is obligatory. The curious phenomenon of
broken plurals – e.g. in Arabic, sadd "one dam" vs. sudūd "dams" – found most profusely in the languages of Arabia and Ethiopia, may be partly of
proto-Semitic origin, and partly elaborated from simpler origins.
Verb aspect and tense

All Semitic languages show two quite distinct styles of morphology used for conjugating verbs. Suffix conjugations take suffixes indicating the person,
number and gender of the subject, which bear some resemblance to the pronominal suffixes used to indicate direct objects on verbs ("I saw him") and
possession on nouns ("his dog"). So-called prefix conjugations actually takes both prefixes and suffixes, with the prefixes primarily indicating person
(and sometimes number or gender), while the suffixes (which are completely different from those used in the suffix conjugation) indicate number and
gender whenever the prefix does not mark this. The prefix conjugation is noted for a particular pattern of ʔ- t- y- n- prefixes where (1) a t- prefix is
used in the singular to mark the second person and third-person feminine, while a y- prefix marks the third-person masculine; and (2) identical
words are used for second-person masculine and third-person feminine singular. The prefix conjugation is extremely old, with clear analogues in
nearly all the families of Afroasiatic languages (i.e. at least 10,000 years old). The table on the right shows examples of the prefix and suffix
conjugations in Classical Arabic, which has forms that are close to Proto-Semitic.
In Proto-Semitic, as still largely reflected in East Semitic, prefix conjugations are used
Paradigm of a regular Classical Arabic verb:
both for the past and the non-past, with different vocalizations. Cf. Akkadian niprus "we
Form I kataba (yaktubu) "to write"
decided" (preterite), niptaras "we have decided" (perfect), niparras "we decide" (non-
Present
past or imperfect), vs. suffix-conjugated parsānu "we are/were/will be deciding" (stative). Past
Indicative
Some of these features, e.g. gemination indicating the non-past/imperfect, are generally
Singular
attributed to Afroasiatic. Proto-Semitic had an additional form, the jussive, which was
distinguished from the preterite only by the position of stress: the jussive had final stress 1st katab-tu ‫َكَت ْبُت‬ ʼa-ktub-u ‫َأ‬
‫ْكُت ُب‬
while the preterite had non-final (retracted) stress.[52] katab-ta ‫َكَت ْبَت‬ ta-ktub-u
masculine ‫َتْكُت ُب‬
2nd
The West Semitic languages significantly reshaped the system. The most substantial feminine katab-ti ‫َكَت ْبِت‬ ta-ktub-īna ‫َتْكُتِبيَن‬
changes occurred in the Central Semitic languages (the ancestors of modern Hebrew, katab-a ya-ktub-u
masculine ‫َكَت َب‬ ‫َيْكُت ُب‬
Arabic and Aramaic). Essentially, the old prefix-conjugated jussive or preterite became a 3rd
feminine katab-at ‫َكَت َبْت‬ ta-ktub-u ‫َتْكُت ُب‬
new non-past (or imperfect), while the stative became a new past (or perfect), and the old
prefix-conjugated non-past (or imperfect) with gemination was discarded. New suffixes Dual
were used to mark different moods in the non-past, e.g. Classical Arabic -u (indicative), -a masculine
‫َكَت ْبُت َم ا‬
2nd
& feminine
katab-tumā ta-ktub-āni ‫َتْكُت َباِن‬
(subjunctive), vs no suffix (jussive). (It is not generally agreed whether the systems of the
various Semitic languages are better interpreted in terms of tense, i.e. past vs. non-past, masculine katab-ā ‫َكَت َبا‬ ya-ktub-āni ‫َيْكُت َباِن‬
3rd
or aspect, i.e. perfect vs. imperfect.) A special feature in classical Hebrew is the waw- feminine katab-atā ‫َكَت َبَت ا‬ ta-ktub-āni ‫َتْكُت َباِن‬
consecutive, prefixing a verb form with the letter waw in order to change its tense or
Plural
aspect. The South Semitic languages show a system somewhere between the East and
Central Semitic languages. 1st katab-nā ‫َكَت ْبَن ا‬ na-ktub-u ‫َنْكُت ُب‬
Later languages show further developments. In the modern varieties of Arabic, for
masculine katab-tum ‫َكَت ْبُت ْم‬ ta-ktub-ūna ‫َتْكُت ُبوَن‬
2nd
example, the old mood suffixes were dropped, and new mood prefixes developed (e.g. bi- feminine katab-tunna ‫َكَت ْبُتَّن‬ ta-ktub-na ‫َتْك‬
for indicative vs. no prefix for subjunctive in many varieties). In the extreme case of Neo- ‫َكَت ُبوا‬
masculine katab-ū ya-ktub-ūna ‫َيْكُت ُبوَن‬
Aramaic, the verb conjugations have been entirely reworked under Iranian influence. 3rd
feminine katab-na ‫َكَت ْبَن‬ ya-ktub-na ‫َيْكُت ْبَن‬
Morphology: triliteral roots

All Semitic languages exhibit a unique pattern of stems called Semitic roots consisting typically of triliteral, or three-consonant consonantal roots
(two- and four-consonant roots also exist), from which nouns, adjectives, and verbs are formed in various ways (e.g., by inserting vowels, doubling
consonants, lengthening vowels or by adding prefixes, suffixes, or infixes).
For instance, the root k-t-b (dealing with "writing" generally) yields in Arabic:
katabtu ‫ َكَتْبُت‬or ‫" كتبت‬I wrote" (f and m)

yuktab(u) ‫ ُيْك َتب‬or ‫" يكتب‬being written" (masculine)
tuktab(u) ‫ ُتكَتب‬or ‫" تكتب‬being written" (feminine)
yatakātabūn(a) ‫ َيَتَكاَتُبوَن‬or ‫" يتكاتبون‬they write to each other" (masculine)
istiktāb ‫ ِاسِتكتاب‬or ‫" استكتاب‬causing to write"
kitāb ‫ ِكَتاب‬or ‫" كتاب‬book" (the hyphen shows end of stem before various case endings)
kutayyib ‫ ُكَتِّيب‬or ‫" كتيب‬booklet" (diminutive)
kitābat ‫ ِكَتاَبة‬or ‫" كتابة‬writing"
kuttāb ‫ ُكتاب‬or ‫" كتاب‬writers" (broken plural)
katabat ‫ َكَتَبة‬or ‫" كتبة‬clerks" (broken plural)
maktab ‫ َم كَتب‬or ‫" مكتب‬desk" or "office"
maktabat ‫ َم كَتبة‬or ‫" مكتبة‬library" or "bookshop"
maktūb ‫ َم كتوب‬or ‫" مكتوب‬written" (participle) or "postal letter" (noun)
katībat ‫ َكتيبة‬or ‫" كتيبة‬squadron" or "document"
iktitāb ‫ ِاكِتتاب‬or ‫" اكتتاب‬registration" or "contribution of funds"
muktatib ‫ ُم كَتِتب‬or ‫" مكتتب‬subscription"
and the same root in Hebrew:
kāṯaḇti ‫ כתבתי‬or ‫" ָּכַת ְב ִּת י‬I wrote"

kattāḇ ‫ כתב‬or ‫" ַּכָּת ב‬reporter" (m)
katteḇeṯ ‫ כתבת‬or ‫" ַּכָּת ֶב ת‬reporter" (f)
kattāḇā ‫ כתבה‬or ‫" ַּכָּת ָב ה‬article" (plural kattāḇōṯ ‫)כתבות‬
miḵtāḇ ‫ מכתב‬or ‫" ִמ ְכ ָּת ב‬postal letter" (plural miḵtāḇīm ‫)מכתבים‬
miḵtāḇā ‫" מכתבה‬writing desk" (plural miḵtāḇōṯ ‫)מכתבות‬
kəṯōḇeṯ ‫" כתובת‬address" (plural kəṯōḇōṯ ‫)כתובות‬
kəṯāḇ ‫" כתב‬handwriting"
kāṯūḇ ‫" כתוב‬written" (f kəṯūḇā ‫)כתובה‬
hiḵtīḇ ‫" הכתיב‬he dictated" (f hiḵtīḇā ‫)הכתיבה‬
hiṯkattēḇ ‫" התכתב‬he corresponded (f hiṯkattəḇā ‫)התכתבה‬
niḵtaḇ ‫" נכתב‬it was written" (m)
niḵtəḇā ‫" נכתבה‬it was written" (f)
kəṯīḇ ‫" כתיב‬spelling" (m)
taḵtīḇ ‫" תכתיב‬prescript" (m)
m'ə'ḵuttāḇ ‫" מכותב‬addressee" (meḵutteḇeṯ ‫ מכותבת‬f)
kəṯubbā ‫" כתובה‬ketubah (a Jewish marriage contract)" (f)
(Underlined consonants ⟨ḵ⟩, ⟨ṯ⟩, ⟨ḇ⟩ represent the fricatives /x/, /θ/, /v/ respectively.)
In Tigrinya and Amharic, this root was used widely but is now seen as an archaic form. Ethiopic-derived languages use different roots for things that
have to do with writing (and in some cases counting). The primitive root ṣ-f and the trilateral root stems m-ṣ-f, ṣ-h-f, and ṣ-f-r are used. This root also
exists in other Semitic languages, such as Hebrew: sep̄ er "book", sōp̄ er "scribe", mispār "number" and sippūr "story". This root also exists in Arabic
and is used to form words with a close meaning to "writing", such as ṣaḥāfa "journalism", and ṣaḥīfa "newspaper" or "parchment". Verbs in other
non-Semitic Afroasiatic languages show similar radical patterns, but more usually with biconsonantal roots; e.g. Kabyle afeg means "fly!", while affug
means "flight", and yufeg means "he flew" (compare with Hebrew, where hap̄ lēḡ means "set sail!", hap̄ lāḡā means "a sailing trip", and hip̄ līḡ means
"he sailed", while the unrelated ʕūp̄ , təʕūp̄ ā and ʕāp̄ pertain to flight).
Independent personal pronouns
Arabic
English Proto-Semitic Akkadian Ge'ez Hebrew Aramaic Suret Maltese
standard common vernaculars
*ʔanāku,[note 4] ‫ אני‬,‫ אנכי‬ʔānōḵī, jiena,

I anāku ‫ أنا‬ʔanā ʔanā, anā, ana, āni, āna, ānig አነ ʔana ‫ אנא‬ʔanā ānā
*ʔaniya ʔănī jien
You (sg., ʔant, ant, inta, inte, inti, int, āt, āty,
*ʔanka > *ʔanta atta ‫ أنت‬ʔanta አንተ ʔánta ‫ אתה‬ʔattā ‫ אנת‬ʔantā int, inti
masc.) (i)nta āten
You (sg., āt, āty,
fem.)
*ʔanti atti ‫ أنت‬ʔanti ʔanti, anti, inti, init (i)nti, intch አንቲ ʔánti ‫ את‬ʔatt ‫ אנת‬ʔanti
āten
int, inti
hu,
He *suʔa šū ‫ هو‬huwa, hū huwwa, huwwe, hū ውእቱ wəʔətu ‫ הוא‬hū ‫ הוא‬hu owā
huwa
She *siʔa šī ‫ هي‬hiya, hī hiyya, hiyye, hī ይእቲ yəʔəti ‫ היא‬hī ‫ היא‬hi ayā hi, hija
‫ אנחנו‬,‫ אנו‬ʔānū, ‫נחנא‬

We *niyaħnū, *niyaħnā nīnu ‫ نحن‬naħnu niħna, iħna, ħinna ንሕነ ʔnəħnā ʔănaħnū náħnā
axnan aħna
You (dual) *ʔantunā ‫ أنتما‬ʔantumā Plural form is used
They (dual) [note 5] *sunī(ti) ‫ هما‬humā Plural form is used

*sunā
You (pl.,
*ʔantunū attunu
‫ أنتم‬ʔantum, ʔantum, antum, antu, intu, አንትሙ ‫ אתם‬ʔattem
‫אנתן‬
axtōxūn intom
masc.) ʔantumu intum, (i)ntūma ʔantəmu ʔantun
You (pl., ʔantin, antin, ʔantum, antu, intu, ‫אנתן‬

fem.)
*ʔantinā attina ‫ أنتّن‬ʔantunna
intum, (i)ntūma አንትን ʔantən ‫ אתן‬ʔatten
ʔanten
axtōxūn intom
They hum, humma, hūma, hom, እሙንቱ ‫ המה‬,‫ הם‬hēm,

*sunū šunu ‫ هم‬hum, humu ‫ הנן‬hinnun eni huma
(masc.) hinne(n) ʔəmuntu hēmmā
They (fem.) *sinā šina ‫ هّن‬hunna hin, hinne(n), hum, humma, እማንቱ ‫ הנה‬,‫ הן‬hēn,
‫ הנן‬hinnin eni huma
hūma ʔəmāntu hēnnā
Cardinal numerals
Assyrian Neo-
English Proto-Semitic[54] IPA Arabic Hebrew Sabaean
Aramaic
Maltese Ge'ez
አሐዱ
One *ʼaḥad-, *ʻišt- ʔaħad, ʔiʃt ‫ أحد‬،‫ واحد‬waːħid-, ʔaħad- ‫ אחד‬ʼeḥáḏ, ʔeˈχad ʔḥd xā wieħed
ʾäḥädu
Two
*ṯin-ān (nom.), *ṯin- θinaːn, ‫ اثنان‬iθn-āni (nom.), ‫ اثنين‬iθn-ajni (obj.), ‫ שנים‬šənáyim ˈʃn-ajim,
*ṯny treh tnejn ክልኤቱ
ayn (obl.), *kilʼ- θinajn, kilʔ ‫ اثنتان‬fem. iθnat-āni, ‫ اثنتين‬iθnat-ajni fem. ‫ שתים‬šətáyim ˈʃt-ajim kəlʾetu
ɬalaːθ > ሠለስቱ

Three *śalāṯ- > *ṯalāṯ-[note 6] θalaːθ
‫ ثالث‬θalaːθ- fem. ‫ שלוש‬šālṓš ʃaˈloʃ *ślṯ ṭlā tlieta
śälästu
Four *ʼarbaʻ- ʔarbaʕ ‫ أربع‬ʔarbaʕ- fem. ‫ ארבע‬ʼárbaʻ ˈʔaʁba *ʼrbʻ arpā erbgħa አርባዕቱ
ʾärbaʿtu
Five *ḫamš- χamʃ ‫ خمس‬χams- fem. ‫ חמש‬ḥā́ mēš ˈχameʃ *ḫmš xamšā ħamsa ኀምስቱ
ḫämsətu
ስድስቱ
Six *šidṯ-[note 7] ʃidθ ‫ سّت‬sitt- (ordinal ‫ سادس‬saːdis-) fem. ‫ שש‬šēš ʃeʃ *šdṯ/šṯ ëštā sitta
sədsətu
Seven *šabʻ- ʃabʕ ‫ سبع‬sabʕ- fem. ‫ שבע‬šéḇaʻ ˈʃeva *šbʻ šowā sebgħa ሰብዐቱ
säbʿätu
Eight *ṯamāniy- θamaːnij- ‫ ثماني‬θamaːn-ij-

fem. ‫ שמונה‬šəmṓneh *ṯmny/
*tmanyā tmienja ሰማንቱ
ʃˈmone ṯmn sämantu
ተስዐቱ
Nine *tišʻ- tiʃʕ ‫ تسع‬tisʕ- fem. ‫ תשע‬tḗšaʻ ˈtejʃa *tšʻ *učā disgħa
täsʿätu
Ten *ʻaśr- ʕaɬr ‫ عشر‬ʕaʃ(a)r- fem. ‫ עשר‬ʻéśer ˈʔeseʁ *ʻśr *uṣrā għaxra ዐሠርቱ
ʿäśärtu
These are the basic numeral stems without feminine suffixes. In most older Semitic languages, the forms of the numerals from 3 to 10 exhibit polarity
of gender (also called "chiastic concord" or "reverse agreement"), i.e. if the counted noun is masculine, the numeral would be feminine and vice versa.
Typology
Some early Semitic languages are speculated to have had weak ergative features.[57]
Common vocabulary
Due to the Semitic languages' common origin, they share some words and roots. Others differ. For example:
English Proto-Semitic Akkadian Arabic Aramaic Suret Hebrew Ge'ez Mehri Maltese
father *ʼab- ab- ʼab- ʼaḇ-āʼ bābā ʼāḇ ʼab ḥa-yb bu, (missier)
heart *lib(a)b- libb- lubb-, (qalb-) lebb-āʼ lëbā lëḇ, lëḇāḇ ləbb ḥa-wbēb ilbieba, (qalb)
house *bayt- bītu, bētu bayt-, (dār-) bayt-āʼ bētā báyiṯ bet beyt, bêt bejt, (dar)
peace *šalām- šalām- salām- šlām-āʼ šlāmā šālôm salām səlōm sliem
tongue *lišān-/*lašān- lišān- lisān- leššān-āʼ lišānā lāšôn ləssān əwšēn ilsien
water *may-/*māy- mû (root *mā-/*māy-) māʼ-/māy mayy-āʼ mēyā máyim māy ḥə-mō ilma
Terms given in brackets are not derived from the respective Proto-Semitic roots, though they may also derive from Proto-Semitic (as does e.g. Arabic
dār, cf. Biblical Hebrew dōr "dwelling").
Sometimes, certain roots differ in meaning from one Semitic language to another. For example, the root b-y-ḍ in Arabic has the meaning of "white" as
well as "egg", whereas in Hebrew it only means "egg". The root l-b-n means "milk" in Arabic, but the color "white" in Hebrew. The root l-ḥ-m means
"meat" in Arabic, but "bread" in Hebrew and "cow" in Ethiopian Semitic; the original meaning was most probably "food". The word medina (root: d-
y-n/d-w-n) has the meaning of "metropolis" in Amharic, "city" in Arabic and Ancient Hebrew, and "State" in Modern Hebrew.
Of course, there is sometimes no relation between the roots. For example, "knowledge" is represented in Hebrew by the root y-d-ʿ, but in Arabic by
the roots ʿ-r-f and ʿ-l-m and in Ethiosemitic by the roots ʿ-w-q and f-l-ṭ.
For more comparative vocabulary lists, see the Wiktionary appendix List of Proto-Semitic stems.
Classification
There are six fairly uncontroversial nodes within the Semitic languages: East Semitic, Northwest Semitic, North Arabian, Old South Arabian (also
known as Sayhadic), Modern South Arabian, and Ethiopian Semitic. These are generally grouped further, but there is ongoing debate as to which
belong together. The classification based on shared innovations given below, established by Robert Hetzron in 1976 and with later emendations by
John Huehnergard and Rodgers as summarized in Hetzron 1997, is the most widely accepted today. In particular, several Semiticists still argue for
the traditional (partially nonlinguistic) view of Arabic as part of South Semitic, and a few (e.g. Alexander Militarev or the German-Egyptian professor
Arafa Hussein Mustafa) see Modern South Arabian as a third branch of Semitic alongside East and West Semitic, rather than as a subgroup of South
Semitic. However, a new classification groups Old South Arabian as Central Semitic instead.[58]
Roger Blench notes that the Gurage languages are highly divergent and wonders whether they might not be a primary branch, reflecting an origin of
Afroasiatic in or near Ethiopia.[59] At a lower level, there is still no general agreement on where to draw the line between "languages" and "dialects" –
an issue particularly relevant in Arabic, Aramaic and Gurage – and the strong mutual influences between Arabic dialects render a genetic
subclassification of them particularly difficult.
A computational phylogenetic analysis by Kitchen et al. (2009) considers the Semitic languages to have originated in the Levant c. 3750 BCE during
the Early Bronze Age, with early Ethiosemitic originating from southern Arabia c. 800 BCE.[16] Evidence for gene movements consistent with this
were found in Almarri et al. (2021).[60]
The Himyaritic and Sutean languages appear to have been Semitic, but are unclassified due to insufficient data.
Summary classification
East Semitic
West Semitic
Central Semitic
Northwest Semitic
Arabic
South Semitic
Western: Ethiopian Semitic and Old South Arabian
Eastern: Modern South Arabian
Detailed list
Semitic
East Semitic (All extinct)
Akkadian
Old Akkadian
Babylonian
Assyrian
Canaano-Akkadian
Eblaite
Kishite
West Semitic
Central Semitic
Northwest Semitic
Aramaic
Old Aramaic
Samalian (extinct)
Imperial Aramaic (extinct)
Biblical Aramaic (extinct)
Middle Aramaic
Eastern Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Eastern Middle Aramaic
Classical Syriac
Hatran Aramaic (extinct)
Central Neo-Aramaic
Turoyo (Surayt)
Mlaḥsô (extinct)
Northeastern Neo-Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Sureth
Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
Christian Urmi Neo-Aramaic
Bohtan Neo-Aramaic
Senaya Neo-Aramaic
Chaldean Neo-Aramaic
Koy Sanjaq Christian Neo-Aramaic
Hertevin Neo-Aramaic
Qaraqosh Neo-Aramaic
Jewish Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
Lishanid Noshan
Barzani Jewish Neo-Aramaic
Hulaulá
Lishana Deni
Lishán Didán
Betanure Jewish Neo-Aramaic
Koy Sanjaq Jewish Neo-Aramaic
Southeastern Aramaic
Mandaic
Neo-Mandaic
Jewish Babylonian Aramaic (extinct)
Western Aramaic (dialect continuum)
Western Middle Aramaic
Nabataean Aramaic (extinct)
Palmyrene Aramaic (extinct)
Western Neo-Aramaic
Palestinian Aramaic (All extinct)
Samaritan Aramaic
Jewish Palestinian Aramaic
Galilean dialect
Christian Palestinian Aramaic
Lebanese Aramaic (extinct)
Armazic (extinct)
Canaanite
North Canaanite
Phoenician (extinct)
Punic (extinct)
South Canaanite
Ammonite (extinct)
Moabite (extinct)
Edomite (extinct)
Biblical Hebrew
Mishnaic Hebrew
Medieval Hebrew
Hebrew (Modern Hebrew) (revived)
Samaritan Hebrew (extinct (apart from modern liturgical uses))
Ugaritic (extinct)
Amorite (extinct)
Taymanitic ? (extinct)
North Arabian
Old Arabic
Pre-classical Arabic
Arabic
Classical Arabic
Modern Standard Arabic
Mashriqi Arabic (Eastern Arabic) (dialect continuum)
Peninsular Arabic (dialect continuum)
Old Hijazi Arabic
Hejazi Arabic
Gulf Arabic
Emirati Arabic
Bahraini Gulf Arabic
Kuwaiti Arabic
Bahrani Arabic
Omani Arabic
Shihhi Arabic
Dhofari Arabic
Yemeni Arabic (dialect continuum)
Hadhrami Arabic
Sanʽani Arabic
Taʽizzi-Adeni Arabic
Taʽizzi Arabic
Adeni Arabic
Djibouti Arabic
Judeo-Yemeni Arabic
Tihamiyya Arabic
Zabidi dialect
Yafi'i Arabic
Northwest Arabian Arabic (Levantine Bedawi Arabic, Eastern Egyptian Bedawi Arabic)
Najdi Arabic
Bareqi Arabic
Egypto-Sudanic Arabic (dialect continuum)
Egyptian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Judeo-Egyptian Arabic
Saʽidi Arabic
Cairene Arabic
Sudanese-Chadian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Sudanese Arabic
Chadian Arabic
Levantine Arabic (dialect continuum)
North Levantine Arabic
Cilician Arabic
Aleppine Arabic
Damascene Arabic
Judeo-Syrian Arabic
Lebanese Arabic
South Levantine Arabic
Palestinian Arabic
Modern Palestinian Judeo-Arabic
Jordanian Arabic
Mesopotamian Arabic/Iraqi Arabic (dialect continuum)
Gilit Dialects (dialect continuum)
Baghdadi Arabic
Shawi Arabic
Khuzestani Arabic
South Mesopotamian Arabic
Qeltu Dialects (dialect continuum)
North Mesopotamian Arabic
Anatolian Arabic
Judeo-Iraqi Arabic
Jewish Baghdadi Arabic
Cypriot Arabic
Central Asian Arabic (dialect continuum)
Bakhtiari Arabic
Bukharian Arabic
Kashkadarian Arabic
Khorasani Arabic
Shirvani Arabic (extinct)
Maghrebi Arabic (Western Arabic) (dialect continuum)
Pre-Hilalian dialects
Pre-Hilalian Urban Arabic dialects
Fessi dialect
Jebli Arabic
Jijel Arabic
Maghrebi Judeo-Arabic
Judeo-Moroccan Arabic
Judeo-Tripolitanian Arabic
Judeo-Tunisian Arabic
Judeo-Algerian Arabic
Siculo-Arabic
Maltese
Cottonera Dialect
Gozitan dialects
Qormi dialect
Żejtun dialect
Maltralian
Corfiot Maltese (extinct)
Andalusi Arabic (extinct)
Eastern pre-Hilali Dialects
Tunisian Arabic
Western pre-Hilali dialects
Hilalian dialects
Sulaym dialects
Libyan Arabic
Western Egyptian Bedawi Arabic
Eastern Hilali dialects
Central Hilali dialects
Algerian Saharan Arabic
Western Hilali dialects
Maqil dialects
Hassaniya Arabic
Koines
Algerian Arabic
Moroccan Arabic
ˀAzd dialect (extinct)
Huḏayl dialect (extinct)
Ṭayyiˀ dialect (extinct)
Safaitic (extinct)
Hismaic (extinct)
Hasaitic (extinct)
Nabataean Arabic (extinct)
Dadanitic ? (extinct)
Thamudic ? (extinct)
South Semitic
Western South Semitic
Ethiopic
North Ethiopic
Geʽez (Classical Ethiopic)
Dahalik
Tigre
Tigrinya
South Ethiopic
Transversal South Ethiopic
Amharic–Argobba
Amharic
Argobba
Harari–East Gurage
Harari
East Gurage
Silt'e
Zway
Outer South Ethiopic
n-group
Gafat (extinct)
Soddo
tt-group
Mesmes (extinct)
Muher
West Gurage
Mesqan
Sebat Bet
Sebat Bet Gurage
Inor
Old South Arabian (Ṣayhadic)
Sabaic (extinct)
Minaean (extinct)
Qatabanian (extinct)
Awsānian (extinct)
Hadramautic (extinct)
Razihi ?
Faifi ?
Himyaritic ? (extinct)
Modern South Arabian (Eastern South Semitic)
Baṭḥari
Ḥarsusi
Hobyót
Mehri
Shehri
Soqotri
Unclassified
Sutean (extinct)
Semitic-speaking peoples
The following is a list of some modern and ancient Semitic-speaking peoples and nations:
Central Semitic
Amorites
Arabs
Alawites
Ancient North Arabian-speaking bedouins
Itureans
Nabataeans
Tayy
Thamud – 2nd to 5th centuries AD
Arameans - an ancient Northwest Semitic people. They had various kingdoms and city- Distribution of the Semitic-speaking peoples
states and were historically organized in tribal structures.
Ahlamu
Arameans (Syriacs) of the Qalamoun mountains[a][61][62][63][64][65][66]
Mhallami
Canaanite-speaking nations of the early Iron Age:
Ammonites
Edomites - appeared in Transjordan between 11th to 2nd centuries BCE. Eventually assimilated into Jewish population during Hasmonean
conquest.[67]
Hebrews/Israelites – founded the nation of Israel which later split into the Kingdoms of Israel and Judah.
Jews
Samaritans
Moabites
Phoenicians – founded Mediterranean colonies including Tyre, Sidon and ancient Carthage/Punics. The remnants of these people became the
modern inhabitants of Lebanon.
Chaldea – appeared in southern Mesopotamia c. 1000 BC and eventually disappeared into the general Babylonian population.
Druze
Maltese
Mandaeans
Maronites
Ugarites, 14th to 12th centuries BC
East Semitic
Akkadians – ancient East Semitic speakers who moved from the Arabian desert[68] into Mesopotamia in the fourth millennium BC and settled
among the indigenous peoples of Sumer.[69][70]
Assyrians
Modern Assyrian people
Babylonians
Eblaites – 23rd century BC
South Semitic
Abyssinian-speaking peoples
Axum – 4th century BC to 7th century AD
Amhara people
Argobba people
Dahalik people
Gurage people
Harari people
Beta Israel, Beta Abraham and Falash Muras.
Jeberti people
Silt'e people
Tigrigna People
Tigray people
Tigre people
Wolane people
Zay people
Old and Modern South Arabian-speaking peoples
Bathari people
Faifi people
Ancient Hadramitic-speakers. Eventually evolved into the modern day Hadhrami people.
Himyarites from 110 BCE until 578 CE
Yemenite Jews
Harsusi people
Hobyot people
Mehri people
Minaeans 8th century BCE to 2nd centuries BC
Qatabanians
Shehri people
Razihi people
Sabaeans of Yemen – 8th to 1st centuries BC
Soqotri people
Unknown
Suteans – 14th century BC
See also
Proto-Semitic language
Middle Bronze Age alphabets
Notes
1. According to the generally accepted view, it is unlikely that begadkefat spirantization occurred before the merger of /χ, ʁ/ and /ħ, ʕ/, or else [x, χ]
and [ɣ, ʁ] would have to be contrastive, which is cross-linguistically rare. However, Blau argues that it is possible that lenited /k/ and /χ/ could
coexist even if pronounced identically, since one would be recognized as an alternating allophone (as apparently is the case in Nestorian
Syriac).[42]
2. see Canaanite shift
3. "In the historically attested Semitic languages, the endings of the singular noun-flexions survive, as is well known, only partially: in Akkadian and
Arabic and Ugaritic and, limited to the accusative, in Ethiopic."[49]
4. While some believe that *ʔanāku was an innovation in some branches of Semitic utilizing an "intensifying" *-ku, comparison to other Afro-Asiatic
1ps pronouns (e.g. 3nk, Coptic anak, anok, proto-Berber *ənakkʷ) suggests that this goes further back.[53]
5. The Akkadian form is from Sargonic Akkadian. Among the Semitic languages, there are languages with /i/ as the final vowel (this is the form in
Mehri). For a recent discussion concerning the reconstruction of the forms of the dual pronouns, see Bar-Asher, Elitzur. 2009. "Dual Pronouns in
Semitics and an Evaluation of the Evidence for their Existence in Biblical Hebrew," Ancient Near Eastern Studies 46: 32–49
6. This root underwent regressive assimilation.[55] This parallels the non-adjacent assimilation of *ś... > *š...š in proto-Canaanite or proto-North-
West-Semitic in the roots *śam?š > *šamš 'sun' and *śur?š > *šurš 'root'.[56] The form *ṯalāṯ- appears in most languages (e.g. Aramaic, Arabic,
Ugaritic), but the original form ślṯ appears in the Old South Arabian languages, and a form with s < *ś (rather than š < *ṯ) appears in Akkadian.
7. This root was also assimilated in various ways. For example, Hebrew reflects *šišš-, with total assimilation; Arabic reflects *šitt- in cardinal
numerals, but less assimilated *šādiš- in ordinal numerals. Epigraphic South Arabian reflects original *šdṯ; Ugaritic has a form ṯṯ, in which the ṯ has
been assimilated throughout the root.[55]
a. "Modern Arameans", including Western Neo-Aramaic speakers, have been redirected to "Terms for Syriac Christians" due to ongoing disputes
among Eastern Aramaic-speaking groups regarding their ethnic identity and origin, leading to edit wars on Wikipedia. Western Neo-Aramaic
speakers face rejection from those asserting an "Assyrian" identity due to nationalistic ideologies (refer to "Assyrian people", "Assyrian continuity"
etc., where no mention is made of Western Neo-Aramaic speakers, their heritage, origin, language etc.). The article "Arameans" is designated for
the pre-Christian period until more suitable solutions are identified.
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2013, p. 129 44. Blau (2010:78–81)
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45. Garnier, Romain; Jacques, Guillaume (2012). "A neglected phonetic 61. ‫( اثرنا في االيقليم السوري‬in Arabic). 1960. p. 56. "‫السريان في معلوال وجبعدين‬
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West Semitic" (https://www.academia.edu/1468535). Bulletin of the speak their language.…)"
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CiteSeerX 10.1.1.395.1033 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/sum Arabic). Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 2. "Jubaadinis are very
mary?doi=10.1.1.395.1033). doi:10.1017/s0041977x11001261 (http proud of their language and their Aramean identity and they have no
s://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0041977x11001261). S2CID 16649580 (http trouble at all balancing their religious and ethnic identities.…"
s://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16649580).
63. ”…The city of Jubaadin in Syria, which is close to Maaloula, is
46. Brock, Sebastian (2006). An Introduction to Syriac Studies. inhabited by Aramaic-speaking people who are Syriac Arameans…“,
Piscataway, NJ: Gorgias Press. ISBN 1-59333-349-8. translated quote from the Arabic book (Atlas of Religions) ‫معلوال السريان‬
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48. Greenberg 1999, p. 157. 65. “…Maaloula Syriacs have maintained their Syriac identity since
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50. Hetzron 1997, p. 123. especially in Maaloula, Ain Tineh, Bakhah, and Jubaadin…“,
translated quote from the book ‫إلياس أنطون نصر هللا في معلوال‬, p. 45
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57. Müller 1995, pp. 261–71; Coghill 2016 Bookstore. p. 57. ISBN 9789712314728. "About 3000 B.C. the
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Kiraz, George Anton (2001). Computational Nonlinear Morphology: Nebes, Norbert (2005). "Epigraphic South Arabian". In Uhlig, Siegbert
With Emphasis on Semitic Languages (https://books.google.com/boo (ed.). Encyclopaedia Aethiopica. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
ks?id=Dpl3dHMjVZcC). Cambridge University Press. p. 25. ISBN 978-3-447-05238-2.
ISBN 9780521631969. "The term "Semitic" is borrowed from the Bible Ullendorff, Edward (1955). The Semitic Languages of Ethiopia: A
(Gene. x.21 and xi.10–26). It was first used by the Orientalist A. L. Comparative Phonology. London: Taylor's (Foreign) Press.
Schlözer in 1781 to designate the languages spoken by the
Owens, Jonathan (2013). The Oxford Handbook of Arabic Linguistics
Aramæans, Hebrews, Arabs, and other peoples of the Near East
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(Moscati et al., 1969, Sect. 1.2). Before Schlözer, these languages
University Press. ISBN 978-0199344093.
and dialects were known as Oriental languages."
Phillipson, David (2012). Foundations of an African Civilization,
Kitchen, A.; Ehret, C.; Assefa, S. (2009). "Bayesian phylogenetic
Aksum and the Northern Horn 1000 BC-AD 1300 (https://www.cambri
analysis of Semitic languages identifies an Early Bronze Age origin of
dge.org/core/books/foundations-of-an-african-civilisation/085D477B9
Semitic in the Near East" (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/P A156FEE4C8D1A3128B9B52A). Boydell & Brewer.
MC2839953). Proceedings. Biological Sciences. 276 (1668): 2703–
ISBN 9781846158735. Retrieved 6 May 2021. "The former belief that
10. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.0408 (https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.200
this arrival of South-Semitic-speakers took place in about the second
9.0408). PMC 2839953 (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PM
quarter of the first millennium BC can no longer be accepted in view
C2839953). PMID 19403539 (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19403 of linguistic indications that these languages were spoken in the
539).
northern Horn at a much earlier date."
Kitto, John (1845). A Cyclopædia of Biblical Literature. London: W.
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Clowes and Sons. "That important family of languages, of which the
Classification (https://books.google.com/books?id=mYwmDE3f6wU
Arabic is the most cultivated and most widely-extended branch, has
C). Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-
long wanted an appropriate common name. The term Oriental
1894-6. "The other linguistic group to be recognized in the eighteenth
languages, which was exclusively applied to it from the time of
century was the Semitic family. The German scholar Ludwig von
Jerome down to the end of the last century, and which is even now Schlozer is often credited with having recognized, and named, the
not entirely abandoned, must always have been an unscientific one,
Semitic family in 1781. But the affinity of Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic
inasmuch as the countries in which these languages prevailed are
had been recognized for centuries by Jewish, Christian and Islamic
only the east in respect to Europe; and when Sanskrit, Chinese, and
scholars, and this knowledge was published in Western Europe as
other idioms of the remoter East were brought within the reach of our early as 1538 (see Postel 1538). Around 1700 Hiob Ludolf, who had
research, it became palpably incorrect. Under a sense of this
written grammars of Geez and Amharic (both Ethiopic Semitic
impropriety, Eichhorn was the first, as he says himself (Allg. Bibl.
languages) in the seventeenth century, recognized the extension of
Biblioth. vi. 772), to introduce the name Semitic languages, which was
the Semitic family into East Africa. Thus when von Schlozer named
soon generally adopted, and which is the most usual one at the
the family in 1781 he was merely recognizing genetic relationships
present day. [...] In modern times, however, the very appropriate
that had been known for centuries. Three Semitic languages
designation Syro-Arabian languages has been proposed by Dr.
(Aramaic, Arabic, and Hebrew) were long familiar to Europeans both
Prichard, in his Physical History of Man. This term, [...] has the
because of their geographic proximity and because the Bible was
advantage of forming an exact counterpart to the name by which the
written in Hebrew and Aramaic."
only other great family of languages with which we are likely to bring
the Syro-Arabian into relations of contrast or accordance, is now Sánchez, Francisco del Río (2013). Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro;
universally known—the Indo-Germanic. Like it, by taking up only the Watson, Wilfred G. E. (eds.). Archaism and Innovation in the Semitic
two extreme members of a whole sisterhood according to their Languages. Selected Papers (https://www.academia.edu/3782152).
geographical position when in their native seats, it embraces all the Córdoba: Oriens Academic. ISBN 978-84-695-7829-2.
intermediate branches under a common band; and, like it, it Smart, J. R. (2013). Tradition and modernity in Arabic language and
constitutes a name which is not only at once intelligible, but one which literature. Smart, J. R., Shaban Memorial Conference (2nd : 1994 :
in itself conveys a notion of that affinity between the sister dialects, University of Exeter). Richmond, Surrey, U.K.: Taylor & Francis.
which it is one of the objects of comparative philology to demonstrate ISBN 978-1-13678-812-3.
and to apply." Versteegh, Kees (1997). The Arabic Language (https://books.google.c
Kogan, Leonid (2012). "Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics" (http om/books?id=2tghviSsrF8C). New York: Columbia University Press.
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Handbook. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-025158-6. to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (https://books.google.com/books?id=jZlwY
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2. (https://web.archive.org/web/20160301132237/http://www.kamal-osm
Kogan, Leonid (2011). "Proto-Semitic Phonology and Phonetics" (http an.com/wp-content/uploads/The-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-
s://books.google.com/books?id=SMzgBLT87MkC). In Weninger, watson.pdf) (PDF). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
Stefan (ed.). The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook. 824137-2. Archived from the original (http://www.kamal-osman.com/w
Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-025158-6. p-content/uploads/The-Phonolgy-and-Morphology-of-Arabic-watson.p
Levine, Donald N. (2000). Greater Ethiopia: The Evolution of a df) (PDF) on 1 March 2016 – via Wayback Machine.
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YC) (2. ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-22967-6.
Woodard, Roger D., ed. (2008). The Ancient Languages of Syrio- Wright, William; Smith, William Robertson (1890). Lectures on the
Palestine and Arabia (http://e-learning.tsu.ge/pluginfile.php/5868/mod Comparative Grammar of the Semitic Languages. Cambridge:
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External links
Semitic genealogical tree (https://web.archive.org/web/20090104234232/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95880.html) (as well as
the Afroasiatic one), presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data"
(at the conference on the 70th anniversary of Vladislav Illich-Svitych, Moscow, 2004; short annotations of the talks given there (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20100818025156/http://community.livejournal.com/terra_linguarum/95627.html) (in Russian)
Pattern-and-root inflectional morphology: the Arabic broken plural (https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00831338)
Ancient snake spell in Egyptian pyramid may be oldest Semitic inscription (https://www.usatoday.com/tech/science/discoveries/2007-01-23-snake-
spell_x.htm)
Alexis Neme and Sébastien Paumier (2019), Restoring Arabic vowels through omission-tolerant dictionary lookup, Lang Resources & Evaluation,
Vol 53, 1–65 pages (https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02113751)
Swadesh vocabulary lists of Semitic languages (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)
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3/27/24, 2:15 PM Semitic languages - Wikipedia

the 2nd millennium BC.

Name and identification

Ancient Semitic-speaking peoples

Page from a 12th-century Quran

Stop emphatic (pʼ)[e] *ṭ [tʼ] *q/ḳ [kʼ] *ʼ,ˀ [ʔ]

voiced *b [b] *d [d] *g [ɡ]

Fricative emphatic *ṱ[f]/θ̣/ẓ [θʼ] *ṣ [sʼ] *ṣ́ /ḏ̣ [ɬʼ] (xʼ~χʼ)[g]

Resonant Approximant *w [w] *y [j] *l [l]

*ḳ [kʼ] ‫ق‬ q /ɡ ~ q/9 /q/12 q /ʔ ~ q/ q 𐎖 ḳ 𐤒 q q q ‫ק‬ q /q/ /q/

*ḏ [ð] ‫ذ‬ ḏ /ð/ 𐎏 ḏ>d

*s [s] s 𐎒 s 𐤎 ṡ s ṡ1 ‫ס‬ s /s/ /s/

*ṯ [θ] ‫ث‬ ṯ /θ/ 𐎘 ṯ š ‫ׁש‬ š /ʃ/ /ʃ/

*ṭ [tʼ] ‫ط‬ ḫ /tˤ/ ṭ 𐎉 ṭ 𐤈 ṭ ṭ ṭ ‫ט‬ ṭ /tˤ/ /tˤ/

*ṱ [θʼ] ‫ظ‬ ṱ /ðˤ/ d /d/ 𐎑 ẓ13 > ġ

*ṣ [sʼ] ‫ص‬ ṣ /sˤ/ s /s/

*h [h] ‫ه‬ h /h/ h /ː/ – 𐎅 h 𐤄 ḣ h ḣ2 ‫ה‬ h /h/ /h/

*m [m] ‫م‬ m /m/ m /m/ m 𐎎 m 𐤌 m m m ‫מ‬ m /m/ /m/

*n [n] ‫ن‬ n /n/ n /n/ n 𐎐 n 𐤍 n n n ‫נ‬ n /n/ /n/

*l [l] ‫ل‬ l /l/ l /l/ l 𐎍 l 𐤋 l l l ‫ל‬ l /l/ /l/

*y [j] ‫ي‬ y /j/ j /j/ y 𐎊 y 𐤉 j y j ‫י‬ y /j/ /j/

*w [w] ‫و‬ w /w/ w /w/ w 𐎆 w 𐤅 w w w ‫ו‬ w /w/ /w/

‫صرخ‬ ‫צרח‬ ‫צרח‬ 'shout'

*/ħ/ ‫ח‬ */ħ~χ/ ‫ח‬

*/ʕ/ ‫ע‬ */ʕ~ʔ/ ‫ע‬

Vowel correspondences in Semitic languages (in proto-Semitic stressed syllables)[47]

1. in a stressed open syllable

Cases in nouns and adjectives

Verb aspect and tense

Morphology: triliteral roots

katabtu ‫ َكَتْبُت‬or ‫" كتبت‬I wrote" (f and m)

and the same root in Hebrew:

kāṯaḇti ‫ כתבתי‬or ‫" ָּכַת ְב ִּת י‬I wrote"

Independent personal pronouns

*ʔanāku,[note 4] ‫ אני‬,‫ אנכי‬ʔānōḵī, jiena,

‫ אנחנו‬,‫ אנו‬ʔānū, ‫נחנא‬

You (dual) *ʔantunā ‫ أنتما‬ʔantumā Plural form is used

They (dual) [note 5] *sunī(ti) ‫ هما‬humā Plural form is used

You (pl., ʔantin, antin, ʔantum, antu, intu, ‫אנתן‬

They hum, humma, hūma, hom, እሙንቱ ‫ המה‬,‫ הם‬hēm,

ɬalaːθ > ሠለስቱ

Eight *ṯamāniy- θamaːnij- ‫ ثماني‬θamaːn-ij-

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Stop emphatic (pʼ)[e] ṭ [tʼ] q/ḳ [kʼ] *ʼ,ˀ [ʔ]

voiced b [b] d [d] *g [ɡ]

Fricative emphatic ṱ[f]/θ̣/ẓ [θʼ] ṣ [sʼ] *ṣ́ /ḏ̣ [ɬʼ] (xʼ~χʼ)[g]

Resonant Approximant w [w] y [j] *l [l]

/ħ/ ‫ח‬ /ħ~χ/ ‫ח‬

/ʕ/ ‫ע‬ /ʕ~ʔ/ ‫ע‬