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UIN KHAS Press
Jl. Mataram 1 Mangli, Kaliwates, Jawa Timur Indonesia Kode Pos 68136
Telp: (0331) 487550Fax. (0331) 427005, 68136, email: lp2m@ uinkhas.ac.id
Introduction to Linguistics
Published in Indonesia by UIN KHAS Press
Editor: Moh. Arif Mahbub
ISBN 978-623-09-0109-6 (PDF)

UIN KHAS Press has no responsibility for the persistence of accuracy of URLs for
external or third party internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not
guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
ii
To Wildana, Kauna, Nuha
iii
21
When any journey is to be undertaken it
proves a valuable exercises to consider those
who have travelled similar pathways before,
while a researcher may be branching off the
established pathway to explore new directions
there is still much to be gained from having a
solid understanding of the terrain.
Atwell (2006, p. 3)
iv
v
INTRODUCTION
In a class of Introduction to Linguisticsyears ago I met a

brilliant student, Mahbub. At that time I asked him to prepare a
text from my lecture. He diligently took notes and quite often
he gave additional explanation in some sections. The last three
semesters I was appointed to teach the course again. It had
been three years after finishing my Ph.D degree in Linguistics,
Adult and Specialist Education in the University of Southern
Queensland, Australia. There is a reason for me to come back
again to see the notes Mahbub gave me years ago, and here is
the text I would love to give a title Introduction to Linguistics
and is the name for this course.
vi
This book is mainly aimed at providing students of English
department with the knowledge of linguistics or the study of
language. There was a quite interesting experience when one
day last semester, I asked students if they had heard about the
word “linguistics.” They showed different answers. One of the
answers was “yes, we heard the word linguistics but we don’t
know the meaning.” Of course, this book won’t be explaining
the meaning of linguistics ansich, but also the property of
language, macro and micro linguistics and the study of syntax,
semantics, phonology, morphology, pragmatics as well. And
thus, it is going to be larger areas to study.
This book encompasses XI chapters. It begins with the first
chapter that talks about Language and Linguistics. It mainly
17
discusses the definition of language, the origin of language and
human communication, the properties of language which
focused on discussing the characteristics of language itself.
Chapter II is the discussion about linguistics and its study.
Chapter III up to chapter VII is what is considered to be the
study of micro linguistics or the study of linguistics from the
aspect of language itself such as syntax or the study of
sentence structure, semanticsor the study of word and
1
sentence meaning, phonology or the study of sound patterns of
language, morphology or the study of word formation process,
and pragmatics or the study of the meaning of utterance.
The following two chapters (chapter VIII and IX) are going
10
to be the discussions of discourse analysis and language and
10
the brain. Discourse analysis deals with how we make sense of
what we read, how we can recognize well-constructed texts as
opposed to those that are jumbled or incoherent, how we
understand speakers who communicate more than they say.
Language and the brain will feature the areas in the brain
that may tell the functions of the brain in producing language.
A number of research findings show that there are parts of the
brain where massive abilities of human language functions are
produced.
vii
The last parts of this book are the discussion about the
study of language in connection with other aspects of
knowledge such as psychological study to see how language
develops in children. This will mainly discuss the second
language acquisition. This book also covers linguistics study in
relation with the social studies that sees the linguistic study
from the point of view of what is developing in a certain
society.
Again, I would like to say that this book aims at providing
students of the English department with the basic knowledge of
the linguistics study. Within the course of Introduction to
Linguistics my concern is to introduce the concepts of language
study. There are many explanations in literature to elucidate
the key elements of the study of language, and this course
book helps what students of the English Department need.
Finally I hope that students of the English Department will find
this thin book useful and engaging as well. I believe that
motivation in language learning plays pivotal roles and this
book will be one of the triggers for students to learn language
more.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
CHAPTER I
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS ................................. 1
A. Language: An Introduction....................................... 1
1. 10The Definition of Language .................................. 1
2. The Origins of Language and Human
Communication .................................................. 4
3. The Properties of Language .................................. 9
4. Language and Its Functions ................................. 14
B. The Definition of Linguistics ..................................... 25
CHAPTER II
LINGUISTICS AND ITS STUDY .................................. 37
A. General Linguistics ................................................. 31
B. Diachronic Linguistics .............................................. 32
C. Comparative Linguistics ........................................... 33
D. Descriptive Linguistics ............................................. 33
ix
CHAPTER III
THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE ....................................... 37
A. Phonetics .............................................................. 37
B. Voiced and Voiceless Sound ..................................... 38
C. Place of Articulation ................................................ 39
D. Manner of Articulation ............................................. 45
E. Phonetics Transcription ............................................ 47
1. Transcription of English Vowels and Consonants ...... 48
CHAPTER IV
THE SOUND PATTERN OF LANGUAGE ........................ 55
A. Phonology ............................................................. 55
B. Phonemes ............................................................. 57
C. Segments and Suprasegmantals Analysis ................... 57
CHAPTER V
MORPHOLOGY .......................................................... 69
A. Morpheme ............................................................. 70
1. Free Morpheme .................................................. 71
2. Bound Morpheme ............................................... 71
CHAPTER VI
SYNTAX ................................................................... 75
A. Deep and Surface Structure ..................................... 76
B. Symbols used in Syntactic Descriptions ...................... 80
C. PS Rules ................................................................ 81
D. IC Analysis ............................................................ 84
E. Bracketing, Labelled Bracketing and Tree Diagram....... 86
CHAPTER VII
SEMANTICS.............................................................. 91
A. Conceptual Meaning ................................................ 92
B. Associative Meaning ................................................ 92
C. Semantic Roles....................................................... 92
CHAPTER VIII
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS ............................................. 95
A. Cohesion ............................................................... 95
B. Coherence ............................................................. 98
x
CHAPTER IX
LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN ..................................... 99
A. Neurolinguistics ...................................................... 99
B. Where is language localized in the brain? ................... 102
CHAPTER X
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION .............................. 107
A. The Behavioristic Hypothesis .................................... 108
B. The Nativistic Hypothesis ......................................... 109
C. The Cognition Hypothesis ........................................ 112
D. The Social Constitution Hypothesis ............................ 112
CHAPTER XI
LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY ......................................... 115
A. Sociolinguistics....................................................... 115
B. Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of Language ........... 117
C. Language Variations ............................................... 118
D. Standard Language ................................................. 121
REFERENCES ........................................................ 125
xi
xii
Chapter I
LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS
A. Language: An Introduction
1. The Definition of Language
It is generally recognized that language is one of the
humans‟ characteristics that distinguish them from other crea-
tures. People use language to communicate their ideas with one
another. Within daily lives, they are able to make social interac-
tion in their community through language. In the interaction
when someone is speaking they are actually in a process of
conveying message. They probably express their feelings and
share their ideas to each other as well.
This chapter contains the definitions proposed by lin-
guists and experts in the area of linguistics or the study of lan-
guage. This will lead us to understand their viewpoints about
|1
Language and Linguistics
what language may mean. The definitions were taken from

books, dictionaries, and or articles some of which were explicit-
ly explained and some were with examples. This part attempts
to review the definition in the following discussions.
Hornby in his classic dictionary, Oxford Advance
Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English, defines “Language is
2
human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas,
feelings and desires by means of a system of sounds and sound
symbols” (1986:473). This definition reflects that language is
used to transform ideas, to express feeling, and to voice de-
sires in the form of words. Non-instinctive may mean that lan-
guage uses verbal symbols such as in spoken or written ex-
pression of something or an activity. For example, when some-
one is getting angry we can see from his/her facial expression,
however without words that are spoken or written we may be
wrong that he/she is angry or not. Although communication can
be made by using non-verbal language such as gesture or body
language, it is not a language. Because language is human and
thus what is meant by language in this context is language that
is used by human and are not other creatures. Verbal commu-
nication is done through spoken or written language. And thus,
this communication employs verbal symbols.
In line with the above definition, Bussmann (1996)
27
confirmed that “language is vehicle for the expression or ex-
changing of thoughts, concepts, knowledge, and information as
well as the fixing and transmission of experience and know-
27
ledge” (p. 627). The communication is based on cognitive
processes, subject to societal factors and to historical change
2|
12
and development. In this definition, language refers to a specif-

ic form of expression that is restricted to humans, and differs
from all other possible languages, such as animalcommunica-
tionand artificiallanguagesthrough creativity,the ability to make
conceptual abstractions, and the possibility of metalinguistic
reflection.
Richards and Schmidt (2002) pointed out that lan-
guage is the system of human communication which consists of
the structured arrangement of sounds (or their written repre-
sentation) into larger units, e.g. morphemes, words, sentences,
utterances.Meanwhile, Todd (1987) defines, “Language is a set
of signals by which we communicate”(p.6).
Todd‟s (1987) definition is somewhat simple but it has
to be defined more specifically that language relates to a set of
infinite structured expression in human‟s mind used as the sys-
tem of human communication as the reflection of encoding sig-
nals of communication transmitted in speech, writing, and sign-
ing (especially, for the deaf-mute).
The last mode of language is generally used by the
deaf-mute people and by some who communicate with them.
That is the term relating to the people or person who can nei-
ther hear nor speak as their primary language. In other words,
hearing-speaking impaired people communicate meaning
through the movement of body, head, face, arm, eyes, and
mouth. This non-verbal communication is entirely based on the
human‟s gestures, known as SignLanguage (Richards &
Schmidt, 2002).
|3
Pomorska (1987) when commented on Roman Jakob-

son‟s work confirmed that “any activity of man is originally
connected with language: the life work of Jakobson exemplifies
this truth to the fullest” (p.1). Jakobson proposed six language
functions as the basic for making communication including
emotive, conative, referential, metalingual, poetic, and phatic.
The language functions will not be explained in this part.
10
2. The Origins of Language and Human Communica-
tion
Studying the origins of language and human commu-

nications are naturally based on the human‟s curiosity. The
study will seemingly be able to provide with adequate theories
of language or proper explorations to answer the fundamental
question on how language only emerged in human, but not in
other species.
Yule (2012), for example, proposed that for some lin-
guists the origin of language is interconnected with natural
sounds like the sound of „coo-coo‟ then the first people named
the flying animal as cuckoo. Further, Yule exemplified in the
English language, in addition to cuckoo, there are words like
splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, screech, and the sound
like bow-wow the then called „bow-wow‟theory (p.3). The
sounds of nature which are taken up into words are onomato-
poeic and therefore it is onomatopoeia. However, the concern
of discussion about the origin of language spins around ques-
tion: “is this really the origin of language?”
4|
12
Analysing human language in terms of theoretical lin-

guistics is able to be said as the familiar subject, but most of
people do not spendtheir much time and devote their thought
to discuss about its origins. The origins of language and human
communication have become the most interesting issues that
should be tackled. Some of the interesting issues are about
what the first language was and how the early human or our
ancestors began to communicate through the language.
42
Tomasello (2008) pointed out that those who want to
understand human communication,they may not begin with
language. Rather, they would begin with un-conventionalized,
uncoded communication, and other forms of mental attune-
ment, as foundational. This statement forces us to realize that
the process of uncoded communication involving mental at-
tunement went before the language itself was formed.
There aresome classic quotationsor the most common
theories about the origins of language taken from Indonesian
linguist Alwasilah. In his book Linguistik: Suatu Pengantar
(1983) the theory of the origin of languageis providedin the fol-
lowing points:
a. Ding-dong Theory
Max Muller (1823-1900) introduces this theory. It is
also called as Nativistic Theory, according to this theory,
human has a special ability to produce expressions or utter-
ances as the response of stimulus. It is like a signal-bell in
our brain so that we can produce the appropriate utterance
based on the stimulus accepted. As the example, when we
see a wolf, human can naturally produce the word “wolf”.
|5
b. Yo-he-ho Theory
This theory proposed that the source of language
comes from the physical effort of a person, or especially in-
volving several people coordinated in a particular social ac-
tivity. In other words, language evolved from the grunts,
groans, and snorts evoked by heavy physical labor.
Suppose that we are lifting a big tree. As usual,
when lifting something big, we spontaneously produce a set
of groan. This utterance, then, becomes the name of that
activity done such as: Heave! (Indonesian: angkat, read as
in „uncut‟) and Rest! (Indonesian: Diam).
c. Bow-wow Theory (onomatopoeic)
This theory is also known as Echoic Theory. It as-
sumes that our ancestors began the language by producing
the primitive words coming from the imitations of natural
sound such as: the voice of animals, thunder sound, wind,
wave, and so on. In English, there are several words such
as: babble, rattle, ripple, cuckoo, and many others. Inline
with this, in Indonesian there are some examples of words
taken from the process of imitating the natural sounds such
as: “berkokok” is taken from the sound of cock. The word
“bedug” is taken from the sound of special drum placed in
mosques and it strikes many times as the signal for prayer
times. It sounds “dug-dug”. The other example is the verb
“mencicit”,a word taken from the sound of mice “cit-cit” and
so forth.
6|
12
As explained above, we needto clarify that when we

are talking about the origins of language, the discussion is
somewhat complicated. This is quite difficult to conclude that all
words in the examples above are taken from the sound of na-
ture as we do not find scientific evidences or records. The most
important thing that we have to believe is that in human com-
munication there is a process of encoding signals of communi-
cation involving mental attunement.
In Islamic world, it is believed that Allah created Adam
as “AbulBasyar“ (the father of mankind) from clay to become
messenger in the earth. Allah, then, taught him all the names
and presented them to the angels so that they acknowledged
having been at fault in terms of their doubts to him as khalifah
fil ardl (The Noble Qur‟an: Al-Baqarah verse, 30-34; translation
by Al-Hilali,1996). In addition, Allah provided Adam the real
godsends namely mind. It makes him possible to think, learn,
feel emotion, and understand things so that he is capable of
encoding the process of communication naturally, including
through the gestures.
Let us imagine that we step around the zoo, then, try
to communicate something simple with one of the animals
there. Inform to the one of animals that we come here to see
you to jump. Does it always do what we try to inform or in-
struct to it? It will not get it. From this situation, we all know
the fact that animals cannot catch the information or instruction
we tell or we expect them to understand.
Different from the situation above, when I ask you to
look at something that I am pointing at, without saying any-
|7
thing, you will see to the same location although we have not
met yet each other. In this case, we are able to conclude that
human can easily make interaction with one another, even non-
verbally.
In Arabic, there are two terms to distinguish between
human and the other creatures namely „Aaqil and Ghairu „Aaqil.
The first term refers simply to the human who has mind, the
ability to think, and the second term is for the other creatures,
including animals. In Arabic grammar, we use pronoun (dha-
mir) “Kum/Kunna” (Ghaib/Ghaibah) and “Hum/Hunna” (Mukha-
thab/Mukhathabah) to indicate plural for „Aaqil. On the other
hand, we only use “Haa”, the same dhamir for mufrad-
mu‟annats (Singular/Woman) to indicate plural for Ghairu „Aa-
qil. These differences show us that Arabic makes a clear dis-
tinction to distinguish between human („Aaqil) and non-human
(Ghairu „Aaqil), not +animate and -animate.
Let us back to our main discussion, as previously ex-
plained that Allah taught Adam names of things, then, these
names became the first language. Furthermore, his wife, Eve,
and his children imitated and used it as a language to commu-
nicate. Only then, they spread abroad to the entire world so
that popping out the new language as the language variation of
the first language. To explain the origins of different humans‟
conventional language in the entire world, we require cultural-
historical approach. From this approach, we are able to assume
that the language users are arrived at the same conventional
system in terms of language in use, grammatical aspects, social
norms, and so forth.
8|
12
3. The Properties of Language
Human is not only the creature which was capable of

communicating. Other species, indeed, are able to communi-
cate too, sometimes in ways that seem almost human: dogs
exhibit submission by lowering their heads and tails; bees, in
contrast, dance.But is this language? Following are several
properties of language differentiating between human and ani-
mal language taken from Yule‟s (2012) The Study of Language
(pp. 11-15):
a. Displacement
This property of language allows language users to
talk about things and events that are not present in the im-
mediate environment. For example, suppose that your cat is
calling meow when it is hungry. We are likely seemed to un-
derstand that this message as relating to the immediate
time and place. If you ask your cat about what it is going to
do after you give some feed, you may get the same re-
sponse meow. It seems that animal communication is specif-
ic for their users only.
Different from signaling system used by non-human
creatures, human language users can perfectly producing
message which is able to indicate past or future time, to
other locations that we have never visited before, and even
capability of predicting future world. This property of lan-
guage is mentioned to be displacement. This allows human
to make communication in different time, different situation,
and different places. In sum, human language users have
|9
the ability to speak about things other than the here and
now (Trask, 1999:53).
b. Arbitrariness
Language is arbitrary vocal or verbal symbols by
which community use for a communication. There is basical-
ly no natural connection between a linguistic form and its
meaning. Let us consider the word “Dog” in English, and as
“Asu” in Javanese. From its shape, its linguistic form has no
natural relationship to the meaning that it expresses: the
four legs barking animal in the world. The connection is
purely a matter of agreement, and the word can be success-
fully used only so long as English speakers agree to use it in
this particular way (Trask, 1999:9).
Speakers of other languages, of course, have
reached different agreements, but no word is intrinsically
better suited to naming this particular animal than any oth-
er, though each is perfectly adequate as long as speakers
agree about it. Yule (2012) mentioned that several words
that seemed to “echo” the sounds of nature or onomatopoeic
words like cuckoo, crash, and whirr are rare in human com-
munication.
This arbitrariness is infinite in human language. Dif-
ferent from human language, animals can only use the set
of finite signals used in communication. That is, each variety
of animal communication consists of a fixed and limited set
of vocal or gestural forms. Many of these forms are only
used in specific situations (e.g. establishing territory) and at
particular times (e.g. during the mating season).
10 |
12
c. Productivity
It is realized or not that language users can create
sentences never before known and it is undoubtedly unders-
tandable to the hearers. Humans are continually creating
new expressions and novel utterances by manipulating their
linguistic resources to describe new objects and situations
whenever they need. In other words, human has the ability
to say new things, without limit (Trask, 1999:143). It is the
fact that shows that human communication is unique.
Let us consider a few examples. Your friend, Anna,
bought a new red T-shirt. Then, she said, “What do you
think about my new T-Shirt?” You may reply “Wow, you look
so beautiful”, “great, it fits on you” or even “It doesn‟t go
with your jeans”. We are perfectly free to choose what we
are going to say in every context of situation.We have not
the slightest difficulty in producing and comprehending total-
ly new utterances that we have never used or heard before,
and indeed we do this almost every moment: most of the
utterances you produce and hear every day have very likely
never before been produced by anybody (Trask, 1999:143).
In contrast, non-human creature on the planet can
communicate with other members of their species in one
way or another, and often by specialized vocal noises ter-
medcalls (Trask, 1999:10). It is typically no more than one
“calls” that a non-human creature produced. Let us imagine
that a monkey is probably capable of producing the sound
(calls) “There is danger in the air” but the same monkey will
| 11
not able to produce calls“There are two hunters shooting

us”.
From the explanation above, we arrive at the same
interpretation that there is no human language has the
longest sentence. In other words, every human language
has essentially unlimited multiunit sentences.
d. Cultural Transmission
Language used is influenced by the community
where speakers of the language live, and not by their inhe-
ritance. Suppose that an English speaking family adopted
and brought up from birth an infant from China to Australia.
He or she will have physical characteristics inherited from his
or her parents, but inevitably he or she will speak English,
not Chinese. This process whereby a language is passed on
from one generation to the next is described as cultural-
transmission.
This situation is totally different from the animals. A
kitten, given comparable early experiences, will produce
meow regardless. This happens because the animals com-
munication is determined by its genetic make-up, not by its
cultural context. Cultural transmission, in particular, is im-
portant for language acquisition processes.
e. Duality
Yule (2012) pointed out that duality is a process of
organizing human language at two levels or layers. Duality
means double articulation. According to Trask (1999:2),
“Duality is the use of a small number of meaningless ele-
ments in combination to produce a large number of mea-
12 |
12
ningful elements”. In addition, Richards and Schmidt

(2002:172) state that it is a distinctive characteristic of lan-
guage which refers to the fact that languages are organized
in terms of two levels. At one level, language consists of se-
quences of segments or units which do not themselves carry
meaning (such as the letters “g”, “d” and “o”). However,
when these units are combined in certain sequences, they
form larger units and carry meaning (such as god, dog).
Similarly, we know that one English letter, such as
“c”, is meaningless. It is to be combined with other letters,
such as “a”, “r” and “e” to form the word “care”, in order to
be meaningful. Other possible combination is to form the
word “race”. By combining a very small set of meaningless
speech sound in various ways, we are able to produce or
form a large number of different meaningful items.
Likewise, Arabic letter, such as “‫”ي‬, must be com-
bined with other letters, “‫”ع‬, “‫”ب‬, and “‫”د‬, in certain se-
quence to form the word “ ‫ُب‬ ‫َي ْع ُب‬ “ or “ ‫ٌد‬ ‫َي ِع ْع‬ “. The first word
means worship and the second means far. In the line with
this, the letter “‫”م‬, “‫”ل‬, and “‫ ”ح‬are attachable to form the
word “ ‫ِع ْع ٌد‬ " or " ‫ “ َي ْع ٌد‬which mean salt and meat in order
to be mafhum (meaningful).
In contrast, non-human creatures have particular
signaling systems to communicate as well but these systems
are simply based on one sound is to express one meaning.
This sound is not able to be modified and combined. Conse-
| 13
quently, they can only express a tiny number of different

meanings.Moreover, unlike human languages, with their
ceaseless and rapid changes, the signals used by other spe-
cies never change by any process faster than evolutionary
change (Trask, 1999:10).
4. Language and Its Functions
We use language as a system of communication for

numerous purposes. It is based on the development of lan-
guage itself. Probably, our ancestors simply used it to name
things around them first. But now, living in a present day with
high technology, we can use it to get more social significances
such as to write an email or electronic letter, gather informa-
tion from mass-media and social media, make notes to our col-
leagues, order food online, and so forth.
Finch (1998:22) distinguishes the functions of lan-
guage into two terms namely microfunction and macrofunction.
The first term covers the particular individuals uses, whilst, the
second term relates to the larger functions, more general pur-
poses underlying language uses. These all functions to be de-
scribed as follows:
1) Micro Function
a. Physiological Function
This function is to release nervous or physical
1
energy. It seems so trivial but, in fact, a good deal of
language use has a physiological purpose. We can see it
from this following situation that if we hit our thumb with
14 |
12
hammer we need particular ways to express our anger:

throwing the hammer to the window and saying the
swearing words such as fuck or shit. It is the expression
to give punishment to the object for hurting us.
There is no clearly natural relationship between
those swearing words with the context of situation dis-
played. They are socially taboo. In such moment, they
are simply used because we need violence vocabulary to
match them of our feelings. Similarly, we used them to
curse things hurting us.
b. Phatic Function
The term phaticcomes from Greek and means
1
“utterance”. Realize or not, we often use language for no
other reason than simply to express our general disposi-
tion to be sociable. This technical term is called phatic-
communion. It is coined by the British-Polish anthropolo-
gist Malinowski to refer to communication between
people which is not intended to seek or convey informa-
tion but has the social function of establishing or main-
taining social contact (Richards & Schmidt, 2002,
p.395).Examples of phatic communion in English include
such expressions as How are you? AndNice day, isn‟t it?.
In short, the phatic language is very important in
creating and maintaining social links. Most of playwrights
use it sparingly and to establish sense of realism.
c. Recording function
| 15
Because of the limitation of our mind to memor-

ize the all of things we wish to remember, we need to
record them all using language. Let us imagine that your
mother asks you to buy many things in the market. You
probably anticipate by noting such kind shopping list be-
cause you are not able to memorize them all. This func-
tion might be called as Short-Term Record (Finch, 1998,
p.28).
Additionally, there is Long-Term Record as well.

For this possible analogy is that when a college student
makes some lecture notes to record the lecturer‟s expla-
nation. It is necessary to do because he or she will not
able to memorize the all of lecturer‟s explanation in a
whole semester.
d. Identifying function
1
Dealing with the previous function, language not
only allows us to record things we wish to remember but
also to identify or classify them. It is described in a nu-
merous sequences objects or events. Without this func-
tion, we unquestionably find difficulties to make sense of
the world around us.
As explained in the previous discussion, Allah

gave Adam (AbulBasyar, the father of mankind) the spe-
cial godsend, the ability to name things. Human uses this
ability to identify and classify things. Basically, it is a
16 |
12
special gift for human, as messenger to the earth khali-

fah fil ardl, to rule the world through the language.
For the possible analogy is that many scientists

do scientific research and make numerous scientific dis-
coveries. All of them are able to be identified and classi-
fied all. What will happen if they are not able to be iden-
tified and classified all? The possible answer is that the
knowledge development will be unquestionably stuck.
Everything is just like the way it is.
e. Reasoning Function
As previously explained, human has a god‟s gift

namely mind. It makes him possible to think, learn, feel
emotion, and understand things so that he is capable of
encoding the process of communication naturally, includ-
ing through the gestures. As the leader who rules this
world, human constantly thinks about natural phenome-
na existing around them. In other words, all of us have
the action of analyzing about everything around us which
constantly runs anywhere and anytime during our waking
hours.
Moreover, a large majority of our thinking is

done by language. We have infinite ideas in our minds
which have to be expressed or actualized through the
most appropriate language transmitted in speaking or
writing. It is impossible for us to command our mind to
stop to think during our waking hours. In other words,
| 17
when it stops thinking, it means that we are sleeping or

dead. As a result, this function is able to be said as an
instrument, tool, or device of thought (Finch, 1998,
p.34).
f. Communicating Function
This function is able to be said as the primary

purpose of language. Communication itself is used to
make social interaction to others. In this social interac-
tion there is a process of conveying message. Human
can express his/her feelings and share his/her ideas to
others as well. In other words, it is a two-way process
1
(Finch, 1998, p.37). It means that we need to be able to
use language to express ourselves to others and, con-
versely, we need to understand what they are communi-
cating to us as well.
Furthermore, there are of course variety reasons

in terms of using language. It is used for requesting, or-
dering, informing, commanding, complaining, promising,
apologizing, and so forth. In a two-way process, then, a
principle problem is that the meaning of many utterances
we conveyed will not be directly interpreted well. We fre-
quently find the people indirectly convey their ideas. In
this case, we need a particular communicative compe-
tence to be able to decode this situation.
To cope with this problem, two linguistics philo-

1
sophers, J.L. Austin and J.R. Searle, developed the
18 |
12
1
theory namely Speech Act Theory. It is based on the no-
tion that the social use of language is primarily con-
cerned with the performance of certain communicative
acts (Finch, 1998:37).
According to Richards and Schmidt (2002)

speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in com-
munication. In this theory, utterances have two kinds of
8
meanings namely Propositional Meaning and Illocutionary
Meaning. Propositional Meaning, also known as Locutio-
8
nary meaning, refers to the basic literal meaning of the
utterance which is conveyed by the particular words and
structures which the utterance contains. The second
8
term relates to the effect the utterance or written text
1
has on the reader or listener. If, for example, I say to
1
you, I am thirsty, I am presumably performing an in-
forming act, but I probably ask you for something to
drink. This sentence has both prepositional meaning and
illocutionary meaning (p.298).
Furthermore, when I say to you I am thirsty, it

unremarkably has the effect to you that you will bring
me a glass of water, or conversely, it has no effect at all.
For instance, Austin (1962) in Meyer (2009, p.50) devel-
oped the other term namely Perlocutionary Force, or also
known as Perlocutionary Act. This term refers to the ef-
fect of the utterance on individuals to whom they are di-
rected (Meyer, 2009, p.50). The other explanation about
it comes from Richards and Schmidt (2002, p.315) as
| 19
well stating that aperlocutionary act is the results or ef-

fects that are produced by means of saying something.
In addition, Searle (1979) in Meyer (2009, p.50)

classified speech act into five parts presented as follows:
1. Assertive/Representative
It is speech act describing an assertion, a claim,

or a report. In other words, it reports statement
of facts verifiable as true or false. For example:
a) Labako dance is a pop art originated from

Jember, Indonesia.
b) People all grow up to die.
c) The warriors are willing to give their life for

honor.
2. Directives
8
It refers to a speech act that has the function to
get the listener to do something, such as a sug-
gestion, a request, or a command. For example:
a) Why don‟t you ask a question to the kids

who feel the dark as their lights about their
war?
b) Where do you expect us to go when the
grenades explode?
c) Please open your heart!
20 |
12
3. Commissive
8
It is a speech act that commits the speaker to
doing something in the future, such as a promise
or a threat. For example:
a) I will write your last will and testament

tomorrow. (Promise)
b) We don‟t speak anymore of war. (Promise)
8
c) If you don‟t stop stealing this album, I will
call the police. (Threat)
d) If you don‟t stop complaining, she will take
your life. (Threat)
4. Declarations
8
It refers to the utterances changing the state of
affairs in the world. For example: I hereby sen-
tence this corruptor to twenty years in jail.
5. Expressive
8
It refers to the utterances which the speaker ex-
presses feelings and attitudes about something,
such as an apology, a complaint, or to thank
someone, to congratulate someone. For exam-
ple:
a) I do apologize if I say something wrong.

b) This food is too salty. Can I get another
one?
| 21
c) Very thanks to you Jim for taking me

home.
d) Congratulations on your engagement!
As a result, as a means of communication to ex-
press feelings and ideas, language plays important role
because the existence of human race depends on it
(Finch, 1998, p.39).
1
g. Pleasure Function
There are so many kinds of delight which we can

1
get from language. There is, for example, the pleasure
that we can gain from the arrangement by inversion or
ellipsis of normal phrase or clause order and from the
1
conversion of words from one class to another at the
syntactic levels, the level of word order and word class
1
(Finch, 1998, p.40). We can see this ellipsis of normal
phrase or clause order from the newspaper headline,
headline of cigarette advertisement, copy, slogan, and so
forth.
Let us consider the following headline: Yogyakar-

ta Students Given Quake Alert Learning (The Jakarta
Post, June 1, 2010). This headline basically states nega-
tive information in positive form. It is fairly obvious that
this headline presents in passive form. It is basically con-
sists of subject, an auxiliary, a main verb, and an object.
The usage of “be” in passive voice is avoided in order to
slow down fluidity and take up too much space with very
little substance.
22 |
12
1
At the semantics level, the level of meaning,
most creative uses of language provides considerable
pleasure through the generation of puns, paradoxes,
ambiguities, and metaphor (Finch, 1998, p.40). In sum,
language is able to provide a pleasing novelty through
1
the manipulation of sound, syntax, and semantics field.
1
In other words, this pleasing novelty comes from the
successful exploitation of linguistics novelty at the differ-
ent levels of language (Finch, 1998, p.41).
2) Macro Function
1
a. The Ideational Function
With the numerous of the micro function ex-

plained above, there is a process of mental attunement
in terms of conceptualizing things around us. When we
1
use language to identify things, or as an instrument of
thought, or provide a record, we use language as a sym-
bolic code to represent the world around us. These con-
22
cepts are for our own benefit. In short, in serving this
function, language also gives structure to experience,
and helps to determine our way of looking at things, so
that it requires some intellectual effort to see them in
any other way than that which our language suggests to
us (Halliday, 2002, p.175).
b. Interpersonal Function
1
Using language as a means of communication,
for purposes phatic communion, or to release physical
| 23
energy, involves activities in which we are prioritizing the

interpersonal function of language (Finch, 1998, p.43). It
means that several micro functions of language above
1
concern with the relationship between ourselves and
other people or things. In addition, language is able to
be said as a personal medium to interact to others. In
sum, language serves to establish and maintain social re-
lations (Halliday, 2002, p.175).
c. The Poetic Function
In addition to those macro functions, conceptua-

lizing and interacting, we are able to play with the lan-
1
guage itself. It does not mean that it is ability to write
poem but it is the ability to bring the world into being as
an area to play (Finch, 1998, p.43). Through the meta-
phor, jokes, and ambiguities, we are able to express our
own creative freedom.
d. Textual Function
Finally, the last function of language is textual

1
function. It relates to the ability to construct texts of our
utterances and writing. We construct phrases or sen-
tences in a connected sequence systematically. Thus, we
1
use language to bring texts into being (Finch, 1998,
p.44). In other words, language has to provide for mak-
ing links with itself and with features of situation in which
it is used: in constructing texts or connecting several
passages that is situationally relevant. One aspect of the
24 |
12
textual function is the establishment of cohesive relations

from one sentence to another in a discourse (Halliday,
2002, p.175).
B. The Definition of Linguistics

Literature showed that area of linguistics and linguistic
study are growing. Definitions about linguistics taken from var-
ious sources confirm this fact, as following:
 Hornby (1986, p.495) in his dictionary, Oxford Ad-
vance Learner‟s Dictionary of Current English, de-
fines that linguistics is the scientific study of lan-
guages, it centered on the language, e.g., study of
its structure, acquisition, relationship to other forms
of communication.
23
 Akmajian et.al. (2001, p.5) state that linguistics
[is] the scientific study of human natural language.
 Bussmann (1996, p.627) points out that linguistics
is scientific discipline with the goal of describing
language and speech in all relevant theoretical and
practical aspects and their relation to adjoining dis-
ciplines.
 Richards and Schmidt (2002, p.312) define that lin-
11
guistics is the study of language as a system of
human communication.
 According to Peters, in his book entitled “The Cam-
11
bridge Guide to English Usage”defines, “Linguistics
is the systematic study of language” (2004,p.325).
| 25
 Todd (1987), in his book entitled “An Introduction

50
to Linguistics” states, “Language is usually defined
as the scientific study of language” (p.5).
The above definitions show that most of linguists be-

5
lieve that linguistics is as “scientific study”. See for example,
Todd (1987), who stated that “When we say that a linguist
aims to be scientific, we mean that he attempts to study lan-
guage in much the same way as a scientist studying physics or
chemistry, that is systematically, and as far as possible without
prejudice” (p.50). This is to show that when someone is study-
ing about language as a scientific study, he/she has to make
particular observation first, forming hypotheses about it, test-
ing the hypotheses and then refining them on the basis of the
evidence collected.
As a result, like biological sciences, linguistics covers
observations and classifications about occurring language phe-
nomena. The phenomena to be observed and classified includes
what its elements are, how they are combined to form larger
units, and how they are able to express our ideas or conveying
messages.
11
In sum, for the beginning linguist, saying that linguis-
tics is a science can be interpreted as implying careful observa-
tion of the relevant real-world phenomena, classification of
those phenomena, and the search for useful patterns in the
phenomena observed and classified. For the more advanced
linguist, saying that linguistics is a science is a matter of seek-
ing explanations for the phenomena of language and building
26 |
12
theories which will help explain why observed phenomena occur

while phenomena which are not observed should not occur
(Bauer, 2007, p.17).
As previously explained, studying about language
scientifically have numerous purposes as mentioned by M.A.K
Halliday in his book entitled “An Introduction to Functional
Grammar” (1994) described as follows:
2
1. To understand the nature and functions of
language;
2. To understand what all language have in
common (i.e. what are the properties of
language as such), and what many differ
from one language to another;
3. To understand how languages evolve
through time;
4. To understand how child develops lan-
guage, and how language may have
evolved in the human species;
2
5. To understand the quality of the text: why
a text means what it does, and why it is
valued as it is;
6. To understand how language varies, ac-
cording to the user, and according to the
functions for which it is being used;
7. To understand literary and poetic text, and
the nature of the verbal art;
8. To understand the relation between the
language and culture, and language and
the situation;
9. To understand many aspects of the role of
language in the community and the indi-
vidual: multilingualism, socialization, ide-
ology, propaganda, etc.;
10. To help people to learn their mother ton-
gue: reading and writing, language in
school subjects, etc.;
11. To help people learn foreign languages;
| 27
12. To help train translators and interpreters;

13. To write reference word (dictionaries,
grammars, etc.) for any language;
14. To understand the relationship between
language and the brain;
15. To help in the diagnosis and treatment of
language of language pathologies arising
from brain insults (tumors, accidents) or
from congenital disorder such as autism
and down‟s syndrome;
16. To understand the language of the deaf
(sign);
17. To design appliances that will aid the hard
of hearing;
18. To design computer software that will pro-
duce and understand texts, and translate
between languages;
19. To design systems for producing and un-
derstanding speech,2
and converting be-
tween written and spoken text;
20. To assist in legal adjudications by match-
ing samples of sound or wording;
21. To design more economical and efficient
means for the transmission of spoken and
written text;
22. And so on (p.xix)
Questions to Discuss:
(1) What is the definition of language? How do you differen-
tiate language from linguistics?
(2) Onomatopoeic words such as cuckoo, splash, rattle are
believed to be taken from the sound of nature and thus
it is called naturalistic approach. Compare this thought
with the principle of arbitrariness of language!
(3) What is the cultural transmission in the property of lan-
guage? Give proper example to clarify your answer!
(4) When discussing the property of language, productivity
is one of the important points, where people show ability
to produce hundreds of answers to respond a question,
28 |
for example, Dina has bought new red dress and wore it
and showed to her friends while asking “what do you
think about my new dress?” Please note several res-
ponses that may appear!
(5) What is locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary
acts happened in a conversation.
| 29
Linguistics and Its Study
30 |
Chapter II
LINGUISTICS AND ITS STUDY
A. General Linguistics
Linguists have added that general linguistics concerns with
the language as a part of [human] behavior and human‟s ability
which is observed and in term of universality (Alwasilah, 1987).
In other word it is looking for generalizations applied ideally to
the language all over the world. Moreover, he states that general
linguistics is divided into three main parts. They are:
1. Diachronic Linguistics
2. Comparative Linguistics
3. Descriptive Linguistics
| 31
B. Diachronic Linguistics
Diachronic Linguistics is a branch of linguistics studying about
the development of particular language. “It additionally can be
studied looking at the way the patterns change and develop over
time” (Bauer, 2007:13).
In addition, Richards and Schmidt (2002:154) state that Di-
achronic Linguistics is an approach to linguistics which studies
how languages change over time, for example the change in the
sound systems of the Romance languages from their roots in Lat-
in (and other languages) to modern times or the study of changes
between Early English to Modern British English.
Diachronic Linguistics is systematic description and elucida-
tion of all linguistic changes through time (internal historical lin-
guistics) with regard to external facts such as political history,
cultural influences, social change, territorial changes, language
contact (external historical linguistics) among others (Busmann,
1996:304).
Furthermore, Ferdinand de Saussure, The Swiss Linguist, in
Meyer (2009:20) made the distinction between Synchronic and
Diachronic in the studies of language. The first term refers to the
26
study of language involving investigation of a language in its
present form as it is currently spoken and written. It is focused on
contemporary English, the current version of English spoken
around the world. The second term conversely examines the his-
26
torical development of a language, taking into consideration
changes it has undergone over time: Old English, Middle English,
Early Modern English, Modern English, and Contemporary English.
This distinction is unremarkably very useful for us but it is
32 |
somewhat misleading. The essence of language itself is basically

dynamic, not static. It means that language is always changing.
In other words, it is quite possible that the Contemporary English
is going to be different in the next ten years, or even next year.
C. Comparative Linguistics
Richards and Schmidt (2002:93) state that Comparative Lin-
15
guistics is a branch of linguistics which studies two or more lan-
guages in order to compare their structures and to show whether
they are similar or different. Comparative linguistics is used in the
15
study of language types. In addition, it is also used by some ap-
plied linguists for establishing differences between the learner‟s
native language and the target language in the areas of syntax,
vocabulary, and sound systems.
D. Descriptive Linguistics
Bauer (2007:13-14) defines that Descriptive Linguistics is the
study of linguistics with the aim of giving a description of the sys-
tem of a particular language or set of languages.
According to Alwasilah (1987:87) “Descriptive Linguistics pro-
vides a description and analysis to the language including the
language in use by the language users in a particular time”. In
addition, Gleason in Alwasilah (1987:88) divides this study into
two parts. They are:
a. Phonology (studying about phonemes)
b. Grammar (studying about morpheme and its combinations)
Bauer (2007: 12) provides explanation that study of the ele-
ments of language and their function is usually split up into a
| 33
number of different subfields presented as follows:

1. Phonetics deals with the sounds of spoken language:
how they are made, how they are classified, how
they are combined with each other and how they in-
teract with each other when they are combined, how
they are perceived. It is sometimes suggested that
phonetics is not really a part of linguistics proper, but
a sub-part of physics, physiology, psychology or en-
gineering (as in attempts to mimic human speech
using computers). Accordingly, the label linguistic
phonetics is sometimes used to specify that part of
phonetics which is directly relevant for the study of
human language.
4
2. Phonology also deals with speech sounds, but at a
rather more abstract level. While phonetics deals
with individual speech sounds, phonology deals with
the systems which incorporate the sounds. It also
considers the structures the sounds can enter into
(for example, syllables and intonational phrases),
and the generalizations that can be made about
sound structures in individual languages or across
languages.
3. Morphology deals with the internal structure of words
– not with their structure in terms of the sounds that
make them up, but their structure where form and
meaning seem inextricably entwined. So the word
cover is morphologically simple, and its only struc-
4
ture is phonological, while lover contains the smaller
34 |
element love and some extra meaning which is re-

lated to the final <r> in the spelling. Another way of
talking about this is to say that morphology deals
with words and their meaningful parts.
4. Syntax is currently often seen as the core of any lan-
guage, although such a prioritizing of syntax is rela-
tively new. Syntax is concerned with the ways in
which words can be organized into sentences and the
ways in which sentences are understood. Why do
5
apparently parallel sentences such as Pat is easy to
please and Pat is eager to please have such different
interpretations (think about who gets pleased in each
case)?
4
5. Semantics deals with the meaning of language. This
is divided into two parts, lexical semantics which is
concerned with the relationships between words, and
sentence semantics which is concerned with the way
in which the meanings of sentences can be built up
from the meanings of their constituent words. Sen-
tence semantics often makes use of the tools and
4
notions developed by philosophers; for example, log-
ical notation and notions of implication and denota-
tion.
6. Pragmatics deals with the way the meaning of an ut-
terance may be influenced by its speakers or hearers
interpret it in context. For example, if someone
asked you Could you close the window? You would
be thought to be uncooperative if you simply ans-
| 35
wered Yes. Yet if someone asked When you first

went to France, could you speak French?Yeswould be
considered a perfectly helpful response, but doing
something like talking back to them in French would
not be considered useful. Pragmatics also deals with
matters such as what the difference is between a set
of isolated sentences and a text, how a word like this
is interpreted in context, and how a conversation is
managed so that the participants feel comfortable
with the interaction.
7. Lexicology deals with the established words of a lan-
guage and the fixed expressions whose meanings
cannot be derived from their components: idioms,
clichés, proverbs, etc. Lexicology is sometimes dealt
with as part of semantics, since in both cases word-
like objects are studied.
In short, Richards and Schmidt (2002: 312) provide explana-
tion about these subfields as well presented as follows:
Linguistics includes many different approaches to the
study of language and many different areas of investi-
gation, for example sound systems (Phonetics, Phonol-
ogy), sentence structure (Syntax), relationships be-
tween language and cognition (Cognitive Linguistics),
meaning systems (Semantics, Pragmatics, Functions of
Language), as well as language and social factors (soci-
olinguistics).
36 |
Chapter III
THE SOUND OF LANGUAGE
A. Phonetics
Human beings are unquestionably capable of producing a
great variety of sound. In producing infinite sounds, they unmis-
takably involve speech organs they have. When we are breathing,
there is lots of muscles contraction in the chest, then, producing
airflow from lungs passing through the larynx and spreading out
to the atmosphere. The airflow is extremely needed in producing
sounds involving a part of the mouth, nose, or throat which is
used in producing speech, e.g. the tongue, lips, alveolar ridge,
etc. called as articulators(Richards and Schmidt, 2002:33). In the
line with this, Ogden (2009:12) states that articulators are the
| 37
The Sound Pattern of Language
3
parts of the oral tract that are used in producing speech sounds.
The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds is
called phonetics(Yule, 2006:30). In addition, Todd (1987:7) de-
fines that phonetics is the study of the production, transmission
and reception of speech sound. The objective of linguistic pho-
5
netics is to describe the phonetic correlates of phonological units
5
of spoken language and their interactions and to give a compre-
hensive account of speech patterns and their pronunciations in all
languages and dialects of the world (Arnoff and Rees-Miller, 2001,
[2003]:151).
Yule (2006:30) divides phonetics into three branches pre-
sented as follows:
a. Articulatory Phonetics, which is the study of how speech
sounds are made, or „articulated‟.
b. Acousticphonetics, which deals with the physical properties of
speech as sound waves in the air. It deals with the transmis-
sions of the speech sound through the air (Richards and
Schmidt, 2002:398). Various ways are used to measure the
characteristics of these sound waves as we can find in Spec-
trograms, Sound Spectra, and Waveforms.
c. Auditory phonetics (or perceptual phonetics) which deals with
the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds. In other words,
it deals with how the speech sounds are perceived by the lis-
tener (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:398).
B. Voiced and Voiceless Sound

In the previous discussion, we all know that articulatory pho-
netics is the study how vocal tract produces the sound of lan-
38 |
guage. Producing every single sound involves the air movements.

Yule (2006:30) takes two basic positions to differentiate the
terms voiced and voiceless explained as follows:
1. When the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the
lungs repeatedly pushes them apart as it passes through,
3
creating a vibration effect. Sounds produced in this way are
5
described as voiced. In short, voicing is caused by vibration of
the vocal folds in the larynx (Arnoff and Rees-Miller, 2001,
[2003]:157).
3
2. When the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs
3
passes between them unimpeded. Sounds produced in this
way are described as voiceless.
Let‟s consider these following conditions:
1. Put your fingertip on the “Adam‟s Apple” and produce sounds
such as Z-Z-Z-Z or V-V-V-V. You should be able feel some vi-
bration because they are voiced sounds. It also occurs when
we are producing sounds b, d, and g because they have the
same characteristic with Z and V, voiced sound.
2. Keeping your fingertip in the same position, now make the
sounds S-S-S-S or F-F-F-F. You should not be able feel some
vibration because they are voiceless sounds. It is for the
sounds p, t, and k as well.
C. Place of Articulation
As I mentioned on the chapter 1, human has a God‟s gift that
is special ability to encode the process of communication in our
daily life naturally, including through the gestures. All normal
children learn and develop their language on their community.
| 39
Before they are able to write, they are able to produce speech
first. In other words, speech can be said as the primary medium
(Trask, 1999: 11). Writing is unquestionably called as medium of
language as well. The language ability of human is able to be said
as an abstract thing that requires a process of actualization of
their ability through the medium, writing and speech. To provide
more clearly explanation about the relationship between language
and its mediums, Todd (1987:8) sums up this relationship shown
in the following Figure:
FIG. 3.3.1: The relationship between language and its mediums

Source: Reprinted from Loretto Todd (1987), An Introduction to
Linguistics, England: Longman York Press, p. 8
From this diagram above, we know that it indicates although

speech and writing are in theory distinct, they can influence each
other. The simple example is that pronunciation is often affected
by spelling. The word “often” is now frequently pronounced with a
“t” because of the influence of written medium.
40 |
In producing speech as the primary medium, human has a

unique organ which is quite different from other mammals name-
ly Vocal Tract. It is the passageway through which air flows as we
speak (Trask, 1999:11). He adds that there are several signifi-
cant differences. For one thing, the human vocal tract is much
larger and differently shaped: it extends well down behind the
back of the tongue. Further, there is a big difference in the con-
nection between the trachea, or windpipe, which leads through a
complex structure called the larynxto the lungs, and the oeso-
phagus, or gullet, which leads to the stomach. The human vocal
tract is going to be briefly illustrated in the following figure:
FIG. 3.3.2: The human vocal tract

Source: Reprinted from Trask (1999), Language: The Basics,
Second Edition, NY: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, p. 12
| 41
Different from human, in the chimp, as in most mammals, a

large cartilage called the epiglottis serves as a kind of valve be-
tween the two. When the epiglottis is raised (as shown), the tra-
chea is connected to the nose and the mouth is sealed off. When
the epiglottis is lowered, the mouth is connected to the oesopha-
gus, and the trachea is sealed off. This useful arrangement makes
it virtually impossible for a chimp to choke on its food (Trask,
1999:11-12).
FIG. 3.3.3: The vocal tract of chimpanzee

Source: Reprinted from Trask (1999), Language: The Basics,
Second Edition, NY: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group, p. 13
1
According to Fromkin, et.al (2003:242) “Place of articulation
is where in the vocal tract the airflow restriction occurs. Move-
ment of the tongue and lips, also known as articulators, cause the
restriction, reshaping the oral cavity in various ways to produce
the various consonants”. In short, we can conclude that place of
42 |
articulation can be illustrated as the place where in the mouth the

sounds are produced. Further, we have to discuss about the eight
commonest places of articulations, as explained by Todd
(1987:17), presented as follows:
Bilabial: Where the lips come together as in the sounds

/p/, /b/ and /m/.
55
Labiodental: Where the lower lip and the upper teeth
come together, as for the sounds /f/ and /v/.
Dental: Where the tip or the blade of the tongue comes
in contact with the upper teeth as in the pronuncia-
tion of the initial sounds in “thief” and “then”,
represented by the symbols /θ/ and /ð/.
24
Alveolar: Where the tip or the blade of the tongue
touches the alveolar ridge which is directly behind
the upper teeth. In English, the sounds made in the
alveolar region predominate in the language. By
this we mean that the most frequently occurring
consonants /t, d, s, z, n, l, r/ are all made by ap-
proximating the tongue to alveolar ridge.
Palato-Alveolar: As the name suggest, there are two

5
points of contact for these sounds. The tip of the
tongue is close to the alveolar ridge while the front
of the tongue is concave to the roof of the mouth.
In English, there are four palato-alveolar sounds,
55
the affricates /tʃ/ and /dʒ/ and the fricatives /ʃ/ and
/ʒ/, the sound that occur respectively, at the begin-
| 43
ning of the word “shut” and in the middle of the

word “measure”.
Palatal: For palatal sound, the front of tongue approx-
imates to the hard palate. It is possible to have pa-
latal plosives, fricatives, laterals and nasals, but in
English the only palatal is the voiced semi vowel /j/
as in“you”.
24
Velar: For velars, the back of tongue approximates to
the soft palate. As with other points of contact, sev-
eral types of sound can be made here. In English
there are four consonants made in the velar region,
the plosives /k,g/, the nasal /ŋ/ and the voiced semi
vowel /w/ as in “woo”.
In addition, uvular, pharyngeal and glottal sounds occur fre-

quently in world languages. They are not, however, significant in
English and so will not be described in detail.
3
Furthermore, according to Yule (2006:33) “There is one
sound that is produced without the active use of the tongue and
other parts of the mouth. It is the sound [h] which occurs at the
beginning of have and house and, for most speakers, as the first
sound in who and whose. This sound is usually described as a
voiceless glottal.” Accordingly, the „glottis‟ is the space between
the vocal cords in the larynx. When the glottis is open, as in the
production of other voiceless sounds, and there is no manipula-
tion of the air passing out of the mouth, the sound produced is
that represented by [h].
44 |
D. Manner of Articulation
Following are definitions about manner of articulation taken
from several sources presented as follows:
1. Akmajian, et.al (2001:73) defines that manner of articulation
refers for the most part to how the articulators achieve con-
tact with proximity to the places of articulation.
2. Speech sounds also vary in the way airstream is affected as it
flows from the lungs up and out of the mouth and nose. It
may be blocked or partially blocked; the vocal cords may vi-
brate or not vibrate. That is what we call as manner of articu-
lation (Fromkin, et.al, 2003:244).
3. Bussmann (1996:721) state that manner of articulation is the
way in which the airstream is modified during the articulatio-
nof a consonant: either (oral or nasal) stop, fricative(both
medianandlateral), affricate, approximant(both median and
lateral), flap, or trill.
4. Manner of articulation is the way in which a speech sound is
produced by the speech organs (Richards and Schmidt,
2002:319).
5
5. Arnoff and Rees-Miller (2001, [2003]:181) state “The manner
of articulation indicates the degree of constriction: complete
closure (stops), noticeable obstruction (fricatives) or a combi-
nation of closure and obstruction (affricates), closure in the
mouth with air escaping through the nose (nasals), or only
slight approximation (liquids and glides)”.
From the several definitions above, we can conclude that

manner of articulation concerns with how the airstream flows in
| 45
the mouth during the articulations. In this instance, Yule

(2006:35) classifies sounds in terms of the ways they are pro-
nounced into several types describes as follows:
3
1. Stops: Producing sounds by some form of “stopping” the air-
stream very briefly and letting it go abruptly. In other words,
3
the airstream is stopped and released suddenly. The set [p],
[b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are all produced in this manner of articu-
lation.
3
2. Fricatives: Blocking the airstream and having the air push
through the very narrow opening. As the air is pushed
through, a type of friction is produced. In other words, this
manner of articulation involves two organs coming close to-
gether so that the airstream is allowed to escape with friction
(Richards and Schmidt, 2002:319). This includes several
sounds: false [f], vein [v], theory [θ], therefore [ð], sin [s],
zone [z], shock [ʃ], and treasure [ʒ].
3
3. Affricative: Combining a brief stopping of the airstream with
an obstructed release which causes some friction, you will be
able to produce the sounds [tʃ] and [dʒ] as in church and
judge.
4. Nasals: The velum is raised, preventing airflow from entering
3
the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the
airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce
34
[m], [n], and [ŋ]. It refers to sounds produced while the soft
palate is lowered to allow an audible escape of air through the
nose (Crystal, 2008:320).
5. Liquids: This manner of articulation includes the sound [l] and
[r]. For the first sound [l] as in “led” is called a lateral liquids
46 |
3
formed by letting the airstream flow around the sides of the
tongue as the tip of the tongue makes contact with the mid-
3
dle of the alveolar ridge. For the first sound [r] as in “red” is
formed with the tongue tip raised and curled back near the
alveolar ridge.
3
6. Glides: These sounds are typically produced with the tongue
3
in motion (or „gliding‟) to or from the position of a vowel and
are sometimes called semi-vowels or approximants. It in-
cludes the sound [w] as in “we” and [j] as in “yet”.
E. Phonetics Transcription
As previously explained, writing is unquestionably called as
medium of language. The language ability of human is able to be
said as an abstract thing that requires a process of actualization
of their ability through the medium. Within English, there are so
many sounds represented by one spelling. By contrast, there are
many spellings representing to one sound. The letter <a> has
numerous pronunciations as in bark, back, sofa, and so on. Simi-
larly, the combination letters <ch> has various pronunciations as
in champion, chaos, and so forth. The letter <o> and <u>
represent the same sound as in monk, honey, company, must,
much, and cut.
In addition, some combination letters may represent single
sound as in nation, physics, shoot, father, and etcetera. Indeed,
some letters have no sound at all as in write, listen, whole, psy-
chology, design, knife, answer, and so on. The emergence of
phonetic transcription itself is principally built to tackle these
problems by representing speech sounds systematically agreed.
| 47
Phonetic transcription is defined as the use of alphabetic

symbols to represent the sounds of speech (Ogden, 2009:20). In
this instance, speech is represented by a set of alphabetic writing
symbols. It means that one symbol for each sound. It is found in
dictionary entries to represent the pronunciation of words includ-
ing the inconsistent pronunciation of words as in enough, high,
and so on.
Furthermore, the commonest tool for phonetic transcription is
the alphabet of the International Phonetic Association (Ogden,
2009:21). There is a little bit confusing because both of Interna-
tional Phonetic Alphabet and International Phonetic Association
are known as IPA. Moreover, International Phonetic Alphabet
(IPA) is basically used for several purposes such as: showing pro-
24
nunciation in a dictionary, record a language in linguistic field-
24
work, and forming the basis of writing system for a language.
1. Transcription of English Vowels and Consonants

Sounds are conventionally divided into two main types name-
ly Vowels (V) and Consonants (C). Vowel is a speech sound pro-
duced without significant constriction of the air flowing through
the mouth (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:584). It means that
when we are producing such sound, there is no obstruction to the
airflow. It is typically voiced. When I ask you to open your mouth
and produce the sound “aahhh”, it is the best or simplest way to
describe the unobstructed airflow. On the other hand, when you
are producing the sound “s” or “f”, it is clearly difficult to the air
to pass the mouth. In other words, there is an obstruction to the
airflow. The sounds like “s” and “f” are unquestionably called con-
48 |
sonants.
Roach (1991:22) states that English has a large number of
vowel sound; the first ones to be examined are short vowels. The
symbols for these vowels are: I, e, æ, Λ, ɒ, and ʊ. Further, these
short vowels to be clearly illustrated with English words.
Symbols English words

I lick, sit, bin, ship,
e pen, ten, bell
æ trap, bad, black, hat, hang
Λ cup, hug, suck, blood, flood
ɒ clock, box, top, sock
ʊ book, cook, good, look, push
In addition, there is one short vowel namely schwa (ə). We

used the sound ə in words and syllables that are not important.
In other words, it is always associated with weak syllables. It is
generally described as lax, that is, not articulated with much
energy (Roach, 1991:76). Let us consider some examples in Eng-
lish words: about /ə‟baʊt/, standard /‟stændəd/, status /‟steItəs/,
forget /fə‟get/, and so forth. In this instance, Roach (1991:76)
provides several guides to the correct pronunciation of weak syl-
lable in English spelling shown as follows:
a. Spelt with “a” as in words attend /ə‟tend/, barracks /bærəks/,
and character /kærəktə/.
b. Spelt with “ar” (e.g. particular /pə‟tIkjələ/, monarchy
/mɒnəkI/, and molar /məʊlə/.
c. Adjectival endings spelt “ate” as in accurate /‟ækjərət/ and
| 49
private /‟praIvət/.
d. Spelt with “o” (e.g. tomorrow /tə‟mɒrəʊ/, carrot /‟kærət/, and
potato /pəteItəʊ/)
e. Spelt with “or” (e.g. forget /fə‟get/ and ambassador
/æm‟bæsədə/).
f. Spelt with “e” as in postmen /‟pəʊstmən/ and violet /vaIələt/.
g. Spelt with “er” as in perhaps /pə‟hæps/ and stronger
/strɒŋgə/.
h. Spelt with “u” as in autumn /ɔ:təm/ and support /səpɔ:t/.
i. Spelt with “ough” (there are, of course, many other pronun-
ciations for the letter-sequence ough) as in thorough /‟θΛrə/
and borough /‟bΛrə/.
j. Spelt with “ous” as in gracious /‟greIʃəs/ and callous /‟kæləs/.
The other type of English vowel is long vowel. This type tends
to pronounce longer than short vowels. There are five long vowels
transcribed in the following symbols: i:,з:, a:, ɔ:, and u:. The
symbols of long vowels consist of one vowel symbol plus two dots
indicating length mark. We will now discuss them all individually
illustrated with English words as well.
Symbols English words

i: sheep, tea, machine, sea
з: girl, word, worm, pearl
a: heart, start, cart, garden
ɔ: war, ball, sport, fork
u: Boot, pool, soup, blue, group
50 |
34
In addition, there are terms in the phonetic classification of
vowel sounds on the basis of their manner of articulation namely
monophthong, diphthong, andtriphthong. Crystal (2008:311) de-
fines that monophthong refers to a vowel (pure vowel) where
there is no detectable change in quality during the syllable, whe-
reas, diphthong and triphthong refer to vowels which there are
two noticeable changes in quality during the syllable. Quality here
concerns with the quantity and length including the characteristic
resonance, or timbre, of a sound (2008:398).
As previously explained, diphthong are basically like long vo-
wels illustrated above. The most important thing that we have to
remember is that the first part is much longer than the second
part (Roach, 1991:20). Furthermore, there are eight diphthongs.
The easiest way to remember them is that they are divided into
three groups. First, there are three diphthongs gliding toward the
schwa (ə). They are:
Iə near, here, beer
eə chair, square, fair
ʊə tour, pour, cure
Secondly, there are three diphthongs gliding toward (I) described
as follows:
eI face, day, pain
aI knife, fine, price
ɔI voice, choice, boy
Lastly, the remaining two glide toward (ʊ) illustrated as follows:
əʊ show, no, phone
aʊ house, mouth, now
| 51
49
Triphthong is basically defined as a glide from one vowel to
another and to the third, all produced rapidly without interruption
(Roach, 1991:23). It is not easily able to be recognized. It is diffi-
cult to pronounce as well, especially for us as foreign learner, ex-
cept in very careful pronunciation. To help identify this vowel
classification, he provides some example words below:
eIə layer, player
aIə lier, fire
ɔIə loyal, royal
əʊə lower
aʊə power, hour
We now arrive at the second type of sound namely conso-

nant. Following is the transcription of English consonants contain-
ing a set of symbols used that clearly represent them at the sys-
tematic level.
English Consonants
Symbols English Words Symbols English Words
P pen, airport, group S sun, price, star
B baby, job, terribly Z zoo, music, rose
T top, restaurant, ʃ shoe, ash, push
D door, ride, card ʒ television, treasure,
usual
K key, school, car H hat, hear, hand
G girl, glass, bag M more, sum, time
tʃ cherry, cheap, N nose, knee, cone
watch, lunch
52 |
dʒ jam, large, age Ŋ ring, wrong, wing

F fan, funny, laugh L letter, valley, feel
V vein, vet, move R road, sorry, ar-
range
Θ mouth, thin, author J yellow, year, yes
Ð father, than, either W window, wine, west
| 53
Morphology
54 |
Chapter IV
THE SOUND PATTERN OF LANGUAGE
A. Phonology
3
Phonologyis essentially the description of the systems and
patterns of speech sounds in a language (Yule, 2006:43). Accord-
1
ing to Fromkin, et.al (2003:273), “Phonology is the study of the
ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns”.
Meanwhile, Akmajian, et.al (2001:109) state that phonology is
the subfield of linguistics that studies about the structures and
systematic patterning of sound in human language.
| 55
Morphology
In the line with Akmajian, Todd (1987:7) defines that “pho-

1
nology, known as phonemics as well, is the study of the sounds
5
and sound patterns of a specific language.”It is this knowledge
about sound structure – which sounds occur, what their distribu-
tion is, how they can be combined and how they might be rea-
lized differently in different positions in a word or phrase, that
constitutes the study of phonology (Arnoff and Rees-Miller, 2001)
Considering those definitions above, we all know that phonol-
ogy a sub-discipline of linguistics concerning about studying the
pattern of speech sound systematically. In short, different from
phonetics studying about how the single sound is produced and
the place where the speech sound is produced, phonology con-
cerns with the study about how the single sound arranged which
can distinguish the meaning. The most important thing that we
have to know in terms of communication is about the arrange-
ment of the phonemes in structured sequences. Moreover, in
studying phonology, it is also important for us to analyze what
the restrictions in particular language by studying syllables of the
language itself. In English, for example, there are no words be-
gun with consonant sequence, e.g. /kzb/.
Another reason for studying phonology is that in many cases
1
related to the study of sound patterns in a particular language in
the world are problematic. Taking an example from Bahasa Indo-
nesia, it is problematic when we meet with /e/ sound. For exam-
ple, the word „kecap‟ can have different pronunciation with differ-
ent meaning brought about by the way we say the word. If we
say using weak e /kəcΛp/ like in herb would have different mean-
ing if we pronounce with strong e /kæcΛp/like inhelp.The first
56 |
word which comes from the verb „mengecap‟ means to taste

while the second word meansketchup.
B. Phonemes
The single sound type which came to be represented by a
single written symbol is described as a Phoneme (Yule, 2006:44).
39
Richards and Schmidt (2002:396) define “Phoneme is the smal-
lest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words”.
39
For example: in English, the words pan and ban differ only in
their initial sound: pan begins with /p/ and ban with /b/. And
then, ban and bin differ only in their vowels: /æ/ and /i/. There-
fore, /p/, /b/, /æ/, and /i/ are phonemes of English. The number
of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is of-
ten considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 Consonants and 20 vo-
wels. Note that slash marks are conventionally used to indicate a
phoneme.
C. Segments and Supra segmental Analysis

In addition, According to Meyer (2009:196) “The study of
speech sounds can involve either segmentsorsupra segmental”.
The first analyses of speech are focused on the individual sounds
in a given word. In this instance, the word buy has three seg-
ments: two consonants beginning and ending the word and a sin-
gle vowel between the two consonants. Linguists have a set of
symbols to describe these sounds namely phonetic alphabet. It is
the symbol of alphabet to correspond each sound to only one
sound. In this way, the word buy is able to be transcribed as
/baI/. In English alphabet, a single alphabet can represents more
| 57
Morphology
than one sound. The alphabet “u” in buy will be differently pro-
nounced in busy /‟bIzI/.
The study of suprasegmentals extends the focus of inquiry to
units that are larger than individual segments – syllables, words,
phrases, and clauses – and to the features of sound that describe
these units, specifically stress and intonation (Meyer, 2009:208).
Syllable is a unit of speech consisting minimally of one vowel and
maximally of a vowel preceded by a consonant or consonant clus-
ter and followed by a consonant or consonant cluster (Richards
and Schmidt, 2002:531). Moreover, syllable can be divided into
three parts described as follows:
1. The beginning called Onset;
2. The central part which is typically consists of Vowel (V), called
Nucleus;
3. The end, Called Coda.
Thus, in a simple word buy the nucleus should be the vowel
/a/ which is preceded by the onset /b/ and followed by /I/ as a
coda.
In addition, Yule (2006:47) divides syllable into two terms
namely open syllables and closed syllables. The first term con-
cerns with the syllable which simply consists of onset and nucleus
as in me, to, no. Conversely, when it presents a coda, it is called
closed syllable as in of, on, hat, and so forth. In English, there are
so many words which consist of more than one consonant in both
onset and coda, as in spot and post. It is known as consonant
cluster. In the line with this, Richards and Schmidt (2002:110)
define that consonant cluster is a sequence of two or more con-
sonants at the beginning of a syllable (e.g. /splæ∫/ in splash) or
58 |
the end of a syllable (e.g. /sts/ in tests).

English has restriction or permissible contents of possible ar-
rangement consonant + vowel namely phonotactics. Discussing
29
about these restrictions, let us discuss first on onset. If the first
syllable of the word begun with a vowel, we say that this initial
syllable has a zero onset. If the syllable begins with consonant,
that initial consonant may be any consonant phoneme except “ŋ”
and “ʒ”. Initial here refers to the term referring to the first ele-
ment in linguistics unit (Crystal, 2008:246).
Furthermore, Roach (1991:71) states that initial two-
consonant clusters are two sorts in English. The first sort is com-
posed by one of a small set of consonants. We can find, for ex-
ample, such clusters in words such as sting /stIŋ/, small /smɔ:l/,
slip /slIp/, and so on. The letter “s” in these clusters is called pre-
initial consonant and the other consonant t, m, and l in the above
example is called the initial consonant. The second sort begins
9
with one of a set about fifteen consonants, followed by one of the
set l, r, w, j as in play /pleI/, try /traI/, quick /kwIk/ and few
/fju:/. We call the first consonant of these clusters the initial con-
9
sonant and the second the post-initial. In three-consonant clus-
ters, as in split /splIt/, stream /stri:m/, and square /skweə/, the
“s” is the pre-initial consonant, the p, t, and k that follows “s” in
9
three examples above are called initial consonant, and the l, r,
and w are post-initial.
Then, we have to discuss about the final consonant clusters.
If there is no final consonant, we say that there is a zero coda.
When there is only one consonant, this is called the final conso-
nant. Any consonant can be placed in this position except h, r, w,
| 59
Morphology
and j. Two-consonant final cluster is divided into two sorts. First is

being a final consonant preceded by a pre-final consonant.
9
Second, a final consonant followed by a post-final consonant. The
pre-final consonants form a small set m, n, ŋ, l, s as in jump
/dʒΛmp/ , bench /bentʃ/, tank /tæŋk/, melt /melt/, and mask
9
/mæsk/. The post-final consonants also form a set s, z, t, d, θ as
in bets /bets/, beds /bedz/, backed /bækt/, bagged /bægd/, and
eighth /eItθ/. These post-final consonants can often be identified
as separate morphemes to be discussed in the next chapter.
9
Moreover, Roach (1991:71-72) states that there are two types of
final three-consonant cluster. First is pre-final plus final plus post-
final setting out in the following discussion:
PRE-FINAL FINAL POST-FINAL

helped he l P t
banks bæ ŋ K s
bonds bɒ n D z
twelfth twe l F θ
The second type shows that more than post-final consonant

9
can occur in a final cluster: final plus post-final 1 plus post-final 2
9
(s, z, t, d, θ) described as follows:
PRE- 9
FINAL POST-FINAL 1 POST-FINAL 2
FINAL
Fifths fI - f θ s
Next ne - k s t
Lapsed læ - p s t
60 |
Most four consonant clusters can be analyzed as consisting of

9
a final consonant preceded by a pre-final and followed by post-
final 1 and post-final 2, as shown below:
9
PRE-FINAL FINAL POST-FINAL 1 POST-FINAL 2
twelfths twe l F θ s
prompts prɒ m P t s
A small number of cases seem to require different analysis, as

consisting of a final consonant with no pre-final but three post-
finals:
PRE- FINAL POST- POST- POST-
FINAL FINAL 1 FINAL 2 FINAL 3
sixths sI - K S θ s
texts te - K S t s
To sum up, McMahon (2002:106) provides an adequate ex-

planation about the structure of English syllable as shown below:
a. In a CCC onset, C1 must be /s/ as in spring;
b. /ŋ/ does not appear in onset;
c. /v ð zʒ / do not form part of onset clusters;
d. /t d θ / plus /l/ do not form permissible onset clusters;
e. /h/ does not appear in codas;
f. /lg/ is not a permissible coda cluster.
In English, there are so many syllables are weak. It is neces-
sary for us to study about how these weak syllables are pro-
nounced and where they occur in English. In this instance, the
terms distinguishing whether the syllable is pronounced weak or
strong are based on stress and intonation. Stress refers to the
| 61
Morphology
pronunciation of a syllable or word with more respiratory energy

or muscular force than other syllables or words in the same ut-
terance (Richards and Schmidt, 2002:516). A stressed syllable is
marked in transcription by placing a small vertical line [„] just be-
fore the syllable it relates to. Let us consider these following ex-
amples:
Garden /‟ga:dn/
Confuse /kən‟fju:z/
Rabbit /‟ræbIt/
Receive /ri‟si:v/
Informal /In‟fɔ:ml/
Tornado /tɔ:‟neIdəʊ/
How can we recognize the stressed and unstressed syllables?

To cope with this problem, we have to know about the characte-
ristics of the stressed syllables so that we are able to identify
them. In this instance, Roach (1991:85-86) provides one com-
mon characteristic differentiating stressed and unstressed syllable
namely prominence. In other words, stressed syllable is recog-
nized as stressed because it is more prominent than unstressed
syllable. Furthermore, there are at least four factors making a
syllable prominent described as follows:
a. We can feel that stressed syllable is louder than unstressed. It
means that loudness is a component of prominence.
b. The length of syllable plays an important role in prominence.
37
c. When we listen to people speaking, we can hear some sounds
or group of sounds in their speech to be relatively higher or
lower than others. This relative height of speech sounds as
62 |
perceived by a listener is called “pitch‟‟ (Richards and

Schmidt, 2002:402).
d. The quality of syllable which concerning with the quantity and
length including the characteristic resonance, or timbre, of a
sound tend to be prominent. For example, when we pro-
nounce “nonsense word” (e.g. ba:bi:ba:ba:) the odd or
strange syllable bi: will tend to be heard as stressed.
In English, there are particular rules in terms of the place-

ment of stress within a word. In the line with this, Roach
31
(1991:90) divides these rules related to two-syllable words and
three syllable words presented as follows:
a. Two-syllable words
7
 First, we will discuss about verbs. The basic rule is that if
the second syllable of the verb contains a long vowel or
diphthong, or if it ends with more than one consonant, that
second syllable is stressed. For example:
apply /ə‟plaI/ attract /ə‟trækt/
arrive /ə‟raIv/ assist /ə‟sIst/
7
If the final syllable contains a short vowel and one (or no)
final consonant, the first syllable is stressed. Thus:
enter /‟entə/ open /‟əʊpən/

envy /‟envi/ equal /‟i:kwəl/
7
A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains əʊ as in bor-
row /‟bɒrəʊ/ and follow /‟fɒləʊ/. Most two syllable verbs that
| 63
Morphology
seem to be exceptions to the above might be interpreted as

being morphologically complex (e.g. permit /pə‟mIt/ = per
+ mit), or we could simply list all such verbs as expecta-
tions.
Two syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the

same rule, giving:
lovely /‟lΛvli/ divine /dI‟vaIn/
even /‟i:vn/ correct /kə‟rekt/
hollow /‟hɒləʊ/ alive /ə‟laIv/
As with most stress rules, there are exceptions, for exam-

ple honest /‟ɒnIst/ perfect /‟pз:fIkt/ or /‟pз:fekt/, both of
which end with two consonants but are stressed on the first
syllable.
31
 Second, nouns require a different rule: if the second sylla-
ble contains a short vowel the stress will usually come on
the first syllable. Otherwise, it will be on the second sylla-
ble. Thus:
money /‟mΛnI/ estate /I‟steIt/
product /‟prɒdΛkt/ balloon /bə‟lu:n/
larynx /‟lærIŋks/ design /dI‟zaIn/
Other two-syllable words such as adverbs and prepositions

seem to behave like verbs and adjectives.
64 |
b. Three-syllable words
7
 In verb, if the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends
with not more than one consonant, that syllable will be un-
stressed, and stress will be placed on the preceding syllable
as in encounter /In‟kaʊntə/ and determine /dI‟tз:mIn/.
7
If the final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or
ends with more than one consonant, the final syllable will
be stressed as in entertain /entə‟taIn/ and resurrect
/rezə‟rekt/
29
 Nouns require a different rule: if the final syllable contains a
short vowel əʊ, it is unstressed; if the syllable preceding
7
this final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong, or if it
ends with more than one consonant, that middle syllable
will be stressed. Thus:
Potato /pə‟teItəʊ/
Disaster /dIsa:stə/
Synopsis /sI‟nɒpsIs/
7
If the final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle
7
syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more
29
than one consonant, both final and middle syllable is un-
stressed and the first syllable is stressed as in quantity
/‟kwɒntItI/ and cinema /‟sInəmə/.
Those all rules above do not, of course, cover all English
words. They simply apply to major categories of lexical words
(noun, verb, adjective), not to function words such as articles and
prepositions. There is not enough space in this course to deal with
such function words. In addition, those words that were described
| 65
Morphology
were called simple words, not composed of more than one

grammatical unit (Roach, 1991:95). Thus, for example, the word
lonely is simple while loneliness is complex because it is com-
posed of two grammatical units. Complex words basically consist
of two major types. First, the words made of stem (the basic
word) with the addition of an affix and, second, compound words
made of two or occasionally more independent English words
such as ice-cream and arm-chair.
We will discuss about the first type of complex words, the
words which are made of stem and added by affixes; also called
affix words. Affixes basically consist of two sorts namely prefixes
and suffixes. The first term refers to affixes coming before the
stem. The second term refers to affixes coming after the stem.
Thus, the word unselfish consists of two affixes,un as a prefix and
ish as a suffix, and, of course,predict as a stem.
The second type, compound word, has the characteristic, that
is it can be analyzed into two words. Inother words, both of them
can exist independently as english words (Roach, 1991:98).
There are at least three ways in terms of writing this type. First,
sometimes they are written as one word, e.g. armchair and
sunflower. Second, sometimes with the words separated by a
hyphen as in fruit-cake. Lastly, with two words separated by a
space, e.g. desk lamp, battery charger, and so on. Following are
several rules in terms of stress placement of complex words cited
from Roach (1991:99) as shown below:
a. Compound words as a result of combining two nouns have
normally the stress in the first element as in:
66 |
Typewriter /‟taIpraItə/
Suitcase/‟sju:tkeIs/
Sunrise /‟sΛnraIz/
Tea-cup /ti:kΛp/
41
b. Compounds with ajectival first element and the –ed at the end
have this pattern, that is stressing in the second element:
Bad-„tempered
Half-„timbered
Heavy-„handed
c. Compounds in which the first element is a number in some
form also tend to have final stress as shown below:
Three-„wheeler
Second-„class
Five-„finger
41
d. Compounds functioning as adverbs are usually final-stressed:
Head-„first down-„stream
North-„east
41
e. Compounds which function as verbs have an adverbial first
element take final stress:
Down-„grade ill-„treat
Back-„pedal
| 67
Morphology
68 |
Chapter V
MORPHOLOGY
A PARTICULARstring of sound must be united with a meaning,

and a meaning must be united with specific sounds in order for
the sounds or the meaning to be a word in our mental dictiona-
ries (Fromkin, et.al, 2003:273). As previously mentioned above,
a phoneme is a single sound. A phoneme must be combined in
order to be meaningful. The branch of linguistics studying about
the combination of sounds (phonemes) in order to be meaningful
and have grammatical functions is called Morphology.
| 69
Morphology
According to Todd (1987:41), “Morphology is the study of

morphemes, which are the smallest significant units of grammar”.
Additionally Arnoff and Rees-Miller, quoted from the book entitled
A Handbook of Linguistics, defines that morphology is about the
structure of word. Richards and Schmidt (2002:342) stated that
morphology is the study of morphemes and their different forms
(allomorphs), and the way they combine in word formation.
A. Morpheme
All languages have words and in all languages some words, at
least, have an internal structure, and consist of one or more mor-
phemes. We can recognize that English word forms such as talks,
talker, talked and talking must consist of one element talk, and a
number of other elements such as -s, -er, -edand-ing. All these
elements are described as morphemes. The smallest meaningful
unit in a language is called as morpheme (Richards and Schmidt,
2002:341). According to Yule (2006:63) the definition of a mor-
pheme is “A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function”.
Units of grammatical function include forms used to indicate past
5
tense or plural, for example. Thus, the form cats comprises the
root morpheme “cat” to which is added the suffix morpheme “s”
indicating plural.
From the example above, we can indicate that there is a dis-
tinct dissimilarity between the “cat”, as a morpheme, and “s”, as
a morpheme as well. The word “cat” is a meaningful and inde-
pendent word. On the other hand, the morpheme “s” is only a
suffix which is able to be said as a meaningless dependent ele-
ment indicating plural. For further explanation about this distinc-
70 |
tion, it will be discussed in the following parts.
1. Free Morpheme
According to Yule (2006:63) “There are freemorphemes, that
17
is, morphemes that can stand by themselves as single words, for
example, open and tour”. It means that it can be meaningful as
an independent word. Additionally, this morpheme is divided into
two categories described as follows:
a. Lexical Morpheme
This morpheme is a set of ordinary noun, adjective, and
verb that we think of as the words that carry the „content‟ of
the messages we convey.
b. Functional Morpheme
This other type refers to morpheme which consists largely
of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions,
prepositions, articles and pronouns. It is known as “Closed
Class Words” as well because we almost never add new func-
tional morphemes to the language.
2. Bound Morpheme
Morphemes which can only occur as affixes are described as
Bound Morphemes (Todd, 1987:42). As affixes, they cannot
stand alone as meaningful unit, known as dependent element as
well. They are typically attached to another form (Yule, 2006:63).
In addition, free morphemes can generally be identified as the set
of separate English word forms such as basic nouns, adjectives,
verbs, etc. When they are used with bound morphemes attached,
the basic word forms are technically known as stems. For exam-
ple:
| 71
Morphology
Carelessness
Care -less -ness
Stem Suffix Suffix
(Free) (Bound) (Bound)
This morpheme is divided into two types as well presented as

follows:
a. Derivational Morphemes
Derivational Morphemes are morphemes which are able to
make a new word or change the grammatical category of
stem. For example, the attachment of the derivational mor-
pheme –less changes the noun speech to the adjective
speechless. A list of derivational morphemes will include suf-
fixes such as the –ishinfoolish, -lyinquickly, and the –
mentinpayment. The list will also include prefixes such as re-,
pre-, ex-, mis-, co-, un-, and many more (Yule, 2006:64).
b. Inflectional Morphemes
These morphemes are not used to produce new words in
the language, but rather to indicate aspects of the grammati-
cal function of a word. In other words, these are used to show
if a word is plural or singular, if it is past tense or not, and if it
is a comparative or possessive form (Yule, 2006:64).
72 |
This following figure shows the way to classify English mor-

phemes.
FIG. 5.1.2.1: Classification of English Morphemes

Source: Reprinted from Fromkin, et.al. (2003), Introduction to-
Language: Seventh Edition. Massachusetts: Wadsworth, Thomson
Corporation, p. 104
| 73
Syntax
74 |
Chapter VI
SYNTAX
SYNTAXis a branch of linguistics which study how words are

combined together to form sentences.Wekker and Haegeman
(1989) defined syntax as a study which attempt to:
a. determine the relevant component parts of a sentence
b. determine parts of the sentences grammatically
The components parts of a sentence are called constituents.

In other words, syntax involves the two closely related task of:
a. breaking down the sentence into its constituents.
b. assigning some grammatical label to each constituents, stating
what type of constituents it is, and what grammatical it has
c. understanding the position of each word will lead to the under-
standing of the meaning of the sentence
| 75
Syntax
From this definition we can conclude that the purpose of

doing syntax is to discover the way in which constituents are
combined to form the structure of sentence. The hierarchy of sen-
tence constituents can be shown in the following diagram:
SENTENCE CLAUSE PHRASE WORD MORPHEME
This diagram shows the hierarchical scale of constituents. It

means that sentence is the largest unit, and morpheme is the
smallest unit of syntax that cannot be broken down into its com-
ponents. The double pointing arrow indicating that it may be read
29
from left to right, of from right to left. The arrow pointing to the
right indicates that a sentence may consist of one or more than
one clause, a clause may consist of one or more than one phrase,
a phrase may consist of one or more than one word, and word
may consist of one or more than one morpheme. Conversely, the
arrows pointing to the left indicate that one or more than one
morpheme may constitute a word, one or more than one word
may form phrase, one or more than one phrase may form clause,
one or more than one clause may form sentence.
A. Deep and Surface Structure

Jacobs & Rosenbaum (1968: 17) stated that “the most impor-
tant fact of human languages is that all languages have both a
deep structure and a surface structure.” To superficially distinct
these two terms, this point it is illustrated in these following two
sentences below:
76 |
1. My brother broke the door.

2. The door was broken by my brother.
The two sentences above show that the first sentence is an
active sentence and the second sentence is passive. The meaning
of the first sentence is exactly the same as the meaning of the
second sentence. They are closely related and even identical. In
the sense that we can claim that the distinction between them is
laid in their surface structure. In other words, even though the
surface structures of the two sentences are different, they have
exactly the same deep structure. Thus, deep structure tells that
those two sentence is similar in meaning, but the surface struc-
ture tells that those sentences are distinct in form.
Contrary these examples above, two sentences which have
identical structure do not always derived from the same deep
structure. Consider this following illustration to comprehend this
point:
3. Marry works in the office.
4. Marry worked in the office.
According to Yule (1985: 82) the deep structure is an abstract
level of structural organization in which all the elements deter-
mining structural interpretation are represented. The surface
structure, on the other hand, is the syntactic form they take as
actual English sentences. Additionally, Jacobs & Rosenbaum
38
(1968: 18) state that the meaning of a sentence is conveyed by
its deep structure while the form of a sentence is given by its sur-
face structure. In other words, the deep structure represents the
meaning of the sentence; while the surface structure represents
the forms used in communication. In this case, the relationship
| 77
Syntax
between the deep structure and the surface structure can be seen
as:
TRANSFORMATION
DEEP STRUCTURE SURFACESTRUCTURE
Meaning Form used in communication

(Jacobs, et al. 1968:19)
A deep structure becomes a surface structure via transforma-

tions.
More importantly, Jacobs & Rosenbaum (1968: 26) state that
all languages contain transformations which transform deep
structure into surface structure. We can claim that these trans-
formations of all languages involve particular operations on con-
stituent structures. Additionally, they state that these operations
are called as elementary transformation operation which is di-
vided into three basic operations that can be used in the formula-
tion of a particular transformation, described as follows:
1. Adjunction
2. Substitution
3. Deletion.
The first kind of elementary transformation is a simple trans-
formation in English which makes the use of the adjunction oper-
ations is the contraction transformation. It is quite easy without
presenting tree diagram. Let us consider these following sen-
tences below:
a. You cannot enter into the classroom.
b. You can‟t enter into the classroom.
78 |
In this case, the first sentence is converted into the second sen-
tence. The constituent “not” is contracted and adjoined into the
constituent “can”, thereby generating the new single constituent
“can‟t”.
For Substitution elementary transformation, Jacobs & Rosen-
baum (1968: 27) provide illustration as follows:
a. It is difficult for me to concentrate on calculus
b. Calculus is difficult for me to concentrate on
In the second sentence, the noun phrase “calculus” is substituted
into the pronoun “it”. The constituent “calculus” which is as the
object of sentence (a) is transform as the subject in sentence (b).
For the third kind of elementary transformation, Jacobs &
Rosenbaum (1968: 27) provide illustration as follow:
a. Miriam wanted Paul to leave home
b. Miriam wanted Miriam to leave home
c. Miriam Wanted to leave home
In sentence (a) it is clear that Paul is the one who leaves home.
While the second sentence (b) it is also clearly mentioned that Mi-
riam, herself is the one who wanted to leave home. The third
sentence (c) Miriam is the one who wanted to leave home, even
though she is not explicitly mentioned after verb “wanted”, but it
suggests that the deep structure of the third (c) sentence con-
tains “Miriam” as the object of the sentence. There is a transfor-
mational deleting “Miriam” since “Miriam” has occurred as the
subject of “leave home”. According to Jacobs & Rosenbaum
(1968: 27) this phenomena is called identical noun phrase dele-
tion. This identity condition also applied to the Verb phrase which
is called as identical verb phrase deletion. Let us consider to this
| 79
Syntax
following sentences bellow:

a. Igor can play the violin, and that cat also can play the violin
too
b. Igor can play the violin, and that cat can too
For those sentences above, there is a process deletion of “play
the violin”. It occurs because there is identical verb phrase. It can
be concluded that both Igor and that can play the violin. In other
word, the first sentence (a) has the same meaning with the
second sentence (b).
B. Symbols used in Syntactic Descriptions

Before going to the symbols used in syntactic description, we
have to encounter the symbols and abbreviations for syntactic
30
categories described as follows:
S sentence NP noun phrase PN proper noun
N noun VP verb phrase Adv Adverb
V verb Adj Adjective Prep Preposition
Art article Pro Pronoun PP prepositional
phrase
Let‟s back to our main discussion. According to Yule

(2006:89), “There are three more symbols that are commonly
used in syntactic description”. These symbols to be discussed as
follows:
a. The first is in the form of an arrow→. It can be interpreted as
„consists of‟ or „rewrites as‟. It is typically used in the following
type of rule:
NPArtN
80 |
It can be said that the NP, such as the man, consists of an ar-
ticle “the” and a noun “man”.
b. The second symbol is a pair of round brackets ( ). It can be
said as an optional constituent occurring inside the bracket.
We can say that both of the cat and the black cat are the ex-
ample of category NP. We can decide whether we insert the
adjective black or not. It‟s an optional constituent in a gram-
matically well-formed noun phrase. This rule to be illustrated
as follows:
NPArt (Adj) N
c. The third symbol is in the form of curly brackets { } indicating
that only one of the elements enclosed within the curly brack-
ets must be selected. We use these types of brackets when we
want to indicate that there is a choice from two or more con-
stituents as illustrated as follows:
Art N
NP→ Pro NP→ Art N, Pro, PN
PN
It is important to remember that, although there are three

constituents inside these curly brackets, only one of them can
be selected on any occasion.
C. PS Rules
32
The categorical constituent structure of the sentence can be
represented in the form of a Phrase marker (Redford: 1996:109).
Phrase-structure rules are used to breakanaturallanguage sen-
tence down into its constituent parts (also known as syntactic
categories) namely phrasal categories and lexical categories
| 81
Syntax
53
(parts of speech). Phrasal categories include the noun phrase
(NP), verb phrase (VP), and prepositional phrase(PP), adverb
phrase (AdvP), Adjective Phrase (AdjP); lexical categories include
noun, verb, adjective, adverb, and many others. As quoted from
Yule (1985: 5) that we can create a set of simple phrase struc-
ture rules which can be used to generate a large number of Eng-
lish sentences:
1
S →NP VP
NP → {Art (Adj) N, Pro, PN}
VP →V NP (PP) (Adv)
PP →Prep NP
Wekker and Haegeman (1985: 35) classify phrases into five
phrases which are going to be presented in this following discus-
sion below:
1) Noun Phrase
Noun Phrase is a group of words which head of words is noun
or pronoun. The following phrase structure rule indicates the
possibilities that exist for the rewriting of the noun phrase:
Proper noun : Andy, Marry

N : Book, table
Pronoun : He, She, it
Det N : The book
NP
DetAdj N : a thick book
Det N S : a letter which I write
82 |
2) Verb Phrase
Verb Phrase is a group of words when the head is a verb with
modifier
V : read
V NP : Read the book
V AdjP : bring black bag
V PP : go to school
V AdvP : arrive soon
3) Prepositional Phrase
17
Prepositional Phrase is a group of words with preposition as a
head. Prepositional phrase can be expanded into prepositional
phrase by addition of complement.
P NP : on the road
PP
PAdjP : with beautiful lady
17
4) Adverb Phrase
Adverb Phrase is a group of words with adverb as a head.
Adverb : yesterday, Quickly

AdverbAdjP : Very beautiful
AdvP  : Quite different
| 83
Syntax
17
5) Adjective Phrase
Adjective Phrase is a group of words with adjective is a head.
Adjective : Young, old

Adjective PP : worried about future
AdjP 
D. IC Analysis
Immediate Constituents Analysis, also abbreviated as ICsA, is
such kind of technique analysis describing syntactic structure
based on each constituent in particular sentence. It needs to or-
32
ganize the words and break them down into the smaller unit. The
technique employed in this approach is designed to show how
small constituents (or components) in sentences go together to
form larger constituents. One basic step is determining how
words go together to form phrases level. Sentences are divided
into their principal parts or immediate constituents. Each of these
is then divided and subdivided until the ultimate constituents of
the sentence are reached.
Soeparno (2002:52) state that there are several models re-
lated to representing analysis of Immediate Constituent Analysis,
such as: Nida‟s model, Hockett‟s model, Nelson‟s model, Wells‟
model. Here are a few examples of various graphic representa-
tions of each model:
84 |
a) Nida‟s model
The snake killed the black rat
The arrow shows the head of a construction which is

modified by a modifier identified by the arrow. So, the
phrase “the snake” is one construction which consists of
snake as the head, and the as modifier. Likewise, the
other groups; they build a construction which consists
of several immediate constituents. All these construc-
tions make a complete utterance.
b) Hockett‟s model
The snake killed the black rat

The snake Black rat
c) Nelson‟s model
{[(The) (snake)] [(killed) [(the) [(black) (rat)] ] ] }
That is an analysis of sentence structure by marking off
each constituentfrom sentence level to word level by
giving brackets. The label bracket indicates what type of
constituent (grammatical category) is contained within
| 85
Syntax
the brackets. Indicating constituent by putting them in

the bracket is the most common and popular way of
graphic presentation. It is the easiest way to type and
write, but does not work very well in the larger unit. The
opening and closing bracket can get quite confusing.
d) Wells‟ model
The car arrived yesterday
This is also known as Box diagram. This is the way to

represent structure description by putting the sentence
in particular boxes using a systematic order. In the
boxes above, the largest box represents the whole units
in a sentence. The smaller boxes represent the NP sub-
ject and VP predicate. The smallest boxes indicate the
parts of NP and VP.
E. Bracketing, Labelled Bracketing and Tree Diagram

According to Herman Wekker andHaegeman (1985: 6-10)
there are at least three ways in representing sentence structure,
described as follows:
a. Bracketing
It is sentence structure which is represented by marking
86 |
off each constituent from sentence level to word level by

square brackets: [ ]. For example: The snake killed the rat.
That sentence above can be analyzed using bracketing
described as follows:
The snake killed the rat
b. Labelled Bracketing
In fact, the previous way to represent sentence structure
shows the weakness. It is difficult to see, for example, which
brackets go together to mark off the constituents. Therefore,
it can be improved by adding an appropriate grammatical
category to each pairs of square brackets. The label indicates
what type of constituent (grammatical category) is contained
within the brackets. This convention is called labelled bracket-
ing. The example is demonstrated as follows:

Det N V Adv.
NP VP
c. Tree Diagram
This analysis is probably visually the most attractive com-
prehensible way of representing the constituent structure. It
| 87
Syntax
has branches and nodes. It is a notational device which is en-

tirely equivalent to labelled bracketing. Although it looks dif-
ferent, it provides the same information about the syntactic
structure of a sentence. Let us consider this following exam-
ple:
S
NP VP
Det N V AdvP
Adv
The above tree diagram contains simple structure of a

sentence. You may have given some additional terminologies.
For example, S in the diagram is a symbol for sentence. Sen-
tence is expanded as NP (Noun Phrase) –VP (Verb Phrase).
The verb phrase, in this sentence, is expanded as Verb and
Adverbial Phrase. Furthermore down the tree, Noun Phrase
may again be expanded as both Det (Determiner) and N
(Noun): the car. Following table summarizes the tree dia-
gram.
88 |
Symbols Symbolize Word (s)

S sentence
Art article The
Det determiner The
NP Noun Phrase The car
VP Verb Phrase arrived yesterday
AdvP Adverbial Phrase yesterday
Adv Adverb yesterday
Note:
You may use both [art] to show article, or [det] to explain
that the word determines noun, and thus it is a noun deter-
miner.
When you have to write the symbol of adverb you can just
write [adv], however,you have to be aware that sometime an
adverbial phrase needs more explanation since an adverb
may contain adverb of time, adverb of place, adverb of man-
ner, etc.
| 89
Semantics
90 |
Chapter VII
SEMANTICS
LANGUAGE has been considered as a conventional system for

communication, a system for conveying message. In order to ac-
complish language as a conventional system for communication,
the word is to have certain meaning. The study of the linguistic
meaning of morphemes, words, phrases, and sentences is called
semantics (Fromkin, et.al, 2003:173). In the line with this, Yule
(2006:100) states that semantics is the study of the meaning of
words, phrase, and sentence. In addition, semantics itself has two
4
subfields. They are lexical semantics, which is concerned with the
meaning of words, and sentential semantics, which is concerned
with the meaning of syntactic units larger than the word.
| 91
Semantics
A. Conceptual Meaning
Conceptual meaning covers those basic, essential compo-
nents of meaning that are conveyed by the literal use of a word
(Yule, 2006:100). Let‟s imagine one word, for example the
“Blood”. When we imagine this word, we automatically think
about its component or its literal definition such as: redliquid
flowing through our body. The meaning of this word is regarded
the central meaning of the word itself or can be said as the core
meaning of lexical item. In other words, conceptual meaning re-
fers to the basic meaning of a linguistic expression as well
(Bussmann, 1996:289).
B. Associative Meaning
In contrast to conceptual meaning, associative meaning refers
to the total of all the meanings a person thinks of when they hear
the word (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:606). In addition, these
meanings show people‟s emotions and attitudes towards what the
word or phrase refers to. The word “Blood” evokes our thought to
think about the other meanings such as: suffering, tragic, war,
oreven life. It is based on the cultural or social background, sex,
or age, personal experiences, or level of education.
C. Semantic Roles
In order to understand the linguistic meaning of the sentence,
we have to know not only about the syntactic function of noun
phrase but also about the semantic relations. It is necessary to
know because syntactic functions provide only an incomplete ac-
count of the necessary semantic interpretation. Let‟s consider
92 |
these following examples:
1. The soldier takes my mother‟s life.

2. The sword takes my mother‟s life.
In (1), the soldier is a subject. In (2), the sword is a subject
as well. If we describe these sentences only with such syntac-
tic function, we will miss an important aspect of meaning. In
semantic roles, the subject in sentence (1) is called agent. It
5
refers to the “doer” of the action. In contrast to the subject in
sentence (1), the sword, as a subject in sentence (2), is not
the “doer” of the action. It is only the instrument for the
agent to accomplish his action (Clark, et.al.p.414). Let us
consider the following sentence below.
3. The soldier takes my mother‟s life with the sword.

In this sentence above, the soldier is the “doer” of the action,
known as the agent, but the sword is now the object of pre-
position. It remains the instrument. Notice that the noun
phrase, such as the sword, has several syntactic functions
(subject, direct object, object of preposition). In semantic re-
lations, it is only as the instrument or theme. The last seman-
tic relation to be discussed further with the other semantic re-
lation called experiencer.
Yule (2006: 102) state that theme, also known as Patient, re-
fers to the entity that is involved in or affected by the action. Let
us consider the following sentence.
| 93
Semantics
The boy kicked the ball.
In this case, the NP the boy is an agent, the doer of the action.
Then, the ball (NP) is called theme or patient because it is af-
fected by the action done by the agent.
The other semantic relation is called experiencer which refers

to a noun phrase which is used to designate an entity as the per-
son who has the feeling, perception or state (Yule, 2006: 103).
For example, Ahmed heard Zakia playing piano. In this case,
Ahmed is the one receiving the sensory input because of hearing
piano played by Zakia.
The next semantic relations are location, source and goal. Lo-
cation is defined as the place where the action happens. Source
refers to the place from which the action originates. Goal refers to
the place to which an action directed (Fromkin, et.al, 2003:192-
193). Let us consider these following sentences below.
1. It rains in Spain. (Location)
2. He flew from Surabaya toBali. (Source)
3. Put the cat on the porch. (Goal)
4. It rained heavily all day.
5. It rained hard today.
6. It rained the whole day today.
94 |
Chapter VIII
DISCOURSE ANALYSIS
A. Cohesion
Before we concentrate on cohesion, let us consider several
definitions about discourse analysis taken from several sources
presented as follows:
10
1. Discourse analysis deals with how we make sense of what we
read, how we can recognize well-constructed texts as op-
posed to those that are jumbled or incoherent, how we un-
derstand speakers who communicate more than they say,
and how we successfully take part in that complex activity
called conversation (Yule, 2006:124). In addition, the analysis
of discourse is typically concerned with the study of language
in text and conversation.
| 95
Discourse Analysis
43
2. Discourse analysis is the study of how sentences in spoken
and written language form larger meaningful units such as
paragraphs, conversations, interviews, etc. (Richards &
Schmidt, 2002:161).
46
3. Discourse analysis is the analysis of language as it is used to
enact activities, perspectives, and identities (Gee, 1999:4).
According to Yule‟s definition about discourse analysis, we can

conclude that the discourse analysis unquestionably works with
text and conversation in order to understand their contexts.
There are organizational pattern of ideas and information found in
a text. In other words, there is a particular rule considered in
writing text, known as cohesion.
35
Cohesion itself defines as the grammatical and/or lexical rela-
tionships between the different elements of a text. This may be
the relationship between different sentences or between different
parts of a sentence (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:86). Let us con-
sider to the text provided by Eric Nelson quoted from Yule
(2006:125).
My Town
20
My natal was in a small town, very close to Riyadh capital
of Saudi Arabia. The distant between my town and Riyadh 7
miles exactly.The name of this Almasani that means in Eng-
lish Factories. It takes this name from the people‟scarrier.
20
In my childhood I remember the people live. It was very
simple. Most the people was farmer.
The text above contains of ungrammatical forms. We arrived
96 |
to the assumption that although the text is served in ungrammat-

ical forms, we try to make sense of it. To interpret this text, we
have to rely on what we know about linguistic form and structure.
Basically, we are able to understand about what the writer means
by texts as the realization of his or her communicative purposes.
Let‟s now consider the following second text quoted from Yule
(2006:125).
My father once bought a Lincoln convertible. He did it by
saving every penny he could. That car would be worth a
fortune nowadays. However, he sold it to help pay for my
college education. Sometimes I think I‟d rather have the
convertible.
As stated by Yule (2006:125-126) that there are connections

present here in the use of words to maintain reference to the
same people and things throughout: father – he – he – he; my –
my – I; Lincoln – it. There are connections between phrases such
as: a Lincolnconvertible – that car – the convertible. There are
more general connections created by a number of terms that
share a common element of meaning, such as „money‟ (bought –
saving – penny – worth a fortune – sold – pay) and „time‟ (once –
nowadays – sometimes). There is also a connector (However)
that marks the relationship of what follows to what went before.
The verb tenses in the first four sentences are all in the past,
creating a connection between those events, and a different time
is indicated by the present tense of the final sentence.
We are therefore able to conclude that there are the gram-
matical or lexical relationships between different sentences or be-
| 97
Discourse Analysis
tween different parts of a sentence in second text. As a result,

the second text is cohesively constructed.
B. Coherence
To provide a distinct explanation about coherence, I will give
the following dialog as an illustration.
Fathi : Let‟s go to the movie.

Akmal : Sorry, I‟ll have a test tomorrow.
Fathi : OK.
From the dialog above, we can see that there is certainly no

grammatical or lexical link between Fathi‟s invitation and Akmal‟s
answer but both of them are able to arrive at the same interpre-
tation and successfully make a sense about the context of situa-
tion. Although, it has no relationship in terms of lexical or gram-
matical, as in the previous discussion, the dialog above has the
relationships which link the meanings of UTTERANCES in a DIS-
COURSE or of the sentences in a text, known as coherence (Ri-
chards & Schmidt, 2002:85). In addition, in written texts cohe-
40
rence refers to the way a text makes sense to the readers
through the organization of its content, and the relevance and
clarity of its concepts and ideas.
98 |
Chapter IX
LANGUAGE AND THE BRAIN
A. Neurolinguistics
Chomsky in his Language and Mind (1972a) proposed that
language is a mirror of mind. As a mirror of mind, it reflects our
thought in terms of producing and processing the language (Rad-
ford, 1983). It is explained that humans have the innate ability to
use language which involves the brain as the processor, nowhere
else. It is no doubt that brain able to process everything around
us, we call inputs. After processing these inputs, humans are able
to produce the utterances or written language as the reflection of
their intellectual activity in their mind.
| 99
Language and The Brain
36
Interdisciplinary field concerned with the study of language
processing and representation of language in the brain is called
neurolinguistics (Bussmann, 1996:796). Richards & Schmidt
(2002) defined that neurolinguistics is the study of the function
the brain performs in language learning and language use. It in-
cludes research into how the structure of the brain influences lan-
guage learning, how and in which parts of the brain language is
stored and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use lan-
guage.
From those definitions above, it is concluded that there is a
logical relationship between language and the brain. Linguistics as
Yule (2006) proposed has an interdisciplinary subfield studying
about the relationship between language and the brain which is
called neurolinguistics. In addition, Trask (1999:134) stated
that neurolinguistics is the study of the connections between lan-
guage and brain.
5
The study of the relation between language and brain was
begun in the mid-nineteenth century by the Frenchman Paul Bro-
ca and the German Carl Wernicke (Trask, 1999:134). What they
did was to study and characterize the aphasia(disturbed lan-
guage) of people who had suffered brain damage, and then, after
the sufferers‟ deaths, to conduct post-mortem examinations in
order to find out which areas of the brain had been damaged. As
quoted from Yule (2006:142) “Aphasiais defined as an impair-
ment of language function due to localized brain damage that
leads to difficulty in understanding and/or producing linguistic
forms”. In addition, the classification of different types of aphasia
is usually based on the primary symptoms of someone having dif-
100 |
ficulties with language presented as follows.
1. Broca’s Aphasia
Broca‟s Aphasia is characterized by a substantially reduced
amount of speech, distorted articulation and slow, often ef-
fortful speech. What is said often consists almost entirely of
lexical morphemes (e.g. nouns, verbs). The frequent omission
56
of functional morphemes (e.g. articles, prepositions) and in-
56
flections (e.g. plural -s, past tense -ed) has led to the charac-
terization of this type of aphasic speech as „agrammatic‟. In
agrammaticspeech, the grammatical markers are missing
(Yule, 2012: p. 162). Further Yule provided an example, I
eggs and eat and drink coffee breakfast.InBroca‟s aphasia,
comprehension is typically much better than production.
2. Wernicke’s Aphasia
The other type of language disorder that results in difficulties
in auditory comprehension is known as Wernicke‟s Aphasia,
but sometime it is called “sensory aphasia”. Someone suffer-
ing from this disorder can actually produce very fluent speech
which is, however, often difficult to make sense of. Very gen-
eral terms are used, even in response to specific requests for
information, as in this example: I can‟t talk all of the things I
do, and part of the part I can go alright, but I can‟t tell from
the other people. To overcome their word-finding difficulties,
speakers use different strategies such as trying to describe
objects or talking about their purpose, as in the thing to put
cigarettes in (for „ashtray‟).
| 101
3. Conduction Aphasia
This type of aphasia has been associated with damage to the
arcuate fasciculus. Individuals suffering from this disorder
sometimes mispronounce words, but typically do not have ar-
ticulation problems. They are fluent, but may have disrupted
rhythm because of pauses and hesitations. Comprehension of
spoken words is normally good. However, the task of repeat-
ing a word or phrase (spoken by someone else) creates major
difficulty, with forms such as vaysseandfoshbeing reported as
attempted repetitions of the words „base‟ and „wash‟. What
the speaker hears and understands can‟t be transferred very
successfully to the speech production area.
Similar to the previous definition about aphasia, Richards &

25
Schmidt (2002:28) state, “Aphasiaisloss of the ability to use and
understand language, usually caused by damage to the brain”. It
25
may be total or partial, and may affect spoken and/or written
language ability.
Furthermore, Richards & Schmidt (2002:28) state that Apha-
sia is divided into four types described as follows:
25
1. Agraphia(difficulty in writing)
2. Alexia (difficulty in reading)
3. Anomia (difficulty in using proper nouns)
4. Agrammatism(difficulty in using grammatical words like
prepositions, articles, etc.)
B. Where is language localized in the brain?

In the mid-twentieth century, the American neurologist Nor-
102 |
man Geschwind elaborated the view of the brain as consisting of

a number of specialized components with connections between
them, and he also provided the basis of our modern classification
of the several languageareasin the brain and of the types of
aphasia resulting from damage to each (Trask, 1999:135). It is to
be illustrated in the following figure:
FIG. 9.2.1: The language areas in the brain

17
Source: Reprinted from Yule (2006), The Study of Language,
Third Edition,NY: Cambridge University Press, p. 138.
| 103
The part shown as (1) in the illustration is technically de-

6
scribed as the „anterior speech cortex‟ or, more usually, as Bro-
6
ca’s area (Yule, 2006:139). Paul Broca, a French surgeon, re-
ported in the 1860s that damage to this specific part of the brain
was related to extreme difficulty in producing speech. It was
noted that damage to the corresponding area on the right hemis-
phere had no such effect. This finding was first used to argue that
language ability must be located in the left hemisphere and since
then has been treated as an indication that Broca‟s area is cru-
cially involved in the production of speech.
5
Similar to Yule, Trask (1999:98) state that Broca‟s area is lo-
cated close to the temple. It is responsible for providing the ne-
cessary grammatical structure, including grammatical words and
affixes; in speech, it also controls intonation and the fine muscu-
lar movements of the speech organs.
6
The part shown as (2) in the illustration is the „posterior
speech cortex‟, or Wernicke’s area (Yule, 2006:139). Carl Wer-
nicke was a German doctor who, in the 1870s, reported that
damage to this part of the brain was found among patients who
had speech comprehension difficulties. This finding confirmed the
left hemisphere location of language ability and led to the view
that Wernicke‟s area is part of the brain crucially involved in the
understanding of speech. In the same line, Trask (1999:98) state
that Wernicke‟s areais located behind and above the ear. It is re-
sponsible for comprehension and also for access to ordinary vo-
cabulary in speaking.
According to Yule (2006:139), “The part shown as (3) in the
illustration is the motor cortex, an area that generally controls
104 |
movement of the muscles (for moving hands, feet, arms, etc.)”.

It controls the articulatory muscles of the face, jaw, tongue and
larynx. Wilder Penfield and LaMar Roberts, neurosurgeons at
Montreal Neurological Institute, claim that by applying small
amounts of electrical current to specific areas of the brain, they
could identify those areas where the electrical stimulation would
interfere with normal speech production. In addition, they are
able to conclude that three areas of left hemisphere are vital to
speech and language: Broca’s area, Wernicke’s area, and
motor cortex (Akmajian, et.al., 2001:530).
The last part shown as (4) in the illustration is a bundle of
nerve fibers called the arcuate fasciculus. This was also one
ofWernicke‟s discoveries and is now known to form a crucial con-
nection between Wernicke‟s and Broca‟s areas (Yule, 2006:139).
6
Similar to Yule, Trask (1999:98) also state that since Wernicke‟s
area is close to the part of the brain which processes auditory in-
put, and since Broca‟s area is close to the area controlling muscu-
lar movements, we require only one further link to make sense of
the whole arrangement. This link, the arcuate fasciculus, was
found long ago. It consists of a J-shaped bundle of fibers connect-
ing Wernicke‟s area to Broca‟s area.
| 105
106 |
Chapter X
FIRST LANGUAGE ACQUISITION
ONE of the properties of language is cultural transmission mean-

ing that the language a child is acquired in a particular language-
using environment (Yule, 2006:149). It is not genetically inhe-
rited as like the animals. Language development occurs in all
children with normal brain function, regardless of race, cultures,
or general intelligence (Akmajian, et.al., 2001:477). It means
that all of children have the capacity to acquire language.
| 107
First Language Acquisition
Language acquisition is defined as the learning and develop-

ment of a person‟s language (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:284).
Similarly, Trask (1999:93) defines that language acquisition is the
process by which a child acquires its mother tongue. In addition,
according to Bussmann (1996:629), “From 1950 to 1980 re-
search brought forth four main hypotheses regarding first lan-
guage acquisition presented in the following discussions”.
A. The Behavioristic Hypothesis

According to Richards & Schmidt, (2002:49), “Behaviourism
is a theory of psychology which states that human and animal
behavior can and should be studied only in terms of physical
processes, without reference to mind. It led to theories of learn-
ing which explained how an external event (a stimulus) caused a
change in the behaviour of an individual (a response), based on a
history of reinforcement. Furthermore, this first hypothesis is
called stimulus-response theory as well. It is a learning theory as-
sociated particularly with the American psychologist B.F. Skinner
(1904–90), which describes learning as the formation of associa-
tions between responses. A stimulusis what produces a change or
reaction in an individual or organism.A responseis the behaviour
which is produced as a reaction to a stimulus (Richards &
Schmidt, 2002:514).
Based on the explanation above, we can conclude that this
first hypothesis traces language-learning processes back to expe-
rience, imitation, and selective conditioning. Behavioural psychol-
52
ogists believe that people are conditioned to learn many forms of
behaviour, including language, through the process of training or
108 |
conditioning, and that learning consists of stimulus-response con-

nections (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:105).
In sum, Behaviorist psychologists have claimed that language
is learned through the mechanism of reinforcing the contingent
association between stimulus and response. According to this
view, children learn language because they are positively rein-
forced when they produce correct verbal expressions, negatively
reinforced when they make errors (Guasti, 2002:12). In other
words, Behaviorists believed that language is a product of expe-
rience.
B. The Nativistic Hypothesis

According to Bussmann (1996:629), “This second hypothesis
arises from Chomsky‟s criticism of Skinner and according to which
language acquisition is considered to be a more or less autonom-
ous process of maturation based on an inborn mechanism of lan-
guage acquisition. According to this nativist view, acquisition re-
sults from the interaction between inborn factors and the envi-
ronment (Guasti, 2002:18). This hypothesis places emphasis on
65
the development of linguistic competence and performance”.
According to Chomsky (1965:4),”Competence [is] the speak-
51
er-hearer‟s knowledge of his language and performance [is] the
actual use of language in concrete situations”. Similarly, Richards
19
& Schmidt (2002:93-94,392) state that competence is the implicit
system of rules that constitutes a person‟s knowledge of a lan-
guage. This includes a person‟s ability to create and understand
sentences, including sentences they have never heard before,
knowledge of what are and what are not sentences of a particular
| 109
language, and the ability to recognize ambiguous and deviant

sentences. Further, performance is a person‟s actual use of lan-
guage.
This second hypothesis is called as Innateness Hypothesis as
well. It is a theory held by some philosophers and linguists which
says that human knowledge develops from structures, processes,
and “ideas” which are in the mind at birth (i.e. are innate), rather
than from the environment, and that these are responsible for the
basic structure of language and how it is learned (Richards &
Schmidt, 2002:260). In other words, all of human beings have
the innate capacity for language. Chomsky countered that Beha-
viorist psychologists‟ claim had to be wrong because children
were able to produce linguistic structures that they could not pos-
sibly have encountered through everyday experience, the notion
of poverty of stimulus (Meyer, 2009:16).
As the reflection about this theory of language acquisition,
Chomsky postulated the notion namely UniversalGrammar(UG).
It is a theory which claims to account for the grammatical compe-
tence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks.
It means that every speaker knows a set of principleswhich apply
to all languages and also a set of parameters that can vary from
one language to another, but only within certain limits. According
to this theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles
of UG grammar to a particular language (Richards & Schmidt,
2002:570).
As explained above, we are able to conclude that in acquiring
language all normal children imitate adult‟s speech as a result of
interaction between their inborn factors and their environment.
110 |
They are able to adopt a lot of vocabulary from adults. Hence,

they are to produce many expressions. Unquestionably, the
process of imitating speech sound from adults involves their lan-
guage competence and performance (to actualize their knowledge
of language in concrete situation). As a result, they are able to
produce strings of words in phrases or sentences, known as Tele-
graphic Speech. Then, they arrive at the stage of developing
morphology, syntax, forming questions and negatives, and devel-
oping semantics (Yule, 2006:155-158).
Furthermore, children learn language by imitating what adults
say, by trying to repeat what they hear. Children continually pro-
duce novel utterances, in two senses. For one thing, they hear a
finite number of sentences, but they come to be able to produce
and understand indefinitely many sentences, including vast num-
bers they have never heard and therefore cannot be imitating.
For another thing, children produce utterances that they cannot
have heard before, because the adult speakers in their environ-
ment do not produce them (Guasti, 2002:11).
In addition, Guasti, Thornton, and Wexler (1995) in Guasti
(2002:11) have found that English-speaking children aged 4-5
years produce negative questions as shown in the following illu-
stration:
1. What does he doesn‟t eat?
2. Why not you eating?
3. Why could he couldn‟t wash his hands?
As illustrated, they basically do this because they are at-
tempting to discover the “rules” operating in their language, rules
that may vary from one language to another. It additionally
| 111
shows that children have their own set of rules. They do not learn
language by simply imitating adults. As a result, those facts point
toward the conclusion that imitation does not play a crucial role in
language acquisition (Guasti, 2002:12).
C. The Cognition Hypothesis

This hypothesis takes into account the relationship between
the developing cognitive and intellectual abilities (Bussmann,
1996:629). Cognitive is defined as the various mental processes
used in thinking, remembering, perceiving, recognizing, classify-
ing, etc. (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:82). In addition, they add
that there is a “stage theory of development”, also known as cog-
nitive development, which is developed by Piaget. He proposed
that such development consists of four major stages, labelled:
a) Sensorimotor Stage(birth to 2 years). The child‟s cognitive
system is limited to motor reflexes at birth.
b) Preoperational Stage(2 to 7 or 7 years). Children acquire
representational skills and especially language.
c) Concrete Operational Stage(6/7 to 11/12). Children are
able to understand concrete problems and take multiple
perspectives into account.
d) Formal Operational Stage(11/12 to adult). At this stage
children are capable of logical, theoretical, and abstract
cognitive operations.
D. The Social Constitution Hypothesis

This hypothesis gives priority to the importance of the child‟s
socialization and interaction (Bussmann, 1996:629). In this hypo-
112 |
thesis, the child‟s desire for experience and communication with

others provides the principal impetus for the development of lin-
guistic abilities.
| 113
Language and Society
114 |
12
Chapter XI
LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
A. Sociolinguistics
As stated in the first chapter, language is humans‟ characte-
ristic differentiating them from the other creatures. People use it
as a means to communicate to one another and make social inte-
raction among them. When we are studying about language, in-
deed, we are studying society. In other words, studying about
language involves society as language users.
Linguists are extremely interested in studying language as
social phenomenon. Indeed, it cannot be separated from numer-
ous social aspects influencing the language itself. The subfield of
linguistics studying about language as social product in relation to
| 115
the society is called sociolinguistics. Following are definitions

about sociolinguistics quoted from several sources.
23
1. Sociolinguistics [is] the study of language and society (Finch,
1998:106).
2. Scientific discipline developed from the cooperation of linguis-
tics and sociology that investigates the social meaning of the
language system and of language use, and the common set
of conditions of linguistic and social structure (Bussmann,
1996:1089).
23
3. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to social
factors that is social class, educational level and type of edu-
cation, age, sex, ethnic origin, etc. (Richards & Schmidt,
2002:494).
4. Sociolinguistics is the empirical study of how language is used
in society (Arnoff and Rees-Miller, 2001, [2003]:563).
5
5. Sociolinguistics is the branch of linguistics which studies the
relation between language and society (Trask, 1999:187).
48
6. The study of the linguistic features that have social relevance
for participants in those speech communities is called „soci-
olinguistics‟ (Yule, 2006:205).
As previously discussed, there are so many factors influencing
our language. Finch (1998:201) lists them as consideration for us
that might affect our language described as follows:
a. Social Class
1
This factor includes educations, parental background, and
profession. These all have an effect in someone‟s pronuncia-
1
tion and choice of words as well.
b. Social Context
116 |
It refers to the environment in which meanings are ex-

changed (Richards& Schmidt, 2002:49). It affects our speech
in various environments such as formal and informal situa-
tion.
c. Geographical Origins
1
In this factor, someone still preserve some features of region-
al accent.
d. Ethnicity
1
Someone will use language in ways that a non-native speaker
wouldn‟t.
e. Nationality
As a native inhabitant of Britain, for example, someone will
1
speak differently from an American or Australian.
f. Gender
Male and female have different pitch (intonation pattern). Our
voice quality affects our language use.
g. Age
It affects our language use in terms of diction, pronunciation,
and manner of expression.
14
B. Sociolinguistics and the Sociology of Language
In Wardhaugh (2006:13), some investigators introduced the
distinction between sociolinguistics, called as micro-
14
sociolinguistics, and the sociology of language (macro-
sociolinguistics). The first term concerns with investigating the re-
lationships between language and society with the goal being a
61
better understanding of the structure of language and of how lan-
guages function in communication. On the other hand, the second
| 117
term is trying to discover how social structure can be better un-

derstood through the study of language.
Similarly, Richards & Schmidt (2002:494) state that micro-
sociolinguistics includes the detailed study of interpersonal com-
munication (speech acts, conversation analysis, speech events,
and sequencing of utterances). Macro-sociolinguistics includes in-
50
vestigations which relate variation in the language used by a
group of people to social factors.
In addition, Coulmas (1997) in Wardhaugh (2006:13) state
14
that micro-sociolinguistics investigates how social structure influ-
ences the way people talk and how language varieties and pat-
terns of use correlate with social attributes such as class, sex,
and age. Macro-sociolinguistics, on the other hand, studies what
societies do with their languages, that is, attitudes and attach-
ments that account for the functional distribution of speech forms
in society, language shift, maintenance, and replacement, the de-
limitation and interaction of speech communities.
From those definitions above, we can conclude that sociolin-
23
guistics is the study of language in relation to the society. The
63
Sociology of Language, on the other hand, is the study of society
in relation to language.
C. Language Variations
Nowadays language variations become an interesting topic to
investigate. This variety can be said as the result of humans‟ inte-
ractions with other universals characteristic of human societies in
their entire aspect of life.
Hudson (1996, p. 22) and Ferguson (1972, p. 30) in Ward-
118 |
12
28
haugh (2006:25)agree in defining variety in terms of a specific
set of „linguistic items‟ or „human speech patterns‟ (presumably,
sounds, words, grammatical features, etc.) which we can unique-
ly associate with some external factor (presumably, a geographi-
cal area or a social group).This definition allows us to say that all
of the following are varieties: Canadian English, London English,
the English of football commentaries, and so on.
Moreover, Richards & Schmidt (2002:577) state that lan-
guage variations refer to the differences in pronunciation, gram-
mar, or word choice within a language. Variation in a language
may be related to region, to social class and/or educational back-
ground or to the degree of formality of a situation in which lan-
guage is used. These numerous social aspects which relates to
the language variations are going to be explained in the following
discussions.
1. Dialect
18
It is defined as a variety of a language, spoken in one part of
a country (regional dialect), or by people belonging to a par-
ticular social class (social dialect or sociolect), which is differ-
ent in some words, grammar, and/or pronunciation from oth-
er forms of the same language (Richards & Schmidt,
2002:155).
2. Accent
18
It refers to a particular way of speaking which tells the listen-
er something about the speaker‟s background (Richards &
Schmidt, 2002:3). In British usage, the term dialect includes
only features of grammar and vocabulary, while features of
pronunciation are treated under the quite different heading of
| 119
accent. In American usage, an accent is usually considered

to be just one part of a dialect (Trask, 1999:50).
3. Style
33
It is a variation in a person‟s speech or writing. Style usually
varies from casual to formal according to the type of situa-
tion, the person or persons addressed, the location, the topic
discussed, etc. (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:522).
4. Register
36
Richards & Schmidt (2002:452) define register as a speech
variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing
the same occupation (e.g. doctors, lawyers) or the same in-
terests (e.g. stamp collectors, baseball fans).
5. Diglossia
16
Two languages or language varieties exist side by side in a
community and each one is used for different purposes; this
16
is called diglossia (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:158). Usually,
one is a more standard variety called the High variety or H-
16
variety, which is used in government, the media, education,
and for religious services. The other one is usually a non-
prestige variety called the Low-variety or L-variety, which
is used in the family, with friends, when shopping, etc.
6. Slang
It is very informal speech, using expressive but informal
words and expressions (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:490). It is
used for a very informal speech variety which often serves as
an “in-group” language for a particular set of people such as
teenagers, army recruits, pop groups, etc.
7. Lingua franca
120 |
Richards & Schmidt (2002:309) state that lingua franca is a

language that is used for communication between different
groups of people, each speaking a different language. The lin-
gua franca could be an internationally used language of com-
munication (e.g. English).
8. Pidgin and Creole
13
According to Richards & Schmidt (2002:401), “Pidgin is a lan-
guage which develops as a contact language when groups
of people who speak different languages try to communicate
with one another on a regular basis.” For example, this has
occurred many times in the past when foreign traders had to
communicate with the local population or groups of workers
from different language backgrounds on plantations or in fac-
tories. A pidgin usually has a limited vocabulary and a re-
duced grammatical structure which may expand when a pid-
gin is used over a long period and for many purposes.
64
Creole is defined as a pidgin language which has become the
native language of a group of speakers, being used for all or
many of their daily communicative needs. Usually, the sentence
structures and vocabulary range of a creole are far more complex
than those of a pidgin language (Richards & Schmidt, 2002:132).
D. Standard Language
Based on the explanation above, we can arrive at an assump-
tion that language must be standardized. Standardization refers
to the process by which a language has been codified in some
way. That process usually involves the development of such
| 121
things as grammars, spelling books, and dictionaries, and possi-

bly a literature (Wardhaugh, 2006:33). According to Richards &
Schmidt (2002:510), “Standardization is the process of making
some aspect of language usage conforms to a standard variety.
This may take place in connection with the writing system or the
spelling system of a particular language and is usually imple-
mented by a government authority.” For example, a standardized
system has been introduced in Malaysia and Indonesia, which
provides a common standard for the spelling of Malay and Indo-
nesian, which are both varieties of the same language.
Indonesian Malay Meaning
Old Spelling Tjantik Tjantek Pretty,
New Spelling Cantik Cantek Good looking
Old Spelling Burung Burong
New Spelling Burung Burung Bird
Moreover, because language functions as the public means of

communication, it is subject to extensive normalization (especial-
ly in the realm of grammar, pronunciation, and spelling), which is
controlled and passed on via the public media and institutions,
but above all through the school systems. Command of the stan-
dard language is the goal of formal language instruction (Buss-
mann, 1996:1117).
According to Richards & Schmidt (2002:509) standard lan-
guage is the variety of a language which has the highest status in
a community or nation and which is usually based on the speech
and writing of educated native speakers of the language. A stan-
dard variety is generally:
122 |
a. used in the news media and in literature,

b. described in dictionaries and grammars, and
47
c. taught in schools and taught to non-native speakers when
they learn the language as a foreign language.
| 123
References
124 |
REFERENCES
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Transformational Syntax. London: The MIT Press.
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ford: Blackwell Publishers.
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Program: Reflections upon Decision Made.International
Journal of Doctoral Studies, 1(1).
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Students‟ Handbook. Edinburgh:
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5
London & NY: Routledge.
Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspect of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Clark, V.P., Eschholz, P.A. & Rosa, A.F. 1994. Language, 15
Intro-
ductory Readings. Fifth edition. New York: St. Martin‟s Press.
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Edition. UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Finch, G. (1998). How to Study Linguistics. NY: Palgrave Macmil-
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lan.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2003). An introduction to
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Language.SeventhEdition.Boston: Wadsworth.
Gee, J.P. (1999). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis: Theory
and Method. London & NY. Routledge.
Guasti, M.T.
38
(2002). Language Acquisition.The Growth of Gram-
mar. Massachusetts: The MIT Press.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1994). An Introduction to Functional Gram-
mar.Second Edition. NY: Routledge.
Halliday, M.A.K. (2002). On Grammar. NY: Continuum.
Hornby, A S. (1995).Oxford Advance Learner Dictionary of Cur-
59
rent English.Fifth Edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Jacobs, R.A. &Rosenboum, P.S. (1968). English Transformational
Grammar. Toronto: Xerox Collage Publishing.
Jakobson, Roman. (1987). Language in Literature. Massachu-
setts: The Belknap Press, HUP
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References
McMahon, A. (2002).26An Introduction to English Phonology. Edin-

burgh. Edinburgh University Press.
Meyer, C.F. (2009). Introducing English Linguistics. UK: Cam-
3
bridge University Press.
Ogden, R. (2009). An Introduction to English Phonetics. Edin-
burgh. Edinburgh University Press.
Poole, S.C. (1999). An Introduction to Linguistics. UK: Macmillan
Publishers Ltd.
Radford, A. (1996). Transformational Grammar, a First Course.
44
Britain. Cambridge University Press.
Richards, J.C. & Schmidt, R. (2002). Dictionary of Language
Teaching and Applied Linguistics. ThirdEdition. London &
Edinburgh.Pearson Education Limited.
Roach, P. (1991).English Phonetics and Phonology. Second Edi-
tion. UK: Cambridge University Press.
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Phrase of Selected Sentence in Some Headline Section ar-
ticles of the Jakarta Post. Unpublished Thesis.Jember: Jember
30
University.
Soeparno.(2002). Dasar-Dasar Linguistik Umum. Yogyakarta: PT.
1
Tiara Wacana Yogya.
Todd, L. (1987). An Introduction to Linguistics. London: Longman
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Trask, R.L. (1999). Key Concepts in Language and Linguis-
1
tics.London: Routledge.
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60
Wekker, H & Haegeman, L. (1989). A modern course in English
23
Syntax. NY: Routledge.
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Fifth
8
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Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language.Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Yule, G. (2012). The Study of Language. Fourth Edition. UK:
Cambridge University Press.
126 |
CURRICULUM VITAE
Moch. Imam Machfudi was born in a small village in the

district of Mojokerto, East Java. His father was a farmer who
also came from farmer family. His primary and secondary
studies have been spent in Mojokerto. He moved to Jember
in 1989 to pursue his bachelor degree in English literature in
a Faculty called Fakultas Sastra at Jember University. When
doing his bachelor he stayed in an Islamic boarding house
for about four years, and he learned religious teaching
besides studying literature. He focused on studying about
American literature by analyzing Mark Twain’s novel The
Adventures of Heckleberry Finn where he finds that the slavery is central topic or
theme in the novel. His study finds that slavery is not in accordance with the principle
of humanity. He brought about Islamic teaching as the basis for his conceptual
framework of his study and that made him awarded a bachelor degree in 1994.
His passion is on linguistics study and when he had the opportunity to get a masters
degree he took the linguistics study on literature, his master’s thesis analysed William
Butler Yeats’ poems from linguistics perspective. He got his master degree after
finishing his thesis entitled “Syntactic analysis and semantic interpretation of William
Butler Yeat’s poems: a linguistic approach to literature”. He finished his study in
2006.
62
In 2012, he got scholarship from the ministry of religious affairs of Republic Indonesia
to do his Ph.D abroad. He was accepted at the Faculty of Education, University of
Southern Queensland, Australia. In USQ he studied at the School of Linguistics, Adult
and Specialist Education supervised by a principal supervisor Dr. Ann Dashwood and
associate supervisor Associate Professor Dr. Robyn Henderson, Ph.D. In this school,
he focused on Teacher Professional Development and submitted his thesis in June
2016. He got his result and completely finished after quite a long struggle doing
revisions and finally got his Ph.D in February 2017.
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In a class of Introduction to Linguisticsyears ago I met a

REFERENCES ........................................................ 125

what language may mean. The definitions were taken from

and development. In this definition, language refers to a specif-

Pomorska (1987) when commented on Roman Jakob-

Studying the origins of language and human commu-

Analysing human language in terms of theoretical lin-

As explained above, we needto clarify that when we

3. The Properties of Language

Human is not only the creature which was capable of

not able to produce calls“There are two hunters shooting

ningful elements”. In addition, Richards and Schmidt

Likewise, Arabic letter, such as “‫”ي‬, must be com-

quently, they can only express a tiny number of different

4. Language and Its Functions

We use language as a system of communication for

hammer we need particular ways to express our anger:

Because of the limitation of our mind to memor-

Additionally, there is Long-Term Record as well.

As explained in the previous discussion, Allah

special gift for human, as messenger to the earth khali-

For the possible analogy is that many scientists

As previously explained, human has a god‟s gift

Moreover, a large majority of our thinking is

when it stops thinking, it means that we are sleeping or

This function is able to be said as the primary

Furthermore, there are of course variety reasons

To cope with this problem, two linguistics philo-

According to Richards and Schmidt (2002)

Furthermore, when I say to you I am thirsty, it

well stating that aperlocutionary act is the results or ef-

In addition, Searle (1979) in Meyer (2009, p.50)

It is speech act describing an assertion, a claim,

a) Labako dance is a pop art originated from

b) People all grow up to die.

c) The warriors are willing to give their life for

a) Why don‟t you ask a question to the kids

a) I will write your last will and testament

a) I do apologize if I say something wrong.

c) Very thanks to you Jim for taking me

There are so many kinds of delight which we can

Let us consider the following headline: Yogyakar-

With the numerous of the micro function ex-

energy, involves activities in which we are prioritizing the

c. The Poetic Function

In addition to those macro functions, conceptua-