The Illyrian Coastal Exploration Program

The Illyrian Coastal Exploration Program (2010-14):
The Roman and Late-Roman Finds
Jeffrey G. Royal
Abstract
This article is a report of the field work from previously unexplored areas of the ancient Illyrian coast
conducted with the host government agencies of Albania, Montenegro, and Croatia. Maritime archaeology
along the Illyrian coast continues to bring forth new finds for addressing ongoing archaeological questions.
This report presents an overview of finds along with detailed data presented for the benefit of archaeologists.
It is hoped the following site reports and associated data will benefit archaeologists working in the region
and prevent the sequestration of data from archaeolgical field work. A synthesis of this data into the wider
corpus of regional finds is slated for a later publication.
All rights reserved 2018, ©Jeffrey G. Royal

All information herein can be used freely for academic, educational, and other scholarly purposes.
Working citation: Royal, J., 2018. “The Illyrian Coastal Exploration Program (2010-14): The Roman
and Late-Roman Finds.” Indpendently published.
The Illyrian Coastal Exploration Program (2010-14): The Roman and Late-Roman Finds
Introduction Methodology Overview

The eastern Adriatic’s littoral zone remains largely Adetailed presentation of the methodology employed
unexplored. Direct archaeological evidence for for the remote-sensing survey, site recording, artifact
overseas shipping and shipping routes in the collection and recording, and dive survey is outlined
eastern Adriatic primarily consist of shallow-water in earlier publications.4 In summary, a multibeam
shipwreck sites and harbor finds in Croatia, most sonar survey out to the 100-m contour was carried
through diver investigation.1 The coastal waters out to create three-dimensional bathymetric maps
of Albania and Montenegro have received little of the seafloor. Unique to the 2014 field season
archaeological investigation. The Illyrian Coastal was the use of an autonomous underwater vehicle
Exploration Program (ICEP) was conceived by (AUV) and a sector-scanner sonar.5 The AUV
the author to address this deficit in data through was equipped with a side-scan sonar unit6 that
a systematic investigation of the maritime provided excellent coverage for site detection, later
archaeological record along these coastlines to verified with a remotely operated vehicle (ROV).
identify, study, and protect submerged cultural Good visibility conditions during the recording of
heritage.2 Conducted through three separate research wrecksites allowed the identification of the majority
projects in Albania, Montenegro and Croatia, ICEP’s of amphoras in exposed layers. In cases where
fundamental goal was to document wrecksites and sediment was sufficiently deep, amphoras from the
other finds from all eras.3 Establishing a dataset of lowest levels were often buried upright with their
submerged cultural heritage is the first phase for neck-handle-rims protruding through the seafloor
each governments’ cultural resource management such that identification was possible. Excavation of
efforts to develop protection and mitigation sites throughout the Mediterranean has confirmed
schemes. cultural resource management efforts that in many instances the representative amphoras
to develop protection and mitigation schemes. It carrying the cargo consignment are observable
is also an imperative that information derived in during initial examination. Several previously
fieldwork reach the wider scholarly community – discovered and published sites were revisited and
this is a core principle of the greater archaeological documented, which included sites MN09-AD (Boka
discipline. Thus it is the greatest obligation for a Kotorska 1 wreck) and MN09-AE (Boka Kotorska
scholar that fieldwork be presented. 2 wreck). The sector scanner was deployed on
1
See for examples Jurišić 2000; Čelhar 2008; Borzić 2009; Perkić 2009.
2
Royal 2010, 2012 and 2013.
3
Each survey project was Co-Directed by the author. The Albanian Coastal Survey during the years of this report, 2011-14, was
a joint project between the Albanian Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport, the Ministry of Defense, and the Albanian
Institute of Archaeology represented by Co-Directors Dr. A. Anastasi and Dr. L. Perzitka, along with RPM Nautical Foundation
(RPM). The subsequent year, 2015, was omitted from this report as no Albanian government or university archaeological
representative was included in the project under objections by the author. Particular appreciation goes to Dr. Anastasi who
worked year-round to protect endangered sites before his removal by officials. Joint participants in the Montenegro Coastal
Survey were the Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of
Montenegro – Cetinje represented by Co-Director Dr. D. Gazivoda, the Regional Center for Underwater De-Mining (RCUD)
and RPM. Cooperative parties for the Croatian Coastal Survey were the Croatian Ministry of Culture, the International Centre
for Underwater Archaeology in Zadar (ICUA) represented by Co-Director L. Bekić) and RPM. All survey information and
images in this report were provided to the relevant government institutes and Co-Directors noted above at the end of each field
season. Support for both survey and site investigation has come from an association with the Program in Maritime Studies at
East Carolina University from which MA candidates have conducted research projects.
4
Royal 2010, 2012 and 2013. Expertise particular to these projects were technicians and personnel provided by Highland
GeoSolutions and the Program in Maritime Studies at East Carolina University.
5
Sector scanner unit model Kongsberg MS-1000 was loaned courtesy of Florida Keys Community College. This system
consists of a sonar unit hung from a gimbaled tripod that transmits a narrow, high frequency (675 KHz) beam in a 360° sweep.
6
The AUV was an Ocean Server Technologies model IVER 2, loaned courtesy of Florida Keys Community College, fitted with
a Klien L3 UUV-3500 side scan, dual-frequency (455 and 900 kHz) sonar.
1
Jeffrey G. Royal
confirmed wrecksites to map the overall extent typically 7-10 km offshore except where operations
of the site, particularly where marine growth and met the territorial waters of Greece (fig. 1); however,
suspended sediment resulted in poor visibility the 100-m contour lies within 2 km offshore from
and hindered video recording. Site dimensions Porto Palermo to Vlore. Consequently, the coverage
were derived from the sonar data with their height area moving north was much less expansive such
assessments augmented by ROV instrumentation. that the potential number of archaeological sites
Dive survey was relegated to the southern Albanian encountered was limited. Survey in Montenegro
coast, between the Greek border and Porto Palermo. began at the entrance to Boka Kotorska near
Limited dive investigation was also conducted on to the Croatian border, south of the Prevlaka
shallow sites in Croatia by ICUA archaeologists. peninsula, where a large sediment delta emanates
When possible, representative artifact examples and dissipates several kilometers to the south. By
were raised to the surface for direct examination 2014 the survey had reached the northwest sector
in order to confirm identifications, make detailed of Budvanski Zaliv to a point roughly parallel with
recording and measurements, photographic St. Nikola island and extended up to 7 km offshore.
recording, and in some cases take samples for fabric Survey along the Croatian coast began in 2012 near
analysis. All recovered artifacts were recorded in the the Montenegrin border, close to Cape Ostra, and
field and either delivered to appropriate authorities reached a point near Dubrovnik (fig. 1). The seafloor
for conservation, or tagged and re-deposited at their drops off along this stretch of coast whereby the
find locations. 100-km contour is located 4-5 km offshore.
Survey Area and Finds Results from the 2010-14 ICEP field seasons
The survey area during the 2007-09 seasons in include 21 modern-era wrecksites, one each
Albania reached the 100-m contour that was from the Renaissance and Byzantine eras, and
Fig. 1. Map of the Illyrian coast with approximate survey areas and site locations.,
2
12 wrecksites that date to the ancient period. For the coasts, its growing popularity provides an example
12 ancient-era wrecksites, 9 fall within the Roman- of dangers to sites similarly known in other areas
Late Roman period (Appendix 1, table 1).7 The two of the Mediterranean. Many of the sites in Albania
Roman-era wrecksites located in Croatia during are also impacted by non-archaeologists who dive
2014 were published earlier with the Byzantine on the wrecks as part of unsupervised fund-raising
and Renaissance-era wrecksites;8 likewise, and biological tours. As a result the integrity of
information about the Joni wrecksite in Albania wrecksites and individual finds in shallow, coastal
was published in a conference preceding.9 A brief waters are being severely damaged; the Joni
summary of these three wrecksites are included wrecksite discussed below provides an example of
in order to provide a complete dataset to scholars. this impact. It is therefore important to address the
Measurement for each of the amphoras collected management of submerged cultural resources in the
from the sites is provided in Appendix 1, table face of recreational development and inappropriate
2. Many of the wrecksites have suffered human site interactions.
impact such as looting by divers and near-shore
construction at shallow wrecksites, particularly in Wrecksite: AB11-AB, Sason 1
Albania where it has been communicated to the A merchantman sank while apparently intact and
auther that Albanian archaeologists are excluded fully loaded in Vlorë Bay, just off the east side
from their study or oversight. Impacts from drag- of Sezan Island. Its remaining amphora mound is
net fishing were evident at deeper sites throughout partly buried and owes its presumed undisturbed
all areas. Although sport diving was less prevalent preservation at the time of discovery to a location
in earlier years along the Albanian and Montenegrin within a military protection zone. Thick sediment
7
Wrecksites dating to the Greek era will be presented in a separate report.
8
Bekić and Royal 2016.
9
Royal 2015.
Fig 2. The Sason 1 wrecksite. Image layout by J. Royal; image credits: the Albanian Ministry of
Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport, the Albanian Ministry of Defense, the Albanian Institute of
Archaeology, and RPM.
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Jeffrey G. Royal
Fig 3. Collected amphoras from six wrecksites, and one image of an amphora in situ. Artifact images taken,
and image layout, by J. Royal; image of the in situ amphora on the Cape Kupari wreck by L. Bekić; image
credits: the Albanian Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport, the Albanian Ministry of Defense, the
Albanian Institute of Archaeology, the Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for
Conservation and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje, the Croatian Ministry of Culture, the International
Centre for Underwater Archaeology in Zadar, and RPM.
deposits from the Vjosa River produced a soft, 2011 (fig. 3): two intact amphoras (AB11AB-0001,
muddy seafloor around Sezan Island and Vlorë 0003), an upper portion of an amphora beginning
Bay that results in poor visibility. This suspended at the shoulder (AB11AB-0002), and a molded lid
seditment discouraged divers prior to discovery and (AB11AB-0004). The following year a fragment
limited marine growth on the amphoras even at a (AB11AB-0010) of a broken amphora at the center
shallow depth. The amphoras’ orientations were of the site was collected for petrologic analysis
generally upright and indicate the vessel settled on (Appendix 2). Amphora forms, petrologic analysis
its bottom. At least four layers of amphoras were results and dating for this and the following
discernible; the lowest protruded from the seafloor wrecksites carrying Lamboglia 2/Dressel 6A type
with their upright rim-handle portions visible. amphoras are discussed together below.
Hence, the site extends at least another meter into
the seabed (fig. 2). Given the soft-sediment around Wrecksite: MN11-AF, Budvanski Zaliv 2
the wrecksite there are likely significant amounts The Budvanski Zaliv 2 wreck is a slightly disturbed
of hull remains preserved beneath the amphoras. mound of type Lamboglia 2 amphoras that appears
All of the amphoras observed on the site were of largely intact (fig. 4). Amphoras remained stacked
type Lamboglia 2; the majority were intact or with in numerous sectors of the wrecksite, many sitting
only slight damage, and many had their lids still in upright below the surface such that their mouths
place. Although a sector scan was not possible for and necks protruded through the seabed; again
this site, diver investigation provided an estimate the wrecksite may reach another meter into the
of its dimensions. Four artifacts were raised in sediment where hull timbers are likely preserved.
4
Fallen amphoras lie in the same orientation with (fig. 6). There are indications of slight drag net
their mouths pointing downslope to the southwest. impacts visible in the sector-scan images (fig. 5).
The sector scanner revealed a mound of 18.0 Amphoras were stacked two to three layers above
x 5.5 m in a north-south orientation with clear the seafloor in several sectors of the site and leaned
drag marks from fishing activity all around (fig. downslope. Numerous amphora mouths and necks
5). Buried amphoras at the edges of the mound protruding from the seabed indicated another layer
suggest the overall wrecksite is larger. It appears of amphoras below the surface, pointing to a larger
this merchantman came to rest intact on its overall site than the visible mound. Likewise,
bottom, almost perpendicular to the seafloor slope, there are likely hull remains trapped beneath
where it naturally listed downslope; after the hull the buried amphoras. The site formation implies
decomposed, amphoras stacked in the hold leaned this merchantman sank intact and fully-loaded
in the now observed downslope orientation. As all where it settled on its bottom before it naturally
of the amphoras observed are of type Lamboglia 2, listed downslope. An unidentified stone(?) object
a single example (MN11AF-0001) was raised from protruded from the amphora mound at the eastern
the southwest sector of the site in 2011, while in 2012
sector of the site (an anchor stock?); however,
a rim-neck-handle fragment (fig. 3, MN11AF-0010) removal would require extensive excavation. A
was collected from the northern end of the wrecksite single amphora (MN11AG-0001) was raised from
for petrologic analysis (Appendix 2). the east side of the site in 2011, and two additional
samples were collected in 2012 for petrologic
Wrecksite: MN11-AG, Budvanski Zaliv 3 analysis: a body sherd from a broken amphora
Similar to the nearby previous wrecksite, the (MN11AG-0010) located at the eastern end of the
Budvanski Zaliv 3 wreck is also a slightly disturbed site, and an intact amphora (fig. 3, MN11AG-0011)
mound of mostly intact type Lamboglia 2 amphoras from western end of the wrecksite.
Fig 4. The Budvanski Zaliv 2 wrecksite. Image layout by J. Fig 6. The Budvanski Zaliv 3 wrecksite. Image layout
Royal; image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, by J. Royal; image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry of
Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation and
of Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM. Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM.
5
Jeffrey G. Royal
Fig 5. Sector-scan sonar images of wrecksites. Image editing/ layout by J. Royal; image credits by respective country: the Albanian
Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport, the Albanian Ministry of Defense, the Albanian Institute of Archaeology, the
Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje, the
Croatian Ministry of Culture, the International Centre for Underwater Archaeology in Zadar, and RPM.
6
Wrecksites: CR14-AC, Cape Pelegrin and CR14- pattern. Two amphoras were raised for examination:
AE, Cape Kupari a rim-neck-handle portion (fig. 3, CR14AC-0001)
The Cape Pelegrin and Cape Kupari wrecksites and an intact amphora (fig. 3, CR14AC-0002), each
were presented in an earlier publication,10 but are taken to ICUA facilities for conservation.
included here to complete the dataset of wrecks
carrying Lamboglia 2 and Dressel 6A amphoras. Located closer to shore on a sloping muddy bottom,
In brief, the Cape Pelegrin wreck consists of an the Cape Kupari wreck presents an unusual site
amphora mound of two layers on the surface and comprised of amphoras covered with numerous
at least one other layer buried (fig. 7). A sector small stones, the latter of which were adhered to one
scan revealed an irregular ovoid-shaped site that is another by heavy marine growth (fig. 8). Although
surrounded by numerous small objects nestled into rocks and marine growth largely obscured the
the sediment up to a distance of 20 m (fig. 5). The amphoras, all observed were consistent in their size,
few small objects investigated were broken amphora shape, and features. The only amphora type noted
fragments. Many of the uppermost amphoras were is that of type Lamboglia 2 in both the video and
covered in heavy marine growth, and all observed diver investigation by ICUA archaeologists (fig. 3).
were of type Dressel 6A except for one that is An explanation for the stones atop the site is likely
provisionally identified as type Brindisi.11 Light supplied by a metal ‘door’ lying beside the site that
dredging on one side of the site where sediment belongs to drag-fishing gear, and a fishing net caught
cover was shallow revealed a consistent stacking at the down-slope end of the wrecksite. A working
10
11
Brindisi type amphoras are extremely common along the Dalmatian coast circulating during the late second – late 1st c.
B.C.E. and have a variety of forms, some partially matching this amphora (see Manacorda 1995 and 2001; Palazzo 1994;
Palazzo and Silvestrini 2001).
Fig 7. The Cape Pelegrin wrecksite. Image layout by J. Fig 8. The Cape Kupari wrecksite. Image layout by
Royal; image credits: the Croatian Ministry of Culture, the J. Royal; image credits: the Croatian Ministry of
International Centre for Underwater Archaeology in Zadar, Culture, the International Centre for Underwater
and RPM. Archaeology in Zadar, and RPM.
7
Jeffrey G. Royal
hypothesis is that a drag net dredged up rock-mud the neck join and transition into a relatively straight
debris before hanging up on this amphora mound run to the shoulder join. This suite of morphological
(fig. 5), where it then dumped the material atop the features indicates an early transitional phase, which
wrecksite and was cut loose. It is unlikely the ship dates the Sason 1 and Cape Kupari wrecksites to
inverted such that the stones present are ballast as the first half of the 1st c. B.C.E. Amphoras from
fully-laden amphora carriers did not require large the Boka Kotorska 2 wrecksite have a maximum
amounts of stone ballast. Further investigation of diameter lower in their bodies, with handles that
the site is necessary with dive operations due to the are nearly round in cross-sections and longer toes;
dense and concreted nature of the stones. however, their rims are decidedly triangular (fig. 3).
This mixture of features also denotes them as the
Lamboglia 2/Dressel 6A amphoras Lamboglia 2 transitional form, but suggests a later
The bodies of the type Lamboglia 2 amphoras from date for the wrecksite closer to the third quarter of
the Sason 1 and Cape Kupari wrecksites have a the 1st c. B.C.E. Amphoras from the Cape Pelegrin
bulbous ovoid shape with their maximum diameter wrecksite feature squared rims, handles nearly
nearer mid-body such that they appear slightly rounded in cross-section, a maximum diameter
piriform in shape (fig. 3). Their rims are triangular situated at their bases that forms distinct piriform
and toes somewhat short, and their handle cross- bodies and relatively long toes (fig. 3). These are
sectional shapes are only slightly ovoid. Amphoras features of a fully developed type Dressel 6A that
from the Sason 1 and Boka Kotorska 2 wrecks, suggest an operational date for the wreck at the
like those from the c. 100-B.C.E. Cavalière wreck, end of the 1st c. B.C.E./ first half of the 1st c. C.E.
share a slightly constricted central neck and a Petrologic analyses of sampled amphoras indicates
an eastern Adriatic origin (see Appendix 2).
handle profile whereby they angle downward from
Fig 9. The Traste 1 wrecksite. Image layout by J. Royal; image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport
and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM.
8
Wrecksite: MN10-AC, Traste 1 two variants; note the NH/BH, NH/MH and BH/
The Traste 1 wreck was a merchantman that sank MH coefficient values. Even without volumetric
some 5 km offshore, south of the Boka Kotorska measures,13 it is evident that variant A carried more
inlet. Investigation revealed Rhodian-type product than variants B and C, and variant C carried
amphoras on the uppermost layers covered in heavy much less than either variants A and B. Based on
marine growth (fig. 9); no other cargo or amphora variants’ A and B’s more typical morphologies they
types were noted in the visual survey. This heavy likely carried the well-attested Rhodian wine.14 The
marine growth limited visual inspection; however, larger handle-neck-rim in proportion to variant C’s
the sector scanner recorded an irregularly shaped small body size is possibly due to it containing a
deposit of approximately 15 x 8 m on the surface,
while the sonar backscatter data (fig. 9b) revealed
that the site continues beneath the surface to form a
regular ovoid deposit of approximately 23 x 13 m
(fig. 9a). An estimated size of this vessel is around
25 x 9 m. Present on the site were three variant forms
of Rhodian amphoras. An example of each variant
was raised in 2010 (fig. 10); their dimensions are
provided in Appendix 1. Each variant example
exhibits the well-attested general diagnostic
features of the Rhodian type in the later stage of
their development: horned handles in profile with a
round cross-section, generally tapered bodies, long
cylindrical necks and beaded rims.12 This places the
vessel’s operational period around the end of the 1st Fig 10. Rhodain amphora variants A, B, and C (l-r) from the
to the mid-2nd c. C.E. Traste 1 wrecksite. Photos and image layout by J. Royal;
image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport
In order to facilitate discussion here, the three and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of
Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM.
Rhodian forms are designated as variants A, B, and
C: raised example MN10AC-0001 is variant A, relatively more expensive commodity. A
MN10AC -0002 variant B and MN10AC -0003 foundational reasoning is that smaller quantities of
variant C. Several shape indices were calculated an expensive commodity are affordable to
based on their measurements for a comparative consumers; consequently, a commodity with a high
analysis (Appendix 1, table 3). Variants A and B unit cost was packaged in a smaller container for
have nearly equivalent maximum heights and are purchase. However, variant C has a large rim and
only slightly taller than variant C, yet there are neck that provides generous access in relation to its
significant differences in each variants’ diameters narrow body; an unnecessary, unwieldy and
and body shapes. Bodies of variant A are fatter unprecedented form through which to pour a small
compared to the other two variants, while variant C amount of wine or other liquid. Alternatively,
has an appreciably narrower body (see coefficients accessing non-liquid commodities such as fruits
BD/BH and BD/MH in table 2). Although variant C would necessitate this wide access. Fruit
has a much narrower body, its neck, handles, and commodities were carried in Rhodian amphoras,
rim are similar in overall dimensions to the other such as figs on the Dramont D wreck,15 and similarly
large-mouthed, narrow-bodied carrot amphoras
12
Peacock and Williams 1991, 102; Caravale and Toffoletti 1997, 164.
13
Heavy growth, particularly on the inner walls, did not permit this analysis.
14
Fraser 1972, 162-71; Bezeczky 2005.
15
Joncheray 1974, 31-3.
9
Jeffrey G. Royal
Fig 11. The Krekavica 2 wrecksite. Image layout by J. Royal; Fig 12. The Traste 2 wrecksite. Image layout by J.
image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport Royal; image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry of
and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation
Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM. and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM.
may point towards a variety of exported goods

from Egypt likely carried dates.16 Admittedly it is
also possible that stylistic factors underlie thefrom the island carried in this type. Along with the
other 30 published wrecksites in the Mediterranean
variants’ designs. It is also possible manufacturing
with Rhodian type amphoras as cargo containers,17
efficiency was an additional factor whereby potters
of various workshops made the upper portions of 5 sites reported various forms of the type present:
Rhodian-type amphoras separately, and relatively the Traste 1 wreck, the Akandia A wreck from
Rhodes,18 the Julio-Claudian 1 wreck from the
consistent in dimension, regardless of the intended
volume of the bodies’ design. In the end, these Rhodian Straits,19 and the Mlin Reef wreck in
Croatia,20 and the Hellenistic-era Grand Congloué
factors are not mutually exclusive, but the author
favors a commodity-driven explanation for variantwreck at Marseille.21 A reexamination of other
C’s form. wrecksites may result in this differentiation within
the Rhodian type having been overlooked. In any
The growing dataset of wrecksites carrying goods case, the spectrum of goods exported from Rhodes
in Rhodian amphoras provides insight into the were vital to its exchange economy and appear
nature of the commodities shipped and challenges more varied than typically argued.
the ubiquitous assumption of wine as the sole
product. The various forms of Rhodian amphoras Wrecksite: MN11-AH, Krekavica 2
on the Traste 1 wreck, as with other wrecksites, Little is discernable of this site other than a disturbed
16
Carreras Monfort and Williams 2002.
17
Parker 1992; Jurišić 2000; Royal 2006, 211-16; Royal 2008, 90-3; Dugonjić 2015. Wrecksites with individual examples or a
few as part of ship’s stores were not included.
18
Nikolitsis 1981, 45-7.
19
Royal 2006, 214-6.
20
Cambi 1989, 323-5.
21
Benoit 1954, 38.
10
mound with a scattered deposit of amphoras and concentration of Greco-Italic amphoras in a section
sherds that are mostly buried in the thick, soft of the site where one was collected (fig 13,
sediment (fig. 11). The mound is distinct in both MN10AD-0001); this was the only amphora type
the bathymetry data and the sector-scanner sonar noted on the site. The collected example has a
recording: an approximately 15 x 7 m irregular globular body, flared rim, ovoid handles in cross-
ovoid shape. Sector-scan imagery reveals drag nets section and a small knobbed base. These features
have impacted the site, with buried material left are characteristic of Greco-Italic form I, the earliest
in place (fig. 5). Although visibility was poor for form of this type, which circulated between the end
comprehensive visual investigation due to depth of the 5th – late 4th c. B.C.E. Although there are
and suspended sediment, two Rhodian amphoras few published examples,22 similar amphoras were
were identifiable. Both had forms suggesting an noted from the Parco del Cavallo at Sibari on the
Imperial-era date of possibly in the 1st - 2nd c. C.E. Ionian coast of Calabria.23 The mouth of the example
The amphoras’ bodies were not completely visible; from the Traste 2 wreck is somewhat ovoid in shape
therefore it was not possible to determine if the and slightly pinched where the handles attach, a
different variants A-C were present as on the Traste characteristic noted on form I by Vandermersch.24 It
1 wreck. Another small amphora type observed is notable that there is a slight pinching at the handle
remained unidentified due to heavy marine growth, attachments on Corinthian B amphoras of the same
but was not a Rhodian type. An existence of cargo era, possibly indicating a source of influence for the
other than the amphoras beneath the sediment, Greco-Italic type in its earliest stage.25
if any, remains unknown. Although observations
about the Krekavica 2 merchantman are limited, it
carried commodities in Rhodian amphoras mixed
within its cargo consignment as compared to the
homogeneous Rhodian type found on the Traste 1
wreck.
Wrecksite: MN10-AD, Traste 2

Numerous, slightly buried amphoras within a
mound mark the Traste 2 wrecksite (fig. 12). A
sector scanner survey shows the moderate-sized
wrecksite is ovoid in shape and suffered drag-net
impacts (fig. 5). Investigation of this disorganized
site revealed several exposed concentrations of
amphoras, both intact and damaged, with numerous
sherds scattered around the mound. It is clear drag
nets have dislodged and damaged amphoras from
the uppermost layer, which accounts in some part Fig 13. Greco-Italic amphora from the Traste 2 wrecksite.
Photo and image layout by J. Royal; image credits: the
for the relatively light marine growth on the exposed
Montenegrin Ministry of Culture, Sport and Media, the Center
artifacts. However, damage of partially buried for Conservation and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje,
layers does not appear extensive and those buried and RPM.
within the mound doubtless remain protected.
Investigation in 2010 located an exposed
22
Type MGS I in Vandermersch 1994, 59-64; Caravale and Toffoletti 1997, 84-5.
23
Vari 1970, inv. no. 16467, fig. 586.
24
Vandermersch 1994, 61-4.
25
Whereas this pinching became more pronounced on Corinthian B amphoras, it disappeared in later forms of Greco-Italic
amphoras.
11
Jeffrey G. Royal
Fig 14. The Krekavica 1 wrecksite. Image layout by J. Royal; image credits: the Montenegrin Ministry
of Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje,
and RPM.
Wrecksite: MN10-AF, Krekavica 1

Discovered in 2010 and revisited in 2012 this
wrecksite is a low mound covered with intact and
slightly damaged amphoras, with sherds scattered
on its surface (fig. 14). Numerous upper portions of
amphoras protrude out of the mound that suggests
the deposit extends at least a meter into the mud-
sand substrate. A sector-scanner image shows a
rectilinear site shape with few discernable drag
scars in the vicinity (fig. 5); however, it is possible
the site extends slightly beyond the mound along its
long axis. Although it is difficult to assign a typology
to fragments, those sufficiently intact were all type
African 3. Five broken amphoras were collected
(fig. 15),26 three of which had samples taken for
fabric analysis (Appendix 2). For the four fragments
with diagnostic features, they exhibited
characteristics consistent with African 3 sub-types
B and C.27 Because many of the amphoras were
broken or buried, it is not possible to conclusively
eliminate the presence of sub-type A on the site. Fig 15. Amphoras from the Krekavica 2 wrecksite. Photos
Fabric analyses of sub-type B amphoras showed a and image layout by J. Royal; the Montenegrin Ministry of
Culture, Sport and Media, the Center for Conservation and
reddish-brown paste associated of Tunisian origin, Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje, and RPM.
26
Artifact MN10AF-0001 was taken in 2010 from the north end of the wrecksite; artifacts MN10AF-0010, -0011 were taken
from the south-southeastern portion of the site in 2012; artifacts MN10AF-0012, -0013 were collected at the north-northwestern
sector of the wrecksite in 2012.
27
Manacorda 1977, 171-9; Bonifay 2004, 119-22; for Keay type 25 see Keay 1984, 184-212; Bonifay 2004, 119-22.
12
and the fabrics of the two sub-type C examples have examination was not permitted during the initial
a similar provenance (Appendix 2). Given the 2009 investigation. Thus, artifact recordings were
made in situ, and an initial report was presented in
circulation date of the 4th c. C.E. for sub-type B and
the second half of the 4th – first half of the 5th c.a previous publication.29 Permission was obtained
C.E. for sub-type C African 3 amphoras,28 the in 2012 from the Albanian Ministry of Tourism,
suggested operational period for this vessel falls inCulture, Youth and Sport through the Albanian
the second half of the 4th c. C.E., with a cargo Institute of Archaeology for a research team of
predominantly carried in African 3 types signifying Master’s students from Program in Maritime
a voyage that likely originated in Tunisia. Studies at East Carolina University to raise and
examine artifacts on the surface, after which
Wrecksite: AB09-AA, Joni they were replaced on site. The team tagged,
Follow-up site investigations included the Joni photographed, mapped and measured in situ a
wrecksite, a moderate-sized intact amphora mound large number of the amphoras, retrieved several
lying in shallow water (fig. 16). Due to a lack of artifacts for recording and fabric samples and made
facilities to conserve maritime archaeological several small sondages to ascertain the wrecksite’s
material in Albania, artifacts retrieval for surface extent beneath the seafloor. Recording produced a
3-D digital model of the site (fig. 17) as part of a
28
Bonifay 2004, 122.
29
Royal 2012, 416-21.
Fig 16. The Joni wrecksite. Photos by D. Smith, G. Stratton, and J. Royal. Image layout by
J. Royal; image credits: the Albanian Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport, the
Albanian Ministry of Defense, the Albanian Institute of Archaeology, and RPM.
13
Jeffrey G. Royal
completed MA thesis.30 This merchantman was an that were approximately 45 cm in maximum height
estimated 25 m in length and carried a primary cargoand had globular bodies. Their everted rims widen to
of wine and/or fish products shipped within three a diameter of approximately 11 cm and their bowed
variants (A-C) of type African 3 amphoras;31 these handles have an ovoid cross-section. Fabric analysis
comprised an estimated 90-95% of the transport of three examples indicates the light-red fabric with
containers on the wrecksite.32 Most of the African darker, brownish surfaces had an Aegean production
3 amphoras were intact and arranged in at least area (Appendix 2). Workshops produced LRA2
three stacked layers, with those in the lowest layeramphoras from Knidos,35 Chios36 and Kounoupi in
extending at an angle out of the sand. Excavation the Argolid.37 It was initially argued that this large,
globular form of the LRA2 type was the developed
indicated the site extends at least 1 m into the sandy
bottom with wooden hull structure surviving below stage, which initially circulated at the beginning of
the amphora layers. Surviving hull timbers on the the 5th c. C.E.38 However, similarly shaped LRA2
Joni site further supports the notion that timbers examples are known from Dobrogea, in ancient
also survive on the deeper wrecks reported. The dateScythia Minor, from 4th-c. C.E. contexts.39 Peacock
ranges for African 3 amphoras are well established: proffered the possibility of this ‘developed’ form in
variants A and B circulated in the 4th c. C.E. and the 4th c. C.E.,40 an idea extended by Opait based
on evidence from the Black Sea region.41 The
variant C at the end of the 4th - early 5th c. C.E.33
Hence, the three variants included together on the LRA2 examples from the Joni wreck are consistent
in dimensions and morphology with those dated to
wrecksite place its operational period in the late 4th
c. C.E. Fabric analyses indicate a Tunisian source, the late 4th c. C.E. from Dobrogea42 and from the
most likely in the Salakta region (Appendix 2). Athenian agora.43 Hence the ‘developed’ form of
LRA2 amphoras on the late-4th c. C.E. Joni wreck
As discussed in the earlier publications, a small is consistent with other finds and lends further
34
number of other amphora types lie atop the African evidence to their circulation in the late 4th c. C.E.
3 amphoras on the wrecksite several of which were
of an unidentified type. As the vessel’s upper hull Among the broken material were two unidentified
rotted away, some amphoras from the uppermost amphora types noted in 2009. With no comparative
layers rolled approximately 10 m downslope where examples for these amphoras forthcoming, they were
they were caught in a rock outcrops and became initially hypothesized to be an early form of type
broken and scattered. Although the majority LRA1a. In 2012 intact examples of these amphoras
of identifiable fragments were type African 3 were located and raised for surface examination
variants, other amphora types were found here as that revealed this group of amphoras differed in
well. Notably there were several intact type LRA2 several aspects from the LRA1 type; instead they
amphoras atop the primary amphora mound (fig. 17) formed two separate unknown types (fig 16). Five
30
Stratton 2015.
31
Bonifay 2004, 118-22; Keay 1984, 184-212.
32
Royal 2012, 416-19.
33
Bonifay 2004, 119-22.
34
Royal 2012, 416-21; Royal 2015.
35
Tuna et al 1987.
36
Tsaravopoulos 1986; Opaiƫ 2004.
37
Zimmerman-Munn 1985.
38
Riley 1979, 219; Hjohlman 2005, 119.
39
Rădulescu 1976, 111.
40
Peacock 1984, 119.
41
Opait 1984; 2004, 295-6.
42
Rădulescu 1976, 107, pl. VIII-1, 1a.
43
For M272, P 11580 see Robinson 1959, 109, pl. 29; the Joni examples are slightly more rounded in shape.
14
Fig 17. Rhino model of the Joni wrecksite; top: distribution of amphora types, bottom:
side view of wrecksite (working images provided by G. Stratton 2013).
of these unidentified-type amphoras were sampled point two-thirds of the way down the shoulder, and
for fabric analysis (Appendix 2) and later presented external ridging from their shoulders to their bases.
by the author to specialists at a conference in 2013; Only the Joni 1 type’s bases were preserved, which
however, no firm identifications were forthcoming.44 were rounded and featured 1-2 cm knobs, as well
For discussion purposes these amphoras are grouped as a slight constriction on the body about one-third
based on morphology and fabrics and referred of the height from the base. Whereas the shoulders
to as types ‘Joni 1’ and ‘Joni 2’ until they can be of the Joni 1 type are rounded, those of the Joni 2
placed into an existing classification system. A full type are carinated. Rims of the Joni 1 type are a
discussion of their morphology and analyses were simple everted shape in most cases, but there is also
published in the conference proceedings,45 and are a possible example of a flanged rim; while those of
summarized here. the Joni 2 type are triangular. The necks of the Joni
Both types share several characteristics: a height of 1 type are 8-9 cm high and bulge at their centers,
50-60 cm, ovoid bodies with a maximum diameter while those of the Joni 2 type are cylindrical. It
of 30-35 cm located at the shoulder, ovoid handles appears the Joni 1 type has comparatively more
in cross-section with nearly flattened outer and inner widely spaced ridges on its body. Fabrics of the Joni
faces that curve from the center of the neck to a 1 and 2 types differ (Appendix 2); the Joni 1 type
44
Consultation in session and individually with Mediterranean ceramic specialists resulted in no known parallels. Per Terram
Per Mare: Production and Transport of Roman Amphorae in the Eastern Mediterranean, Archaeological Research Unit,
University of Cyprus, 12-15April 2013.
45
Royal 2015.
15
Jeffrey G. Royal
has a light-red (Munsell 2.5YR 5/8-6/8) fabric with roof tiles, and anchor components. Through the
darker exterior and interior edges (Munsell 2.5YR 2015 field season, 129 amphoras were located
4/8), while the Joni 2 type has a cream-beige color and identified during dive operations in southern
(Munsell 10YR 7/4) fabric with different inclusions Albania. Tallies for the amphora finds by type and
(Appendix 2). Although disparate, both fabrics period, and including the data from the Liburnian
were determined to have an Aegean origin. project, is provided in Appendix 1, tables 4 and 5.49
From the mid-2nd c. B.C.E. – the 3rd c. C.E., the
With little comparanda for either the Joni 1 or 2 types most common types were Lamboglia 2/Dressel 6A,
forthcoming, hypotheses for their origins are based Dressel 2-4, and Forlimpopoli amphoras from the
on their fabric types and common morphological Adriatic and the central Mediterranean. The most
features. Although there are differences in rim and common Late-Roman types were LRA 1-4, with
handle shapes, general affinities exist between the notable low tallies observed for amphoras from
Joni 1 type and locally made Late-Roman amphoras Rhodes, North Africa and Spain. The representative
from mainland Greece that have globular bodies and trends in amphora source areas in relation to
swollen necks; importantly these circulated outside overseas shipments along the southern Illyrian
their production areas.46 Another contemporary coast are discussed below.
type, the Mid-Roman Crete Amphora 2 (MRCA2)
amphora, has a similar handle profile, ovoid body Among the individual finds were the lead portions
with ridging, and form MRCA2a shares a similar of composite anchors, the wood long disintegrated.
everted rim with the Joni 1 type.47 However, type Anchor types are inherently difficult to date due
MRCA2 has round/ovoid shaped handles, only a to regionalization of types, sporadic changes over
slightly bulging neck, and none of the Cretan types time, few published finds within a dated context
have the triangular rim of the Joni 2 type. Given theand their long periods of use/re-use. Hence, date
fabric origins and general affinities, it is possibleranges for anchor use skews later and there was
the Joni 1 or 2 types were produced in the western much overlap in the contemporaneous anchor types
Aegean, perhaps around the Argolid, Peloponnesus, in use, even on a single vessel. Those found alone
or possibly Crete for the Joni 1 type. on the seafloor provide only general chronological
information, yet a concentration informs us of
Individual Finds safe anchorage sites. Anchors are regularly lost
Dive surveys conducted in Albania along the over time as they hang up in rock formations on
Corfu Straits from the Greek border to just north the seabed, therefore seafloor topography, the
of Saranda produced a number of individual finds. frequency of traffic over time and suitability/size
A full discussion of Albania’s environment and of the anchorage combine to determine their spatial
its unique preservation of shallow-water finds and and temporal distribution pattern. One previously
their relationship to maritime traffic is discussed published find, a lead stock and50collar (AB11-0001
in previous publications.48 In summary a lack of and AB11-0004 respectively), was determined
recreational diving and water sports has helped to be Type IV of Haldane’s system, and possibly
preserve cultural material on the seafloor. As the Type IVB that has a general use range of 2nd c.
material is primarily jetsom it provides a record of B.C.E. – 4th c. C.E. (fig. 18 and associated table).
51
ancient merchantman traffic. The most common finds However, this earlier publication misidentified the
were amphoras, with fewer numbers of tableware, finds and presented an anchor collar not associated
46
Petridis 2013.
47
Gallimore 2013; personal communication 2014.
48
Royal 2012, 431-4.
49
Volpe et al 2008 and Volpe et al 2011 (courtesy of G. Volpe).
50
Campbell 2012.
51
Haldane 1984, 13; Kapitän 1984, 38-40.
16
with the stock;52 the stock finds were found in in antiquity is well-established and presented
different locations. in research by numerous scholars.53 It is further
substantiated by the overwhelming disparity in
The Eastern Adriatic Route and Ancient wrecksite totals between the eastern and western
Navigation Adriatic routes where surveyed. For three well-
The frequent use of the eastern Adriatic route represented centuries, 1st c, B.C.E. – 2nd c. C.E.,
52
Campbell 2012, fig. 3.
53
For example see Skegro 1999; Jurišić 200 0, 52-5; Kozličić and Bratanić 2006, 107-24; Starac 2006.
Artifact No. AB11-0001 AB11-0002 AB08-0009 AB10-0010

Component Stock Collar Stock Stock
Type Haldane IV - Kapitän IIIA Kapitän IIIC
Max. Length 91.8 44.1 82.2 92.9
Max. Width 11.1 12.1 - -
Max. Thickness 4.0 4.0 - -
Box Outer Length - - 10.3 14.3
Box Outer Width - - 14.2 19.4
Box Inner Length - - 6.1 8.7
Box Inner Width - - 10.9 13.8
Box Thickness on L - - 2.1 2.8
Box Height - - 8.4 13.0
Bar in Box - - No Yes
Arm 1 L - - 35.7 39.7
Arm 1 W/Th (proximal) - - 5.5/8.4 5.9/12.8
Arm 1 W/Th (distal) - - 3.1/4.9 3.0/4.8
Arm 2 L - - 36.2 38.9
Arm 2 W/Th (proximal) - - 6.2/8.4 5.5/12.6
Arm 2 W/Th (distal) - - 3.3/5.1 2.9/4.2
Fig 18. Various lead anchor stocks and a lead collar with measurments (all measurments in cm).
Photos, measurements, and image layout by J. Royal; the Albanian Ministry of Tourism, Culture,
Youth and Sport, the Albanian Ministry of Defense, the Albanian Institute of Archaeology, and
RPM.
17
the relative percentage of total wrecksites found on systems and undersea topography. Multibeam
the eastern versus western Adriatic are 65%/35%, systems available to the ICEP surveys were limited
91%/9% and 94%/6% respectively; this disparity to the 100-m contour, which in Albania extends
persists in eras with fewer total wrecksites as well. over 8 km in some areas and draws within 1 km
Recent discoveries presented here from previously along the coast south of Vlore.57 Wrecksite distances
unexplored coastlines alongAlbania and Montenegro from shore are also dependent upon the actions of
amplify this discrepancy between the eastern and merchantmen crews when they experienced trouble.
western Adriatic routes. A preference for the eastern Given time to attempt a remedy they certainly made
Adriatic route transcended periods of economic and towards shore either in search of beaches or coves
political change. During the dramatic shift from to safely disembark. Moreover, moving closer to
Corinthian / Corcyran-oriented trade in the 3rd c. shore minimized a desperate swim. However, some
B.C.E. to an Italian/central Mediterranean-centric distance was kept if maneuvering was impaired as
orientation in the 2nd c. B.C.E., the dominant use of the shore presented hazards. Therefore it is likely
the eastern Adriatic route continued. Likewise the wrecksite locations are distorted towards closer to
shift in southern Illyria during the 4th c. C.E. from shore than the actual sailing distances from shore,
a central/western-Mediterranean trade orientation and underestimate sailing distances.
to one from the eastern Mediterranean did not
alter ancient mariners’ preferences for the eastern Surveyed areas with adequate offshore coverage
Adriatic route.54 include a 35-km segment on the southwest Turkish
coast,58 a 20-km portion of the southern Croatian
The growing dataset of wrecksites not only provides coast,59 along with 25 km of the Montenegrin
evidence for route preferences, but also the operation coast and portions of the southern Albanian coast
of merchantmen and a prominent cause for sinking. extending 44 km north of Corfu and the coast near
Starac characterized ancient mariners sailing the Vlore. Encompassed in this analysis area are 24
eastern Adriatic as adhering to established and well- wrecksites: 18 Roman-era wrecksites, 5 wrecks
known routes that provided a safe port or anchorage, from the Greek Archaic - Hellenistic periods, a
as well as provisions.55 Starac is correct that coastal Byzantine-era wrecksite in Croatia, as well as 2
sailing was certainly the case along the eastern wrecksites from the ancient to Byzantine era, the
Adriatic route; however, this concept should not be Bozukkale and Hellenistic Serce Limanı wrecks that
misconstrued in support of mariners sailing near to were discovered by an INA dive survey (Appendix
shore.56 Albeit few in number, wide surveys provide 1, table 6).60 Of these 24 wrecksites, 19 (79%) sank
an interesting dataset for the distance from shore over 1.0 km from shore, and half sank over 2.0 km
where sinking events took place; such an analysis offshore. The survey along the southwest Turkish
is only worthwhile in areas where survey covered coast and in Croatia were limited to approximately
near shore to several kilometers or more offshore. 2.5 km offshore; thus tallies for ≥3.0 km from
Data limits for a sufficient offshore area suitable shore are only possible for the 15 wrecks along the
for analysis are dependent upon the remote-sensing Montenegrin and part of the Albanian segments.
54
Few shipwrecks are widely published for the 3rd c. C.E. and earlier, or the 3rd c. C.E and later, in the Adriatic. Likewise, the
interim “Roman” period has an overall higher number of shipwreck sites in the Mediterranean.
55
Starac 2006, 101-2.
56
Near-shore sailing is defined here as < 1 km from the coastline.
57
Coverage was effectively nullified along a 17-km section south of Vlore Bay where the 100-m contour is <1 km from shore.
58
Royal 2006, 2008.
59
60
For the INA wrecksites see Rosloff 1981, 280-1; Pulak and Townsend 1987. The locations of five wrecksites discovered by
the ICEP within the Corfu Straits where the sea lane constricts to a width of 1-2 km are omitted as it is impossible to operate
a vessel further than one km from a shore. For the remaining wrecksites in Turkey see Royal 2006, 2008, and for Croatia see
18
Here, 7 of the 15 wrecksites were located ≥3.0 km has a direct economic motivation: to maximize the
offshore. There are undoubtedly additional wrecks profitability of a venture and not suffer perceived
further out to sea in all these areas that would raise opportunity costs. It is human nature for some
the percentage of ships sinking ≥3.0 km from the individuals to accept increased risk (incurred and
coast. Based on this limited dataset, and assuming potential costs) to a point where it is marginally
a distortion due to movement towards shore prior exceeded by a perceived potential for increased
to sinking, ancient merchantmen appeared to have revenues. For ship financiers and operators this
sailed at least 4-5 km offshore along these coastal process manifested itself in ship captains assessing
routes. This distance provided good sighting for the risks of vessel stability from lading added cargo
navigation, avoided most near-surface geologic compared to the revenues derived from selling the
formations, and allowed ample time to deal with additional cargo. Misjudgment in this calculation
equipment and weather related problems before directly contributed to sinking events. Once a
running aground. Moreover, it afforded an adequate vessel was overladen and sat below its safe load
vista in order to select promising spots towards water line, a point typically known by a captain
which to navigate for safety. and crew, its freeboard was reduced such that its
sailing characteristics and stability were altered and
Perils for ancient merchantmen at sea included there was an increased likelihood of taking on water
storms, waves, unfavorable winds, collisions with when heeling. Incoming water filled the airspaces
other ships or floating objects, fire, structural failures around cargo containers, typically amphoras, and
in their hulls and overloading. Only when ships resulted in reduced buoyancy. Bulk agricultural
came near the coast due to trouble or to approach cargoes, such as grain carried in sacks, absorbed
a port did they risk striking a rocky outcrop or water and greatly increased its weight and volume.
submerged formation, along with the dangers of Additionally, flowing water in the hold altered the
running aground and foundering. Undoubtedly, any weight distribution planned during lading whereby
one or combination of these factors accounts for the it intensified weight shifts and therefore altered the
overwhelming majority of ship losses in antiquity center of gravity.63 Taking on water into the hold of
as the same dangers faced sailors in later periods an overloaded vessel, or one with improperly stowed
of sailed merchantmen. Insurance legislation from cargo, combined with shifting water significantly
the Netherlands recorded between C.E. 1500- decreased stability and increased the chance that
1800 relates these same causes as primary for ship eventually the vessel would not heel and water
loss.61 The analysis of shipwreck distances from would fill its hull to a point where it sank.
shore shows ancient merchantmen operated several
kilometers offshore, which precludes the majority Once submerged, ancient merchantmen sank
having struck rocky capes or submerged protrusions relatively quickly and therefore wrecksite
just below the surface as a cause for their sinking.62 locations are within the immediate area where they
Ship operations were largely governed by human submerged. Sinking rates are a function of the mass
behavior as today, and one cannot discount or of the laden ship, the surface area of the vessel,
underestimate poor judgment, greed, carelessness, and the buoyant force. Ancient amphora, stone,
and incompetence. Ancient merchantmen sinking and tile carriers had cargos of significant mass
a significant distance offshore suggests overloaded with no airtight compartments within their holds;
and/or improperly laden vessels, a traditional thus, a high mass and little buoyant force. For
problem throughout the ages, and one exacerbated example, applying even a sluggish descent rate of
by rough weather. Overloading a merchantman 0.5 m / second, the Krekavica 1 vessel reached the
61
Van Niekerk 1999, 353-6.
62
Although not impossible, striking an outcrop, collisions with other vessels or hitting large floating debris far from shore is
highly improbable.
63
Once water poured into the holds of ancient merchantmen, crews had limited ability to remove it.
19
seafloor in about 90 seconds, while the Traste 1 and leaning to one side where the weight of the shipment
2 vessels required about two minutes. If present, pressed the hull into the sediment; subsequently, the
subsurface currents could force a sinking vessel to wood decayed leaving the amphoras stacked within
drift; however, the result would be on the order of at a contained deposit.
most 100 m given these time frames.64 Wrecksites
located > 1 km offshore accords well with overladen Discarding outmoded ideas of piracy as a significant
vessels filling with water, becoming unstable and cause of shipwrecks, the higher concentration of
sinking. Each of the offshore wrecksites discovered these events along the eastern Adriatic stretch of
in the ICEP and the Turkish survey were intact with coastline indicates mariners favored this route for
little to no spillage or trails of amphoras. Their overseas trade and transport over that along the
cargo piles were neatly contained within an area western Adriatic coast throughout antiquity. Even
that was once delimited by the ships’ hulls. Thus, in with destinations on the western shore, the eastern
each case, the cargo was not spilled at the surface route provided the safer passage for as long as
or in the water column during descent, and largely could be managed. These merchantmen were not
remained within the vessel’s hold until reaching the skimming the shoreline; rather they were out at a
seafloor. This indicates the ships did not come apart distance that provided safe maneuvering with an
at the surface, but remained intact during the sinking acceptable reaction time to reach an anchorage in
event. Corroborating this scenario are mounds inclement weather. The large number of wrecks
of amphoras with their mouths having a mostly that probably sank due to overloading speaks to the
consistent orientation at an upward angle. This constant interplay between economic benefit, the
largely uniform amphora orientation is achieved by intensity of overseas trade, and operational risks
a vessel coming to rest relatively upright or slightly that has transpired on the seas for millennia.
64
Estimating a current of 2 km (1m/sec) acting upon hydrodynamic surface areas and angle of momentum, the current would
cause a sinking hull to drift less than 100 m in two minutes.
20
Jeffrey G. Royal
APPENDIX 1
Table 1. Roman-Era ICEP Finds through 2015

Distance
Site Length Width Height Depth offshore
Number Site Name Country (m) (m) (m) (m) (km)
2007-2009
AB08-AH Butrint 2 Albania 15.0 6.0 0.3 -26 0.2
AB09-AA Joni Albania 8.7 4.4 1.0 -23 0.5
MN09-AD Boka Kotorska 1 Montenegro 25.0 7.0 0.7 -65 1.0
MN09-AE Boka Kotorska 2 Montenegro 20.0 17.0 0.7 -60 1.2
2010-2015
AB11-AB Sason 1 Albania 20.0 7.0 1.5 -27 2.0
MN10-AC Traste 1 Montenegro 23.0 13.0 1.0 -93 5.5
MN10-AD Traste 2 Montenegro 24.5 16.0 1.0 -92 3.5
MN10-AF Krekavica 1 Montenegro 12.0 10.0 0.5 -54 1.0
MN11-AF Budvanski Zaliv 2 Montenegro 18.0 5.5 0.75 -72 4.8
MN11-AG Budvanski Zaliv 3 Montenegro 20.0 10.0 1.1 -48 1.9
MN11-AH Krekavica 2 Montenegro 15.0 7.0 0.75 -100 4.4
CR14-AC Cape Pelegrin Croatia 13.0 6.0 1.0 -61 1.2
CR14-AE Cape Kupari Croatia 12.0 5.0 1.0 -28 0.5
21
Table 2. Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes
MN10AC-0001
MN10AC-0002
MN10AC-0003
MN10AD-0001
MN10AF-0001
MN10AF-0010
MN10AF-0012
MN10AF-0013
MN10AF-0011
Artifact
Number
Form / Greco-Ita.
Rhodian Rhodian Rhodian Afr. 3B Unk. Afr. 3C Afr. 3B Afr. 3C
Type III
Condition Intact Intact Intact Intact Broken Broken Broken Broken Broken
Max L or 86.5 90.2 79.0 58.0 24.3 35.6 23.5 28.4 7.1
Ht.
Max W or 29.5 26.0 18.9 37.4 19.8 28.8 21.3 27.9 14.1
Diam
Body Th. - - - - 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 -
Body Tapered Tapered Tapered Globular - - - - -
Shape
Shoulder Round Round Round Carinated - - Rounded Rounded -
Type
Rim Diam. 14.0 18.3 14.4 16.5 13.6 - 12.5 13.4 14.1
Outer
Rim Diam. - 14.5 10.6 13.5 7.3 - 5.8 5.0 8.1
Inner
Rim Ht. 1.8 1.8 1.7 2.1 2.3 - 1.7 1.0 2.5
Rim Th. - 1.9 1.9 1.5 3.2 - 3.4 3.2 2.3
Rim Type Beaded Beaded Beaded Flaring Everted - Everted Collar Collar
Upper-
Handle W - - - - 4.6 x 2.3 - - - -
x Th.
Mid-
Handle W 3.2 x 3.0 3.9 x 3.7 3.0 x 3.0 3.7 x 2.3 3.2 x 2.3 - - 3.7 x 2.8 -
x Th.
Lower-
Handle W - - - 3.2 x 2.1 - - - -
x Th.
Handle Ht. 29.0 32.0 32.0 12.2 13.3 - 15.2 13.2 -
Handle L 34.5 38.3 35.0 16.1 17.0 - 16.6 15.3 -
Handle Round Round Round Ovoid Ovoid - Ovoid Ovoid -
X-section
Handle Peaked Peaked Peaked Straight Curved - Curved Curved -
Profile
Neck Ht. 26.7 30.8 30.1 8.7 15.7 - 15.8 12.8 -
Neck 14.5 17.5 13.5 11.0 10.9 - - 13.2 -
Diam.
Neck Type Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Cylindrical Conical - Conical Conical -
Base Type Toe Toe Toe Knob - - - - -
Base/Toe 4.2 5.5 3.0 2.9 - - - - -
Diam.
22
Jeffrey G. Royal
Table 2 (cont.). Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes
Base/Toe 9.2 5.1 1.3 2.2 - - - - -

Ht.
Ridged Unk. Unk. Unk. Unk. Yes Yes Yes Yes -
Interior
Munsell - Handle Body Body Shoulder Body Shoulder Shoulder -
Location
Break - None None None None Fresh Fresh Fresh -
Munsell - 5YR 6/4-6 2.5YR 4/6 5YR 5/4-6 2.5YR 6/8 2.5R 4/6 10R 4/8 10R 4/8 -
Color
Fabric & No breaks, Unclear Unclear Unclear Large gray Dark gray Dark gray Inclusions Unclear
Inclusions marine and white band on band on are red,
growth too interior; interior; white, white,
extensive to white, gray, gray, and some gray, and
determine and black silicious. micaceous
color
Notes Horns on Horns on Horns on Mouth Missing Body frag Missing below Missing Amphora
handles are handles handles is ovoid below recovered shoulder; below rim
approx. 2.0 approx. 2.0 approx. 2.5 (narrow side shoulder; for petrology marine growth shoulder; fragment
cm high; cm high; cm high; 14.6 x 12.0); low ridge analysis; too extensive possible
toe has toe has toe has flat 0.6-cm wide running thickness for some score mark
flat, angled flat, angled bottom; band incised along outer varied from measurements; on neck
bottom bottom; slight, below rim. handle face; 1.0 - 1.6 petrology
slight ridge widely- ledge under sample
on ourter spaced rim to neck.
handle ridging on
exterior
23
MN11AF-0001
MN11AF-0010
AB11AB-0001
AB11AB-0002
AB11AB-0003
AB11AB-0004
Artifact
Number
Form / Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 - Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2

Type
Condition 98% Intact Broken Intact Intact 98% Broken
Max L or 83.5 46.0 84.1 2.1 88.0 32.4
Ht.
Max W or 39.1 28.5 38.5 10.0 36.2 36.0
Diam
Body Th. - 1.8 - 1.1 - 1.4
Body Ovoid - Ovoid Disk Ovoid -
Shape
Shoulder Carinated Carinated Carinated - Carinated -
Type
Rim Diam. 19.3 19.9 20.0 - 17.1 17.5
Outer
Rim Diam. 13.9 14.5 13.7 - 11.2 13.8
Inner
Rim Ht. 3.9 3.6 3.8 - 3.5 3.1
Rim Th. 2.6 2.7 3.1 - 2.9 2.6
Rim Type Triangular Triangular Triangular - Triangular Triangular
Upper-
Handle W 5.6 x 3.3 - - - 4.9 x 2.6 6.0 x 3.1
x Th.
Mid-
Handle W 4.5 x 3.3 4.5 x 3.4 4.8 x 3.9 - 4.3 x 2.4 5.4 x 3.0
x Th.
Lower-
Handle W - - - - 7.8 x 2.2 5.2 x 2.8
x Th.
Handle Ht. 27.0 28.0 26.0 - 23.8 22.9
Handle L 28.3 - 28.5 - 28.4 26.3
Handle Ovoid Ovoid Sl. ovoid - Ovoid Ovoid
X-section
Handle L-Straight L-Straight L-Straight - L-Straight L-Straight
Profile
Neck Ht. 24.1 25.5 25.2 - 22.5 21.2
Neck 12.3 15.0 12.7 - 13.5 13.0
Diam.
Neck Type Constricted Constricted Constricted - Sl. Constr. Cylindrical
Base Type Toe - Toe - Toe -
24
Jeffrey G. Royal
Base/Toe 4.6 - 4.4 - 5.7 -

Diam.
Base/Toe -Broken- - 8.5 - 5.6 -
Ht.
Ridged Unk. Yes Unk. - Unk. Yes
Interior
Munsell Base Shoulder Toe Top Body Shoulder
Location
Break Fresh Old Fresh None None Fresh
Munsell 10YR 7/4 2.5YR 5/4 10YR 4/4-6 10YR 7/4 7.5YR 5/4 10R 4/6-3/6
Color
Fabric & Sparse black; Two gray bands Gray and white Small red, Unclear Striated: red-
Inclusions striated so that (7.5YR 6/4) with irregular black, white of orange center
interior is more form striations; shapes. irregular shape. with red on both
reddish few white and sides, outer band
micaceous of red-orange;
gray and white.
Notes End of toe Amphora Poss. old Majority of Rim damaged Amphora
broken off (old); broken, missing indent on lower marine growth (old) and bottom broken, missing
possible finger below shoulder; rim, appears on top (outer) of toe is missing below shoulder;
indention on one flattened section smoothed. surface; knob: (old); finger handles bulge
handle. on outer handle; 1.0 H x 1.9 impressions at outwards
poss. old indent Diam. base of handles, slightly, slight
on lower rim. indention under
rim, sample for
petrology.
25
MN11AG-0001
MN11AG-0010
MN11AG-0011
CR12AA-0003
CR12AA-0004
Artifact
Number
Form / Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 Dressel 6A Dressel 6A

Type
Condition Intact Broken Intact Broken Broken
Max L or 94.5 21.6 94.2 14.2 22.3
Ht.
Max W or 38.5 10.4 38.4 30.2 27.7
Diam
Body Th. - 1.5 - 0.4-0.6 0.3
Body Ovoid - Ovoid -
Shape
Shoulder Carinated - Carinated -
Type
Rim Diam. 18.2 - 17.4 -
Outer
Rim Diam. 13.4 - 14.1 -
Inner
Rim Ht. 2.1 - 3.0 - 1.9
Rim Th. 2.4 - 2.4 - 0.5
Rim Type Triangular - Triangular - Vertical
Upper-
Handle W - 6.9 x 2.8 -
x Th.
Mid-
Handle W 4.7 x 2.9 - 5.3 x 3.3 - 1.6 x 0.9
x Th.
Lower-
Handle W - 5.8 x 3.6 -
x Th.
Handle Ht. 25.4 - 25.2 - 8.5
Handle L 30.0 - 28.2 -
Handle Ovoid - Ovoid -
X-section
Handle L-Straight - L-Straight - Ear
Profile
Neck Ht. 22.5 - 20.5 -
Neck 12.5 - 10.5 -
Diam.
Neck Type Constricted - Constricted -
Base Type Toe - Toe Flat
26
Jeffrey G. Royal
Base/Toe 4.3 - 3.9 -

Diam.
Base/Toe 8.5 - 8.0 -
Ht.
Ridged Unk. Yes Yes Yes Unk.
Interior
Munsell - Body - Fabric Fabric
Location
Break - Fresh - Fresh Fresh
Munsell - 10R 5/8-4/8 - 10R 3/6 10R 3/6
Color
Fabric & No breaks and Red fabric No breaks and Small white,
Inclusions amount of has dark gray amount of sparse
marine growth striations marine growth micaceous
too extensive to running though too extensive to flecks/ angular
determine color. it; small black determine color. gray
and red.
Notes Finger Body frag Slight indention Elongated Globular shape;
impressions at recovered under rim; slight "beehive" shape; rim has concave
base of handles. for petrology bulge at bottom small fragment inner surface;
analysis. of toe. broken during many old cracks
recovery and breaks; one
new break
Table 3. Coefficients of Rhodian Amphoras from the Traste 1 Wreck

Variant A Variant B Variant C
Coefficient MN10AC-0001 MN10AC-0002 MN10AC-0003
Body diameter / body height (BD/BH) 0.58 0.47 0.42
Neck height / body height (NH/BH) 0.53 0.56 0.66
Body diameter / maximum height (BD/MH) 0.34 0.29 0.24
Neck height / maximum height (NH/MH) 0.31 0.34 0.38
Body diameter / maximum height (BH/MH) 0.58 0.61 0.57
27
Table 4. Origin of Individual Amphora Finds from Southern Albanian Coast
Period: 2nd c. BCE-3rd c. CE Period: 4th - 7th c. CE
Date Overall Area Date Overall Area
Type (century) Origin Count Percent Percent Type (century) Origin Count Percent Percent
Area: Western Mediterranean 8 10.0% Area: Western Mediterranean 5 3.4%
1 BCE - 1
Pascual 1 E. Spain 1 1.3% 12.5% Beltran 72 3-5 CE S Spain 4 2.8% 80.0%
CE
Dr 9/10 1 CE Baetica, Spain 1 1.3% 12.5% Dr 23 3-6 CE Baetica, Spain 1 0.7% 20.0%
Dr 28 1-2 CE Baetica, Spain 2 2.5% 25.0% Area: Central Mediterranean 6 4.1%
Dr 20 1-3 CE Baetica, Spain 4 5.0% 50.0% African 2D 3-4 CE Tunisia 1 0.7% 16.7%
Area: Central Mediterranean 61 76.3% African 3 3-4 CE Tunisia 4 2.8% 66.7%
N&C
Lamboglia 2 2-1 BCE 20 25.0% 32.8% Keay 51? 4-5 CE Tunisia 1 0.7% 16.7%
Adriatic
Dr 1A 2-1 BCE W Italy 2 2.5% 3.3% Area: Eastern Mediterranean 134 92.4%
Dr 1B 2-1 BCE W Italy 1 1.3% 1.6% LRA 4 2-7 CE Palestine, Gaza 20 13.8% 14.9%
1 BCE - 1 N&C SW Turkey,
Dr 6A 4 5.0% 6.6% LRA 1 3-7 CE 32 22.1% 23.9%
CE Adriatic Cyprus
28
1 BCE - 3
Dr 2-4 S & W Italy 11 13.8% 18.0% Sinopian Carrot 4-5 CE 1 0.7% 0.7%
CE
1 BCE - 3
Forlimpopoli NE Italy 15 18.8% 24.6% LRA 3 4-6 CE W Asia Minor 15 10.3% 11.2%
CE
African 1
2-3 CE Tunisia 4 5.0% 6.6% Agora M334 4-7 CE Palestine 1 0.7% 0.7%
Piccolo
Chios, SE
Empoli 2-4 CE NE Italy 3 3.8% 4.9% LRA 2 4-7 CE 42 29.0% 31.3%
Greece
Mauretania
Dr 30 3 CE 1 1.3% 1.6% LRA 5 (late) 5-8 CE Lebanon 3 2.1% 2.2%
Caesariensis
Area: Eastern Mediterranean 11 13.8% Agora M328 5-6 CE E Med 1 0.7% 0.7%
1 BCE - 2
Rhodian Rhodes 6 7.5% 54.5% LRA 13 6/7-9 CE Cyprus, Italy 3 2.1% 2.2%
CE
1 BCE - 2
Dr 5 Aegaen 1 1.3% 9.1% Cretan 5 6-7 CE Crete 1 0.7% 0.7%
CE
Samos, W
Dr 24 1-3 CE W Asia Minor 1 1.3% 9.1% Samos Cistern 6-7 CE 2 1.4% 1.5%
Turkey
1 - mid 4 Unident. LRA E.
Cretan 1 (TRC1) Crete 3 3.8% 27.3% 4-7 CE 13 9.0% 9.7%
CE East Mediterranean
Total 80 100.0% Total 145 100.0%
Jeffrey G. Royal
Table 5. Amphora Types and Frequencies from Southern Albanian Coast

ICEP Liburnia Project
Date 2007- 2010- Grand Overall Period
Amphora Type Origin Total PP Valona Total
(century) 9 15 Total Perc. Perc.
Lamboglia 2 2-1 BCE N & C Adriatic 1 10 11 6 3 9 20 8.4% 25.0%
Dr 1A 2-1 BCE W Italy 2 0 2 0 0 0 2 0.8% 2.5%
Dr 1B 2-1 BCE W Italy 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 1.3%
1 BCE - 1
Pascual 1 E Spain 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 1.3%
CE
1 BCE - 1
Dr 6A N & C Adriatic 0 4 4 0 0 0 4 1.7% 5.0%
CE
1 BCE - 2
Rhodian Rhodes 3 0 3 3 0 3 6 2.5% 7.5%
CE
1 BCE - 2
Dr 5 Aegaen 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 1.3%
CE
1 BCE - 3
Dr 2-4 S & W Italy 5 2 7 1 3 4 11 4.6% 13.8%
CE
1 BCE - 3
Forlimpopoli NE Italy 7 6 13 1 1 2 15 6.3% 18.8%
CE
Dr 9/10 1 CE Baetica, W Spain 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 1.3%
Dr 28 1-2 CE Baetica, Spain 1 0 1 0 1 1 2 0.8% 2.5%
Tripolitanian 1 1-2 CE N Africa 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0% 0.0%
LRA 3 (early) 1-3 CE W Asia Minor 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0% 0.0%
Cretan 2 1-3 CE Crete 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0% 0.0%
Dr 24 1-3 CE W Asia Minor 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0.4% 1.3%
African 1 Piccolo 2-3 CE Tunisia 0 4 4 0 0 0 4 1.7% 5.0%
Empoli 2-4 CE NE Italy 0 3 3 0 0 0 3 1.3% 3.8%
Mauretania
Dr 30 3 CE 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 1.3%
Caesariensis
1 - mid 4
Cretan 1 (TRC1) Crete 1 0 1 2 0 2 3 1.3% 3.8%
CE
Sub-Totals 26 32 58 14 8 22 80 33.8%
LRA 4 2-7 CE Palestine, Gaza 5 0 5 1 14 15 20 8.4% 13.8%
African 3 3-4 CE Tunisia 1 1 2 0 2 2 4 1.7% 2.8%
African 2D 3-4 CE Tunisia 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0.4% 0.7%
Beltran 72 3-5 CE S Spain 4 0 4 0 0 0 4 1.7% 2.8%
SW Turkey,
LRA 1 3-7 CE 4 4 8 10 14 24 32 13.5% 22.1%
Cyprus
Keay 51? 4-5 CE Tunisia 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 0.7%
LRA 3 4-6 CE W Asia Minor 0 1 1 0 14 14 15 6.3% 10.3%
Agora M334 4-7 CE Palestine 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 0.7%
LRA 2 4-7 CE Chios, SE Greece 10 7 18 10 14 24 42 17.7% 29.0%
LRA 5 (late) 5-8 CE Lebanon 0 3 3 0 0 0 3 1.3% 2.1%
Agora M328 5-6 CE E Med 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 0.4% 0.7%
LRA 13 6/7-9 CE Cyprus, Italy 1 2 3 0 0 0 3 1.3% 2.1%
29
Cretan 5 6-7 CE Crete 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0.4% 0.7%

Samos Cistern 6-7 CE Samos, W Turkey 0 0 0 1 1 2 2 0.8% 1.4%
Sinopian Carrot 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0.4% 0.7%
Unk LRA 4 7 11 1 1 2 13 5.5% 9.0%
Sub-Totals 32 26 59 25 61 86 145 61.2%
African Cyl. N Africa? 1 4 5 0 0 0 5 2.1% 41.7%
Unk 1 6 7 0 0 0 7 3.0% 58.3%
Sub-Totals 2 10 12 0 0 0 12 5.1%
Totals 60 68 129 39 0 108 237 100.0%
Table 6. Shipwreck Distances from Shore

Distance Distance
Site Depth from shore Site Depth from shore
Number Wrecksite Name (m) (km) Number Wrecksite Name (m) (km)
- Bozukkale -30 0.25 MN09-AE Boka Kotorska 2 -60 1.20
Hellenistic Serce
- -36 0.25 MN10-AC Traste 1 -93 5.50
Limani
Late Antiquity
TK05-AD -85 2.00 MN10-AD Traste 2 -92 3.50
Anchor
TK05-AI Julio-Claudian I -83 2.50 MN11-AE Budvanski Zaliv 1 -55 2.25
TK06-AC Late Republican -91 2.50 MN10-AF Krekavica 1 -54 1.00
TK06-AE Tile -82 1.00 MN11-AF Budvanski Zaliv 2 -72 4.80
AB08-AF Rodon -70 3.00 MN11-AG Budvanski Zaliv 3 -48 1.90
AB08-AG Qefalit Tile -76 7.00 MN11-AH Krekavica 2 -100 4.40
AB09-AA Joni -23 0.50 MN12-AA Budvanski Zaliv 4 -74 3.20
AB11-AB Sason 1 -27 2.00 CR12-AA Konavoške Stijen -93 1.60
AB14-AB Qeparo -15 0.10 CR14-AC Cape Pelegrin -61 1.20
MN09-AD Boka Kotorska 1 -65 1.00 CR14-AE Cape Kupari -28 0.50
6
SW Turkish Coast Adriatic Coast

5
0
0.0-0.49 0.5-0.99 1.0-1.49 1.5-1.99 2.0-2.49 2.5-2.99 3.0-3.49 3.5-3.99 4.0-4.49 4.5-4.99 5.0-5.49 5.5-5.99 6.0-6.49 6.5-6.99
Distance from Shore (km)
30
Jeffrey G. Royal
Appendix 2: Amphora Petrology Report
Laboratory Analysis and Notes by Dr. Pina Franco
Samples from every site except the Joni wreck were taken by the author. These samples were taken
from raised artifacts after documentation and photographic recording. Areas for sample fragments were
selected on the broken sections of amphoras that were usually on the body near the shoulder. However, in a
few instances fragments were obtained from broken material on a site where it was clear as to the identity
of the association and artifact type. Samples from the Joni wrecksite were taken by G. Stratton during his
fieldwork for his Master’s thesis in the Program in Maritime Studies at East Carolina University and P.
Campbell. After tagging and recording several amphoras were raised and samples taken, typically from
an area of a break on the body. Several of the African 3 amphoras that had accessible samples, often near
breaks, were taken from in situ amphoras at different sectors of the site. All samples were processed and
examined in the ceramics laboratory, and subsequent descriptions were provided, by P. Franco (University
of Southampton); much appreciation is given to the coordinaton provided by Dr. L. Blue (University
of Southampton). Thin sections were prepared by J. Phillips and P. Franco. Microphotographs of the
amphorae were taken with a field of view of 3mm; courtesy of R. Taylor, the Oceanography Centre,
University of Southampton.
The following is a presentation of the fabric analyses, descriptions of visual characteristics,
microphotograph images, and conclusions by P. Franco based on the reports. Much appreciation is given
to P. Franco for this analysis and report as they were performed at no cost, and a copy forwarded to
both the Center for Conservation and Archaeology of Montenegro – Cetinje and the Albanian Institute
of Archaeology. A copy was also provided to G. Stratton for work on his MA Thesis and to the author.
A summary of the analysis concerning the Joni wrecksite was previously published by the author (Royal
2015). Editing of Franco’s descriptions were kept to a minimum, although amphora typologies and sample
numbers were standardized between the field and laboratory reports in order to provide clarity to the reader.
Franco’s report notes on the analysis of the fabrics includes a description of the visual characterization first
and then the petrology; this order is preserved here. The description of the textural analysis of the fabrics:
density chart, degree of sorting and size of the inclusions follow the guidelines contained in the PCRG
1997. Franco notes that it is necessary to stress the importance of considering both typology and fabrics in
order to characterize a ceramic product in terms of provenance, as fabrics may be made up of sedimentary
materials that by their very nature are widespread and not distinctive of particular areas of production.
31
Wreck ID: AB11-AB, Sason 1

Sample ID: AB11AB-0002-01
Type: Lamboglia 2
Sample: At shoulder of rim-neck-handles partial
Visual Characteristics: Yellowish-red (5YR 5/6) in colour, very fine-grained fabric. Fine patches of clay,
pinkish in colour, are commonly preset in the clay matrix. At x10 magnification, rounded inclusions, rare
in amount (<1%), >1mm and 2mm in size and containing very fine-grained material are present; rare
foraminifera are also present, while very fine limestone is all scattered in the clay matrix. Silt-sized quartz,
slightly micaceous fabric.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows an anisotropic clay matrix, light brown-yellowish in colour;
calcareous: limestone inclusions occur abundantly in the fabric. Also present are calcitic foraminifera,
sparse in amount (3 to 5%), small (0.20mm in size) chert, sparse in amount (5 to 7%), and rare plagioclase
feldspar (1%). One inclusion is roundish in shape, >1mm in size and contains limestone and quartz,
while it is characterized by clear edges. Very fine flakes of mica are scattered throughout the clay matrix.
Commonly present in the clay matrix are red minerals, no pleochroic under plane polarized light. The
quartz is abundant and very fine, > 0.10mm in size, and sub-angular in shape. Coarser quartz grains are
generally 0.20mm in size.
Wreck ID: MN11-AF, Budvanski Zaliv 2

Sample ID: MN11AF-0010-01
Type: Lamboglia 2
Visual Characteristics: A compact clay matrix, strong brown (7.5YR 5/6) to brown (interior edge 7.5YR
4/4) in colour, very fine-grained. Rounded, clay-like inclusions can be easily seen, occurring in a moderate
amount (15%). At x10, these range from >1mm to >2mm in size, and can be scratched with a metal. Silt-
sized quartz, micaceous fabric, hard fired.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows an anisotropic clay matrix, brownish-orangey in colour containing
a sparse amount (5 to 7%) of rounded, argillaceous matter (possibly clay pellets) measuring between
0.25mm and >1mm in size. These show clear edges, contain a moderate to common amount (10 to 20%)
of very fine-grained material, mainly quartz grains, mica, and occasional foraminifera (similar to the
inclusions occurring in the fabric). The fabric also contains limestone, very commonly scattered in the
clay matrix, rare large calcite inclusions, and very small cherts (7%). The quartz is abundant and very fine,
while a smaller amount (7 to 10%) is coarser, sub-angular and 0.2mm in size. Moreover two quartz grains
are composite, sub-angular in shape and measure 0.25mm. Very fine flakes of muscovite mica are very
commonly to abundantly scattered in the clay matrix, few flakes are of biotite mica.
32
Jeffrey G. Royal
Wreck ID: MN11-AG, Budvanski Zaliv 3

Sample ID: MN11AG-0010-01
Type: Lamboglia 2
Sample: Body sherd
Visual Characteristics: Yellowish red (5YR 5/6) in colour with lighter colour layers (5YR 6/6 reddish
yellow) present in the core. Compact, very-fine grained, no inclusions are readily visible. At x10, it
contains rare (1%) clay-like pellets, 1mm in size, the quartz is silt-sized. Micaceous and hard fired fabric.
(It is similar to the fabric-amphora sample AB11AB-0010).
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows an anisotropic clay matrix, brownish-orangey in colour. It
contains abundant limestone inclusions, which is all scattered throughout the clay matrix, also calcite
inclusions (3% of the density chart), and calcitic foraminifera (2%). Very small cherts are present in sparse
amount (7%), and rare (1%) very small plagioclase feldspar. There is one rounded inclusion, <1mm in
size, containing limestone and quartz grains (inclusions similar to those contained in the fabric). Very
fine flakes of muscovite mica are abundantly scattered in the clay matrix, some flakes are of biotite mica.
The quartz is abundant, very fine, measuring between 0.1 and 0.2mm in size. The fabric contains also a
moderate amount (7 to 10%) of very fine red minerals which are not pleochroic in plane light.
Lamboglia 2 Discussion
AB11AB: This can be characterized as an Adriatic fabric as it is similar in terms of clay matrix to other
Adriatic vessels analyzed by the author of this report in different study contexts. However, the clay matrix
of AB11AB-0010 is similar to the Lamboglia 2 amphora. The main difference between the fabrics of
sample no. 3 (AB11AB-0010) and no. 10 (MN11AF-0010-01) regards the amount of argillaceous rounded
inclusions, as this occurs in a much lesser amount (<1%) in sample number 3. Similar argillaceous
inclusions were noticed in a Lamboglia 2 amphora studied as part of a different assemblage, and these may
have been described in the amphora literature as chamotte (Cipriano 1992).
MN11AF-0010-01: A fabric containing similar argillaceous inclusions was noticed in a Lamboglia 2
amphora analyzed by the author of this report as part of a different study. Such inclusions may have been
described as chamotte in the amphora literature (Cipriano 1992) and occur in part of the production of the
Lamboglia 2 amphora.
MN11AG-0010-01: The fabric (as the fabric sample AB11AB-0010) is different from the previous
sample MN11AF-0010-01 because it does not contain a similar density of argillaceous matter. However
the clay matrix is quite similar.
33
Wreck ID: MN10-AF, Krekavica 1

Sample ID: MN10AF-0001-01/02
Type: African 3B
Visual Characteristics: Red in colour with unoxidized outer and interior edges, very fine quartz is present.
North African fabric.
Petrology Notes: N/A

Type: African 3B
Visual Characteristics: Reddish brown in colour containing very fine quartz and a moderate amount of
very fine limestone. Tunisian fabric.

Type: African 3B
Visual Characteristics: Red brick in colour containing a sparse amount (7%) of well-sorted quartz, 0.5 and
>0.5mm in size. Very fine limestone is scattered in the clay matrix, rare iron oxide is also present. Tunisian
fabric.
Wreck ID: AA09-AA, Joni

Sample ID: 1-0020
Type: African 3B
Sample: Mid-body
Visual Characteristics: Red and grey coloured fabric core containing

numerous, small white inclusions of limestone, well-sorted, 0.2mm in size.
Salakta production, central Tunisia.
Petrology Notes: Under thin section this is a quartz-limestone fabric. It
contains a common amount (20%) of rounded limestone, generally between
0.25 and 0.5mm in size, and a common amount (20%) of sub-rounded quartz grains-generally 0.25
segments in size. Also, rare plagioclase feldspar and rare grains of pyroxenes are present.
34
Jeffrey G. Royal
Sample ID: AB09AA-S01

Type: African 3
Sample: Mid-body
Visual Characteristics: Red-brick in colour containing very fine quartz-sand

and yellowish inclusions of limestone. These latter are moderately scattered in
the clay matrix, the largest are 0.5mm in size. At x10, occasional quartz grains
are <0.5mm in size.

Type: African 3
Sample: Upper body
Visual Characteristics: Red in colour containing rare inclusions of

limestone. At x10 magnification, limestone inclusions are 2mm in size.
One sandstone inclusion is present, <0.5mm in size.
Sample ID: SPE-0017

Type: African 3A
Sample: Lower body
Visual Characteristics: Light peach in colour with creamy external edge.

Numerous white limestone inclusions are readily visible. At x10 magnification
the quartz is very fine, the largest inclusions of limestone are 0.5mm in size.
Tunisian production.

Type: African 3
Sample: Mid body
Visual Characteristics: A cylindrical container with evident tooling marks

on the exterior surface. Red in colour with numerous white inclusions of
limestone, >0.5mm in size. This also could come from Salakta, central Tunisia.
35
African 3 Discussion
The fabric of the samples of African 3 amphoras from the Krekavica 1 wreck indicate a Tunisian
production. For the Joni wreck amphorae, the characteristic firing conditions, red and grey fabric core, the
numerous white limestone inclusions and its occurrence on the African 3 amphora type, form the criteria
for the identification of the workshop areas. With regard to the amphorae type African 3 of the Joni wreck
assemblage, Salakta production is represented within it (sample no. 1-0020). Salakta, ancient Sullecthum,
located in central Tunisia, produced large quantities of amphorae from the mid second to the beginning
of the 4th c. C.E. as it was a very important commercial partner of Portus, the imperial port of Rome.
The African 3 from Salakta are dated to the 4th c. C.E. African 3 amphora samples no. SPE-0017 and
no. AB09AA-S03 contain a common amount of limestone inclusions that could also be attributed to the
central area of Tunisia, while samples no. AB09AA-S01 and no. AB09AA-S02 that have a red fabric may
be attributed to northern Tunisia.
Wreck ID: AA09-AA, Joni
Sample ID: SPW-0026

Type: Joni Type 1
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 6/8) with darker

exterior and interior edges (2.5YR 4/8 red), smooth fracture. A very-fine
grained fabric, where inclusions, white in colour, are seen with difficulty. At
x10 magnification, the quartz is silt-sized, extremely fine white calcareous
inclusions are present in sparse amount (7% of the density chart). Very fine dark inclusions, and occasional
clay pellets are also present.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows a calcareous clay matrix made up by abundant, very fine calcite
and limestone inclusions which confer a yellowish colour to an optically isotropic groundmass. Inclusions
of siltstone and very-fine sandstone (Plates 1 - 4) are present in sparse amount (5% of the density chart).
Also present are cherts, sparse in amount (5%), calcitic foraminifera; rare (1%) plagioclase feldspar, and
lumps of clay. The background quartz is very fine, <0.125mm in size, very common to abundant in amount
(30 to 40%) and moderately sorted. The larger quartz
grains are rectangular in shape and >0.25mm in size. The
siltstone ranges from 0.5mm to 1.2mm in size, and contains
very fine material, some of which is rectangular shaped,
brownish-red in colour, bright; other is orangey, bright, Fabric of sample SPW-0026. Image by J. Phillips, P.
Franco and R. Taylor.
and less regular shaped. Under plane polirized light (Plate
4), this material is characterized by high relief, bright red and orangey in colour, no pleochroic; possibly
iron minerals. This same type of very fine minerals occurs in the clay matrix.
36
Jeffrey G. Royal
Plates 1-4: Microphotographs (field view of 3mm) of thin sections for sample SPW-0026. Thin sections: J. Phillips and
P. Franco; photos by R. Taylor, the Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton. Image prepared by J. Royal
Sample ID: SPE-0038

Type: Joni Type 1
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (2.5YR 6/8) with darker (2.5YR

4/8 red) very-fine interior and exterior edges, and reddish-brown surfaces
(2.5YR 4/6 red). A very fine-grained fabric, compact, no inclusions are
readily visible. At x10 magnification, the quartz is silt-sized; extremely fine
white limestone and dark inclusions are present.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows a calcareous-calcitic clay matrix, optically anisotropic. It contains
siltstone inclusions, sparse in amount (3 to 5%) ranging in size from 0.25mm to 1mm; rare cherts (1 to 2%)
and calcitic foraminifera, small plagioclase feldspar, 0.2mm in size and rare in amount; lumps of clay are
also present (Plate 5). The siltstone contains very fine, bright reddish-brown, orangey in colour material,
possibly iron minerals. These very fine minerals very commonly occur in the clay matrix, and are better
visible under plane polarized light (Plate 6). Indentified brown heavy minerals are present in the fabric
37
Plates 5-6: Microphotographs (field view of 3mm) of thin sections for sample SPE-0038. Thin sections: J. Phillips and
characterized by high relief, colour: orangey, no pleochroic, cracks can be seen inside; under crossed
polarized light these are dark. The quartz is very common (30%), moderately sorted, less than 0.125mm
in size, while coarser grains are rectangular in shape and up to 0.25mm.
Sample ID: SPE-0012

Type: Joni Type 1
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 6/8). A very fine-

grained fabric, no inclusions are readily visible. At x10 magnification, very
fine dark and white inclusions can be seen, also one calcite inclusion, up to
2mm in size and few clay pellets 1mm in size.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows an optically anisotropic groundmass
containing abundant calcite and limestone. Siltstone inclusions are present in a sparse amount (3 to 5%
of the density chart) ranging from 0.2mm to 0.7mm in size. The siltstone contains very fine possibly
Plates 7-8: Microphotographs (field view of 3mm) of thin sections for sample SPE-0012. Thin sections: J. Phillips and
38
Jeffrey G. Royal
iron minerals. Similar minerals very commonly occur in the clay matrix. Cherts (2% in amount), calcitic
foraminifera, occasional plagioclase feldspar, and lumps of clay are also present. The quartz is abundant,
very fine, <0.125mm in size and well-sorted, larger quartz grains are 0.25mm in size (Plates 7-8).
Sample ID: SPW-0007

Type: Joni Type 1
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Reddish-brown in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 5/8 red)

with darker surfaces (2.5YR 4/8 red). Very fine-grained fabric, compact, rare
white inclusions can be seen. At x10 magnification, rare white calcareous
inclusions are present and very fine dark inclusions.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows a calcareous-calcitic clay matrix, optically anisotropic. It contains
sandstone and siltstone inclusions in sparse in amount (5%); also cherts (3%), rare (1 to 2%) very small
plagioclase feldspar, lumps of clay, while very fine flakes
of mica can be seen. The siltstone shows similar properties
as in previous fabrics. The largest sandstone in the fabric
and visible in the microphotograph is <1mm in size (Plate
IX). Moreover, very fine, rectangular, reddish and orangey Fabric of sample SPW-0007. Image by J. Phillips, P.
in colour inclusions; possibly iron minerals, occur very
commonly in the clay matrix, these are better visible under plane polirized light (Plate X).
Plates 9-10: Microphotographs (field view of 3mm) of thin sections for sample SPW-0007. Thin sections: J. Phillips and
39
Sample ID: SPW-0034

Type: Joni Type 2
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Creamish-beige to the naked eye (Munsell 10YR 7/4

very pale brown) with irregular fracture. Very fine-grained fabric, no inclusions
are readily visible. At x10 magnification, the quartz is silt-sized, while there is
a sparse to moderate amount (7 to 10% of the density chart) of very fine black
and red inclusions.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows an optically isotropic groundmass full of calcite. Calcite inclusions
are very commonly scattered in the clay matrix; calcitic
foraminifera and shells are present. The fabric contains
also rare plagioclase feldspar, and one fine sandstone
inclusion, 1.5mm in size containing a calcitic clay matrix.
The quartz is abundant, very fine, >0.125mm, moderately Fabric of sample SPW-0034. Image by J. Phillips, P.
sorted, angular and sub-angular in shape. Larger quartz is
up to 0.7mm in size.
Sample ID: SPW-0001

Type: Joni Type 1
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (2.5YR 6/8) with a very fine darker
external edge (2/5YR 4/8 red). Very fine-grained fabric, compact, smooth
fracture, no inclusions are readily visible. At x10 magnification, no inclusions
are visible with the exception of
some red iron ore, and lumps of clay.
Petrology Notes: Thin sectioning shows a calcareous-
calcitic clay matrix, optically anisotropic. Siltstone
inclusions are present in sparse amount, ranging from Fabric of sample SPW-0001. Image by J. Phillips, P.
0.3mm to 0.7mm in size. These show similar properties to Franco and R. Taylor.
those previously analyzed. Cherts (2%), lumps of clay (5%), rare plagioclase feldspar are present. Also,
very fine, rectangular shaped minerals occur commonly in the clay matrix; these are bright red-orangey
and no pleochroic in plane polirized light, possibly iron minerals (Plates 11-12).
40
Jeffrey G. Royal
Plates 11-12: Microphotographs (field view of 3mm) of thin sections for sample SPW-0001. Thin sections: J. Phillips
and P. Franco; photos by R. Taylor, the Oceanography Centre, University of Southampton. Image prepared by J. Royal
Sample ID: SPW-0050

Type: Jony Type 1?
Sample: Body
Visual Characteristics: Reddish-brown in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 5/8 red) with

darker surfaces (2.5YR 4/8 red). Very fine-grained fabric, compact, rare to
sparse (3 to 5% of the density chart) white calcareous inclusions can be seen.
Joni Types 1 and 2 Discussion

The main distinctive features for the fabrics of the ovoid-globular vessels, Joni 1 and 2 Types (sample
nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 12), are their very-fine grained nature, where no inclusions are readily visible, with
the exception of some white calcareous material, and their colour: light-red, reddish-brown with a
quite smooth fracture. Each has the same calcareous clay matrix and the same type of inclusions that
include roundish siltstone-and very-fine sandstone containing a sort of iron minerals, as well as cherts,
foraminifera, plagioclase feldspar and clay lumps. These fabrics indicate each was sourced from the same
geological area of sedimentary deposits, with an understanding that sedimentary deposits by their nature
are widespread.
Typologically the Joni 1 and 2 type amphorae share similarities with type Late Roman 1 and type Late
Roman 2. However their fabrics are different from the standard Late Roman 1 type that was produced in
Cilicia and Cyprus, and from the Late Roman 2 type. Studies of the Late Roman 1 type show that this vessel
contains volcanic material: dark grains of pyroxenes and red serpentine (Peacock 2005; Williams 2005,
who analyzes amphora samples from Seleucia Pieria) that are apparent under a binocular microscope. The
41
fabric of the Late Roman 1 amphorae from kiln sites in Cyprus are also different from those of the Joni
1 and 2 type amphorae because of the presence of few small serpentine and dark volcanic minerals and,
in thin section, strongly pleochroic hornblende (Roman Amphorae: a digital resource; Williams 2005).
The Joni 1 and 2 type amphorae are also different from the Late Roman 2 fabric as this latter does
not contain siltstone inclusions (Peacock 2005). An Aegean origin is suggested for the amphorae of the
Joni wreck. Cherts, foraminifera and plagioclase occur in Aegean amphorae such as in the Late Roman 2
(for a description of the LRA2 see: Peacock 2005). Moreover, amphorae described as Cretoise 1e in the
literature, and produced on the isle of Crete (see Bertoldi 2012, 127) show an outward rim and swollen
neck while its fabric is very fine-grained and light-red in colour (Bertoldi 2012, 158). The later variants
of the Cretan amphorae are dated from the mid third to the beginning 5th c. C.E. (Bertoldi 2012, 127).
Further investigation is needed regarding the origins of these vessels. On the basis of the geological
inclusions, an area in the Aegean, Black Sea and East is not excluded.
42
Jeffrey G. Royal
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The Illyrian Coastal Exploration Program (2010-14):

The Roman and Late-Roman Finds

All rights reserved 2018, ©Jeffrey G. Royal

Introduction Methodology Overview

may point towards a variety of exported goods

Wrecksite: MN10-AD, Traste 2

Wrecksite: MN10-AF, Krekavica 1

Artifact No. AB11-0001 AB11-0002 AB08-0009 AB10-0010

Table 1. Roman-Era ICEP Finds through 2015

Table 2. Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes

Table 2 (cont.). Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes

Base/Toe 9.2 5.1 1.3 2.2 - - - - -

Table 2 (cont.). Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes

Form / Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 - Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2

Table 2 (cont.). Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes

Base/Toe 4.6 - 4.4 - 5.7 -

Table 2 (cont.). Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes

Form / Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 Lamboglia 2 Dressel 6A Dressel 6A

Table 2 (cont.). Amphora Measurments and Observation Notes

Base/Toe 4.3 - 3.9 -

Table 3. Coefficients of Rhodian Amphoras from the Traste 1 Wreck

Table 5. Amphora Types and Frequencies from Southern Albanian Coast

Cretan 5 6-7 CE Crete 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0.4% 0.7%

Table 6. Shipwreck Distances from Shore

SW Turkish Coast Adriatic Coast

Appendix 2: Amphora Petrology Report

Laboratory Analysis and Notes by Dr. Pina Franco

Wreck ID: AB11-AB, Sason 1

Wreck ID: MN11-AF, Budvanski Zaliv 2

Wreck ID: MN11-AG, Budvanski Zaliv 3

Wreck ID: MN10-AF, Krekavica 1

Sample ID: MN10AF-0011-01

Sample ID: MN10AF-0012-01

Wreck ID: AA09-AA, Joni

Visual Characteristics: Red and grey coloured fabric core containing

Sample ID: AB09AA-S01

Visual Characteristics: Red-brick in colour containing very fine quartz-sand

Sample ID: AB09AA-S02

Visual Characteristics: Red in colour containing rare inclusions of

Sample ID: SPE-0017

Visual Characteristics: Light peach in colour with creamy external edge.

Sample ID: AB09AA-S03

Visual Characteristics: A cylindrical container with evident tooling marks

Wreck ID: AA09-AA, Joni

Sample ID: SPW-0026

Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 6/8) with darker

Sample ID: SPE-0038

Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (2.5YR 6/8) with darker (2.5YR

Sample ID: SPE-0012

Visual Characteristics: Light-red in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 6/8). A very fine-

Sample ID: SPW-0007

Visual Characteristics: Reddish-brown in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 5/8 red)

Sample ID: SPW-0034

Visual Characteristics: Creamish-beige to the naked eye (Munsell 10YR 7/4

Sample ID: SPW-0001

Sample ID: SPW-0050

Visual Characteristics: Reddish-brown in colour (Munsell 2.5YR 5/8 red) with

Joni Types 1 and 2 Discussion

Fraser, P. M., 1972. Ptolemaic Alexandria, Vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford.