Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–1 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2 Indian Literature,
Culture & Tradition

CONTENTS
Part-1 : Evolution of Script and .......................... 2–2Q to 2–7Q
Languages in India :
Harappan Script and
Brahmi Script

Part-2 : The Vedas, the Upanishads, ................ 2–7Q to 2–13Q

the Ramayana and the
Mahabharata, Puranas

Part-3 : Buddhist and Jain .............................. 2–13Q to 2–16Q

Literature in Pali,
Prakrit and Sanskrit

Part-4 : Kautilya’s Arthashastra, .................... 2–16Q to 2–24Q

Famous Sanskrit Authors,
Telugu Literature, Kannada
Literature, Malayalam Literature,
Sangama Literature, Northern
Indian Languages &
Literature, Persian and
Urdu, Hindi Literature.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–2 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

PART-1
Evolution of Script and Languages in India : Harappan Script
and Brahmi Script.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.1. Discuss the different language of India.

Answer
1. Language is a medium through which we express our thoughts.
2. To know any particular culture and its tradition it is very important that
we understand the evolution of its language.
Classification of Indian languages : The Indian people speaks languages
belonging to following four distinct speech families :
A. Aryan :
1. Of the ancient Indian linguistic and cultural groups, the Aryan is the
most important.
2. Indian civilization has found its expression primarily through the Aryan
speech as it developed over the centuries.
3. The hymns and poems collected in the four Vedas gives us the oldest
specimens of the speech.
4. Aryan speech developed over time through Vedic Sanskrit (old Indo-
Aryan), then Classical Sanskrit, then Early Middle Indo-Aryan dialects
like Pali and Old Ardha-Magadhi, then Buddhist and Jaina Sanskrit and
after that the various Prakrits and Apabhramsas, and finally the different
Modern Indo-Aryan languages of the country.
B. Dravidian :
1. Dravidian is the second important language family of India and has
some special characteristics of its own.
2. After the Aryan speech, it has very largely functioned as the exponent
of Indian culture.
3. It forms a solid bloc in South India, embracing the four great literary
languages, Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, and Telugu.
4. The Dravidian speech in its antiquity in India is older than Aryan.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–3 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

C. Sino-Tibetan :
1. Peoples of Mongoloid origin, speaking languages of the Sino-Tibetan
family, were present in India at least as early as the tenth century B.C.
2. The Sino-Tibetan languages do not have much numerical importance or
cultural significance in India, with the exception of Manipuri of Manipur.
3. Everywhere they are gradually receding before the Aryan languages
like Bengali and Assamese.
D. Austric :
1. The Austric languages represent the oldest speech family of India, but
they are spoken by a very small number of people, comparatively.
2. The Austric languages of India have a great interest for the student of
linguistics and human culture.
3. They are valuable relics of India's past, and they link up India with
Burma, with Indo-China, with Malaya, and with Indonesia, Melanesia,
and Polynesia.
4. Their solidarity is, however, broken by the more powerful Aryan
speeches.
5. Speakers of Austric know some Aryan language. In some cases they
have become very largely bilingual.
6. Speakers of Austric introduced some of their own speech habits and
their own words into Aryan. In this way, the Austrics peoples helped to
modify the character of the Aryan speech in India and even to build up
Classical Sanskrit as the great culture speech of India.

Que 2.2. Trace the evolution of writing in India.

Answer
1. Different people came to India at different times, each with its special
racial type, language, region and culture.
2. A great intermingling of races and cultures started from prehistoric
times, resulting in the emergence of a mixed Indian people with a
composite culture of its own.
3. In the evolution of development of languages in India we see this process
of miscegenation at work.
4. The Aryan speech, after it came to India, assimilated with the Dravidian,
the Austric and the Indo-Mangoloid speeches and a common speech,
gradually evolved.
5. Until the discovery of the Indus Valley Civilization in 1920, ancient India
seemingly had two main scripts in which languages were written, Brahmi
and Kharosti.
6. The Brahmi script developed under Semitic influence around 7th C. BC.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–4 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

7. The Kharosti script came into being during the 5th C. BC in northwest
India which was under Persian rule.
8. In 1920 archaeologists announced the discovery of Indus Valley which
pre-dated the earliest literary sources.
9. This caused scholars working on ancient texts to re-examine their views
on the different phases of Indian culture.
10. The extensive excavations carried out at the two principal city sites,
Harappa and Mohen-jo-Daro, both situated in the Indus basin, indicates
that Dravidian culture was well established by about 2500 B.C.
11. Every attempt to decipher the script used by these people has failed so
far.
12. Recent analyses of the order of the signs on the inscriptions have led
several scholars to the view that the language appears to be Dravidian
akin to Old Tamil.
13. What this points to is the existence of a system of writing far more
ancient than what was originally considered.
14. Thus, in the matter of writing, we find a long history from prehistoric
times before the coming of the Aryans down to recent years.

Que 2.3. Write an essay on the origin and development of Brahmi

script in India.
OR
Write short note on : Brahmi script.

Answer
Origin and development of Brahmi script in India :
1. Brahmi is the modern name given to the one of the oldest scripts used
on the Indian subcontinent during the final centuries BCE and the early
centuries CE.
2. The most disputed point about the origin of the Brahmi script is whether
it was a purely indigenous development or was inspired or derived from
scripts that originated outside India.
3. It is noted that the indigenous view is strongly preferred by Indian
scholars, whereas the idea of Semitic borrowing is preferred most often
by Western scholars.
4. Most scholars until recently thought that the Brahmi scripts was derived
from the ancient Phoenician script which itself is a derivative of the still
more ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, through the later Demotic
style.
5. Others thought that the South Arabian form of Phoenician was the
immediate source of Brahmi.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–5 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

6. But there are some basic divergences between Phoenician writing on

the one hand and Brahmi on the other, which make this affiliation a
little difficult to accept.
7. On the other hand, the agreements between the Mohen-jo-Daro script
and Brahmi would suggest that Brahmi was derived from the Mohen-
jo-Daro script.
8. Of course, Brahmi could not be a perfect or full system of writing,
expressing in all its niceties the entire sound-system of the Aryan speech
of the time.
9. There was also a suggestion that the Brahmi letters originated
independently in India from pictures of objects.
10. The Brahmi letters have the great beauty of simplicity - they stand bold
and clear.

Que 2.4. What are the characteristics of Brahmi script ?

Answer
Characteristics of Brahmi script :
1. Brahmi is usually written from left to right.
2. Brahmi is an abugida, meaning that each letter represents a consonant,
while vowels are written with obligatory diacritics called matras in
Sanskrit.
3. Vowels following a consonant are inherent or written by diacritics, but
initial vowels have dedicated letters.
4. Brahmi characters are joined vertically downwards.
5. In the early Brahmi period, the existence of punctuation marks is not
very well shown.
6. Each letter has been written independently with some space between
words and edicts occasionally.
7. In the middle period, the system seems to be in progress.
8. The use of a dash and a curved horizontal line is found.
9. A flower mark seems to mark the end, and a circular mark appears to
indicate the full stop. There seem to be varieties of full stop.
10. In the late period, the system of interpunctuation marks gets more
complicated.

Que 2.5. Give an account on the Harappan script of India.

OR
Write short note on : Harappan script.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–6 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Answer
1. The Harappan script is a corpus of symbols produced by the Indus valley
civilisation.
2. Most inscriptions are extremely short.
3. It is not clear if these symbols constitute a script used to record a language,
and the subject of whether the Indus symbols were a writing system is
controversial. 4. In spite of many attempts at decipherment, it is
undeciphered, and no underlying language has been identified.
5. There is no known bilingual inscription.
6. The script does not show any significant changes over time.
7. In the early 1970s, Iravatham Mahadevan published a corpus and
concordance of Indus inscriptions listing 3,700 seals and 417 distinct
signs in specific patterns.
8. The average inscription contains five signs, and the longest inscription
is only 17 signs long.
9. He also established the direction of writing as right to left.

Que 2.6. What factors are considered as the obstacles for a

successful decipherment of the Harappan script ?

Answer
The following factors are the biggest obstacles for a successful decipherment
of the Harappan script :
1. The underlying language has not been identified though some 300
loanwords in the Rigveda are a good starting point for comparison.
2. The average length of the inscriptions is less than five signs, the longest
being only 17 signs (and a sealing of combined inscriptions of just 27
signs).
3. No bilingual texts (like a Rosetta stone) have been found.
4. There have been various (mutually exclusive) decipherment claims.
None of these suggestions has found academic recognition.

Que 2.7. What are the characteristics of Harappan script ?

Answer
Characteristics of Harappan script :
1. The characters are largely pictorial, but include many abstract signs.
2. The inscriptions are thought to have been written mostly from right-to-
left.
3. The number of principal signs is about 400.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–7 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

4. Since that is considered too large a number for each character to be a

phonogram, the script is generally believed to instead be logo-syllabic.

PART-2
The Vedas, the Upanishads, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata,
Puranas.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.8. Write an essay on the Vedic literature.

OR
Write shorts notes on : Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda and
Atharva-Veda.

Answer
1. The Vedas are the earliest known literature in India. The Vedas were
written in Sanskrit and were handed down orally from one generation
to the other.
2. The word 'Veda' literally means knowledge. In Hindu culture, Vedas are
considered as eternal and divine revelations.
3. They treat the whole world as one human family Vasudev Kutumbakam.
4. There are four Vedas, namely, the - Rig-Veda, Yajur-Veda, Sama-Veda
and Atharva-Veda. Each Veda consists of the Brahmanas, the
Upanishads and the Aranyakas.
A. The Rig-Veda Samhita :
1. The oldest of the four samhitas mentioned is the Rig samhita.
2. It is the name given to that samhita in which the priest intones the
mantras as an invitation to the Gods to put in an appearance at a yagya.
3. It is the oldest and the most extensive of the samhitas, and many of its
mantras have been borrowed in the other samhitas.
4. Rig samhita has been divided into ten mandals or parts and the mantras
that are included in each mandal are given the prefix ‘sukta’.
5. There are 1028 suktas in the Rigveda. It took hundreds of years to
compose these suktas.
6. Rig veda provides almost complete information concerning the old Vedic
civilization. It contains picture of the oldest Aryan civilization and their
religion, way of life, thought and modes of behaviour.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–8 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

7. This particular text also shows how philosophic thought, religion, ideas
and other related emotions and feelings came to be born in the mind of
man.
B. The Sama-Veda Samhita :
1. This is the second Veda. It contains some 1549 mantras of which only 72
are new, while the rest have all been derived from the Rigveda.
2. There are two parts to this veda. There are six kandas in the first and
nine in the latter part.
3. Each kanda has numerous smaller kandas which are also called ‘sukta’.
There are 459 such small kandas.
4. The collection of the samhita of the Samaveda was made keeping in
mind the requirements of the singer priest.
5. Sama means song or singing. In the Samaveda everything is sung.
6. When the yagya was organised, the singer priest called out to the deity
in question by singing the mantras in a loud and sweet voice.
7. The Samaveda samhita has been divided into two parts - the purvarchika
and the uttararchika.
C. The Yajur-Veda Samhita :
1. Yaju is the name given to poetry, for which reason much of this Veda is
in poetry.
2. Etymologically the term 'Yajur Veda' means knowledge concerning
yagya.
3. It contains 40 chapters in which there are 2000 couplets.
4. It contains poetical sentences which were employed at the time of the
yagya for this reason yajur-veda is particularly concerned with
anushthana.
5. This Veda has two forms - the Shukla Yajurveda and the Krishna
Yajurveda.
6. Each of the two forms has its own samhita, the samhita of the Shukla
Yajurveda being called the Vaajsaneyi sanhita.
7. The Shukla yajur-veda has two prominent branches of which each one
has a separate samhita.
8. There are many branches of the Krishna yajur-veda, of which only four
are existent.
9. Both the Krishna and the Shukla yajur-veda provide detailed description
of yagya rituals.
10. In the yajur-veda one finds graphic descriptions of the difference between
the caste and the varna systems.
11. There is mention of mixed castes also, along with descriptions of
handicrafts, science, trade, etc.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–9 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

D. The Atharva-Veda Samhita :

1. In this Veda there are 20 kandas, 34 Prapathaka, 111 Anuvaka, 731
suktas and 1849 mantras.
2. In the Atharva-Veda little attention has been paid to the technique or
mode of yagya.
3. Rig-Veda derives its importance from its independent development and
from the fact that it is a record of ancient history. The same is true of the
Atharva-Veda also.
4. The chief difference between the two is that there was practically no
class distinction or brahmanic superiority in the Rig veda but it is clearly
in evidence in the Atharva veda.
5. Some of the mantras of the Atharva-Veda are concerned with such
occult activities as magic, curses, casting spells, ghosts, witches, causing
invisibility, and hypnotism.
6. The beginning of Ayurveda, medicine and pharmacology are to be found
in this Veda.
7. This Veda also provides some glimpses of the manner in which the
beliefs and ideas concerning life evolved in the Aryan period.

Que 2.9. What is Upanisad ? Discuss.

Answer
1. Literally speaking, the word, “Upanisad”, means “sitting down near”.
2. The sense most commonly signified by the word upanisad is the esoteric
teaching imparted by the teacher to the pupil who sits (sad), near him
(upa), in a closed select (ni), group.
3. The Upanisads are also called the Vedanta, because they represent the
concluding portion of the apauruseya Veda, or the ultimate end and aim
of the teachings of the Veda.
4. The Upanisads are the first recorded attempt at systematic, though not
systematized, philosophizing.
5. They are one of the most significant sources of the spiritual wisdom of
India, and are traditionally regarded as one of the three prasthanas
(source books) of Indian philosophy.
6. Upanisads are concerned with the contemplative-realizational rather
than with the ritualistic-ceremonial aspect of the spiritual life of the
people.
7. There are over 200 Upanisads. The ten chief ancient Upanisads are the
Isa, the Kena, the Katha, the Prasna, the Mundak, the Mandukya, the
Taittiriya, the Aitereya, the Chandogya and the Brhdaranyaka.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–10 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

8. Apart from these principal Upanisads there are many others, but they
are essentially sectarian in character and pseudo-philosophical in
content.
9. They are usually divided into various classes, such as Slmanya-Vedanta,
Yoga, Sannyasa, Saiva, Vaisnava, and Sakta, in accordance with their
main tendencies.
10. The Upanisads gave the people a philosophy but not a religion.

Que 2.10. Describe the story of Ramayana.

Answer
The main story of the Ramayana is briefly this :
1. Dasaratha, king of Ayodhya, is about to install his eldest son, Rama, on
the throne.
2. Kaikeyi, Rama‘s step-mother, wants her own son Bharata to be crowned
king, and Rama to be sent into exile for fourteen years.
3. The old and infirm king, though reluctant, has to agree.
4. Rama goes to live in the forest, accompanied by his consort, Sita, and his
brother, Laksmana.
5. The demon-king of Lanka, Ravana, abducts Sita.
6. Rama, determined to rescue Sita, wages a dour war against Ravana
who is ultimately vanquished and killed.
7. Rama comes back to Ayodhya and assumes his position as king, with
Sita as queen.

Que 2.11. Write an account on the literary characteristics of

Ramayana.

Answer
1. In the Ramayana the art of poetry appears to have made great progress.
2. The poet is an adept in characterization, and this is displayed in a series
of unparalleled portraits :
i. Rama’s supreme sacrifice for the sake of his father;
ii. Sita is the glowing example of chastity and high-mindedness;
iii. Laksmana’s obedience to his elder brother;
iv. The self-abnegation of Bharata in abjuring royal comforts during
the absence of Rama;
v. The unflinching loyalty of Hanuman to his master.
vi. Across the sea, in Lanka, we find Ravana, of tremendous physical
and mental vigour.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–11 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. The author of the Ramayana has thus presented a magnificent life-

gallery throbbing with profound human appeal, and in the centre of this
gallery the character of Ram shines.
4. He is a model son, husband, brother, king, warrior, and man.
5. The Ramayana brings out the close relationship between external nature
and internal nature expressed in the minds and moods of people.
6. Unlike the other epic, the Ramayana creates an idyll out of nature and
produces a lyrical effect.
7. Various sentiments have been introduced, into the epic, but the main
sentiment is the heroic.

Que 2.12. Describe the story of Mahabharata.

Answer
The main story of the Mahabharata is briefly this :
1. The Pandavas, headed by Yudhisthira, and the Kauravas, headed by
Duryodhana, descended from common ancestors.
2. Duryodhana becomes jealous and, coveting the crown invites Yudhisthira
to a game of dice.
3. As the result of a rash wager, Yudhisthira loses his kingdom to
Duryodhana and is then forced to go into exile, together with his brothers
and Draupadi, the common consort of the Pandavas, for twelve years,
followed by one year during which they must live incognito.
4. But even when the stipulated period is over, Duryodhana refuses to
give even a fraction of his territory to Yudhisthira, the rightful owner.
5. A grim battle ensues. The Kauravas are routed and ruined, and the
Pandavas regain their lost kingdom.

Que 2.13. Write an account on the literary characteristics of

Mahabharata.

Answer
1. The Mahabharata has been characterized as a “whole literature”.
2. The nucleus of the epic is simple. Around this nucleus has gathered a
diverse mass of material dealing with innumerable topics-legendary,
didactic, ethical, heroic, aesthetic, philosophical, political, and so on.
3. Even a casual reader is struck by the wealth of characters in the epic,
and the way they have been so beautifully portrayed.
4. The composer knows the value of contrast, for he shows how a good
character shines brighter against a bad one.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–12 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

5. Each of the five Pandava brothers has his own distinct traits of character.
Yudhisthira, the eldest, never departs from the age-old path of virtue.
Unflinching in his devotion to dharma, he has an unshaken faith that
Dharma must ultimately triumph.
6. Duryodhana is materialistic in outlook; he is concerned mainly with
artha (wealth) and kama (desire), and does not bother himself about
dharma. He thus serves as an excellent foil to Yudhisthira.
7. The suffering caused by their enemies rouses the righteousness of
Draupadi. Her speech to urge Yudhisthira to action is fiery and imbued
with the high Ksatriya spirit.
8. Similarly Gandhari, the mother of the Kauravas, condemns Dhritrashtra
as the one who is fully responsible for the rout and ruin of the Kauravas.
9. Thus clearly showing that she is not blinded by attachment to her husband
or by affection for her sons. Her judgment is impartial and sound.
10. The dominant sentiment in the Mahabharata is the heroic, but here too
the pathetic sentiment is equally noteworthy.
11. The epic reveals the poet’s mastery of the art of description. In general,
the style is effortless.

Que 2.14. What is Purana ?

Answer
1. The term purana means, “that which lives from ancient times”.
2. The Puranas are a very important branch, of the Hindu sacred literature.
3. They enable us to know the true import of the ethos, philosophy, and
religion of the Vedas.
4. The Puranas were written with the object of popularizing the truths
taught in the Vedas by presenting them in relation to specific personages
and to the events of their lives.
5. The real function of the Puranas is to explain, illustrate, and amplify the
Vedas.
6. The main value of the Puranas consists in amplifying, enforcing, and
illustrating the spiritual truths stated in the Vedas in the form of
injunctions and commands.
7. The principal (Maha) Puranas are eighteen in number. There are also
eighteen secondary (Upa) Puranas. These contain about 4,00,000 verses
on the whole and relate to a vast variety of topics.
8. Purana is traditionally defined as comprising five main topics : sarga
(creation), pratisarga (dissolution and recreation), vamsa (divine
genealogies), manvantara (ages of Manus), and vasmanuchari
(genealogies of kings).
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–13 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

9. The eighteen Mahapuranas are classified either as sattvika, tamasa,

and rajas or in accordance with the divinity (such as Visnu, Siva, Brahma,
Devi) which they glorify.

PART-3
Buddhist and Jain Literature in Pali, Prakrity and Sanskrit.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 2.15. Give an account on the Buddhist literature.

Answer
1. The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in
Magadha and South Bihar.
2. The Buddhist works can be divided into the canonical and the non-
canonical.
3. The canonical literature is best represented by the Tripitaka, that is,
three baskets :
i. Vinaya Pitaka : It deals with rules and regulations of daily life.
ii. Sutta Pitaka : It contains dialogues and discourses on morality
and deals with Dharma.
iii. Abhidhamma Pitaka : It deals with philosophy and metaphysics.
It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics, psychology,
theories of knowledge and metaphysical problems.
4. The non-canonical literature is best represented by the Jatakas. Jatakas
are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha.
5. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC.
6. They also make incidental reference to political events in the age of the
Buddha.
7. The Buddhist literature, both Hinayana and Mahayana, is preserved
mainly in Pali, Buddhist Sanskrit, and Pure Sanskrit.
8. Pali Tripitaka represents the earliest and most complete collection of
the Buddhist literature.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–14 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Que 2.16. Write short note on : Pali language.

Answer
1. The word Pali simply means ‘a line’ and is regarded as a Middle Indo-
Aryan language that is native to India.
2. The earliest known origins of this language are unclear.
3. It was earlier known as Magadhi, named after its place of origin in
modern-day Bihar.
4. Buddha spent most of his time in Magadha and preached his doctrine
there in the dialect of that region.
5. It is but natural that the early Buddhist scriptures were composed in
Magadhi in which Buddha himself spoke.
6. The Tripitaka was committed to writing during the reign of Vattagamani
Abhaya in the first century B.C.
7. Apart from the canonical literature in Pali, there are also a large number
of post-canonical Pali works. They comprise mostly tikas and tippanis.
8. The extracanonical works can be divided in to the commentaries, then
the chronicles, manuals, poetical works, grammars, and works on
rhetoric and metrics, and lastly, the lexicons.

Que 2.17. Give an account on the Buddhist Sanskrit literature.

Answer
Like the Pali Tripitaka, there is also the Tripitaka in Buddhist Sanskrit
consisting of Agama, Vinaya, and Abhidharma.
A. Hinayana Buddhist Sanskrit texts :
1. The Agama is divided into four boo ks entitle d Dirghagama,
Madhyamagama, Samyuktagama and Ekottaragama.
2. The Vinaya Pitaka contains four divisions Vinayavibhanga, Vinayavastu,
Vinayaksudrakavastu and Vinaya-uttaragrantha.
3. The Abhidharma Pitaka of the Sarvastivada School has seven treatises:
the Jnana-prasthana, the Sangitiparyaya, the Prakaranapada, the
Vijnanakaya, the Dhatukaya, the Dharmaskandha, the Prajnaptisastra.
4. The Mahavastu is one of the most important works belonging to the
school of Hinayana. It is an encyclopedia of Buddhist legends and
doctrines.
5. Apart from those mentioned above, this school has to its credit a large
number of works under the caption Avadana literature.
B. Mahayana Buddhist Sanskrit texts :
1. The Mahayana school’s contribution to Indian thought is unique. It had
an extensive literature of its own.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–15 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

2. Of the numerous Mahayana works, nine books (nine Dharmas) are

held in great reverence.
3. They are : Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita, Saddharmapundarika-Sutra,
Lalitavistara, Lankavatara, Suvarnaprabhasa, Gandavyuha, Tathagata-
guhyaka, Samadhiraja and Dasabhumisvara.
4. They are also known as Vaipulya-Sutras.
C. Pure Sanskrit texts :
1. The Buddhist literature was further enriched by a galaxy of eminent
scholars.
2. Prominent among them were Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga,
Vasubandhu, Sthiramati, Dinnaga, Vasumitra, Dharmapala,
Dharmakirti, Santideva and Santaraksita. 3. Their works were composed
in pure Sanskrit and mainly on Buddhist philosophy and logic.

Que 2.18. Write an account on the literature of Jainism.

Answer
1. The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were compiled in the sixth
century AD in Valabhi in Gujarat.
2. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,
Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras.
3. Jainism helped in the growth of a rich literature comprising poetry,
philosophy and grammar.
4. These works contain many passages which help us to reconstruct the
political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
5. The Jain texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
6. Jaina literature begins with the last of the Tirthankaras, Mahavir, who
reorganized the old Nirgrantha sect and revitalized its moral and religious
zeal and activities.
7. He preached his faith of ahimsa (non-violence) and self-purification to
the people in their own language Prakrit.
8. The form of Prakrit which he is said to have used was Ardha-Magadhi.

Que 2.19. Write short note on : The Jaina Canon (a collection of

sacred books accepted as genuine).

Answer
1. The language of these texts is Ardha-Magadhi. But it is not uniform in
all the texts.
2. The subject-matter of this canonical literature is mainly the ascetic
practices of the followers of Mahavira.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–16 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

3. As such, it is essentially didactic, dominated by the supreme ethical

principle of ahimsa.
4. Also there is a good deal of poetry and philosophy as well as valuable
information about contemporary thought and social history including
biographical details of Parsvanatha, Mahavira, and their contemporaries.
5. Many narrative pieces are interesting and instructive.
6. From the historical point of view, the life of Mahavira, information
about his predecessors and contemporaries, about his successors, and
about monachism practised in the days of Mahavira in eastern India are
all very valuable.

Que 2.20. Give an account on the Jaina sanskrit literature.

Answer
1. The language of Jaina literature was primarily the Prakrits. But Sanskrit
was not altogether shunned.
2. Amongst the Jains, the earliest work in Sanskrit devoted to religious
writing is the Tattvarthadhigama-Sutra of Umasvamin which epitomizes
the whole Jaina creed in about 375 sutras arranged in ten chapters.
3. The work occupies a unique position in Jaina literature as it is recognized
as authoritative equally by the Digambaras and the Svetambaras with a
few variations in the readings, and is very widely studied by both.
4. The next commentary on it is Tattvartha-raja-varttika of Akalanka (8th
century) which offers more detailed explanations of the sutras, as well
as of the important statements of Pujyapada.
5. The Tattvartha-sloka-varttika of Vidyanandin (9th century) gives
expositions in verse and makes valuable clarifications.
6. For yogic practices, the Jnanarnava and the Yogasastra are valuable
guides.
7. Jaina Sanskrit literature is considerably enriched by a series of works
on Nyaya (logic).

PART-4
Kautilya’s Arthashastra, Famous Sanskrit Authors, Telugu
Literature, Kannada Literature, Malayalam Literature,
Sangama Literature, Northern Indian Languages &
Literature, Persian and Urdu, Hindi Literature.

Questions-Answers

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–17 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

Que 2.21. Write short note on : Kautilya’s Arthashastra.

Answer
1. The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft,
economic policy and military strategy.
2. Kautilya is traditionally credited as the author of the text.
3. The title Arthashastra is often translated to “the science of wealth”, but
the book Arthashastra has a broader scope.
4. The Arthasastra is divided into 15 adhikaranas and 180 prakaranas and
embraces economics, sociology, politics, etc.
5. The major portion is devoted to the problems of administration. It deals
with the following elements of the kingdom :
i. training;
ii. duties and vices of the king;
iii. recruitment and duties of the amatyas and mantrins;
iv. civil and criminal administration; and
v. guilds and corporations.
6. Republics form the theme of one whole chapter. Further, the text
enunciates the principles of interstate relations and describes the military
organisation.
7. It suggests methods to win wars and acquire popularity in the conquered
territories.
8. A distinguishing feature of its contents is the exaltation of the central
authority and the assignment of many social and economic functions to
the king.
9. A good part of Kautilya's arthashastra is concerned with politics.
10. However, Kautilya makes a deliberate and conscious attempt to free
politics from the influence of religion and morality.
11. Thus the Arthasastra is not only a treatise on the science of wealth but
also a treatise on political science.

Que 2.22. Mention some of the famous Sanskrit authors and their
work.

Answer

Following are some of the famous Sanskrit authors :

Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–18 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

1. Ashwaghosha :
i. Ashwaghosha is the greatest Indian poet prior to Kalidasa who
wrote Buddhacharita, Mahalankara (Book of Glory) and the
Saundaranandakavya, a poem with the theme of conversion of
Nanda, Buddha’s half-brother, so that he might reach salvation.
ii. He was the court writer and religious advisor of Kushana king
Kanishka and known as first Sanskrit Dramatist of the world.
iii. He was a born Brahmin, but later turned into a Buddhist Monk.
iv. He also wrote a Sanskrit Drama Sariputra Prakaran.
2. Bhasa :
i. Bhasa wrote important works like Swapnavasavadattam, Panch-
Ratra, Madhyama-Vyayoga, DutaGhattotkacha, Duta-Vakya,
Urubhanga, Karna-Bhara and Bal Charita.
ii. Svapnavasavadattam was lost and rediscovered in 1912 in Kerala.
iii. This play is around the Vatsa king Udayana and his queen
Vasavadatta, the daughter of Pradyota, the ruler of Avanti.
3. Kalidasa : Kalidasa is the immortal poet and playwright of India and a
peerless genius whose works became famous worldwide in modern
world.
4. Sudraka :
i. The real name of Sudraka was Indranigupta and he was an Abhira
King.
ii. Sudraka has composed three Sanskrit Plays :
a. Mricchakatika
b. Vinavasavadatta
c. Padmaprabhritaka
5. Vatsyayana :
i. Vatsyayana was the author of Nyaya Sutra Bhashya and
Kamasutra.
ii. Kamasutra is a treatise on human sexual behaviour and makes the
part of the Kamashashtra.
iii. As per the traditions, the first transmission of the Kamashashra is
attributed to Nandi.
6. Vishakhadatta :
i. Vishakhadatta was one of the famous Sanskrit poet and play writer
after Mahakavi Kalidas.
ii. We know about only two plays of Vishakhadatta viz. Mudrarakshasa
and the Devichandraguptam.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–19 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

iii. Mudrarakshasa means “Ring of the Demon”. It narrates the ascent

of Chandragupta Maurya to throne.
7. Bharavi :
i. Bharavi is best known for Kiratarjuniya.
ii. Kirat is Shiva who speaks to Arjuna in the form of a mountain
dwelling hunter.
iii. This epic style Kavya is considered to be among the greatest works
in Sanskrit which is known for complexity of the Sanskrit.
8. Magha :
i. Magha was a Sanskrit poet at King Varmalata's court at Shrimala,
the then-capital of Gujarat.
ii. Sisupala-Vadha was written by Magha in 7th Century AD and is
one of the six Sanskrit Mahakavyas.
iii. It was inspired by the works of Kalidasa, Bharavi and Dandin.

Que 2.23. Write short note on : Telugu literature.

Answer

1. Telugu is one of the classical languages of India. It is a language of the

Dravidian family.
2. The Indian Constitution recognises it as one of the 22 official languages
of India.
3. Telugu literature is the body of works written in the Telugu language. It
consists of poems, short stories, novels, plays, and song lyrics, among
others.
4. Early Telugu literature is predominantly religious in subject matter.
Poets and scholars drew most of their material from epics, such as the
Ramayana, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata and the Puranas.
5. From the 16th century onwards, rarely known episodes from the Puranas
would form the basis for the tradition of Telugu-language kavya.
6. Literary works drawn from episodes of the Puranas under the name
Akhyana or Khanda became popular along with depictions of the fortune
of a single hero under the title of Charitra, Vijaya, Vilasa and Abhyudaya.
7. In the eighteenth-century, marriages of heroes under the title Parinaya,
Kalyana and Vivaha became popular.
8. Religious literature consisted of biographies of the founders of religion,
their teachings (Sara) as well as commentaries (bhashya).
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–20 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

9. Traditional Hindu knowledge systems such as astrology, law, grammar,

ballets, moral aphorisms, and devotional psalms to deities within the
Hindu pantheon are characteristics of more popular works of Telugu
literature.

Que 2.24. Write short note on : Kannada literature.

Answer

1. Kannada literature is the corpus of written forms of the Kannada

language, a member of the Dravidian family.
2. The Kannada language is usually divided into three linguistic phases :
Old (450–1200 CE), Middle (1200–1700 CE) and Modern (1700–present).
3. Its literary characteristics are categorised as Jain, Veerashaiva and
Vaishnava — recognising the prominence of these three faiths in giving
form to the classical expression of the language.
4. Starting with the Kavirajamarga (c. 850), and until the middle of the
12th century, literature in Kannada was almost exclusively composed
by the Jains.
5. The Veerashaiva movement of the 12th century created new literature
which flourished alongside the Jain works.
6. With the waning of Jain influence during the 14th century Vijayanagara
Empire, a new Vaishnava literature grew rapidly in the 15th century.
7. In the 19th century, some literary forms, such as the prose narrative,
the novel, and the short story, were borrowed from English literature.

Que 2.25. Write short note on : Malayalam literature.

Answer

1. Malayalam literature comprises of literary texts written in Malayalam, a

South-Dravidian language spoken in Kerala.
2. The earliest known literary work in Malayalam is Ramacharitam, an
epic poem written by Cheeraman in 1198 CE.
3. In the subsequent centuries, besides a popular pattu literature, the
manipravalam poetry also flourished.
4. Manipravalam style consisted of poetry in an admixture of Malayalam
and Sanskrit.
5. Then came works such as champus and sandeshakavyas in which prose
and poetry were interspersed.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–21 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

6. Later, poets like Cherusseri introduced poems on devotional themes.

7. Ezhuthachan, a strong proponent of Bhakti movement, is known as the
father of Malayalam. His poems are classified under the genre of
kilippattu.
8. Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late
19th century with the rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting
of Kumaran Asan, Ulloor S. Parameswara Iyer and Vallathol Narayana
Menon.
9. Contemporary Malayalam poetry deals with social, political, and economic
life context. The tendency of the modern poetry is often towards political
radicalism.

Que 2.26. Write short note on : Sangam literature.

Answer

1. In ancient times the association or academy of the most learned men of

the Tamil land was called ‘Sangam’ whose chief function was promotion
of literature.
2. Later Tamil writers mention the existence of three literary academies
(Sangams) at different periods.
3. The last academy is credited with the corpus of literature now known as
‘Sangam Works’.
4. Naturalism and romanticism were the salient features of the poems of
the Sangam bards.
5. Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or ‘the preserver of
ancient institutions’ was written by Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest
extant Tamil grammar dating back to 500 B.C.
6. It lays down rules for different kinds of poetical compositions drawn
from the examples furnished by the best works then extant.
7. It contains about 1,610 suttirams (aphorisms). It is in three parts : ezhuttu
(orthography), sol (etymology), and porul (literary conventions and
usages) each with nine sections.
8. The principal works of the third Sangam have come down to us in the
shape of anthologies of poems.
9. The anthologies of the third Sangam consist of poems divided into two
broad categories : aham or interior and puram or exterior.
10. An allegory of the different stages through which the soul of man passes
from its manifestation in the body to its final unification with the Supreme
Being is seen in aham.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–22 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

11. The puram covers varieties of distinctive poems, mostly relating to man's
social behaviour.

Que 2.27. Give an account on the northern Indian languages and

literature.

Answer

1. In early medieval period the old apabhramsha had taken new forms and
was in the process of evolving into other forms.
2. These languages were evolving at two levels : the spoken and the written
language.
3. The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change.
4. The alphabets during Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the
time of Harsha, the letters had become of the same size.
5. All the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except that of
Urdu, have had their origin in old Brahmi.
6. At present there are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India.
Some are widely used while others are limited to a particular area.
7. A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include
Braj Bhasha, Avadhi, Bhojpuri, Magadhi, Maithili, Rajasthani and Khadi
Boli.
8. The language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name of
Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called
Avadhi and the one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili.
9. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one called Khadi Boli.
10. Extensive use of Khadi Boli in literature began only in the nineteenth
century. It even shows some influence of Urdu.

Que 2.28. Write short note on : Persian and Urdu languages.

Answer

Persian language :
1. As Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature produced
in this period was written in Persian.
2. We find several historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied
literature in this language.
3. The Mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature.
4. Quite a fair amount of Persian literature has been produced by the
courtiers of the Mughals.
Indian Tradition, Culture & Society 2–23 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

5. From there we get a good deal of information about Mughal period.

6. Several collections of letters of the Mughal period (insha) have come
down to us. Besides shedding light on Mughal history, they indicate
different styles of letter writing.
Urdu language :
1. Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the
Turks and the Mongols.
2. Urdu as a language was born out of the interaction between Hindi and
Persian.
3. Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a
formal language when the authors started using Persian script.
4. Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People
even wrote accounts of later Mughals in Urdu.
5. Gradually it achieved a status where literature (both poetry and prose)
started being composed in it.
6. Urdu was given its pride of place by a large number of poets who have
left inimitable poetry for posterity. The earliest Urdu poet is supposed to
be Khusrau (1253 - 1325).
7. Among the best prose writers were people like Pandit Ratan Nath
Sarshar, who wrote the famous Fasanah-i-Azad.
8. Urdu has given us a new form of poem that is called a nazm.
9. Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums
in this language. Slowly it became quite popular.

Que 2.29. Write short note on : Hindi Literature.

Answer

1. In the 14th century the emergence of regional languages resulted in the

decline of Sanskrit as they came to be used as the medium through
which the administrative machinery functioned.
2. The rise of the Bhakti movement and the use of these regional languages
by the various saints helped in their growth and development.
3. The language went on changing as the area where it was used expanded.
New words to express new situations were either coined or taken from
areas coming under its influence.
4. The influence of Bhakti movement started affecting the prose and poetry
that were being composed in Hindi.
Indian Literature, Culture & Tradition 2–24 Q (NCC-Sem-5 & 6)

5. Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsa stage between the 7th and 8th
centuries A.D. and the 14th C.
6. Hindi poets expressed their sentiments essentially to satisfy their own
devotional instincts.
7. These poets influenced the Indian society in a manner that had never
happened earlier. As it is easier to remember poetry than prose, they
became immensely popular.
8. In modern times, the Khadi dialect became more prominent.

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