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Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-1

Chapter 6
Introduction to Wi-Fi WLANs

At a Glance

Instructor’s Manual Table of Contents

• Overview

• Objectives

• Teaching Tips

• Quick Quizzes

• Class Discussion Topics

• Additional Projects

• Additional Resources

• Key Terms

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-2

Lecture Notes

Overview
This chapter begins by reviewing the basic concepts of how Wi-Fi WLANs work, focusing on
low-speed WLANs (up to 11 Mbps). This background knowledge will help students better
understand the higher-speed technologies, new standards, and compatibility issues covered in
Chapter 7.

Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter and completing the exercises, the student will be able to:

• List the components of a WLAN

• Describe the modes of operation of a WLAN
• Discuss the first IEEE WLAN standards
• Describe coordinating communications in RF WLANs
• Explain the process of association and reassociation
• Outline the power management features of IEEE 802.11 networks
• Discuss 802.11 MAC frame formats

Teaching Tips

WLAN Components
Wireless Network Interface Card

1. Define a network interface card or network adapter as the device that connects a
computer or device to a network medium.
2. Explain that a wireless NIC performs the same functions as a wired NIC.
3. Discuss the use of PC Card Type II slot and Mini PCI wireless network interface cards.
Note that most mobile devices or laptops now use integrated wireless cards.

Access Points
1. Review how an access point provides wireless access to a physical wired network by
use of an RJ-45 network interface port. Use Figure 6-1.
2. Discuss the two basic functions of an access point:
a. Acts as wireless base station
b. Acts as bridge between wireless and wired networks

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-3

3. Explain how dynamic rate selection is used to select the highest possible data
transmission rate depending on the quality of the link between an access point and a
client.
4. Teach students what sort of capacity an average access point may be able to handle, and
note how this changes depending on intended use and typical network traffic.
5. Describe how Power over Ethernet (PoE) can be utilized to power an access point
utilizing unshielded twisted pair (UTP) Ethernet cables. Explain that the 802.3af and
802.3at standards define how PoE may be implemented.

WLAN Operating Modes

1. Point out that an RF WLAN exchanges data in one of two connection modes:
a. Ad Hoc
b. Infrastructure

Ad Hoc Mode
1. Introduce the terminology peer-to-peer and IBSS.
2. Using Figure 6-2, explain that in ad hoc mode devices communicate with each other,
typically not connected to a central network. List examples where peer-to-peer mode
might be useful.
3. Note the introduction of Wi-Fi Direct.
4. Also note the limitation of 10 devices in an IBSS.

Infrastructure Mode
1. Infrastructure mode, or Basic Service Set (BSS), can be explained as the WLAN mode
that utilizes an AP to centralize communications.
2. The use of multiple APs with the same Service Set Identifier (SSID) is called an
Extended Service Set (ESS). Display Figure 6-3.
3. Explain that a basic service set identifier (BSSID) is the MAC address of an AP.
Students should know that when using an ESS, the BSSID is used to refer to the
specific AP that a device is connected to.
4. Handoff should be explained as the process that occurs when a user of a mobile device
moves between coverage areas of different Aps.
5. Define a subnet as a division of a larger network, and explain how WLANs are
typically segmented into subnets.

Teaching Extended Service Sets are commonly used at large events, such as conventions,
Tip and college campuses. Typically the use of such a wireless network requires
central control and use of special devices.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-4

First WLAN Standards

IEEE 802.11
1. Discuss the IEEE 802.11 standard as a standard that was intended to define access to
network resources without use of a cable, with a maximum transmission rate of 1 or 2
Mbps using infrared or RF transmission.
2. Note that the use of a wireless NIC relies on changes at the lower levels (Physical layer
and Data Link layer) of the OSI model, leaving the upper layers unaffected. Figure 6-4
can aid the discussion.
3. Provide an overview of the increase in transmission speeds for 802.11 networks over
the course of the standard’s history.

Teaching When 802.11 based networks utilize backwards compatibility features, all
Tip devices on the wireless network are limited to the top speed of the slowest
device, regardless of standard in use.

Teaching Students should know that only channels 1 – 11 are available when using the
Tip 802.11 standard in the US and Canada, while up to channel 13 is available in
Europe, and channel 14 is available in Japan.

IEEE 802.11b
1. Describe the 802.11b amendment as having a maximum transmission speed of 11 Mbps
utilizing the 2.4 GHz band, and explain that this original amendment was the first
802.11 network to be referred to as “Wi-Fi”.
2. Physical Layer:
a. Explain how the physical layer is divided into two sublayers for 802.11b, the
physical layer convergence procedure (PLCP) sublayer and the physical
medium dependent (PMD) sublayer.
b. Physical Layer Convergence Procedure: Students must know that the PLCP
standards for 802.11b are based on direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
i. Define the three distinct parts of a PLCP frame: the preamble, header,
and data.
ii. Teach students about the fields that exist within a PLCP frame:
1. Synchronization
2. Start Frame Delimiter
3. Signal Data Rate
4. Service
5. Length
6. Header Error Check
© Cengage Learning 2014
Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-5

7. Data
iii. Note that the PLCP frame preamble and header is always transmitted at
1 Mbps to allow slower devices to communicate with faster ones.
c. Physical Medium Dependent Standards: the layer at which binary is
converted into radio signals for transmission.
i. Show students the 14 channels available for use with 802.11b, starting at
2.412 GHz and incrementing by 5 MHz for each channel. Table 6-1 lists
the frequencies for each channel.
ii. Students must know that the PMD can transmit data at different speeds:
11, 5.5, 2, or 1 Mbps. Explain how PMD uses these rates dynamically,
and discuss how the modulation used changes depending on the
transmission rate.
iii. Describe how the Barker code is used by 802.11b networks when
transmitting at 1 or 2 Mbps, while faster speeds utilize Complementary
Code Keying (CCK), which consists of 64 8-bit code words.
3. Media Access Control Layer: Elaborate on the two separate sublayers of the Media
Access Control layer in 802.11b: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access
Control (MAC).

Coordinating Communications in the Shared Wireless Medium

1. Explain to students how a network collision can occur when two computers sharing the
same network medium attempt to communicate at the same time.
2. Explain distributed coordination function (DCF) as a technique used by wireless
devices to determine if a collision has occurred by requiring a receiving device to send
acknowledgements of data.
3. Describe the role of an explicit acknowledgement (ACK) in helping to ensure that a
receiving device has properly received a frame.

CSMA/CA
1. Describe how wireless devices make use of channel access methods such as CSMA/CA
to prevent collisions.
2. Discuss the use of Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection in traditional
Ethernet based networks and then compare CSMA/CD to CSMA/CA.
3. The most likely time for a collision to occur should be noted as after a station has
finished transmitting. Explain how CSMA/CA with DCF attempts to handle this
problem by utilizing random backoff interval times for devices on the network. This
interval is also called a time slot.
4. Collision avoidance is increased by the use of the ACK frame. Display the example in
Figure 6-7.
5. The use of request-to-send/clear-to-send (RTS/CTS) in avoiding collisions should be
discussed. Note that a device wanting to transmit must first send an RTS, and receive a
CTS from an AP before it can begin.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-6

6. Explain that fragmentation is also a method to reduce collisions; however, it results in

additional overhead. Describe the fragmentation steps and note how it can operate
simultaneously with RTS/CTS.

Point Coordination Function

1. Polling should be described as a type of channel access method where devices are
asked if they have data to transmit by an access point.
2. Clients that do not have any data to transmit will respond to a polling request with a
null data frame.
3. Students must know that this polling method is known as point coordination function
(PCF). Figure 6-9 can aid discussion.
4. Explain that despite some advantages over DCF depending on types of data being
transmitted, PCF has not been implemented in 802.11 APs or residential gateways.

Quick Quiz 1
1. A WNIC’s ___________is used to send and receive RF signals.
Answer: antenna

2. True or False: The role of an access point is to act as a base station for wireless clients
utilizing ad hoc communication.
Answer: False

3. Select the type of 802.11 mode that involves the use of ad hoc communications:
A. Basic Service Set (BSS)
B. Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS)
C. Extended Service Set (ESS)
D. Extended Basic Service Set (EBSS)
Answer: B

4. What channel access method is used with 802.11 based networks?

A. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance
B. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detection
C. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Aversion
D. Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Deterrence
Answer: A

5. What type of frame is sent by a receiving device after it has confirmed all frames
arrived intact?
A. Request to Send (CTS)
B. Acknowledgement (ACK)
C. Clear to Send (CTS)
D. Association
Answer: B

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-7

Association and Reassociation

1. Teach students how devices joining a WLAN create an association with the access
point by sending an associate request frame. Clients then must wait for the AP to send
an associate response frame.
2. Discuss how passive scanning involves a client that listens for beacon frames
transmitted from APs.
3. Active scanning can be explained as the client device sending out a probe frame to
discover access points willing to send a probe response frame.
4. Define the practice of war driving.
5. Describe how the reassociation process can occur when a client device disconnects
from one AP and associates with another AP. Students should understand that in an
ESS, a reassociate request frame can be sent to the new AP to maintain wireless
connectivity. Note that a disassociate frame is also sent to the old AP. Figure 6-10
provides an example.

Power Management
1. Explain how WLAN devices can utilize what is known as sleep mode, which powers
down various components of the device to save battery power.
2. Describe how wireless NIC power management can be used to power off all but
essential components of a NIC to allow for increased battery efficiency without missing
transmissions.
3. The process by which information is buffered on an AP when a client goes into sleep
mode should be covered.
4. Traffic indication maps (TIMs) can be described as frames that contain a list of device
network IDs that have buffered frames being held, which are broadcast to all clients.
Sleeping clients can then wake up to receive its frames. Utilize Figure 6-11 in the
explanation.

Teaching Wireless Wake On LAN (WoWLAN) can be used to turn on a sleeping wireless
Tip device such as a laptop or desktop PC with a wireless NIC by sending a special
type of wakeup packet, known as a magic packet. The wired version of this
technology, Wake On LAN (WOL), has been in use for several years.

MAC Frame Formats

1. Management frames must be discussed as frames that establish initial
communications between a client and an access point. The different association /
reassociation / disassociation, and beacon frames are all management frames.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-8

2. Show the contents of a management frame, and explain how fields change in this
frame. Utilize Figure 6-12.
3. Control frames should be shown as frames that control and direct the flow of traffic on
a WLAN. RTS frames are considered control frames. Show the contents of a control
frame as displayed in Figure 6-13.
4. Data frames can be described as frames that carry data being transmitted between a
client device and its destination. Show the contents of a data frame using Figure 6-14.

Interframe Spaces
1. Explain interframe spaces as time gaps, and explain how the following interframe
spaces work with CSMA/CA and DCF:
a. Short Interframe Space (SIFS), 10 microseconds
b. DCF Interframe Space (DIFS), 50 microseconds
2. Discuss the basic rules that are followed when a single device is communicating on an
802.11 network, and explain how SIFS and DIFS are used in conjunction with these
rules. Explain how these rules change when two or more devices are involved. Utilize
Figure 6-16.

Quick Quiz 2
1. An access point will confirm a client’s request to associate by sending an
____________________.
Answer: associate response frame

2. True or False: A Traffic Indication Map (TIM) is a frame that contains a list of all
network IDs of clients with buffered frames waiting on the AP.
Answer: True

3. The __________ is a time period utilized to ensure all transmitted signals have arrived
and have been decoded successfully before allowing other devices to transmit.
Answer: Short Interframe Space (SIFS)

4. The BSSID field in a management frame contains what information?

A. An AP’s associated clients list
B. An AP’s SSID network name
C. An AP’s channel
D. An AP’s MAC address
Answer: D

5. A probe frame is what type of frame?

A. Control frame
B. Data frame
C. Management frame
D. Superframe
Answer: C

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-9

Class Discussion Topics

1. Many students will most likely have access to a wireless network or own their own
wireless network equipment. Start a class discussion on what types of wireless
equipment students utilize at home.

2. Have students discuss what problems might occur if two access points that connect to
two different networks share the same SSID and are not part of an ESS. This can occur
when two access points made by the same manufacturer are installed in an area by
separate owners and utilize default settings.

Additional Projects
1. Get students to research what types of equipment are required to utilize an access point
powered by Power over Ethernet (PoE). In most cases, students should find that campus
sized networks utilize PoE switches to power remote APs for access. However, PoE
adapters exist for APs only capable of PoE based power.

2. Task students with researching how power management for wireless NICs works with
Windows, Mac OSX, or other operating systems / mobile operating systems. Students
should learn that problematic wireless connectivity can sometimes be a result of power
management issues with a wireless card.

Additional Resources
1. Article on the use of RTS/CTS with 802.11 WLANs:
http://www.wi-fiplanet.com/tutorials/article.php/1445641

2. Microsoft article on how 802.11 works:

http://technet.microsoft.com/en-us/library/cc757419(v=ws.10).aspx

Key Terms
➢ 802.11 standard An IEEE standard released in 1997 that defines wireless local area
networks at a rate of either 1 or 2 Mbps. All WLAN features are confined to the PHY
and MAC layers. This is the original IEEE standard for WLANs and the basis for later
802.11b, a, g, n, and ac/ad amendments.
➢ 802.11b An amendment to the IEEE 802.11 standard for WLANs that added two higher
speeds, 5.5 and 11 Mbps, and is also known as Wi-Fi, a name given by the Wi-Fi
Alliance to technology that has been certified for interoperability with equipment from
different manufacturers.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-10

➢ acknowledgment (ACK) A procedure used to reduce collisions by requiring the

receiving station to send an explicit packet back to the sending station, provided that the
received transmission had no errors.
➢ active scanning The process of sending frames to gather information.
➢ ad hoc mode A WLAN mode in which wireless devices communicate directly among
themselves without going through an AP.
➢ associate request frame A frame sent by a device to an AP that contains the device’s
capabilities and supported rates.
➢ associate response frame A frame returned to a device from the AP that contains a
status code and device ID number.
➢ association The process for a device to join a Basic Service Set (BSS) or Independent
Basic Service Set (IBSS).
➢ Basic Service Set (BSS) A WLAN mode that consists of at least one wireless device
and one AP. Also called infrastructure mode.
➢ BSSID In an infrastructure WLAN, the BSSID is the MAC address of the AP. In a
peer-to-peer network, the BSSID is the MAC address of the first station to be turned on
and configured to establish the ad hoc WLAN.
➢ buffering The process that the AP uses to temporarily store frames for devices that are
in sleep mode.
➢ channel access methods The different ways of sharing resources in a network
environment.
➢ collision The scrambling of data that occurs when two computers start sending
messages at the same time in a shared medium.
➢ Complementary Code Keying (CCK) A table containing 64 8-bit code words used for
transmitting at speeds above 2 Mbps. This table of codes is used instead of the process
of adding a Barker code to the bit to be transmitted.
➢ control frame MAC frame that assists in delivering the frames that contain data.
➢ data frame MAC frame that carries the user information to be transmitted to a device.
➢ disassociate frame A frame sent by the new AP to the old AP in an ESS to terminate
the old AP’s association with a device. Disassociation frames are transmitted from one
AP to another over the wired network only, not via the wireless medium.
➢ distributed coordination function (DCF) The default channel access method in IEEE
802.11 WLANs, designed to avoid collisions and grant all devices on the WLAN a
reasonably equal chance to transmit on the selected channel.
➢ DCF Interframe Space (DIFS) The standard interval between the transmission of data
frames.
➢ dynamic rate selection (DRS) A function of an AP that allows it to automatically
select the highest transmission speed based on the strength and quality of the signal
received from a device WNIC.
➢ exabytes One exabyte is equal to a one followed by 18 zeroes or 1 billion GB
(1,000,000,000,000,000,000).
➢ Extended Service Set (ESS) A WLAN mode that consists of wireless devices and
multiple APs using the same SSID, extending a WLAN seamlessly beyond the
maximum range of an 802.11 transmission.
➢ fragmentation The division of data to be transmitted from one large frame into several
smaller frames.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-11

➢ handoff In an ESS, when a WLAN device reassociates with an AP on the network and
disassociates with the one to which it was previously connected.
➢ Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS) A WLAN mode in which wireless devices
communicate directly among themselves without using an AP. Also called ad hoc mode
and peer-to-peer mode.
➢ infrastructure mode See Basic Service Set.
➢ interframe spaces (IFS) Time gaps used in CSMA/CA to allow devices to finish
receiving a transmission and checking for errors before any other device is allowed to
transmit.
➢ management frame MAC frame that is used, for example, to set up the initial
communications between a device and the AP.
➢ Mini PCI A small card that is functionally equivalent to a standard PCI expansion card
used for integrating communications peripherals onto a laptop computer but that is
much smaller.
➢ null data frame The response that a device sends back to the AP to indicate that the
device has no transmissions to make in PCF.
➢ passive scanning The process of listening to each available channel for a set period of
time.
➢ peer-to-peer mode See ad hoc mode.
➢ point coordination function (PCF) The 802.11 optional polling function.
➢ polling A channel access method in which each computer is asked in sequence whether
it wants to transmit.
➢ power management An 802.11 standard that allows the mobile device to be off as
much as possible to conserve battery life but still not miss out on data transmissions.
➢ power over Ethernet (PoE) A technology that provides power over an Ethernet cable.
➢ probe A frame sent by a device when performing active scanning.
➢ probe response A frame sent by an AP when responding to a device’s active scanning
probe.
➢ reassociate request frame A frame sent from a device to a new AP asking whether it
can associate with the AP.
➢ reassociate response frame A frame sent by an AP to a station indicating that it will
accept its reassociation with that AP.
➢ reassociation The process of a device disconnecting from one AP and reestablishing a
connection with another AP.
➢ request-to-send/clear-to-send (RTS/CTS) An 802.11 protocol option that allows a
station to reserve the network for transmissions.
➢ Service Set Identifier (SSID) A unique network identifier assigned to an AP during
configuration. In an Extended Service Set (ESS), all APs will be configured with the
same SSID.
➢ Short Interframe Space (SIFS) A time period used to allow a receiving station to
finish receiving all signals, decode them, and check for errors.
➢ sleep mode A power-conserving mode used by portable, battery-powered devices in a
WLAN.
➢ subnets Subsets of a large network that use a different group of IP addresses belonging
to the same domain IP address. Subnets are separated from other subnets by routers.
➢ time slots The measurement unit in a PLCP frame.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Guide to Wireless Communications, Fourth Edition 6-12

➢ traffic indication map (TIM) A list of the stations that have buffered frames waiting
at the AP. The TIM is sent in the beacons by the AP.
➢ war driving The practice of discovering and recording information about WLANs in a
neighborhood or around a city while driving or walking.
➢ Wi-Fi A trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance, used to refer to 802.11b and later WLANs
that pass the organization’s interoperability tests.
➢ Wi-Fi Direct A feature defined by the Wi-Fi Alliance that enables a computer or other
wireless device to act as an AP and share an Internet connection in an ad hoc WLAN.
➢ wireless site survey A test that is conducted before deployment of a WLAN to
determine the best location for APs and antennas, in order to provide maximum
coverage.

© Cengage Learning 2014

Another random document with
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to the officer commanding at the Hsi-Hua Gate, ordering them to
cease firing until her return to the Forbidden City.
11th Day of the 6th Moon (7th July).—Yü Lu has sent in a
ridiculous memorial, reporting the capture of four camels, as well as
the killing of many foreigners, in Tientsin. Jung Lu has advised him to
cease attacking the foreign Settlements. Talking of Jung Lu, I hear
that Tung Fu-hsiang recently hired a Manchu soldier to assassinate
him, but, instead of doing so, the man betrayed the plot to Jung Lu.
This soldier turns out to be a brother of that En Hai who slew the
foreign devil (Baron von Ketteler), and Tung thought therefore that
he would gladly do anything to assist in destroying the Legations.
But he is a clansman of Jung Lu’s banner, and, like Yü Kung-ssŭ,
whom Mencius called the best archer in Wei, “he could not bear to
slay the old Chief who had taught him the arts of war.” Jung Lu has
again memorialised the Old Buddha, reminding her of that well-
known saying in the Spring and Autumn annals,[87] which lays down
that the persons of foreign Envoys are always inviolate within the
territories of any civilised State. This attack on the Legation, he says,
is worse than an outrage; it is a piece of stupidity which will be
remembered against China for all time. Her Majesty appeared to
think that, because a small nation like the Transvaal could conquer a
great Power like England, China must necessarily be even more
successful in fighting the whole world; but there was no analogy
between the two cases. If peace were to be made at once, the
situation might still be saved; but if the Legations were demolished,
there must be an end of Manchu rule. He warned Her Majesty
solemnly, and she appears to be gradually coming to look at things
from his point of view. These Boxers can certainly talk, but they do
very little.
Bad news has reached the palace to-day of the fighting around
Tientsin, and Her Majesty is most anxious about it, though she still
refuses to believe that the foreign brigands can possibly enter
Peking.
15th Day of the 6th Moon (11th July).—My neighbour Wen Lien,
Comptroller-General of the Imperial Household, tells me that the Old
Buddha is in a furious rage. She finds the heat trying, and yesterday
she turned on the Heir Apparent and snubbed him badly for
impertinence; he had asked if he might be permitted to escort her to
Jehol, leaving the Emperor to settle matters with his foreign friends
in Peking. One of the young eunuchs tried to mollify her by reporting,
whenever the report of a gun was heard, that another foreign devil
had been killed, but as the Old Buddha observed, “there has been
enough firing for the past few weeks to kill off every foreigner in
China several times, and so far there is hardly anything to show for
it.”
17th Day of the 6th Moon (13th July).—Jung Lu asked Her
Majesty yesterday what she would do if the Boxers were defeated,
and if Peking were captured by the foreigners. In reply, she quoted to
him the words of Chia Yi, a sophist of the Han dynasty, in reference
to the Court’s diplomatic dealings with the Khan of the Hans:—

“If the Emperor wishes to gain the allegiance of other

countries, he can only do so by convincing their rulers that he
possesses the three cardinal virtues of government, and by
displaying the five allurements.
These allurements are: (1) Presents of chariots and rich
robes, to tempt the eye; (2) rich food and banquets, to tempt
the palate; (3) musical maidens, to tempt the ear; (4) fine
houses and beautiful women, to tempt the instinct of luxury;
and (5) the presence of the Emperor at the table of the foreign
ruler, to tempt his pride.
The three cardinal virtues of government are: (1) to
simulate affection; (2) to express honeyed sentiments; and (3)
to treat one’s inferiors as equals.”

Two years ago, said the Empress, she had invited the foreign
ladies to her Court, and had noticed their delight at the reception she
gave them, although she well knew that their sympathies were with
the Emperor, and against her. She would again allure them to her
side with rich gifts and honeyed words.[88]
 20th Day of the 6th Moon (16th July).—Bad news from Yü Lu;
Tientsin has been captured by the foreigners, who now swarm like
locusts. Not one of the Grand Councillors dared to carry the news to
Her Majesty, so Prince Tuan went in boldly, and informed her that the
foreign devils had taken the city, because the Boxers had been
negligent in the performance of their prescribed rites; Peking,
however, would always be perfectly safe from invasion. Early this
morning Jung Lu had informed the Old Buddha that he had
ascertained beyond doubt that the document, which purported to
come from the Foreign Ministers, demanding her abdication, was a
forgery. It had been prepared by Lien Wen-chung, a Secretary of the
Grand Council, at Prince Tuan’s orders. The Old Buddha was
therefore in no soft mood; angrily she told Prince Tuan that, if the
foreigners entered Peking, he would certainly lose his head. She
was quite aware of his motives; he wanted to secure the Regency,
but she bade him beware, for, so long as she lived, there could be no
other Regent. “Let him be careful, or his son would be expelled from
the palace, and the family estates confiscated to the throne.” His
actions had indeed been worthy of the dog’s[89] name he bore.
Prince Tuan left the palace, and was heard to remark that “the
thunderbolt had fallen too quickly for him to close his ears.”
Jung Lu has won over all the military commanders except Tung
Fu-hsiang and his staff, and they have come to a general
understanding that the bombardment of the Legations must cease.
Jung Lu has explained, as his reason for not allowing the heavy
artillery to be used, that it would inevitably have inflicted serious
damage on the Imperial shrines and the Ancestral temple.
The Old Buddha is sending presents to the Legations, water-
melons, wine, vegetables, and ice, and she has expressed a wish
that Prince Ch’ing should go and see the Foreign Ministers.
They say that Hsü Ching-ch’eng is secretly communicating with
the Legations.
A messenger with twelve dispatches from the Legations was
captured to-day and taken to Prince Chuang’s Palace. Three of the
twelve were in cipher and could not be translated by the Tsung Li
Yamên interpreter, but from the others it was learned that the
foreigners had lost over a hundred killed and wounded and that their
provisions were running very low.
Chi Shou-ch’eng has gone to T’ai-Yüan fu to see Yü Hsien, his
father-in-law. The latter has memorialised the Throne, reporting that
he cunningly entrapped all the foreigners, cast them into chains and
had every one decapitated in his Yamên. Only one woman had
escaped, after her breasts had been cut off, and had hidden herself
under the City wall. She was dead when they found her.
Rain has fallen very heavily to-day. Liu Ta-chiao brought me 8 lbs.
of pork from the Palace kitchen, and I sent a large bowl of it to my
married sister. Towards evening a detachment of cavalry, with
several guns, passed my door. They were Li Ping-heng’s men, on
their way to mount these guns on a platform above the Forbidden
City wall, as a precaution against sorties by the foreigners. There
has been heavy firing all night, and it is reported that foreign devils
have been seen in the neighbourhood of the Ha-Ta Men.
21st Day of the 6th Moon (17th July).—A lovely day. I walked over
to call on Prince Li and Duke Lan. The latest rumour is that Yü Lu’s
troops are in flight and harrying the country side. They are said to be
clamouring for their pay, which is months in arrears, and have
plundered both Tungchou and Chang Chia-wan most thoroughly.
Both the eastern gates of the City are now kept closed, and the
northern gate (Anting men) is only opened occasionally.
Yang Shun, the gate-keeper, has returned from his home at Pao-ti
hsien, east of Peking, where he reports things fairly quiet.
Li Ping-heng’s troops are reported to have won a great victory and
driven the barbarians to the sea. Nevertheless, heavy firing was
heard to the south-eastward this afternoon.
Duke Lan has gone out with a large force of Boxers to search for
converts reported to be in hiding in the temple of the Sun.
27th Day of the 6th Moon (23rd July).—This morning Yüan Ch’ang
and Hsü Ching-ch’eng handed in the third of their Memorials against
the Boxers, in which they recommend the execution of several
members of the Grand Council. Their valour seems to be more
laudable than their discretion, especially as the Old Buddha is
disposed once more to believe in the Boxers as the result of Li Ping-
heng’s audience with her yesterday. He came up from Hankow, and
has now been appointed joint Commander, with Jung Lu, of the army
of the North. He confidently assured her of his ability to take the
Legations by storm, and repeatedly said that never again would the
tutelary deities of the Dynasty suffer her to be driven forth, in
humiliation, from her capital.
I went across to Duke Lan’s house this morning and found Prince
Tuan and Li Ping-heng there. They were busy planning a renewed
attack on the Legations, and Li was strongly in favour of mining from
the Hanlin Academy side. He has advised the Empress Dowager
that a mine should be sprung, as was done lately at the French
Cathedral, and he is convinced that in the ensuing confusion the
foreigners would be easily overwhelmed.
After reading the latest Memorial of Hsü and Yüan, the Old
Buddha observed, “These are brave men. I have never cared much
for Hsü, but Yüan behaved well in 1898 and warned me about K’ang
Yu-wei and his plotting. Be that as it may, however, they have no
business to worry me with these persistent and querulous questions.
The Throne itself is fully competent to judge the character of its
servants, and it is a gross misconception of duty for ‘the acolyte to
stride across the sacred vessels and show the priest how to
slaughter the sacrificial beasts.’[90] Desiring to deal leniently with the
Memorialists, I command that my censure be communicated to them
and that they take heed to refrain in future from troubling my ears
with their petulant complainings.”
3rd Day of the 7th Moon (28th July).—The Old Buddha places
much confidence in Li Ping-heng. Yesterday he and Kang Yi
discovered that the word “to slay,” in Her Majesty’s Decree ordering
the extermination of all foreigners, had been altered to “protect” by
Yüan Ch’ang and Hsü Ching-ch’eng. I have just seen Kang Yi, and
he says that Her Majesty’s face was divine in its wrath. “They
deserve the punishment meted out to Kao Ch’u-mi,”[91] she said,
“their limbs should be torn asunder by chariots driven in opposite
directions. Let them be summarily decapitated.” An Edict was
forthwith issued, but no mention is made in it of the alteration of the
Decree, as this is a matter affecting the nation’s prestige; the
offenders are denounced only for having created dissensions in the
Palace and favoured the cause of the foreigner. Both were executed
this morning; my son, En Ming, witnessed their death. It is most
painful to me to think of the end of Yüan Ch’ang, for he had many
sterling qualities; as for Hsü, I knew him in the days when we were
colleagues at the Grand Secretariat, and I never had a high opinion
of the man. His corruption was notorious. Just before the sword of
the executioner fell, Yüan remarked that “he hoped that the Sun
might soon return to its place in the Heaven, and that the usurping
Comet might be destroyed.” By this he meant that Prince Tuan’s
malign influence had led the Empress Dowager to act against her
own better instincts. Duke Lan, who was superintending the
execution, angrily bade him be silent for a traitor, but Yüan fearlessly
went on, “I die innocent. In years to come my name will be
remembered with gratitude and respect, long after you evil-plotting
Princes have met your well-deserved doom.” Turning then to Hsü, he
said, “We shall meet anon at the Yellow Springs.[92] To die is only to
come home.” Duke Lan stepped forward as if to strike him, and the
headsman quickly despatched them both.
8th Day of the 7th Moon (3rd August).—I have had much trouble
with my eldest son to-day. He has been robbing me lately of large
sums, and when I rebuked him he had the audacity to reply that my
duty to the Throne would make my suicide a fitting return for the
benefits which I have received at its hands.
Li Ping-heng has gone to the front to rally the troops and check the
foreigners’ advance. He has impeached Jung Lu but the Old Buddha
has suppressed the Memorial. The Emperor thanked Jung Lu for his
services, and the Commander-in-Chief replied that he of all the
servants of the Throne never expected to receive praise from His
Majesty, considering the events of the past two years.[93]
 11th Day of the 7th Moon (5th August).—The Old Buddha has
commanded Jung Lu to arrange for escorting the foreigners to
Tientsin, so that the advance of the Allies may be stopped. In this
connection, I hear that not many days ago, ⸺ persuaded Ch’i Hsiu
to have a letter sent to the Foreign Ministers, inviting them to come,
without escort of troops, to an interview with the Tsung Li Yamên, his
idea being to have them all massacred on the way. Ch’i Hsiu thought
the suggestion excellent, but, although several letters have been
sent proposing it, the Ministers decline to leave the Legations.
Meanwhile, there have been several fresh attacks on the Legations
during the past few days.
A foreign devil, half naked, was found yesterday in Hatamen
Street. He kowtowed to everyone he met, high class or low,
imploring even the rag-pickers to spare his life and give him a few
cash. “We shall all be massacred soon,” he said, “but I have done no
wrong.” One of Jung Lu’s sergeants seized him and took him to the
Commander-in-Chief’s residence. Instead of decapitating him, Jung
Lu sent him back. This shows, however, the desperate straits to
which the foreigners are reduced.
15th Day of the 7th Moon (9th August).—Bad news from the
South. Yü Lu’s forces have been defeated and the foreigners are
approaching nearer every day. The Old Buddha is meditating flight to
Jehol, but Jung Lu strongly urges her to remain, even if the Allies
should enter the City. Duke Lan scoffs at the idea of their being able
to do so. One comfort is that, if they do come, they will not loot or kill.
I remember well how good their discipline was forty years ago. I
never stirred out of my house and not one of the barbarians ever
came near it. We had a little difficulty about getting victuals, but the
foreigners hardly came into the city, and did us no harm.
16th Day of the 7th Moon (10th August).—My old colleague, Li
Shan, whose house adjoins the French Cathedral, has been
accused of making a subterranean passage and thus assisting the
foreigners with supplies. He has been handed over to the Board of
Punishments by Prince Tuan, without the knowledge of the Empress
Dowager, together with Hsü Yung-yi and Lien Yuan. Prince Tuan has
long had a grudge against Hsü for having expressed disapproval of
the selection of the Heir Apparent. As to Lien, they say that his arrest
is due to ⸺, and his offence is that he was on terms of intimacy
with Yüan Ch’ang. All three prisoners were decapitated this morning.
Hsü Yung-yi was older than I am (seventy-nine) and his death is a
lamentable business indeed. But he went to his death calmly and
without complaint when he learned that the Empress Dowager knew
nothing of the matter and that it was Prince Tuan’s doing alone. “The
power of the usurper,” said he, “is short-lived. As for me, I am glad to
die before the foreigners take Peking.” The Old Buddha will be very
wrath when she hears that two Manchus have thus been put to
death. Li Shan and Jung Lu were old friends.
A certain General Liu, from Shansi, assured the Empress this
morning that he would undertake to demolish the Legations in three
days, and this would so alarm the allies that their advance would
certainly be stopped. A furious bombardment has just begun.
The Boxers have proved themselves utterly useless. I always said
they never would do anything.
18th Day of the 7th Moon (12th August).—The foreigners are
getting nearer and nearer. Yü Lu shot himself with a revolver on the
12th at Ts’ai Ts’un. He had taken refuge in a coffin shop, of all ill-
omened places! His troops had been utterly routed thrice, at Pei
Tsang, Yang Ts’un and at Ts’ai Ts’un. Li Ping-heng reached Ho-hsi
wu on the 14th, but in spite of all his efforts to rally our forces, the
two divisional leaders, Chang Ch’un-fa and Ch’en Tsê-lin, refused to
fight. Li Ping-heng therefore took poison. Jung Lu went to-day to
break the news to the Old Buddha: sovereign and Minister wept
together at the disasters which these Princes and rebels have
brought upon our glorious Empire. Jung Lu refrained from any
attempt at self-justification; he is a wise man. The Old Buddha said
she would commit suicide and make the Emperor do the same,
rather than leave her capital. Jung Lu besought her to take his
advice, which was to remain in Peking and to issue Decrees ordering
the decapitation of Prince Tuan and his followers, thus proving her
innocence to the world. But she seems to cling still to a hope that the
supernatural powers of the Boxers may save Peking, and so the
furious bombardment of the Legations continues.
 Eight audiences have been given to-day to Jung Lu and five to
Prince Tuan. All the other members of the Grand Council sat with
folded hands, suggesting nothing.
20th Day (14th August), 5 p.m.—Tungchou has fallen and now the
foreigners have begun to bombard the city. The Grand Council has
been summoned to five meetings to-day in the Palace of Peaceful
Longevity: Her Majesty is reported to be starting for Kalgan. At the
hour of the Monkey (4 p.m.) Duke Lan burst into the Palace,
unannounced, and shouted, “Old Buddha, the foreign devils have
come!” Close upon his footsteps came Kang Yi, who reported that a
large force of turbaned soldiery were encamped in the enclosure of
the Temple of Heaven. “Perhaps they are our Mahommedan braves
from Kansuh,” said Her Majesty, “come to demolish the Legations?”
“No,” replied Kang Yi, “they are foreign devils. Your Majesty must
escape at once, or they will murder you.”
Later, midnight.—There has just been an Audience given to the
Grand Council in the Palace, at which Kang Yi, Chao Shu-ch’iao and
Wang Wen-shao were present. “Where are the others?” said the Old
Buddha. “Gone, I suppose, everyone to his own home, leaving us
here, Mother and Son,[94] to look after ourselves as best we may. At
all events, you three must now accompany me on my journey.”
Turning to Wang Wen-shao, she added:—“You are too old, and I
could not bear the thought of exposing you to such hardships. Make
such speed as you can and join me later.” Then to the other two she
said, “You two are good riders. It will be your duty never to lose sight
of me for an instant.” Wang Wen-shao replied, “I will hasten after
Your Majesty to the best of my ability.” The Emperor, who seemed
surprisingly alert and vigorous, here joined in, “Yes, by all means,
follow as quickly as you can.” This ended the audience, but the
actual hour of Her Majesty’s departure remains uncertain. Jung Lu’s
attendance was impossible because he was busy trying to rally our
forces.
21st Day (15th August).—Wen Lien tells me that the Old Buddha
arose this morning at the Hour of the Tiger (3 a.m.) after only an
hour’s rest, and dressed herself hurriedly in the common blue cloth
garments of a peasant woman, which she had ordered to be
prepared. For the first time in her life, her hair was done up in the
Chinese fashion. “Who could ever have believed that it would come
to this?” she said. Three common carts were brought into the
Palace; their drivers wore no official hats.

Facsimile of a Fragment of the Diary.

 All the Concubines were summoned to appear before Her Majesty
at 3.30 a.m.; she had previously issued a decree that none of them
would accompany her for the present. The Pearl Concubine, who
has always been insubordinate to the Old Buddha, came with the
rest and actually dared to suggest that the Emperor should remain in
Peking. The Empress was in no mood for argument. Without a
moment’s hesitation, she shouted to the eunuchs on duty, “Throw
this wretched minion down the well!” At this the Emperor, who was
greatly grieved, fell on his knees in supplication, but the Empress
angrily bade him desist, saying that this was no time for bandying
words. “Let her die at once,” she said, “as a warning to all undutiful
children, and to those ‘hsiao’ birds[95] who, when fledged, peck out
their own mother’s eyes.” So the eunuchs Li and Sung took the Pearl
Concubine and cast her down the large well which is just outside the
Ning Shou Palace.
Then to the Emperor, who stood trembling with grief and wrath,
she said: “Get into your cart and hang up the screen, so that you be
not recognised” (he was wearing a long gown of black gauze and
black cloth trousers). Swiftly then the Old Buddha gave her orders.
“P’u Lun, you will ride on the shaft of the Emperor’s cart and look
after him. I shall travel in the other cart, and you, P’u Chün (the Heir
Apparent) will ride on the shaft. Li Lien-ying, I know you are a poor
rider, but you must shift as best you can to keep up with us.” At this
critical moment it seemed as if the Old Buddha alone retained her
presence of mind. “Drive your hardest,” she said to the carters, “and
if any foreign devil should stop you, say nothing. I will speak to them
and explain that we are but poor country folk, fleeing to our homes.
Go first to the Summer Palace.” Thereupon the carts started,
passing out through the northern gate of the Palace (The Gate of
Military Prowess) while all the members of the Household and the
Imperial Concubines prostrated themselves, wishing their Majesties
a long life. Only the three Grand Councillors followed on horseback,
a rendezvous having been arranged for other officials at the Summer
Palace. My neighbour Wen Lien, the Comptroller of the Household,
followed their Majesties at a distance, to see them safely out of the
city. They left by the “Te-sheng-men,” or Gate of Victory, on the
north-west side of the city, where for a time their carts were blocked
in the dense mass of refugees passing out that way.
4 p.m.—The Sacred Chariot of Her Majesty reached the Summer
Palace at about 8 a.m. and Their Majesties remained there an hour.
Meanwhile, at 6 a.m., Prince Ch’ing, just before starting for the
Summer Palace, sent a flag of truce to the Japanese Pigmies who
were bombarding the city close to the “Chi Hua” Gate on the east of
the city. The gate was thrown open and the troops swarmed in.
My son En Ming was on duty at the Summer Palace with a few of
his men, when the Imperial party arrived, all bedraggled and dust-
begrimed. The soldiers at the Palace gate could not believe that this
was really their Imperial mistress until the Old Buddha angrily asked
whether they failed to recognise her. The carts were driven in
through the side entrance, and tea was served. Her Majesty gave
orders that all curios, valuables, and ornaments were to be packed
at once and sent off to Jehol; at the same time she despatched one
of the eunuchs to Peking to tell the Empress[96] to bury quickly every
scrap of treasure in the Forbidden City, hiding it in the courtyard of
the Ning Shou Palace.
The Princes Tuan, Ching, Na, and Su joined Their Majesties at the
Summer Palace; a few Dukes were there also, as well as Wu Shu-
mei and Pu Hsing of the higher officials. About a dozen Secretaries
from the different Boards, and three Clerks to the Grand Council,
accompanied the Court from this point. General Ma Yu-k’un, with a
force of 1,000 men escorted Their Majesties to Kalgan, and there
were, in addition, several hundreds of Prince Tuan’s “Heavenly
Tiger” Bannermen, fresh from their fruitless attacks on the Legations.
Jung Lu is still endeavouring to rally his troops.
I have just heard of the death of my old friend, Hsü T’ung, the
Imperial Tutor and Grand Secretary. He has hanged himself in his
house and eighteen of his womenfolk have followed his example. He
was a true patriot and a fine scholar. Alas, alas! From all sides I hear
the same piteous story; the proudest of the Manchus have come to
the same miserable end. The betrothed of Prince Ch’un, whom he
was to have married next month, has committed suicide, with all her
family. It is indeed pitiful.[97]
Thus, for the second time in her life, the Old Buddha has had to
flee from her Sacred City, like the Son of Heaven in the Chou
Dynasty, who “fled with dust-covered head.” The failure of the
southern provinces to join in the enterprise has ruined us. Prince
Tuan was much to blame in being anti-Chinese. As Confucius said,
“By the lack of broad-minded tolerance in small matters, a great
design has been frustrated.” After all, Jung Lu was right—the Boxers’
so-called magic was nothing but child’s talk. They were in reality no
stronger than autumn thistledown. Alas, the bright flower of spring
does not bloom twice!
 Daughters of a High Manchu Official of the Court.

My wife and the other women, stupidly obstinate like all females,
intend to take opium. I cannot prevent them from doing so, but, for
myself, I have no intention of doing anything so foolish. Already the
foreign brigands are looting in other quarters of the city, but they will
never find my hidden treasure, and I shall just remain here, old and
feeble as I am. My son, En Ch’u, has disappeared since yesterday,
and nearly all my servants have fled. There is no one to prepare my
evening meal.
(Here the Diary ends. The old man was murdered by his eldest
son that same evening; all his women folk had previously taken
poison and died.)

Vermilion Decree of H.M. Kuang Hsü, 24th day, 12th Moon of

25th year (January, 1900), making Prince Tuan’s son Heir
Apparent.
“In days of our tender infancy we succeeded by adoption to
the Great Inheritance, and were favoured by the Empress
Dowager, who graciously ‘suspended the curtain’ and
administered the Government as Regent, earnestly labouring
the while at our education in all matters. Since we assumed
the reins of government, the nation has passed through
severe crises, and our sole desire has been to govern the
Empire wisely in order to requite the material benevolence of
Her Majesty as well as to fulfil the arduous task imposed on
us by His late Majesty.
“But since last year our constitution has been sore-stricken
with illness, and we have undergone much anxiety lest the
business of the State should suffer in consequence.
Reflecting on the duty we owe to our sacred ancestors and to
the Empire, we have therefore besought Her Majesty to
administer the Government during the past year. Our sickness
has so far shown no signs of improvement, and it has
prevented us from performing all the important sacrifices at
the ancestral shrines and at the altars of the gods of the soil.
“And now at this acute crisis, the spectacle of Her Majesty,
labouring without cease in the profound seclusion of her
Palace, without relaxation or thought of rest, has filled us with
dismay. We can neither sleep nor eat in the anxiety of our
thoughts. Reflecting on the arduous labours of our ancestors
 from whom this great Heritage has descended to us, we are
overwhelmed by our unfitness for this task of government. We
bear in mind (and the fact is well known to all our subjects)
that when first we succeeded by adoption to the Throne, we
were honoured with a Decree from the Empress Dowager to
the effect that so soon as we should have begotten an heir,
he should become the adopted son of His Majesty T’ung-
Chih. But our protracted sickness renders it impossible for us
to hope for a son, so that His late Majesty remains without
heir. This question of the succession is of transcendent
importance, and our grief, as we ponder the situation, fills us
with feelings of the deepest self-abasement, and renders
illusive all hope of our recovery from this sickness.
“We have accordingly prostrated ourselves in supplication
before our Sacred Mother, begging that she may be pleased
to select some worthy person from among the Princes of the
Blood as heir to His Majesty T’ung-Chih, in order that the
Great Inheritance may duly revert to him. As the result of our
repeated entreaties Her Majesty has graciously consented,
and has appointed P’u Chün, son of Prince Tuan, as heir by
adoption to His late Majesty. Our gratitude at this is
unbounded, and obediently we obey her behests, hereby
appointing P’u Chün to be Heir Apparent and successor to the
Throne. Let this Decree be made known throughout the
Empire.”

Seldom has history seen so tragically pathetic a document. It was

not only a confession of his own illegality and an abdication, but his
death-warrant, clear writ for all men to read. And the poor victim
must perforce thank his executioner and praise the “maternal
benevolence” of the woman whose uncontrollable love of power had
wrecked his life from the cradle.

Memorial from the Censorate at Peking to the Throne at Hsi-

an, describing the arrest of En Hai, the murderer of the
German Minister, Baron von Ketteler.[98]
 This Memorial affords a striking illustration of the sympathy which
animated, and still animates, many of those nearest to the Throne in
regard to the Boxers and their anti-foreign crusade, and their
appreciation of the real sentiments of the Empress Dowager, even in
defeat. It also throws light on the Chinese official’s idea of heroism in
a soldier.

“A spy in Japanese employ, engaged in searching for

looted articles in the pawnshops of the district in Japanese
military occupation, found among the unredeemed pledges in
one shop a watch bearing Baron von Ketteler’s monogram.
The pawnbroker said that it had been pledged by a
bannerman named En Hai, who lived at a carters’ inn of the
Tartar city. This spy was a man named Te Lu, a writer
attached to the Manchu Field Force, of the 8th squad of the
‘Ting’ Company. He went at once and informed the Japanese,
who promptly sent a picquet to the inn mentioned. Two or
three men were standing about in the courtyard, and the
soldiers asked one of them whether En Hai was there. ‘I’m the
man,’ said he, whereupon they took him prisoner. Under
examination, En was perfectly calm and showed no sort of
emotion. The presiding Magistrate enquired ‘Was it you who
slew the German Minister?’ He replied ‘I received orders from
my Sergeant to kill every foreigner that came up the street. I
am a soldier, and I only know it is my duty to obey orders. On
that day I was with my men, some thirty of them, in the street,
when a foreigner came along in a sedan chair. At once I took
up my stand a little to the side of the street, and, taking
careful aim, fired into the chair. Thereupon the bearers fled:
we went up to the chair, dragged the foreigner out, and saw
that he was dead. I felt a watch in his breast pocket and took
it as my lawful share; my comrades appropriated a revolver,
some rings and other articles. I never thought that this watch
would lead to my detection, but I am glad to die for having
killed one of the enemies of my country. Please behead me at
once.’
 “The interpreter asked him whether he was drunk at the
time. He laughed and said, ‘Wine’s a fine thing, and I can put
away four or five catties at a time, but that day I had not
touched a drop. Do you suppose I would try to screen myself
on the score of being in liquor?’ This En Hai appears to have
been an honest fellow; his words were brave and dignified, so
that the bystanders all realised that China is not without
heroes in the ranks of her army. On the following day he was
handed over to the Germans, and beheaded on the scene of
his exploit. We, your Memorialists, feel that Your Majesties
should be made acquainted with his meritorious behaviour,
and we therefore report the above facts. We are of opinion
that his name should not be permitted to fall into oblivion, and
we trust that Your Majesties may be pleased to confer upon
him honours as in the case of one who has fallen in battle
with his face to the foe.”
 XVIII
IN MEMORY OF TWO BRAVE MEN

The Memorial of the Censors given in the last chapter, recording

the arrest and execution of the Manchu soldier who shot the German
Minister defenceless in his chair, took occasion to congratulate the
Empress and the nation on possessing such brave defenders; and to
do the man justice, he met his end with a fine courage. But with fuller
knowledge and a clearer insight, the scholars of the Empire might
well put forward claims to real heroism, moral courage of the rarest
kind, in the case of Yüan Ch’ang and Hsü Ching-ch’eng, the two
Ministers who, as we have shown, so nobly laid down their lives for
what they knew to be their country’s highest good. So long as China
can breed men like these, so long as the Confucian system contains
moral force sufficient to produce Stoic scholars of this type, the
nation has no cause to despair of its future. We make no apology for
insisting on the claims of these two men to our grateful admiration, or
for reproducing their last Memorials, in which they warned the Old
Buddha of her folly, and, by denouncing the Boxers, braved all the
forces of anarchy and savagery which surged about the Dragon
Throne. Already their good name stands high in the esteem of their
countrymen. Et prevalebit: their courage and unselfish patriotism
have been recognised by their canonisation in the Pantheon of
China’s worthies, under an Edict of the present Regent.
Shortly after their execution the following circular letter pour faire
part was addressed by the sons of Yüan Ch’ang to the relatives and
friends of the family:—

Notice sent by the Yüan family to their relatives regarding the

death of Yüan Ch’ang, September, 1900.
 After the usual conventional formulæ of grief and self-abasement,
this circular letter proceeds as follows:—

“We realise that it was because of his outspoken courage in

resisting the evil tendencies of the times that our parent met
his untimely death, and we now submit the following report of
the circumstances for the information of our relatives and
friends.
“When, in the 5th Moon of this year, the Boxer madness
commenced, our late father, in his capacity as a Minister of
the Foreign Office, felt extremely anxious in regard to the
situation, and his anxiety was shared by his colleague, Hsü
Ching-ch’eng. On three occasions when the Princes and
Ministers were received in audience, my father expressed his
opinion to the Throne that the Boxers were utterly unreliable.
‘I have been in person,’ he said, ‘to Legation Street, and have
seen the corpses of Boxers lying on all sides. They had most
certainly been shot, proving that their unholy rites availed
them nothing. They should be exterminated and not used as
Government forces.’ On hearing this advice, the Emperor,
turning to Hsü Ching-ch’eng, enquired whether China is
strong enough to resist the foreigners or not, and other
questions bearing on the position of the Foreign Powers
abroad. Hsü replied without hesitation that China was far too
weak to think of fighting the whole world. His Majesty was so
much impressed by what he had heard that he caught hold of
Hsü by the sleeve and seemed much distressed. Hsü
sorrowfully left the presence, and proceeded with our father to
draft the first of their joint Memorials.
“Later on, when the bombardment of the Legations was in
full swing, our father observed to Hsü, ‘This slaughtering of
Envoys is a grave breach of all international law. If the
Legations are destroyed and the Powers then send an
expedition to avenge them, what will become of our country?
We must oppose this folly, you and I, even at the risk of our
lives.’ So they put in their second Memorial, which never