Lab# 1 ORR

Topic: Measuring Instruments

Aim: To identify five instruments in terms of name, use, range, sensitivity, type of scale and
uncertainty
Related theory:
Measurement is a way of quantifying objects or substances; a measurement usually has
a value and a unit (e.g. 10 m). The accuracy of the measurement will also depend on the
experimenter,the instrument and the environmental conditions.
When choosing an instrument for a job it is important to know the data listed above. The
range is the limit of the instrument the lowest to the highest values it can take, the smallest
value it can respond to, the sensitivity; the type of scale analogue or digital , will the response
gradually change with the input or will it give digits which can be easily read. The uncertainty,
which is an estimation, the user of the instrument will have to make if the indicator or
pointer falls between the sensitivity. The user should also be familiar with linear and non-
linear scales.
List of Apparatus:
List the 5 instrument
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Diagram of each instrument
Method:
1. Gather the apparatus on the bench
2. Construct a table with the data for each column ( item,name,use,range, sensitivity type
of scale and uncertainty)
3. Select an instrument and observe it carefully for the required data to complete each
column
4. Repeat the process by selecting another instrument to complete the data for the 5
instruments

Results table

Item Name Use Range Sensitivity Uncertainty Scale type

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Observations At least 4 points here

(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Discussion: At least 5 points

(i) State which instrument seem easiest to read and why?
(ii) Which instrument seem most difficult to read and why?

(iii) Which instrument is most fragile and why?

Which instrument seem will have parallax error?

(v) Which may lend itself to parallax error?

Which may lend itself to zero error?

Conclusion:
State you conclusion and how the aim was achieved

Reflections:
State the relevance of this lab to every day society and what impact it had on you
Lab# 2
Topic: Measurement of density and relative density
Aim: To determine the density and relative density of a stone

Related Theory:
Density is the mass per unit volume, it means how much matter or particles are in a given
volume of space.
The SI unit for density is kgm-3, another common unit is gcm-3.
Relative density is a ratio of the density of a substance to the density of a base substance
such as water. Relative density has no units, it is just a number, as units cancel.

List of apparatus
1 stone tied to a
string 1 measuring
cylinder 1 triple
beam balance
1 beaker with about 400 cm3 capacity
1 hand towel
Water as needed

Diagram: Draw diagrams of the weighing on triple beam balance and measuring of volumes
Method
1. Using the triple beam balance, weigh and record the mass of the stone
2. Using the beaker, pour 300cm3of water into the measuring cylinder and record this
volume as V1 cm3
3. Using the sting gently lower the stone into the measuring cylinder until it is
completely submerged and record the new volume in the measuring cylinder as V 2
4. Compute the volume of liquid displaced as V = (V2 –V1) cm3
5. Compute the density = mass/volume of liquid displaced in gcm-3
6. Compute the relative density as RD = density of stone/density of water
7. Remove the stone and use the hand towel to dry the stone and repeat the
experiment Observations
Record your observations, at least 4
1.

2.

3.

4.
Discussion:
State any source of error encountered

State any precautions taken

Explain the results

Explain how density differs from relative density

State any application of density or relative density

Conclusion:
State the values for the density and relative density from the experiment and anything
you may want to suggest to modify or improve in the experiment.

Reflection:
State how this experimentimpacted you personally or what relevance it has on or could have
on the society.
Lab # 3 A&I:
Date:
Topic: Measurement
Aim: To determine acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum
Related theory:
A simple pendulum is a small heavy body supported by a light inextensible string. A
pendulum oscillates at a regular rate and is related to acceleration due to gravity by the
equation T = 2π√ l/g where T is the periodic time, l is the length and g is acceleration due to
gravity. From that equation g = 4π2l/T2 .It means l is directly proportional to T2 hence a graph
of l versus T2 should give a straight line through the origin. The slope of that graph multiplied
by 4π2 will give acceleration g.
List of apparatus:
1. Retort stand and horizontal clamp
2. 1 simple pendulum (bob & string attached)
3. 1 stopwatch
4. 1 G-Clamp
5. 1 metre rule
6. 1 pendulum support
Diagram:
Method:
1. Set up as shown in diagram
2. Set the length of the pendulum at 90cm as shown in the diagram
3. Set the pendulum in motion with a small amplitude, less than 15 degrees
4. Using a countdown method time 15 oscillation
5. Record the length and time for the 15 oscillations
6. Adjust the length to 80,70,60,50,40 and 30 cm and for each new length time
15 oscillations
7. Record the length and time for each new length to have a table of at least 5 trials
8. Compute the periodic time T and T2 for each trial
9. Convert each length to metres
10. Plot a graph of l vs T2and determine the slope
11. Multiply the slope by 4π2 to give the value for g

Results:

Trials l/cm l/m T10/S T/S T2/S2

1
2
3
4
5
6
Discussion:
State two possible sources of error in this experiment which could affect the accuracy
(i)

(ii)

State two precautions which taken which could improve the accuracy of the experiment
(i)

(ii)

State any trend observed in the table

State the relationship observed on the graph

Comment on the accuracy of the result compared to the standard value of 9.81ms-2 for g.
Comment on the relationship between L & T and L & T2

Conclusion:
State the result achieved and any important suggestion for future improvement.

Reflection
State how the experiment affected you or impact society.

MARKSCHEME
Result table (5) # of trials, headings, order, sig figs, units-5
Calculation (3) T2, gradient, g -3
Graph (5) correct axes, correct plots, scale, best fit & fine line -5

Discussion (5) correct response to questions -5

Conclusion (2) reply to aim – state the value for g -2
Reflection (1) anything reasonable -1
Lab. # 4
Date:
Topic: Force
Aim: To verify Hooke’s law and determine the spring constant of an expansion spring
Related Theory:
Hooke’s law states that ‘The extension of an elastic body such as a spring or wire is
directly proportional to the stretching force, if the elastic limit is not exceeded’. Hooke’s law
means as load increases then extension will also increase. This law also means if a graph of
extension is plotted against load the graph will yield a straight through the origin. The
stiffness of a spring is called the spring constant and it is given by the equation, spring
constant = load /extension (N/m).
List of apparatus:
1 expansion spring
2 retort stand
2 horizontal clamps
1 pivot or spring
support 1 half-meter
rule
1 weight hanger with pointer attached
7 standard masses 50g each
2 G clamps
Diagram:
Draw a neatly labelled diagram of the setup of apparatus (2 dimensional)
Method:
1. Set up the apparatus as shown
2. With no load attached record the position of the pointer as lo /cm
3. Attach one 50g mass (0.5N) and record the new position of the pointer as lf/cm
4. Compute and record the extension of the spring ,that is , extension = lf - lo) cm
5. Repeat steps 3 and 4 for the other masses but each time remove the loads to see if the
spring returns to its original position of lo cm.
6. Complete the table with at least 6 trials
7. Compute the spring constant for each trial and record it in the table
8. Plot a graph of extension versus load and draw the best fit line
9. Determine the slope of the graph cm/N
10. Calculate the spring constant k = 1/slope (N/cm)

Table of results

Trials Lo/cm Lf/ cm Ext./cm Mass/ g Load/N S k =L/Ext./Ncm-1

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Calculations:
Extension = lf – lo = cm
Load = mg = (50 / 1000) = N
Spring Constant, S k = load/ ext. = N/cm (by definition)
Slope = y2- y1/x2 –x1 = cm/N
S k from extension versus load graph = 1/slope N/cm
Insert the graph here
Discussion:
State any sources of error

State precautions taken

State the trends seen in the table

State the relationship observed from the graph

Suggest any modification

State any application of Hooke’s Law

Conclusion:
State how Hooke’s Law was verified and the spring constant with the units
Reflection:
Write a few sentences , using the correct scientific language, clarity and grammar
- Stating the relevance of the exercise to you personally or the society at large.
Lab# 5 (ORR)
Topic: center of gravity
Date:
Aim: To find the center of gravity of an irregular shaped lamina
Related theory:
Center of gravity is the point associated with an object where all the weight seem to act for
all orientation. It is the point where the object will balance or be in equilibrium. The position of
the center of gravity determines the stability of an object, when the center of gravity is high the
object will be more unstable and if it is low it will be more stable.
There are three types of equilibrium, neutral, stable and unstable; neutralequilibrium (a
ball)the height of the center of gravity does not change when the object is disturbed, with
unstable equilibrium (a cone on its point) the center of gravity falls when the object is
disturbed and the object usually falls and stable equilibrium (a cone on its base) the center of
gravity rises when it is disturbed but it falls back into place. Objects usually are more stable if
they have a broad base and if they are very dense.
The center of gravity of regular geometric shapes such as rectangles,cones, triangles, circles can
be foundbe at the intersection of diagonals, medians center lines.The center of gravity of
irregular shapes are found at the intersection of plumb line balance lines from knife edges
Material and apparatus:
( i)An irregular shaped lamina with three to four holes near the edge
(ii) A plumb line
(iii) A pivot on which the lamina can hang freely
(iii) A sharp pencil

Diagram of setup:
Method:
1. Cut a piece of cardboard in an irregular shape and bore 3-4 holes at a fair distance apart
near the edge
2. Hang the lamina at the pivot and allow it to swing freely as shown
3. Hang the plumb line at the pivot and allow it to swing freely
4. When the plumb line and lamina are steady mark two points along the line, one
near the pivot and one near to the edge of the lamina.
5. Remove the plumb line and the lamina and using the 30 cm rule and pencil draw a
straight line to connect the points
6. Repeat the process for the other holes
7. Test the balance by placing it on the fingertip at the point of intersection
Observations:
1. The plumb lines intersect at one point
2. The plumb line and the lamina hang vertically
3. The center of gravity lies below the pivot
4. The center of gravity lie on the surface of the lamina
5. The lamina balanced on the fingertip at the point of intersection
Discussion:
In this experiment the possible errors are parallax error when marking the plumb line
andnot allowing the plumb line to be steady before marking the line. Wind could also disturb
the stability of the plumb line and lamina, so it is advisable to work in a wind free area.
Acceleration due to gravity acts vertically hence the C of G lies in line with the pivot and this
explain why the plumb lines intersecting below the pivot.
The position of the C of G affects the balance or equilibrium of a body and there are three
basic types of equilibrium namely, neutral, unstable and stable each of which was already
described in the theory.
Centre of gravity is important for the stability of objects. Objects with broad bases, high
densities and low center of gravity are usually more stable than those with narrow bases and
high center of gravity.
Conclusion:
The center of gravity of the irregularly shaped lamina is at the intersection of the plumb
lines.
Reflection:
Possible Observations: List at least 3
1.

2.

3.

Points for Discussion

Possible sources of error in this experiment are
(i) Parallax error when marking the plumb lines
(ii) Not allowing the lamina to swing freely
(iii) Not marking the pivot points at a fair distance apart
(iv) Working in a windy area
Precautions taken
Bore the holes at a fair distance apart so that the lines will intersect clearly
(i) Allow the lamina to swing freely so that the center of gravity lies below the pivot
(ii) Allow the plumb line to be steady before marking the line
(iii) Use a flat lamina
Explanations
The plumb lines are straight because weight which is influenced by “g” acts vertically
The center of gravity is always below the point of suspension and acting vertically
The lamina balances on the fingertip because the fingertip exerts an equal but opposite force
on the lamina
Some applications of center of gravity are
Stabilizing boats and buildings using heavy ballast or concrete slabs at the base
Low center of gravity for racing cars usually keep them on the track at high speeds
Putting metal plates at the bottom of table lamps keep them steady in the presence of
wind
Conclusion
The center of gravity of an irregular shaped lamina acts where the plumb lines meet.
 It balances at that point on the fingertip.
Reflection:
The position of the center of gravity determines the stability objects. For example a
short soccer player with low center of gravity is more difficult to push over than taller one
with a high center of gravity.
LAB# 6 M&M
Date:
Topic: Moments
Aim: To find the weight of a meter rule using the Principle of Moments.
Related theory:
Moments is the product of force and perpendicular distance from a pivot. In this experiment
a 1N force is used to balance the weight ‘W’ of the meter rule. The pivot is placed between
the 1N force and the weight, ’W’ of the meter rule. The position of the weight of the meter
rule was previously found by balancing it on the pivot.
When balance is achieved on the pivot the 1N force generates an anti-clockwise moment
about the pivot and the weight of the meter rule ‘W’ generates a clockwise moment about
the pivot to keep the system steady. If the principle of moments is applied then ‘W’ can be
calculated from the equations below
Anti -Clockwise moment = Clockwise moments (when the meter rule is steady)
It then follows that 1N x d1 = W x d2
From which W= 1N xd1/ d2
Alternatively, if a graph of d1 versus d2 is plotted it should yield a straight line through its
origin and the gradient should give the weight of the rule ‘W’.
List of Apparatus:
1 Meter rule
2 Mounted pivot
3 1 100g mass (1N force) fitted with a loop
4 Work bench

Set up Diagram:
Method
1. Place the meter rule on the pivot and slide it until it is balanced (level and steady)
2. Record the position of the center of gravity, where ‘W’ acts
3. Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
4. Starting with the ‘ 1 N ’ hangingat the 2 cm mark slide the meter rule slowly until it
balances
5. Record the distances d1 (B-C) and d2 (C-B)
6. Repeat the process with new positions for the 1N force e.g. 4cm, 6cm, 8cm etc. for at
least six trials
7. Complete the table for the six trial with the calculation for ‘W’ asd1 / d2 (N)
8. T an average of the values off of ‘W’ and record this value in N.
9. Alternatively, plot a graph of d1 versus d2, draw the best fit line and then calculate its
gradient to give the value for ’ W’ in N.

Table of result

Trials Pos. of c of g Pos. of pivot Pos. of 1N D1 D2 W = (d1/d2)

cm cm force/cm (B-A)/cm (C-B) /cm N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Calculations
1. D1 = position of pivot-position of 1N =
2. D2 = Position of weight ‘W’ – position of pivot =
3. Gradient of best fit line gives ‘W’= y2-y1/x2-x1=
Discussion:
1. State two possible sources of errors in the experiment and suggest a precautions to
eliminate or minimize them.
2. State two reasons why the ruler stayed steady when balanced at the pivot
3. What trend is seen in the table of values of d1 and d2
4. State the relationship produced by the graph of d1 versus d2
5. State two applications of the Principle of Moments

CONCLUSION:
State the weight of the meter rule that was calculated

Reflection:
Write a few sentences
- Stating the relevance of the exercise to you personally or in the society at large.
- The use of proper scientific language, clarity and grammar are important

MARK SCHEME

For weight of metre rule

Place the pivot on a flat surface 1

Hang the loop in line with the graduations on the scale 1
Place the pivot between the 1N force and W 1
Move the rule slowly until balance 1
Read the scale in line with the scale 1
Read at least 5 pairs of d1 and d2 accurate
This means weight ‘w’ is constant for at least 5 trials 5

Total = 10
Lab# 7
Date:
Aim: To verify Archimedes Principle
Related Theory:
Archimedes Principle states that,if a body is wholly or partially
immersed in a fluid it experiences an apparent loss in weight as a result
of the up thrust of the fluid and this up thrust is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced.
Archimedes Principle means
Weight in air - weight in fluid = up thrust
Up thrust = weight of fluid displaced = mg = Ρ V g (since ρ = m/V
Then, m = ρ V)
List of apparatus
1 Measuring cylinder
1 Retort stand
1 Horizontal clamp
1 Spring balance (0-10N)
1 weight holder
5 Standard masses (100g
each) 1 G Clamp
1 measuring cylinder
Method:
1. Pour 250cm3 of water in the measuring cylinder
and record it as V1cm3
 2. Weight and record the 5 standard masses with
the spring balance and record it as WA
3. Gently lower the 5 masses into the water until
they are completely submerged
4. Record the new volume of water as V2 and the
new weight of the 5 standard masses as WW
5. Compute the volume of water
displaced VDP = (V2 –V1) cm3
6. Compute the weight of the water displaced by
the 5 masses (Weight of water DP = ρ V g) in N
7. Compute the up thrust of the water, as up
thrust,U = WA – WW
8. Compare the weight of water displaced with the
up thrust, U.
9. Repeat the experiment using 350cm3 of
water and after drying the 5 standard masses
with a hand towel.

Weights and measurements

Volume of water =
Volume with masses submerged =
Weight of masses in air =
Weight of masses in water =
Calculations:
Trial 1 V = V2- V1 =
U = WAir– Winwater =
Wwater displaced = ρ V g =
Trial 2
V = V2- V1 =
U = Win Air – Win water =
Discussion:
List two possible sources of error in the experiment and two
precautions taken
How did the weight of the displaced water compare with the up
thrust? Was the principle true?
Briefly explainhow does; a floating body; a submerged body and a
sinking body are influenced by upthrust and the weight.
How does density affect up thrust?

Conclusion : state your conclusion of the experiment.

Reflection:
 The experiment gave a more comprehensive understanding of
Archimedes Principle. The revelation showed that bodies will float if
they displaces their own weight of fluid. It also showed that they will
sink if the weight is greater than the upthrust.it also showed that
denser liquids will have greater up thrust.
Planning & Design lab

Lab# 6(P &D)

Date:

Topic: Power and energy

Observation: Joe saw his friends Peter and Carl running up the staircase and wondered why Peter
reached first, after wondering a moment,he said “Could it be that Peter has more power?”

Hypothesis:

Power = work/time =(F x s)/t= energy /time = (mass x gravity x height)/ time (Watts) or JS-1

Aim: Plan and design an experiment to find out which of TWO friends has more the power running up a

flight of staircase.

Material and apparatus:

1. A flight of suitable staircase

2. A 50m Steel tape
3. THREE Partners
4. A stopwatch
5. A bathroom scale

Diagram:

Draw a neatly labelled diagram of the setup apparatus

Method: (can be instructive or present tense)

1. Construct a table with the headings, Trials, Mass/kg, Height/m, t/s, g/NKg-1 E/J & P/w

2. Weigh and record the masses of the two subjects Peter and Carl in kilograms

3. Measure and record the vertical height of the staircasefrom bottom landing to top landing in

metres

Or

3. Measure and record each flight of staircase, then multiply by number of flights

4. Count and record the number of flight of steps

5. Using acceleration due to gravity as 10N/kg compute each friend’s energy from the

formula E=mgh

6. Using a countdown method with a timer placed at the top of the staircase, time Peter and Carl’s
run up the flight of stairs and record the time for each.

7. Let your subjects rest for five minutes and time the run once more

8. Average the time for each friend and record it

Controlled variable: Height of staircase and acceleration due to gravity

Expected Results:

Subject Mass/g Height/m g/(Nkg-1) Time/s Energy/J P= m g h /t(W)

Peter

Average t = Average E = Average P=

Carl

Average t = Average E = Average P =

Assumptions /precautions/possible errors

1. Repeat the time and average the results in order to reduce reaction time error
2. Read tape measure inline to avoid parallax error
3. Assume that acceleration due to gravity does not change for the duration of the experiment
4. Check for zero error
5. The height of the staircase limits the height my friend can run
6. It is assumed that my friend gets some time to rest in between trials to recapture him energy
PHASE II

EXECUTION OF THE PLANNED INVESTIGATION

1. Method
a. The apparatus, the test subjectsand designated timer were selected
b. The two subjects Peter and Carl were weighed at the nurse and there weights in
kilogram were recorded in the table.
c. The height of the staircase was measured from bottom to top landing using a steel tape with
the help of a friend. This height in meters was recorded in the table.
d. The energies of Peter and Carl were then computed and recorded in J from the formula E
=mgh
e. With the aid of the designated timer the countdown method was used to time each
subject to run up the staircase. This timing and was repeated and the average time taken
and recorded for both subjects. They were allowed to rest for five minutes between each
run in order to restore their energies.
f. The power was then computed for each subject and recorded.
g. The data for each was then interpreted to arrive at the conclusion.

Results:

Subject Mass/g Height/m g/(Nkg-1) Time/s Energy/J P= m g h /t(W)

Peter

Average t = Average E = Average P=

Carl

Average t = Average E = Average P =

Calculations:

E= m g h =

Average E = (E1 +E2)2 =

Average t = (t1 +t2)2 =

Power = energy /time = P= Eave/tave =

Average Pave = (P1+P2)/2 =

Discussion:

The table shows that has more power than to confirm the statement made

By Joe in the observation. This experiment could also be proven by graph, if the energies and the
corresponding time were plotted against each other for at least five trials. The boy with the greater
power would be from the straight graph with the steeper gradient. From this experiment it is observed
that if height and gravity are constant power is dependent on time and mass. The rate of using energy
determines power,but bigger mass and shorter time generates more power.
Lab# 7 (M&M)

Topic: Heat transfer

Date:

Aim: To find the specific heat capacity of a piece of metal using the method of mixtures

Related Theory:

Specific heat capacity, c, of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1kg of a substance by 1 degree. Each and every substance requires a different amount of heat to raise
its temperature by 1 degree.

The method of mixtures is based on the law of conservation of energy and suggest that when
bodies of different temperatures are mixed, the heat energy lost by one body is the heat gained by
others.In this experiment a heated piece of metal and tap water are mixed. The heat lost by the heated
metal is gained by the tap water and its containers. The specific heat capacity of the metal, c m, will be
calculated from the formula (m c ΔT) metal = (m c ΔT) water, assuming that the heat is absorbed by the
container is negligible. From the equation, cmetal = (m c ΔT) water/ (m ΔT) metal

Materials and supplies:

Piece of metal tied to a string

1 triple beam balance

1 thermometer

1 heating pot

1 Styro-foam cup

Electrical heater

Diagram of setup:
Method:

Weigh and record the mass of the metal

Weigh and record the mass of the empty cup

Half fill the cup with tap water and weigh and record its mass

Measure and record the temperature of the tap water

Heat the metal in the heating pot for about five minutes at about 500 degrees

Measure and record the temperature of the heating water of the metal

Using the string jerk water free of the metal and quickly transfer it to the water

Stir the water gently and record the steady temperature

Results

Weighing

Mass of metal, mm =

Mass of empty cup, mc

Mass of cup and water, mc+w =

Temperature measurements

Initial temperature of water, ϴ1 =

Final temperature of mixture, ϴf =

Initial temperature of metal, ϴm =

Calculations:

M w = m c + w – mc =

ΔT w = ϴf - ϴ1 =

ΔT m= ϴm - ϴf =

Cm = (m c ΔT) w/m ΔT m =
Discussion:

State possible errors

State precautions

State accuracy of experiment

Explain how the value of specific heat capacity affects thermal conduction

State applications of specific heat capacity

State an assumption made in the experiment

Conclusion

State the value of the specific heat capacity of the metal in the SI unit

Predict the name of the metal

Reflection

State the relevance of the topic to real life

State how this experiment affected you

Lab: # 9 M & M

Date:

Topic: (Change of state)

Aim: To find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice using the Method of Mixtures

Related Theory:

Latent heat is hidden heat energy, it is the heat used to break the bonds or form the bonds of a
substance as it goes through a change of state. Specific latent heat of fusion, lf, of ice is the amount of
heat energy needed to change 1kg of ice to water without any change in temperature. This heat is not
indicated by the thermometer,this means the temperature remains at zero degrees until the ice - water
change of state is complete.

In this experiment the heat from tap water is used to melt a cube of ice and then raise its temperature
to the final temperature of ice water and tap water mixture.

Therefore, using the method of mixtures it follows that the

Heat lost by tap water = Heat used to melt the ice + raise the temperature of the ice

water to the final temperature of the mixture.

(m c ΔT) tap water = (m lf)ice+ (m c ΔT) ice water

lf= {(m c ΔT) tap water- (m c ΔT) ice water } / m ice

Diagram:

Results:

Weighing

Mass of empty cup = mc=

Mass of cup and water = m c + w=

Mass of cup water cup and ice = mc+ w+ ice=

Temperatures

Initial temperature of tap water, T1 =

Initial temperature of ice water, T2 =

Final temperature of mixture, T3 =

Calculations

Mass of water, mw =m c + w - mc=

Mass of ice, mice= mc+ w+ ice -mc + w=

Change in temperature of water, ΔTwater = T1 – T3

Change in temperature of ice water, ΔT ice water= T3 –T2

l f = {(m c ΔT) tap water - (m c ΔT) ice water } / m ice

Discussion:

Possible sources of error are parallax while reading the triple beam balance; losing heat to the
surrounding when transferring the heated metal and heat lost to the cup which was assumed to be
negligible.

The precautions taken to reduce these errors were; reading the scales inline and transferring the
metal quickly.

The relevance of knowing specific heat capacity are ; for identifying materials; determining which
materials are good thermal conductors; materials with low specific heat capacity such as copper are
usually better thermal conductors than materials such as water with high specific heat capacity and
are poor thermal conductors.

From table values the piece of metal is likely to be brass with a value of 390 J/Kg K

Conclusion:

Reflection:
Lab# 10
Date:
Topic: Reflection of waves

Aim: To verify the laws of reflection

Related theory:
Reflection is the bouncing of a wave from a surface.
Reflection can be diffused or regular the laws of reflection states

Regular reflection occurs at a smooth surface such as a plane mirror. Irregular occurs at a rough
or uneven surface such as a table top.
Laws of reflection
Law 1 ‘the incident ray the reflected ray and the normal at the point of incidence all lie in the
same plane’ and
Law 2 states, the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection’.
List of apparatus:
1- Pin board
2- Blank sheet

4 - Pins
1-
Protractor 1 -
30cm rule 1 –
Pencil Blank
sheet
Diagram:
Method
1. Gather the apparatus as listed
2. Secure the blank sheet to the pin-board with the tape

3. Draw the mirror line MM in the top third of the paper

4. Construct a normal N in the middle of MM
5. Draw the incident ray as line AO at a suitable angle say 20 degrees
6. Record the angle of incident AON in a table

7. Stick two pins P1P2 on the line AO at fair distance apart

8. Align p3p4(reflected ray) with the images of p1 and p2 (incident ray).
9. Remove the pins p3p4 and the mirror, then join p3p4 to form the reflected ray OB
10. Measure and record the angle of reflection NOB

11. Compare angle AON with NOB

12. Repeat step 5-11 for four more angles of incidence

Result:

TRIALS I /deg. r/deg.

1
2
3
4
5
Discussion:
List two possible sources of errors
State two precautions
State any limitations
Comment on the results
State two applications of plane mirrors
Conclusion:

State how law 1 was verified

State how law 2 was verified

Reflections:
Mark Scheme
Set up the diagram as shown -2
Place pins a fair distance apart -1
Place pins on incident ray -1
Align pins correctly -2
Replace mirror on mirror line for each trial -2
Measure angles accurately -4
Lab. # 11

Skill: A&I

Date:

Topic: Refraction of waves

Aim: To verify the laws of refraction and find the refractive index of glass.

Related theory: refraction is the change in speed of a wave as it passes from one medium to the next.

The laws of refraction states

Law 1 ‘The angle of incidence and the angle of refraction are on opposite sides of the normal

Law 2 ‘the ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is a constant

for a pair of optical media. The ratio of sin I/sin R = n, where n is the refractive index of the

second medium.

List of apparatus:

1- Pin-board

2- 1 blank sheet paper

3- 1 protractor

4- 4 pins

5- 1- 30cm rule

6- 1 pencil

7- tape

Set up diagram:
Method:

1. Gather the apparatus as listed

2. Secure the blank sheet to the pin-board with the tape

3. Draw the outline of the glass block and label the corners ABCD

4. Remove the glass block and construct a normal NON’ in the middle of AB to

meet AB at O

5. Draw the incident ray as line PO at a suitable angle say 20 degrees

6. Record the angle of incident PON (angle i) in a table

7. Stick two pins P1P2 on the line PO at fair distance apart

8. Replace the block on the outline

9. From the opposite side of the block CD, align two other pins P3 P4 with the images

of P1P2

10. After proper alignment Join the points P3 P4, the emergent ray EG to meet AB at T

11. Join TO which gives the refracted ray

12. Measure and record angle of refraction TON’ (angle r)

13. Compute the values of sine i, sine r and n = sine I / sine r and record in the table

14. Repeat the steps 5-13 for other angles of incidence and complete a table with at least

5 Trials, for each trial the rectangular block should be replaced in the same spot

15. Plot a graph of sine i versus sine r and draw the best fit line

16. Compute the gradient to give a value for n the refractive of glass

17. Observe the angle of incident, the normal and the angle of reflection for law 1

18. Observe the ratio of the sine of the angles of incidence to the sine of the angles

of refraction for law 2

Results:

trial Angle I/◦ Angle R/◦ Sin I Sin R N =sin I/sin R

Calculations/Graph:

Show a sample calculation for

sin I =

sin R=

n=

gradient =
Discussions

State two possible sources of error

List two precautions taken

State any limitation encountered

Comment on the value for n from the graph and the table

State the relationship expressed by the graph of sin I vs sin R

State one application for refractive index

Conclusion

State how laws one and two were verified

Reflection

Express how the experiment affected you

LAB # 12

Date

Topic: Ray Optics

Aim: To find the focal length of a convex lens by using the lens formula 1/f =1/u +1/v

Related Theory:

The focal length is the distance from the center of the lens to the principal focus. The principal
focus is that point on the principal axis to which rays originally parallel and close to it will converge to
after undergoing refraction through the lens. When the image of an object is formed by a convex
lens, the object distance, u is measured from the center of the lens to the object and the image
distance,v is measured from the center of the lens to the image. The mathematical relationship
between f, u, and v is given by the equation 1/f = 1/u +1/v from which the focal length f = vu/u + v.

In this experiment the apparatus is arranged to so that a convex lens will produce images of various
sizes of a cross wire object. The object distance u and image distance v can be measured from which
the focal length can be computed from the formula stated above.

List of material:
1 A white screen
2 A mounted convex lens
3 A light box with a cross wire as the object
4 A meter rule secured to the bench

Diagram
Method:
1 Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram
2 Construct a table with the headings; trials, u/cm, v/cm, vu/cm2, (u + v)cm and
f = uv/(u+v)/cm
3 Adjust the screen until an image of the cross wire appears on it
4 Slide the screen slowly until the sharpest image of the cross wire is seen on the screen
5 Measure and record the distances of u and v
6 Adjust the screen or the lens so that the distances for u and v can be measured for at
least three small and three large images.
7 Use the values of u and v for each trial to compute avalue for f
8 Complete thetable for 6 trials
9 Compute the average, f, for the six trials for the focal length of the lens

Results:

Trial Size of image u/cm v/cm u v/cm2 (v + u)cm f = (u v)/(u + v) cm

1 Big
2 Big
3 Big
4 Small
5 Small
6 Small
Average, f =

Discussion;

State three possible errors in this experiment

State three precautions taken to overcome or minimize the errors mentioned
State any limitation encountered
 Explain why some images are large and some are small
State applications for foal length
Conclusion State the focal length and any modification to the experiment you could suggest
Reflection

Lab# 12(A&I)
Date:

Topic: Electricity-Ohm’s Law

Aim: To verify Ohms Law and find the value of an unknown resistor ‘R’
Related Theory: Ohm’s Law states’ the current in an electrical conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage V, across it and inversely proportional to the resistance R of it
provided the temperature remains constant’ Ohm’s Law means as the current increases then
the voltage also increases and that as current increases the resistance decreases. The current,
voltage and resistance are related by the equation V= IR and so R= V/I in Ohms.
Graphically, if a graph of voltage versus current is plotted for an OHMIC DEVICE,then the
graph will yield a straight line through its origin and the gradient of that graph will give the
resistance of the device. If a current versus Voltage graph is plotted for an Ohmic device that
too will yield a straight line through the origin and the resistance R = 1/slope of that graph.
List of Apparatus
The unknown resistor

1 power supply (0- 15V)

1 ammeter (0-50mA, 0-500mA)
1 voltmeter (0- 15V)
1 variable resistor ( 0-80 Ohms)
1 single pole switch
7 pairs of alligator clips

Diagram

Method:
1. Set up the circuit as shown, with the switch open and the rheostat set at mid –point

2. C lose the switch, read and record the ammeter and voltmeter values
3. Check to see that the unknown resistor is not over –heating
4. Adjust the rheostat for higher or lower values of current and voltages and read and record
these values
5 Repeat steps 3-4 to complete the table with at least six pairs of current and voltage
6 Compute the resistance for each pair of current and voltage from the formula R =V/I
 7 Plot a graph of voltage versus current and draw the best fit straight line
8 Determine the slope of the line to give the average value of unknown resistor ‘R’
TABLE OF RESULTS
Trials I/mA I/A V/V R=V/I (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

CALCULATIONS ( A sample of each type)

Milli- amperes to Amperes = A
R = V/I = Ω
Slope = Ω

GRAPH (insert )

DISCUSSION
State possible sources of energy
State precautions
Identify trends observed
State the relationship
Suggest any modification
Explain results in terms of accuracy
 State applications of Ohm’s Law

CONCLUSION

State how the law was verified giving support from the experiment

REFLECTION
State the relevance of Ohm’s law to society
State how the experiment impacted you personally or your group

Lab#17

Aim: to investigate the characteristics of a series parallel circuit

Related theory
A series parallel circuit is a combination of a series and parallel circuit,that is, it has
main and branches. The current in the main is constant but it divides in the branches. The
total voltage in the series- parallel circuit divides among the series and parallel parts
List of materials:
1 dc power supply
3dc ammeters
 3dc voltmeters
1 single pole switch
8 pairs of alligator clips

2 carbon resistors

Diagrams:

Method:

1. Construct 2 tables with the headings IT, I1,I2, and VT, V1, V2, VPas shown below
2. Check all meters for zero error and do any necessary adjustment
3. Construct circuit 1 with the switch left open
4. Have your instructor recheck the circuit and then close the circuit.

5. Read and record the current values for IT, I1, and I2
6. Construct circuit 2 with the switch left open
7. Have your instructor recheck it and then close the switch
8. Read and record the voltage values for VT, V1, V2,V3 and VP
9. Observe the tables and make your analysis

Table of results:

IT/mA I1/mA 12/mA VT/V V1/V V2/V V3 VP/V

Table 1 table 2

Calculations:
Find IT= I1+I2 =
Find VT= V1+V2 =
State the other values which are equal to VP
Discussion:
1. State two possible sources of error in the experiment.
2. State two precautions in the experiment.
3. State one characteristics of a series circuit.
4. State one characteristics of a parallel circuit.
5. State two characteristics of a series-parallel circuit.
Write the conclusion:
Mark scheme

Check instruments for zero error 2

Connect circuit correctly 3
Connect the ammeter correctly 2
Connect the voltmeter correctly 2
Read the scales inline to avoid parallax 2
Complete both of the tables accurately 4
TOTAL 14 PRORATE TO 10
Lab#13
Date:
Topic:
Aim: To plot the magnetic field around a bar magnet
Theory:
A magnet is a material attracted to iron, nickel cobalt or an electromagnet. A magnet has a
north seeking and a south seeking pole. The region around a magnet where a magnetic force
is felt is called the magnetic field. Magnetic field lines leave at the north end and re-enter at
the south.
A plotting compass is a steel needle encased between two glass faces and allowed to oscillate
on a pivot. It is a permanent magnet which aligns itself with the magnetic field. A plotting
compass can be used to plot a magnetic field.
List of apparatus

 1 bar magnet

 1 blank sheet of paper

 1 plotting compass

 1 sharp pencil

 Masking tape

 Flat surface or table

Diagram: (draw the diagram)

Method:
1. Collect the apparatus

2. Secure the blank sheet to the flat surface and mark a 1cm border line around it
3. Outline the bar magnet in the center of the sheet
4. Mark the poles of the magnet north (red) and south (blue)
5. Place the plotting compass near to one pole of the magnet and plot the point of the
compass farthest away from the magnet
6. Slide the compass away until the plot is aligned with the opposite end of the
compass and plot the point farthest away again
7. Continue to plot until a loop is complete or a the border is reached
8. Connect the plots to draw in a smooth loop or curve

9. Plot at least 6 loops , 3 on each side of the bar and at least 4 at each end of the
bar magnet
Results: (Present your diagram)

Observations: (At least 4)

1.

2.

3.

4.

Discussion questions: (do not rewrite the questions, just answer the question on the line)
1. What is the shape of the magnetic field?
 2. What is the direction of the magnetic field in respect of north and south, explain?

3. Which end of the compass was attracted to the north end and to the south end of the
bar magnet, respectively?

4. State the law of magnets

5. State two applications of bar magnets

Conclusion:

Reflections:
Lab: # 13 M & M

Date:

Topic: (Change of state)

Aim: To find the specific latent heat of fusion of ice using the Method of Mixtures

Related Theory:

Latent heat is hidden heat energy, it is the heat used to break the bonds or form the bonds of a
substance as it goes through a change of state. Specific latent heat of fusion, lf, of ice is the amount of
heat energy needed to change 1kg of ice to water without any change in temperature. This heat is not
indicated by the thermometer, this means the temperature remains at zero degrees until the ice - water
change of state is complete.

In this experiment the heat from tap water is used to melt a cube of ice and then raise its temperature
to the final temperature of ice water and tap water mixture.

Therefore, using the method of mixtures it follows that the

Heat lost by tap water = Heat used to melt the ice + heat used to raise the temperature
of the ice water to the final temperature of the mixture.

(m c ΔT) tap water = (m lf) ice + (m c ΔT) ice water

l f= {(m c ΔT) tap water- (m c ΔT) ice water } / m ice

Diagram:

Results:

Weighing

Mass of empty cup = mc=

Mass of cup and water = m c + w=

Mass of cup water cup and ice = mc+ w+ ice=

Temperatures
 Initial temperature of tap water, T1 =

Initial temperature of ice water, T2 =

Final temperature of mixture, T3 =

Calculations

Mass of water, mw = m c + w - mc =

Mass of ice, mice= mc+ w+ ice - mc + w=

Change in temperature of water, ΔT water = T1 – T3

Change in temperature of ice water, ΔT ice water= T3 –T2

l f = {(m c ΔT) tap water - (m c ΔT) ice water } / m ice

Discussion:
State the possible sources of error in this experiment
State any limitations encountered
State any precaution adopted
Compare the result of the experiment with the true value in terms of % error
State any application of specific latent heat of fusion
Conclusion
State the value in the experimental unit and the SI
units Suggest any modification for more
accuracyReflection
Lab# 14 (P&D)
Date:

Topic: Acceleration due to gravity

Observation:

John saw his friends warming up for a cricket games and as they did so they tossed the cricket ball high
and ran to catch it. He commented, that is a falling body which is influenced by acceleration due to
gravity. It may be possible to find the acceleration due to gravity of a falling body for my project.

Hypothesis:

The distance travelled by a body with uniform motion is given by the equation, s = u t +½ g t 2, if the
body falls vertically then u = 0 and that equation is reduced to, s = ½ gt2 from which g = 2s/t2, so if the
distance s is known and the time t is known g can be found mathematically. Graphically, if a graph of s
versus t2 is plotted, it should yield a straight line through its origin. It then follows that the gradient of
that line is ½ g, since the equation s = ½ gt2 is of the form y = mx, and so g/2 = slope = s/t2 from that
graph, hence, g = 2 x slope or 2s/t2.
Aim:

To find acceleration due to gravity of a falling lawn tennis ball

Variables –

The distance s and the time t

Constant –

The mass of the ball and acceleration due to gravity, g.

List of apparatus:

1 lawn tennis ball

1 steel tape

1 stop watch

A wall of reasonable height

A partner to release the ball

Method:

1. With the aid of the steel tape and pencil, measure, mark and record various heights from which
to release the ball along the wall. These heights should be a fair distance apart
2. Have your partner release the ball and using the stop watch and a countdown technique to time
each drop
3 Repeat this process for at least six different heights
4 Square the time for each height and record this time
5 Plot a graph of s versus t2anddraw the best fit straight then determine the slope of the line
6 Calculate ‘g’ = 2 x slope

Expected result

Trials Distance ,s/m Time of drop, t/s t2/s2 g =2s/t2/ m s=2

1
2
3
4
 5
6
7
Average =

Calculations & graph:

t2 = t x t =

Slope = (y2 – y1) / (x2 – x1) =

g = 2s/t2 =

Average, g =

Assumptions/precautions/source of error:

Assumption: It is assumed that the ball falls vertically,

Precaution taken: The countdown was used to reduce reaction time error

Source of error: parallax error when reading the steel tape and reaction time when releasing the ball

Note: The method in the plan must be in the present tense or written in the instructional form. But
when doing the second phase it should be done in the past tense

LAB# 14 (P&D)

Date:

Topic: Electrical resistance

Problem statement

Plan and design an experiment to investigate the relationship between the resistance R and the
length L of a piece of wire.

Hypothesis

The resistance of a piece of wire is given by the formula R = ρ L/A where R is resistance, ρ is the

resistivity of the wire, L is its length and A is its cross- sectional area.

If ρ and A are constant, then R is directly proportional to L as the equation above is similar to Y = m x
Aim:To investigate the relationship between R and L for a piece of wire

Variables: R and L

Constants: A and ρ

Materials and supplies

1 DC supply 0-5V

1 Single pole switch

1 DC Voltmeter (0-5 v)

1 AC Ammeter (0-500mA)

1 meter rule

1 piece of nichrome wire

Diagram:

Method

Set up the circuit as shown with the switch left open with the power supply set at 3V

Close the circuit, and record the length, current and voltage values

Adjust the length and record the new values of length, voltage and current

Repeat the experiment for at least six sets of values, the lengths should be at a fair distance apart to

cover the meter.

Compute and record a value for R for each trial

Plot a graph of R versus L and draw the best fit line to observe the relationship

Expected results
 Trials l/cm I/mA I/A R =V/I (Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Assumptions:

All instruments are properly calibrated

The lengths are read inline

The supply voltage is constant throughout the experiment

The wire is not overheated

Precautions/limitations/ precautions

Check all instruments for zero error and do the necessary corrections

Read all meters in line with the sale to avoid parallax error

LAB#15 (P&D)

TOPIC: Radioactivity and half-life

Problem statement:

A school does not have any radioactive material to demonstrate the process to the

students. Plan and design an experiment to simulate radioactivity and find the half-life of a sample

Hypothesis:

Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of an unstable atom with the emission of particles and energy

Radioactivity is a random process, that is, one never knows which particle will be emitted at any time.

The rate of decay depends on the amount of particles present

A radioactive sample can generates a decay curve from which its half-life can be

determined. Half-life is the time taken for a sample to decay to half the original amount or

activity.
 In this experiment, the sample is 80 dies in a container, the particles to decay are any six facing up
when the container is emptied on a flat surface. The half-life will be taken in terms of throws, that is the
number of throws for the sixes facing up to decay from 80 to 40, 40 - 20, 20 -10 , 10 -5 and so on.

Aim: To simulate radioactivity and find the half-life of a sample of 80 dies

Materials required

80 similar dies

A container for the dies

A large flat surface to throw the dies

Variables: Number of throws and amount of sixes remaining

Constants: Size of dies, surface on which they are thrown

Diagram:

Method:

1. Construct a table with the headings ; Throws, Initial # of sixes, # of sixes removed, # of sixes
remaining

2. Count the number of dies and place them into the container

3. Throw the dies on to the flat surface

4. Pick out all the sixes facing upward and record this amount in the table

5. Record the number of throws, amount of sixes facing up and those which remain

6. Repeat the throw process ,each time picking out the number of sixes facing up and computing
the amount remaining and then record these information in the table

7. Do at least five trials or until the sixes facing up reduce to one

8. Plot a graph of amount of sixes remaining versus throws

9. Determine the half- life in throws at the amounts remaining of 40,20,10 and 5
 10. Find the average half-life in throws TO REPORT AS AN ANSWER.

Expected Results

Throws Initial # of sixes # of sixes rem Amount of sixes rem

1 80

TYPICAL DECAY CURVE – with one half- life shown.

Assumptions – the dies are identical

- The surface is uniform

- No die falls on its edge

- The throws are made with equal

force Limitations: - The number of

dies

To make all throws with the same force

Precautions: - Ensure all dies fall on flat surface

Ensure an accurate count