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Research Methods
in Psychology
Dennis Howitt & Duncan Cramer
Sixth Edition
Contents
Guided tour xvii

Introduction xix
Acknowledgements xxi
Part 1 Basics of research 1
1 Role of research in psychology 3

Overview 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 The importance of reading 5
1.3 Evaluating the evidence 6
1.4 Inferring causality 8
1.5 Types of research and the assessment of causality 11
1.6 Practice 21
1.7 Conclusion 24
Key points 25
Activities 26
2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27

Overview 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Types of study 29
2.3 Aims of research 31
2.4 Research hypotheses 32
2.5 Four types of hypothesis 33
2.6 Difficulties in formulating aims and hypotheses 37
2.7 Conclusion 43
Key points 43
Activities 44
viii CONTENTS
3 Variables, concepts and measures 45

Overview 45
3.1 Introduction 46
3.2 History of the variable in psychology 46
3.3 Types of variable 48
3.4 Independent and dependent variables 50
3.5 Measurement characteristics of variables 50
3.6 Stevens’ theory of scales of measurement 53
3.7 Operationalising concepts and variables 58
3.8 Conclusion 61
Key points 62
Activities 62
4 Problems of generalisation and decision-making in research: Chance findings and

sample size 63
Overview 63
4.1 Introduction 64
4.2 Universalism 65
4.3 Sampling and generalisation 66
4.4 Statistics and generalisation 70
4.5 Directional and non-directional hypotheses again 73
4.6 More on the similarity between measures of effect (difference) and association 75
4.7 Sample size and size of association 77
4.8 Conclusion 83
Key points 84
Activities 84
5 Research reports: The total picture 85

Overview 85
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 Overall strategy of report writing 87
5.3 Sections of the research report in detail 93
5.4 Conclusion 111
Key points 113
Activities 114
6 Improving your quantitative write-up 115

Overview 115
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Poorly written quantitative report 117
CONTENTS ix
6.3 Analysis of the report 121

6.4 Improved version of the report 128
6.5 Conclusion 134
Key points 134
Activities 135
7 Literature search 136

Overview 136
7.2 Library classification systems 143
7.3 Electronic databases 146
7.4 Obtaining articles not in your library 154
7.5 Personal bibliographic database software 157
7.6 Conclusion 160
Key points 160
Activities 161
8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Overview 162
8.2 Ethics: general principles 165
8.3 Research ethics 165
8.4 Ethics and publication 173
8.5 How to obtain a participant’s consent 174
8.6 Data management 176
8.7 Conclusion 178
Key points 179
Activities 180
Part 2 Quantitative research methods 183
9 Basic laboratory experiments 185

Overview 185
9.2 Characteristics of the true or randomised experiment 189
9.3 More advanced research designs 197
9.4 Conclusion 210
Key points 211
Activity 211
x CONTENTS
10 Advanced experimental designs 212

Overview 212
10.2 Multiple levels of the independent variable 214
10.3 Multiple dependent variables 218
10.4 Factorial designs 219
10.5 Psychology and social psychology of the laboratory experiment 224
10.6 Conclusion 231
Key points 232
Activities 232
11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 234

Overview 234
11.2 Cross-sectional designs 236
11.3 The case for non-manipulation studies 238
11.4 Key concepts in the analysis of cross-sectional studies 240
11.5 Conclusion 248
Key points 248
Activities 248
12 Longitudinal studies 249

Overview 249
12.2 Panel designs 252
12.3 Different types of third variable 254
12.4 Analysis of non-experimental designs 257
12.5 Conclusion 262
Key points 263
Activities 263
13 Sampling and population surveys 264

Overview 264
13.2 Types of probability sampling 266
13.3 Non-probability sampling 269
13.4 National surveys 271
13.5 Socio-demographic characteristics of samples 274
13.6 Sample size and population surveys 275
13.7 Conclusion 281
CONTENTS xi
Key points 282

Activities 282
14 Data analysis issues and scientific progress 283

Overview 283
14.2 Confidence intervals 287
14.3 Effect sizes 290
14.4 Power 291
14.5 Replication Crisis 296
14.6 Questionable research practices and truth inflation 298
14.7 Conclusion 304
Key points 307
Activities 307
Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 309
15 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 311

Overview 311
15.2 Concept of a scale 313
15.3 Scale construction 315
15.4 Item analysis or factor analysis? 324
15.5 Other considerations in test construction 326
15.6 Conclusion 328
Key points 329
Activities 329
16 Reliability and validity: Evaluating the value of tests and measures 330
Overview 330
16.2 Reliability of measures 332
16.3 Validity 336
16.4 Types of validity 336
16.5 Conclusion 345
Key points 345
Activity 346
xii CONTENTS
17 Coding data 347

Overview 347
17.2 Types of coding 349
17.3 Reliability and validity when coding 353
17.4 Qualitative coding 355
17.5 Conclusion 358
Key points 358
Activities 359
Part 4 Qualitative research methods 361
18 Why qualitative research? 363

Overview 363
18.2 What is qualitative research? 365
18.3 History of the qualitative/quantitative divide in psychology 368
18.4 Quantification–qualitative methods continuum 371
18.5 Evaluation of qualitative versus quantitative methods 375
18.6 Conclusion 377
Key points 377
Activity 378
19 Qualitative data collection 379

Overview 379
19.2 Major qualitative data collection approaches 381
19.3 Conclusion 390
Key points 390
Activities 391
20 Transcribing language data: Jefferson system 392

Overview 392
20.2 Jefferson transcription 394
20.3 Advice for transcribers 399
20.4 Conclusion 400
CONTENTS xiii
Key points 400

Activities 401
21 Thematic analysis 402

Overview 402
21.2 What is thematic analysis? 404
21.3 Basic approach to thematic analysis 406
21.4 More sophisticated version of thematic analysis 409
21.5 Conclusion 416
Key points 417
Activity 417
22 Grounded theory 418

Overview 418
22.2 Development of grounded theory 421
22.3 Data in grounded theory 423
22.4 How to do grounded theory analysis 423
22.5 Computer grounded theory analysis 428
22.6 Evaluation of grounded theory 431
22.7 Conclusion 433
Key points 434
Activity 434
23 Discourse analysis 435

Overview 435
23.2 Basic discourse analysis theory 438
23.3 The agenda of discourse analysis 440
23.4 Doing discourse analysis 442
23.5 Conclusion 447
Key points 447
Activities 447
24 Conversation analysis 448

Overview 448
24.2 Precepts of conversation analysis 452
24.3 Stages in conversation analysis 453
xiv CONTENTS
24.4 Conclusion 458

Key points 458
Activities 459
25 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 460

Overview 460
25.2 Philosophical foundations of interpretative phenomenological analysis 462
25.3 Stages in interpretative phenomenological analysis 469
25.4 Conclusion 475
Key points 475
Activities 476
26 Evaluating qualitative research 477

Overview 477
26.2 Criteria for novices 478
26.3 Evaluating qualitative research 480
26.4 Validity 483
26.5 Conclusion 486
Key points 487
Activities 487
27 Improving your qualitative write-up 488

Overview 488
27.2 Poorly written qualitative report 494
27.3 Critical evaluation 500
27.4 Conclusion 504
Key points 505
Activities 505
Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 507
28 Developing ideas for research 509

Overview 509
28.2 Why not a replication study? 512
CONTENTS xv
28.3 Choosing a research topic 516

28.4 Sources of research ideas 518
28.5 Conclusion 525
Key points 526
Activity 526
29 Managing your research project 527

Overview 527
29.2 Advice for consideration 528
29.3 Conclusion 534
Key points 535
Glossary 536
References 543
Index 555
Companion Website ON THE
WEBSITE
For open-access student resources specifically written
to complement this textbook and support your learning,
please visit go.pearson.com/uk/he/resources
Guided tour
4 PART 1 BASICS OF RESEARCH
CHAPTER 1 1.1 Introduction

Research is exciting – the lifeblood of psychology. The subject matter of psychology is
Role of research in
fascinating, but this is not enough. Although initially psychology provides many intrigu-
ing ideas about the nature of people and society, as one matures intellectually, the chal-
lenges and complexities of the research processes which stimulated these ideas increasingly
become part of one’s understanding of psychology. There are many engaging psycho-
psychology
logical issues: for example, why do some relationships last? Is there a purpose behind
dreaming? What causes depression and what can we do to alleviate it? Can we improve
our memory to make us study more efficiently and, if so, how? Why are we aggressive
and can we do anything to make us less so? What are the rules which govern everyday
conversation? Psychology’s subject matter is enormously diverse which ensures that our
individual interests are well catered for. Research methods themselves reflect this diversity.
Psychology comes in many forms and so does good psychological research.
Students often see research methods as a dull, dry and difficult topic largely tolerated
rather than enjoyed. They much prefer other modules on exciting topics such as child devel-
opment, mental illness, forensic investigation, brain structure and thought. They overlook
that these exciting ideas are the work of committed researchers. For these psychologists,
psychology and research methods are intertwined – psychology and the means of devel-
oping psychological ideas through research cannot be differentiated. For instance, it is
Overview stimulating to learn that we are attracted to people who have the same or similar attitudes
to ourselves. The sort of research which supports this idea should also be of interest. This
is a start but additional issues will spring to many of our minds about this. For example,
● Research is central to all the activities of psychologists as it is to modern life in general. why should we be attracted to people who have similar attitudes to our own? Do opposites
A key assumption of psychology is that the considered and careful collection of research never attract? When does similarity lead to attraction and when does dissimilarity lead to
data is an essential part of the development of the discipline. attraction? The answer may have already been found to such questions. If not, the need for
● Most psychology involves the integration of theoretical notions with the outcomes of research is obvious. Research makes us think hard – which is the purpose of any academic
research. Psychology characteristically emphasises causal explanations. Many psychologists discipline. The more thinking that we do about research, the better we become at it.
adhere to the belief that a prime purpose of research is to test causal propositions, though Box 1.1 gives explanations of basic concepts such as ‘variable’ and ‘correlation’ which
this is far from universal. you may be unfamiliar with.
● A first-rate psychologist – researcher or practitioner – needs to be familiar with the tech-

niques of good research both to evaluate effectively the value of other ‘researchers’ ’ work
and develop their own research.
● All psychologists must develop the necessary knowledge to understand research reports Box 1.1 Key Ideas
in detail. They need to appreciate the purposes, advantages and disadvantages of different
research methods employed in research on topics they are interested in.
● Often research reports are concisely written and so assume knowledge of the topic and Some essential concepts in research
research methods commonly used. Student training in psychology includes research meth-
ods to prepare them for this. Knowledge of basic research methods enhances the ease with ● Cause Something which results in an effect, action or include flipping a coin and drawing slips of paper from
research reports may be understood. condition. a hat. So each participant has an equal chance of being
allocated to the experimental or control conditions.
● Psychologists traditionally distinguish between true experiments and non-experiments. ● Data The information from which inferences are
The experimental and control conditions involve dif-
Laboratory studies are usually true experiments whereas non-experiments are more typical drawn and conclusions reached. A lot of data are col-
ferences in procedure related to the hypothesis under
of more naturalistic studies in the field (community or other real-life settings). lected in numerical form but textual data may also be
examination. Randomisation is used to avoid system-
appropriate.
● Many psychologists argue that true experiments (laboratory studies) generally provide more atic differences between the experimental and control
convincing tests of causal propositions. Others dispute this, primarily on the grounds that ● Randomised experiment This refers to a type of conditions prior to the experimental manipulation.
true experiments achieve precision at the expense of realism. research in which participants in research are allocated Random selection is fully explained in Chapter 13. The
at random (by chance) to an experimental or control randomised experiment can also be referred to as the
● Conducting one’s own research is the fast route to understanding research methods. It is seen
condition. Simple methods of random assignment randomised trial.
as integral to the training and work of all psychologists – both practitioners and academics.
Clear Overview Key Ideas

Introduces the chapter to give students a feel for the Outlines the important concepts in more depth to give
topics covered you a fuller understanding
Practical Advice
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH REPORTS 95
Gives you handy hints and tips on how to carry out

Box 5.2 Practical Advice
research in practice
Important points to summarise in the abstract
Ideally, the following should be outlined in the abstract. be appropriate to describe how the different conditions
Normally, subheadings are not used except in structured were created (i.e. manipulated), for example, ‘Levels
abstracts, though this rule may be broken if necessary. of hunger were manipulated by asking participants to
They are given here simply for purposes of clarity. refrain from eating or drinking for one hour, three hours
and six hours prior to the experiment’.
● Introduction This is a brief statement justifying the
research and explaining the purpose, followed by a ● Results There is no space in an abstract for elabo-
short statement of the research question or the main rate presentations of the statistical analyses that the
hypotheses. The justification may be in terms of the researcher may have carried out. Typically, however,
social or practical utility of the research, its relevance to broad indications are given of the style of analysis, for
theory, or even the absence of previous research. Prob- example, ‘Factor analysis of the 20-item anxiety scale
ably no more than 30 per cent of the abstract will be revealed two main factors’, ‘The groups were compared
such introductory material. using a mixed-design ANOVA’ or ‘Binomial logistic
regression revealed five main factors which differenti-
● Method This is a broad orientation to the type of
ated men and women’. Now these statistical techniques
research that was carried out. Often a simple phrase will
may be meaningless to you at the moment but they will
be sufficient to orient the reader to the style of research
not be to most researchers. They refer to very distinct
in question. So phrases like ‘Brain activity was studied
types of analysis, so the terms are very informative to
using PET (positron emission tomography) and FMRI
researchers. In addition, the major findings of the sta-
(functional magnetic resonance imaging) . . .’, ‘A con-
tistical analysis need to be reported. Normally, this will
trolled experiment was conducted . . .’, ‘The interview
be the important, statistically significant features of the
transcripts were analysed using discourse analysis . . .’
data analysis. Of course, sometimes the lack of signifi-
and ‘A survey was conducted . . .’ suggest a great deal
cance is the most important thing to draw attention to
about the way in which the research was carried out
in the abstract. There is no need and usually no space to
without being wordy.
use the succinct methods of the reporting of statistics in
● Participants This will consist of essential detail about the abstract. So things like [t(17) = 2.43, p 6 .05] are
the sample(s) employed, for example, ‘Interview data rare in abstracts and best omitted.
from an opportunity sample consisting of young car-
● Discussion In an abstract, the discussion (and con-
ers of older relatives was compared with a sample of
clusions) need to be confined to the main things that
young people entering the labour market for the first
the reader should take away from the research. As
time, matched for age’.
ever, there are a number of ways of doing this. If you
● Procedure This should identify the main measures have already stated the hypothesis, then you need do
employed, for example, ‘Loneliness was assessed using little other than confirm whether or not this was sup-
the shortened UCLA loneliness scale. A new scale was ported, given any limitations you think are important
developed to measure social support’. By stipulating the concerning your research, and possibly mention any
important measures employed, one also identifies the crucial recommendations for further research activity
key variables. For an experiment, in addition it would in the field.
it is not a substitute for eventually reading that article. A badly written abstract may deter
some researchers from reading the original research report and may cause others to waste
effort obtaining a report which is not quite what they expected it to be.
Since the abstract provides a summary of the entire paper, having read the abstract,
the reader will know what to expect in the report and this speeds up and simplifies the
task of reading. First impressions are important, so writing the abstract should not be
xviii GUIDED TOUR
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH REPORTS 109 92 PART 1 BASICS OF RESEARCH
■ Appendix or appendices ● A good rule-of-thumb is to give the results of calculations to two decimal places or
less, as the APA recommends. Avoid spuriously implying a greater degree of accuracy
Appendices are a rarity because they are space-consuming. Appendices do help to avoid than psychological data usually possess. Whatever you do, be consistent. You need to
cluttering up the main body of the report with overlong detail that might confuse the understand how to round to two decimals. Basically, if the original number ends with
reader and hamper good presentation. So, for example, it may be perfectly sensible to a figure of 5 or above then we round up, otherwise we round down. So 21.4551 gives
include your 50-item questionnaire in your report, but common sense may dictate that 21.46 rounded, whereas 21.4549 gives 21.45 rounded. If whatever you have calculated
it is put at the very end of the report in the section for appendices. In this case, it would can have a value of above one, then any calculation less than one should be written as
be usual to give indicative examples of questions under ‘Materials’ and refer the reader 0.45, etc. If what you have calculated cannot have a value of greater than 1, then omit
to the appendix. Similarly, the multitude of tables that the statistical analysis may gener- the figure before the decimal point. A correlation coefficient would be written as .32
ate may fit uncomfortably in the results section but have a more suitable location in an because its maximum value is 1.0.
appendix. Remember the following: ● Psychological terms may not have a standard definition that is accepted by all research-
● Refer to the relevant appendix in the main text where appropriate. ers. Consequently, you may find it necessary to define how you are using terms in your
report. Always remember that definitions in psychology are rarely definitive and they
● Number and title the appendices appropriately in order to facilitate their location. are often problematic in themselves.
● You may be evaluated partly on the basis of the contents of your appendices. It is inap- ● Regarding layout, normally the recommendation is to double-space your work and
propriate simply to place a load of junk material there. word-process it. According to the APA, 12-point Times New Roman is preferable.
However, check local requirements on these matters. Leave wide margins for com-
ments. The underlying assumption behind this is that the report is being reviewed by
another person. A report that will not be commented upon might not require double
spacing. Check the local rules where you are studying.
Box 5.8 Research Example
Layout of a brief paper from an American Psychological

Association journal Box 5.1 Talking Point
Dickson, J. M., Moberly, N. J., & Kinderman, P. (2011). Depressed people are not less motivated by personal goals
but are more pessimistic about attaining them. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 975–980.
Avoiding bias in language
While this chapter has been largely about how, as a student, you should write up your reports of your research, the ulti- Racism, sexism, homophobia and hostility to minorities A few examples of what to avoid are:
mate aim is to develop research skills to a professional level. Professional researchers publish their research in research such as people with disabilities violate psychological ethics.
● Writing things like ‘the black sample . . .’ can readily
journals, of which there are many in psychology. Quite often, student research is of sufficient quality to be published – Racist, sexist and other forms of unacceptable modes of
be modified to ‘the sample of black people . . .’ or, if
especially final-year research projects in psychology degrees, and the work of postgraduate students perhaps even more expression (e.g. homophobic) are to be avoided in psycho-
you prefer, ‘the sample of people of colour . . .’. In this
so. So you may well find that you are asked to prepare your work with your research supervisor for publication. Of logical writings as elsewhere. They may lead to the material
way, the most important characteristic is drawn atten-
course, such publications look extremely good in one’s CV. The format of a journal article is exacting and writing your being rejected for publication. There is no simple list of
tion to: the fact that you are referring to people first and
first journal article (and your last) is a demanding activity. Here we will look at a published study in the light of the dos and don’ts to be avoided. They can manifest them-
foremost who also happen to be black. You might also
requirements of professional publication in journals. selves in multiple ways which may well change with time.
wish to ask why one needs to refer to the race of people
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) recommends how a research paper should For example, Howitt and Owusu-Bempah (1994) trace the
at all.
be written and structured for publication in the journals published by the association. Many other psychological journals history of racism in psychology and its change over time.
stipulate that the APA’s suggestions should be followed. APA journals often publish papers which are longer than 5000 The appalling racism of psychology from a century ago is ● Avoid referring to racial (or gender or other) character-
words and which typically describe a number of related studies rather than just one. Some of their journals, such as the readily identified as such; it is harder to recognise in current istics of participants which are irrelevant to the report’s
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, permit the publication of brief reports, which should not be longer than 5000 words. psychology. For detailed examples of racism in psychology substance. For example, ‘Female participant Y was a
This word limit includes everything such as the title, the references and any notes. The Publication Manual was last see Owusu-Bempah and Howitt (1995) and Howitt and black lone-parent . . .’. This contains the elements of a
revised in 2010, so papers are expected to follow these latest recommendations. Owusu-Bempah (1990). A useful first-step towards elimi- stereotypical portrayal of black people as being associ-
The APA Publication Manual has a Checklist for Manuscript Submission which lists some of the requirements that a nation of unacceptable ideas in your writing is to undergo ated with father absence and ‘broken families’.
paper needs to meet before it is considered for publication. There is also a free tutorial on their website which outlines the specialised awareness training. This is increasingly avail-
able in universities and many work locations. In this way, ● Do not refer to man, mankind or social man, for exam-
basics of the APA style. Visit https://www.apa.org/ Click on publications and databases, then choose the link to APA style
the inadvertent propagation of your racial, sexist, and ple. These terms do not make people think of man and
➔ woman but of men only. Words like ‘people’ can be
other biases may be minimised.
Research Example Talking Point

Explores a real example of research being carried out, Investigates an important debate or issue in research
giving you an insight into the process
CHAPTER 2 AIMS AND HYPOTHESES IN RESEARCH 43 44 PART 1 BASICS OF RESEARCH
2.7 Conclusion ● The variable thought to be the cause may be called the independent variable and the variable presumed to
be the effect the dependent variable. Some researchers feel that these two terms should be restricted to
the variables in a true experiment. In non-experiments, the variable assumed to be the cause may be called
It is almost a truism to suggest that the aims and hypotheses of research should be clear. the predictor and the variable considered to be the effect the criterion.
This may seem difficult early on and perseverance is needed. Since research is one way by
which psychological knowledge and ideas develop, it is almost inevitable that aims and
hypotheses go through a process of refinement. Reformulation of one’s aims and objec-
tives commonly occurs in the research planning stage, and sometimes after. All research is
guided by aims, but hypotheses are only universal in certain types of research – especially
true experiments – where it is possible to specify likely outcomes fairly precisely. Hypoth-
eses are best included wherever possible, since they represent the distillation of the ACTIVITIES
researcher’s thoughts about the subject matter. Sometimes, for non-experimental studies,
the formulation of hypotheses becomes too cumbersome to be of value. Hence, many 1. Choose a recent study that has been referred to either in research you are reading or in a lecture that you have attended.
excellent studies in psychology will not include hypotheses. What kind of aim or aims did the study have in terms of the aims mentioned in this chapter? What were the specific aims
The true experiment (e.g. the laboratory experiment) has many advantages in terms of of this study? What kinds of variables were manipulated or measured? If the study involved testing hypotheses, were
the testing of hypotheses: (a) its ability to randomise participants to conditions, (b) the the direction and the causal nature of the relationship specified? If the hypothesis was stated in a causal form, was the
requirement of manipulating the independent variable rather than using already existing design a true (i.e. randomised) one?
variables such as gender, and (c) the control over variables. Although we have largely 2. You wish to test the hypothesis that we are what we eat. How could you do this? What variables could you measure?
discussed the testing of a single hypothesis at a time, very little research is so restricted.
Most research studies have several aims and several hypotheses, because we are usually
interested how several different variables may be related to one another. Economies of
time and effort result by considering several hypotheses in one study.
The penultimate section of this book on qualitative research methods shows how
valuable research can proceed using a quite different approach in which the idea of speci-
fied aims and hypotheses is something of an anathema. Nevertheless, much research in
mainstream psychology either overtly or tacitly subscribes to hypothesis testing as an
ideal. Later (Chapter 18) we present an overview of the theoretical basis to these different
approaches to research.
Key points
● Research studies have different general aims. Most seem to be concerned with testing causal propositions or
hypotheses. Others may describe a phenomenon or intervention in detail, estimate how common a behaviour
is in some population, evaluate the effects of interventions, or statistically summarise the results of similar
studies. The aim or aims of a study should be clearly and accurately stated.
● Studies which test causal propositions should describe clearly and accurately what these propositions are.
● The research study should make a contribution to the topic. While research usually builds on previous research
in an area, the contribution of the study should be original to some extent in the sense that the particular
question addressed has not been entirely investigated in this way before.
● A hypothesis describes what the relationship is expected to be between two or more variables. The hypothesis
should be stated in a causal form when the study is a true experiment. It should be stated in a non-causal
form when the study is a non-experiment.
● When suggesting that variables may be related to one another, we usually expect the variables to be related in
a particular way or direction. When this is the case, we should specify in the hypothesis what this direction is.
➔
Conclusion/Key points Activities

Each chapter has a conclusion and set of key points to Each chapter concludes with activities to help you test
help summarise chapter coverage when you’re revising your knowledge and explore the issues further
a topic
Introduction
Modern psychological research can seem daunting to the newcomer. This sixth edition
of Research Methods in Psychology seeks to introduce a broad range of topics dealing
with psychological research and analysis as currently practised. We cover statistical meth-
ods in psychology in a separate volume. Good research requires considerable thought,
understanding, experience, and attention to detail. It is far from a simple rule-following
exercise and to pretend otherwise is a great disservice to students. The incredible progress
of modern psychology requires that teaching resources must struggle to be up to date
and be appropriate for the variety of different educational experiences provided by dif-
ferent universities. We do not expect that this sixth edition will be read from beginning
to end. Instead, choose what is appropriate for your needs from our sequence of largely
self-contained chapters.
In Research Methods in Psychology you will find both quantitative and qualitative
research covered in appropriate depth. These are commonly but, we think, wrongly seen
as alternative and incompatible approaches to psychological research. For some research-
ers, there may be an intellectual incompatibility between the two. Increasingly, however,
researchers appreciate that the two approaches can feed each other. Even if we are wrong
about this, it is vitally important that students understand the intellectual roots of the
two traditions, how research is carried out in these traditions, and what each tradition
is capable of achieving. Armed with this understanding, students will be better placed
to make intelligent and appropriate choices about the style of research appropriate to
their chosen research questions. On its own, the qualitative material in this sixth edition
effectively supports much of the qualitative research likely to be carried out today. There
is as much detailed practical advice and theory on qualitative research methods as prob-
ably required. (If more is required, the book by Dennis Howitt (2019), Introduction to
Qualitative Research Methods in Psychology, Harlow: Pearson Education, will probably
meet your requirements.) But this is in addition to the quantitative coverage, which easily
outstrips any competition in terms of variety, depth and authority. We have tried to pro-
vide students with resources to help them in ways largely ignored by most other texts. For
example, Chapter 7 on literature searches is extremely comprehensive and practical. Simi-
larly, Chapter 8 on ethics meets the most recent standards and deals with them in depth.
Chapter 5 on writing research reports places report writing at the centre of the research
process rather than as an add-on at the end. Writing a research report is highly demanding
of a student’s understanding of all of the elements of research. We provide practical help
to this end by including chapters giving examples of quantitative and qualitative research
which fail to meet the highest standards. You will also find some discussion of statistics in
this book. For the most part, this is when dealing with topics which are missing from the
popular SPSS-based statistics textbooks, simply because SPSS does not cover everything
useful in psychological research. Statistics is a more controversial topic in psychology
than struggling students may realise. So we have included a chapter on some of the more
controversial aspects of statistics which may encourage a more mature understanding of
the role of statistics in psychology. For the sixth edition, we have included new material
xx INTRODUCTION
on important but recent topics including multi-method research and data mining. The
final chapter is new and is tips and hints which may help you cope better with the stresses
and turmoil that planning and executing research may bring.
As far as is possible, we have tried to provide students with practical skills as well as
the necessary conceptual overview of research methods in modern psychology. Neverthe-
less, there is a limit to this. The bottom line is that anyone wishing to understand research
needs to read research, not merely plan, execute, analyse and write up research. Hence,
almost from the start we emphasise that reading is not merely unavoidable but crucial.
Without such additional reading, the point of this book is missed. It is not intended as a
jumble of technical stuff too boring to be part of any module other than one on research
methods. The material in the book is intended to expand students’ understanding of psy-
chology by explaining just how researchers go about creating psychology. At times this
can be quite exciting as well as frustrating and demanding.
Acknowledgements
■ Authors’ acknowledgements
Working with the team at Pearson on a book project is always a delight. Working without
the team at Pearson on a book project is unimaginable. So we would like to offer our
thanks to everyone involved for their kindness and hard work. But there are a few people
that we would like to give a particular mention.
We have worked with Janey Webb for a good many years on numerous book projects.
No matter what, she always gave 110% but, sadly, she has moved on from Pearson. It is
difficult to describe the incredible support that she provided over all that time. Her official
title was Publisher but she was just Janey to us. She is a remarkable person who will be
missed. Partings of this sort are common in publishing but we also have said goodbye
to Saraswati Banerjee who was Acquisition Editor for a while. She was also a rock and
great support. We wish them both well wherever life leads them. This means that we can
welcome Catherine Yates as the Publisher who has taken over from Janey.
We hope that you can tell a book by its cover as we think that the cover design, by
Kelly Miller, is excellent and we wish her success after her departure from Pearson. Kevin
Ancient took charge of the cover after this and did the all-important text design. He easily
holds the record for the number of acknowledgements in our books.
The Project Manager is Sweda R who is just about the most helpful person imaginable.
Unfortunately we never know whether to address her as Sweda or R. Maybe R sounds a
bit too James Bondish. Perhaps all of us should be a letter.
Bincy Menon had overall responsibility for turning our manuscript into a fine looking
book in her role as Content Producer. It never ceases to amaze us that a human being can
oversee such a process yet remain charming and friendly.
The Copyeditor was Antonia Maxwell. Not only is she better at spotting our mistakes
than even we are at making them, she imposed the text design on our manuscript with
great aplomb. This cannot be easy for a book like this with its many elements. Even more
remarkable is her ability not to appear irritated by the authors when surely she must have
been.
Heather Ancient was the Proofreader for this edition. Proofreader is a word used to
describe a very wise, very clever, very organized person with extremely high tolerance of
boredom. Such qualities are not possible in just one human being which confirms our
view that all proof readers are androids.
Finally, we should express our gratitude to Karen Mclaren who is the rhyming R&P
Analyst at Pearson. R&P stands for Rights and Permissions. She stops us getting in big
trouble with copyright holders. This makes us happy though sorting things out does not.
Dennis Howitt
Duncan Cramer
xxii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
■ Publisher’s acknowledgements
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absolutely refused to lend the book to Betty, who had taken
it without leave.
"Yes, I know all about that!" said my aunt.
"Betty told me herself, poor wretch, that you told her

you would not lend it to her; but can you deny that you
went away and left the book in her hands? Can you deny
that you were angry with her, and reproached her for telling
me of your private curtsying about London, and London fine
gallants, and other things that young maids should not
know, much less tell on? You are an adder and a viper—that
you are! And come of viper's brood—nasty, frog-eating
French!"
My mother rose. "With your leave, sister Corbet, we will

withdraw," said she, assuming the chatelaine, as she well
knew how. "I shall not justify my child till I hear from her all
the circumstances of this unlucky affair. Nephew Andrew, I
will thank you to order the pony."
"The pony—and for what?" asked my aunt, cooling

down, as she always did when my mother took this tone.
"That I may withdraw to my own house, since I am so

happy as to have one," replied my mother. "When this
matter is cleared up, sister Corbet, you shall have all proper
explanations and apologies. In the meantime, 'tis neither
for your dignity or mine that I should remain longer under a
roof where such language has been applied to me and
mine. I thank you from my heart for your hospitality, but I
can partake of it—no, not an hour longer."
My aunt, upon this, began to cry, and to retract what

she had said.
"I did not mean you, sister d'Antin—and perhaps it was
not so bad; but you see she does not deny that she had the
book, and that Betty got it from her—and I know I am hasty
when I am roused; and the French do eat frogs, for you told
me yourself; and you said they were good—you know you
did, sister d'Antin. And Betty is artful, I confess; but that
does not make it right for Vevette to lend her bad books,
nor for Andrew to look at me so, as if—and I am sure I am
his own natural mother and not a stranger, and 'tis
unknown the trouble I had in rearing him, because he was a
May babe, and my mother said he would never be lucky."
"Mother and my aunt," said Andrew, in his grave,

commanding tones, "will you be so good as to let this
matter rest for to-night? It hath been made far too public
already. Aunt, if I have ever done you any service, I
beseech you to remain under my roof till to-morrow." (I
never heard Andrew say my roof before.)
"Yes, do," said my aunt, who had cooled rapidly, as

usual. "Indeed I regret that I was so hasty; and I will take
back all I said about vipers and adders."
My mother suffered herself to be prevailed upon so far

as to say she would remain till the time originally set, for
her departure. Then she withdrew to her room, and I
followed, like one going to execution. Once there she
addressed me in a tone which I had never heard from her
but once before, requiring me to give her a full account of
this transaction. I fell down on my knees before her, and
told her the whole story from beginning to end.
"How shall I believe you? You have already deceived

me," said she sadly.
"Indeed, maman, I have now told you the truth," said I,
weeping. "I only read the first poem in the book, and then I
would go no farther. And I did not lend it to Betty. She took
it from the room when you called me to look at the china,
and I never could get it again, though I asked her for it ever
so many times. Oh, maman, do believe me!"
"Vevette," said she, laying her hand on my shoulder,

and looking me through and through as I knelt before her,
"as you hope ever to meet your father again, tell me the
truth. Have you any more of these books?"
"No, maman, not one."
"Have you ever had any of them since I forbade you

reading them?"
"Yes, maman, I had two or three that my Uncle Charles

sent to the tower, but the day before we went to the Supper
in the old grange I burned them, every one."
"And you have not read the rest of this book?"
"No, maman, only the first poem, in which there was no

harm. Betty wanted to read on, but I would not. Oh,
maman, do forgive me!"
"I forgive you, my child, but you have grieved me to the

heart," said my mother. "Go to your room, and pray for
forgiveness and cleansing. Do not leave it this night. By and
by, when I am rested, we will talk farther."
I retired to my own room, feeling as miserable as any

girl of my age ever felt in the world, mid that is saying
much, for the capacities of such girls for misery are very
great. It seemed to me as though I could never be happy
again. In all my little difficulties with my aunt and Betty
heretofore, Andrew had always been on my side; but now,
he too had turned against me. How plainly I could see the
look he gave me when he handed me that detestable book
—a look full of anger and grief. I knew that he hated lying
above all things. It was the only sin with which he seemed
to have no patience.
I had not told a lie in words, to be sure, but I had been

guilty of deception, and that was enough for him. Now that
I had lost him, or thought I had, I felt how dear he was to
me. I had lost his respect, and I felt sure that all comfort
was at an end between us, even though he should feel
bound to fulfil his contract. One thing I made up my mind to
—I would never be his wife if he showed the least
unwillingness to marry me. And then I remembered how
pleased he had been when I spoke of our living together on
a desert island, and for the first time I burst into tears.
I wept for a long time, thus lightening my heart a little,

and then taking up my Bible I tried to read myself into
some sort of quietness. I had just begun to breathe without
sobbing when smile one knocked at the door. I opened it,
with my heart throbbing at the thought that it might be
Andrew, and there stood Betty, her eyes cast down with
that affectation of meekness I knew so well, and carrying in
her hands a tray laden with good things.
"I have brought you some supper," said she, in her

silver tones. "I thought perhaps you would not care to come
down."
"Oh, you did! You are very considerate," I said bitterly.

"You did not come at all to triumph in the mischief you have
made by your lies."
"Why, Vevette," said she, in a tone of astonishment;
"what do you mean? I am sure I did not mean to do you
any harm, but only to relieve my own mind. I can't endure
to have secrets from my mother."
All at once Rosamond's ghost story darted into my

mind. When the devil puts such a weapon into the hand of a
person in a passion, that person is very apt to use it without
thought of consequences.
"Oh, you cannot! Then perhaps you have told your

mother of the pair of ghosts Rosamond saw disappear near
Torden's cottage, one of which had on a gray homespun
gown, and the other looked so much like young Mr. Lovel. I
think I will tell Mr. Dawson about these ghosts, that he may
keep a lookout for them, since he is so skilful in dealing with
that sort of gentry."
Betty turned white, or rather gray, for a moment, and

nearly let her tray fall. Then she recovered herself and said
quietly—
"I don't think I would tell any more tales if I were you.
You would not be likely to gain much credit just now. I came
to make friends with you."
"That is false!" I interrupted her. "You came to triumph

over me."
"I came to make friends with you," she continued

calmly; "but if you choose to treat me as an enemy, you can
do so. I pity you, Vevette, and I do not blame you as much
as I do those who have brought you up in such ways. Your
conduct just shows what that religion is worth of which we
have heard so much."
In a quarrel, the person who has no conscience always
has an advantage over the person who has one. Betty had
certainly got the best of it in this case, notwithstanding the
stab I had given her. I shut the door in her face, and again
sat down to try to compose my thoughts, but I did not find
it so easy. Revenge is like the little book of the prophet, in
that though it may be sweet in the mouth it is very bitter of
digestion. I had struck a telling blow, it was true, but I had
gotten it back with interest, and the worst of it was that in
this instance Betty had some truth on her side. I was a
discredit to the parents who had brought me up, and the
religion in which I had been educated. I had brought shame
on my dear mother as well as myself.
Betty had indeed done me a cruel mischief, and that not

only in the trap she had so artfully laid for me, and into
which I had so foolishly walked, like a silly hare into a
springe, but in coming to enjoy her triumph as she had just
done; for that such was her motive I did not doubt then,
nor do I now. She had drawn toward her that anger which I
had hitherto directed toward myself, and roused in me a
spirit of anger and revenge. I felt as if I could have killed
her. In this state of mind, my mother found me when she
came in to talk to me later in the evening, nor did all her
expostulations avail to draw me out of it. I was ready to beg
her pardon in the very dust, and to make my submission to
my aunt, but I could not and would not forgive Betty; nay, I
would not even say I would try.
"Then you must yourself remain unforgiven, my poor

child," said my mother; "under the anger of that Heavenly
Father whom you have offended. Can you afford that? Will
you still further grieve that kind and tender Divine Friend
whom you have so deeply grieved already?"
If I had spoken out the thought that was in my heart, I
should have said that I did not believe that Friend loved me
so very much, or he would not have suffered this trouble to
come upon me just when I was trying to be so very good;
but this I did not dare to say.
"I cannot help it, maman," I answered her at last. "I

never, never can forgive Betty for the part she has acted.
She has been ten times worse than I, and nobody seems to
blame her at all. You don't mind her coming here to triumph
over me—bringing me a tray forsooth as if I did not know
that she will never wait upon any one if she can help it. You
don't mind how much I am insulted!"
It showed how I was carried out of myself that I dared

speak so to my mother. I was scared when the words were
out of my mouth. But my mother was one who knew when
to reprove and punish and when to soothe and comfort. She
saw that I was almost beside myself with anger and
excitement—a mood, I must say, which was rare in me.
"We will talk no more to-night," said she. "You had

better try to calm yourself, and to sleep. My poor little maid,
I thought I was bringing you to a safe nest when I refused
to leave you in London. But there are temptations
everywhere, since there is no earthly state from which the
world, the flesh, and the devil can be kept out. Go to bed,
my Vevette, and remember, though thou canst not or wilt
not pray for thyself, thy mother is praying for thee."
With that she kissed me and returned to her own room.

I burst into fresh tears, and cried till I could cry no more,
and then, feeling my heart a little lightened, I was
preparing to undress when some one tapped softly at the
door, and a low voice said—
"Vevette!"
"Who is there?" I asked.
"Rosamond," was the answer. "Please let me in. I have

brought you a cup of milk and some bread."
I could not resist the pleading tones, and I opened the

door. Rosamond had been crying as bitterly as myself, and
as she came into the room she set down her burden and
clasping me in her arms site kissed me and cried again. My
tears flowed too, but they were cool tears now, and
refreshed my burning eyes.
"Dear Rosamond, you won't turn against me, will you?"

said I.
"No indeed," she answered warmly, and then added, "Of

course you know I must think it was wrong for you to keep
the book, and to read ever so little, when you knew your
mother would not allow it. But every one does wrong
sometimes. If we were not sinners, the dear Lord would not
have needed to come down and die for us."
Somehow these simple words did more to calm my

heart, and to show me my sin at the same time, than
anything had done before. The dear Lord had died for me,
and this was the way I had repaid him. He was ready to
forgive me, and yet I would not forgive Betty. I began to
see things in a new light.
"I know I was very wrong," said I, "and I am sorry—

indeed I am. But, Rosamond, it was not so bad. I did not
lend Betty the book: I told her she should not have it; but
maman called me, and when I came back, she was gone. I
have tried again and again to get it out of her hands, and
then I meant to burn it up. But what is the use of talking,
since nobody will believe me?"
"I believe you," said Rosamond; "I believe every word

you say. But don't you see that even, then, if you had gone
to your mother and laid the whole before her, all this would
not have happened? She might have been displeased, 'tis
true; but she would have forgiven you and got back the
book, and all would have ended well by this time."
"It is true," I answered. "I wish I had done as you say."
"I think the very most straightforward way is always the

best way, especially when one is dealing with one like—like
Betty," continued Rosamond. "There is nothing which
deceitful people understand so little as truth. But, Vevette,
if you are sorry, it will all come right in the end. Let us kneel
down and say the fifty-first Psalm together, and I am sure
you will feel better."
We did so, and then the dear maid repeated the thirty-
second Psalm. She was like the holy well at St. Wenna's,
which ran with a clear but small stream, while now and then
came a great rush of bright water, bubbling up through the
white pebbles and showing for a moment the crystal depth
below. I had always loved her from the first of our
acquaintance, but from that hour began a friendship which
will never end.
We kissed each other on our knees and then rose.
"Do eat a morsel," said Rosamond. "You have had no

supper, and you will be ill to-morrow."
I tried, in complaisance to her, but I could not manage

it.
"I cannot eat," said I; "but oh, Rosamond, I am so
thirsty."
"I will bring you some cool water from the well in the
court," said she, and taking a jug, she was gone before I
could object. When she came back she looked startled.
"Do you know, Vevette, I am sure I saw that same

figure that I saw before near Torden's cottage with the
woman. It was just under the archway, as plain as could be
against the sky, and it slipped away just as before. Who or
what can it be?"
"Some one hanging about after one of the maids,

perhaps," said I, though I had my own thoughts upon the
matter. "Now you must not stay any longer or my aunt will
be angry and think I am corrupting you."
"Oh, no, she won't," answered Rosamond. "I asked her

if I might come, and she said yes, and wanted me to bring
you all kinds of nice things, but I thought you would not
care for them. I think she is very sorry she made such an
ado about the matter, now that it is over. Well, good-night,
dear Vevette; I hope you will sleep."
But I could not sleep, except feverishly and by

snatches, till after the birds began to sing in the morning.
Then indeed I had a good nap, and waked refreshed. I
washed and dressed, and went softly into my mother's
room. She was already up, and kneeling before the table,
on which lay, always open, her Bible, and the little worn
prayer-book she brought from France. She beckoned me to
kneel beside her, and we said our prayers together, as
usual. Then, as we rose, she drew me to her and kissed me.
"The evil spirit has gone out—is it not so?" said she,
looking into my face with a smile.
"Yes, maman, I hope so," I answered. "I am very sorry
about the book, and I will try to forgive Betty."
"That is spoken well, my child; and now I must tell you

that I think you have been somewhat hardly dealt by in this
matter. Looking it over coolly, I can see that I did not make
enough allowance for indecision and embarrassment on
your part, after you received the book."
"Indeed and truly, maman, I meant to show you the

book, but I quite forgot it till we came here. Then when
Betty carried it off, I did not know what to do."
"There was but one thing to do, and that was to come
and tell me all about it," said my mother. "That would have
saved all the trouble."
"So Rosamond said. Oh, maman, she was so good last

night."
"She is a dear maid," said my mother; "by far the best

of the three."
"Better than Margaret?" said I, surprised, for I had

looked upon Meg as a pattern of all excellence.
"Yes, because she is truly humble-minded—a rare and

most precious quality. She is truly poor in spirit, while Meg,
with all her good qualities—but we will not discuss the faults
of others. Now, do you know what is to be done next?"
"I must go to my aunt and tell her that I am sorry," said

I, "but, maman, what shall I say? I cannot say that I am
sorry for lending Betty the book, for I did not lend it to her
—she took it."
"Tell her just how it was, and say you are sorry for
bringing the book here. I will go with you, if it will make
matters easier."
We found my aunt in the still-room—luckily alone—

fussing over some peppermint she was distilling.
"Do see here, Margaret," said she, as we entered.

"What ails this peppermint? See how foul it runs."
"The still is too hot, I think," said my mother, examining

it; "and your peppermint is rather old. I should begin again,
and with some smaller shoots. But, sister, Vevette hath
something to say to you."
"About what?" asked my aunt absently, still busy with

the refractory still; and then, recollecting herself, "Oh,
about the book. Well, then, child, I forgive you, only don't
do it again. I know I was warm myself, and said too much,
but that is only my way. There, run, that's a good maid, and
cut me some nice lengths of the peppermint. You have more
sense about gathering of herbs, than any of the others—
only don't draggle your petticoats. Why, what ails the
child?" catching sight of my face. "She looks as if she had
had an illness."
"She has been very much distressed about this affair,"

said my mother; "and so have I; but I think if I were to
explain the matter to you as she has done to me—"
"Oh, let bygones be bygones," interrupted my aunt. "I

hate explanations; and, as I said, I was over-warm. Do you
want to cut the herbs, child? Do just as you please."
"Yes, aunt, I shall like it," I answered, glad of an excuse

to get into the fresh air. I was at once pleased and vexed
that my aunt should make so little of the matter. I went
down to the peppermint-bed which grew under the shade of
a yew hedge, and was busy choosing out the very best
shoots when I heard voices on the other side of the hedge.
"I shall never ask her to help in the school again—never!"
said Margaret. "I could not forgive myself, if she should
corrupt the children."
"If it had been anything else," said Andrew, in a voice of

deep dejection; "anything but deception."
"To read such a wicked book, too," said Margaret.
"How do you know it was so very wicked, after all?"

asked Rosamond.
"Oh, I looked at it last night as it lay on the table," said

Margaret, quite sedately.
"If I knew it was so wicked, I would not have looked at

it at all," said Rosamond. "And you know she said she only
read the first poem, in which there was no harm."
"Yes, but who can ever believe her? I know I shall never
trust her again. When I have found any one out once, there
is the end of it with me."
"According to your own account you are just as bad as

Vevette," said Rosamond; "that is, if you don't tell lies every
day."
"Rosamond, what do you mean?" said Margaret, in a

voice of amazement that almost made me laugh aloud. "I
as bad as Vevette?"
"According to your own showing," returned Rosamond,

in the same matter-of-fact way. "Don't you say every day of
your life that you have done the things you ought not to
have done, and left undone the things you ought to have
done—that there is no health in you, and you are a
miserable sinner? I don't know what Vevette could say of
herself worse than that."
"Rosamond, you are very pert," said Meg, and I could

tell by her voice that she was offended. "Of course one says
those things because they are in the prayers of the church,
and the Bible says we are all sinners; but I should like to
know wherein I fail in my duty. Do I ever tell lies, or read
bad books, or miss my church or sacrament? Don't I—"
Here she stopped, in a little confusion as it seemed,
thinking, I fancy, that it was not quite seemly thus to blazon
her good deeds, however highly she might rate them.
"Then if you never do wrong or omit to do good, why do

you say you do?" persisted Rosamond. "Is that telling the
truth? Take care, sister! It was the publican who went down
to his house justified, rather than the man who thanked
God he was not as other men."
"You are very impertinent to lecture your elder sister in

this way," returned Margaret. "I shall speak to my mother;"
and she walked away.
"I believe you are in the right, Rosamond," said Andrew.

"We have been too hard on the poor child. If it were
anything but deception!"
"I do not read in Scripture that one sin is worse than

another," returned Rosamond. "The Bible saith not so, but
that he that offendeth in one point is guilty of all. Besides—"
I did not care to hear more. Indeed I had not heard so

much, only the yew walk was my way to the house, and I
had been waiting hoping they would pass on. I now rose up,
and passing through the archway I went on my way, giving
a kind good-morning to Rosamond and curtsying to Andrew
in passing. He would have spoken, I believe, but I did not
give him the chance. When I entered the still-room I heard
my aunt say, in a tone of some annoyance—
"Well, well, sister, we will let the matter rest. It is

natural you should justify your own daughter as far as you
can. I have told the young ones to say no more, and to
treat their cousin kindly. So here she comes. Well, you have
got a little color, child, in the fresh air. Yes, that is very nice.
You are one who can mind what you are about, and will
make a good housewife for all that is come and gone. There
is a piece of gingerbread for you, and you had better take a
cup of cream for your breakfast; you look but poorly. I
think, sister, I will give Vevette the small still, and then she
will not forget what she has learned."
CHAPTER XIV.
A WEDDING.
I THINK Margaret really did try to meet me as usual,

but of course she did not succeed. She had been vexed at
Rosamond for having so much the best of it in their little
argument, and I fancy too she found her usual self-
complacency a little disturbed; so she was very stately.
Andrew did not say much, but he was kind, and would have
liked to help me to everything on the table.
Betty was demure and silent, with eyes cast down,

though I fancied I now and then caught her regarding me
with some anxiety. I suppose she would have liked to find
out how much I did know, or whether I knew anything. In
good sooth I did not know anything, but I must needs own
that my suspicions were strong, and grew stronger the
more I considered the matter.
In the beginning of our acquaintance Betty had been

much disposed to make a confidante of me, and she herself
had told me that Mr. Lovel had been a suitor for her hand,
but that her mother had rejected him because he was a
spendthrift, and had no good character in other respects,
besides being a total unbeliever—a fashion just then much
affected by a certain class of men who wished to appear
strong-minded and learned at small cost. I could see that
Betty was well enough disposed toward him—indeed she
said so.
And our first breach came from my saying I wondered

she could think of such a person for a husband. I expressed
myself pretty warmly on the subject, at which she was very
much vexed, and said some sharp things in her turn.
However, we made up the quarrel, but when Betty began to
talk of him again—I, with a degree of prudence rather to be
wondered at, positively refused to hear, telling her that
since her mother and brother were opposed to the match,
and with such good reason, she ought not to allow her
thoughts to dwell upon the subject, but to conquer her
regard for Mr. Lovel, if she had any. This little lecture
completed the breach between us, and from that time Betty
never lost a chance of vexing and injuring me, though she
managed her matters with such adroitness that even
Andrew did not see through them, and I began to wonder in
myself whether I was not growing touchy and ill-natured.
As soon as breakfast was over, my mother and myself

retired to our apartment, to finish our preparations for the
removal to the Well House. They were not many, for most of
our goods were sent thither already, and the house having
been kept in such nice order, there was but little to do. My
aunt, on her part, was busy among her storerooms and
presses, and we presently saw old Matt driving the laden
donkey before him, and carrying as many baskets as would
have loaded another.
We meant to have gone away directly after breakfast,

but aunt was most earnest with us to stay to dinner and
partake of the feast which had been put in hand before the
unlucky business of the book. So, though I at least was
impatient to be gone, we consented to remain. What a feast
it was, to be sure! What jellies and creams and tarts and
pies of every sort and kind! (The Cornish folk are famous
for pies, and 'tis said that the devil never dared to come
into Cornwall lest they should take a fancy to "a devilly pie."
This, however, is not true. He is just as busy in Cornwall as
anywhere else.)
We all parted good friends, and I forced myself to bid a

civil adieu to Betty. Aunt Amy was careful to put into each
of our hands a package of cakes and comfits, that we might
not enter our new home empty-handed and thus bring
scarcity upon it. Andrew walked at my mother's bridle-rein,
as usual, and Rosamond and I walked together. Simon and
Jeanne had preceded us.
When we reached the house-door, Andrew assisted my

mother to alight, and then he and Rosamond took a kind
leave of us. He saluted me as usual, but there was a change
in his manner toward me which I felt bitterly enough,
though I had too much maidenly pride to show it. Then they
returned home, and we entered our new house together.
Dinah and Jeanne were in the hall to welcome us, and had
made a cheerful little fire upon the hearth of our sitting-
room, for though the summer was in its prime, the evening
was cool, and a little mist was drifting up from the sea.
"The place seems home-like, does it not, my Vevette?"

said my mother. "I must say I am not sorry to be in my own
house once more. Ah, if your father were but here!"
"He is in a better home than this, maman," I ventured

to say.
"True, my child, and we will not wish to call him back

again. We shall go to him, but he will not return to us."
She kissed me, and we stood a moment in silence. Then

my mother roused herself and proposed that we should go
through the house.
We found everything in beautiful order, and had

occasion at every step to admire my aunt's generosity and
Andrew's thoughtfulness.
There was abundance of fine linen and of blankets and

everything in the housekeeping line that could be needed.
Dinah displayed with delight the service of real china, and
the silver salts, and the dredgers for pepper and spices, and
the pots upon pots of preserves and honey which my aunt
had provided.
My room opened from my mother's, and contained the

old French cabinet I had so much admired, and also a little
clock, which I knew had been one of Rosamond's chief
treasures. From Meg, and marked with her name, was a
pretty coverlet of silk patchwork—a kind of work very
fashionable at that time, and in which Meg excelled, as she
did in most things. From Betty there was a worked cushion,
which I am afraid I was spiteful enough to throw into the
darkest corner of the closet. From Andrew I had some
beautiful china and the loveliest little work-table that could
be, besides a case with doors, which being opened I found
to contain a portrait of himself, which I suppose he had had
painted in London. It was beautifully done, and looked at
me with his very eyes and expression—a kind of smiling
gravity.
The kitchens and offices were filled up with every

convenience, and we found Jeanne quite in ecstasies over
her little dairy and her two line cows—one a long-horned
Devon, the other a comical little black Welsh cow with no
horns at all.
"Ah, madame, had I but a Normandy brass jar for

milking in, I should be quite happy," said the good woman.
"To think what beautiful milk-jars I had, and how they are
all fallen into the hands of the Philistines, as it were!"
"Ah, my poor Jeanne, if it were only the milk-jars that

had fallen into the hands of the Philistines!" said old Simon.
"But we must be thankful that we have been so kindly dealt
by in this strange land. Will madame come to the stable and
look at the horses?"
"Horses! What horses?" asked my mother, in surprise.
"The two saddle horses, madame, and the pony for

mamselle, and the donkey. Indeed they are nice creatures.
Monsieur Corbet recommended the gray for madame's
riding, and the pony is as pretty and gentle a creature for a
young lady as I ever saw. Monsieur has been training it for
this fortnight."
Of course we must go to see them, and I was in

ecstasies over my pony, but my mother looked a little
grave.
"Andrew overloads us with benefits," said she. "I must

talk with him about these same horses. The obligation is
almost too great. But never mind, my Vevette; enjoy your
pretty Blanche. See how she stoops her head to be petted!"
We returned to the house to find supper served, and

Dinah, who had stepped easily enough into the place of
waiting-gentlewoman, standing behind my mother's chair.
We had been a little afraid Jeanne's feelings might be
wounded by this arrangement, but she fell into it more than
contentedly. She was born a cook, and her delight in having
such a neat kitchen to rule in her own way overcame every
other consideration. Simon had had great pleasure in
putting to rights the rather overgrown garden, which was
now a picture of neatness, and he declared he could easily
take care both of that and the garden at the Court till such
time as Andrew could suit himself with a gardener.
The next day was mine at the school, but I did not go
thither, being resolved, after all I had heard, never to set
foot therein till Margaret came and asked me. With the help

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Guided tour xvii

Part 1 Basics of research 1

1 Role of research in psychology 3

2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27

3 Variables, concepts and measures 45

4 Problems of generalisation and decision-making in research: Chance findings and

5 Research reports: The total picture 85

6 Improving your quantitative write-up 115

6.3 Analysis of the report 121

7 Literature search 136

8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Part 2 Quantitative research methods 183

9 Basic laboratory experiments 185

10 Advanced experimental designs 212

11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 234

12 Longitudinal studies 249

13 Sampling and population surveys 264

Key points 282

14 Data analysis issues and scientific progress 283

Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 309

15 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 311

17 Coding data 347

Part 4 Qualitative research methods 361

18 Why qualitative research? 363

19 Qualitative data collection 379

20 Transcribing language data: Jefferson system 392

Key points 400

21 Thematic analysis 402

22 Grounded theory 418

23 Discourse analysis 435

24 Conversation analysis 448

24.4 Conclusion 458

25 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 460

26 Evaluating qualitative research 477

27 Improving your qualitative write-up 488

Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 507

28 Developing ideas for research 509

28.3 Choosing a research topic 516

29 Managing your research project 527

CHAPTER 1 1.1 Introduction

● A first-rate psychologist – researcher or practitioner – needs to be familiar with the tech-

Clear Overview Key Ideas

Gives you handy hints and tips on how to carry out

CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH REPORTS 109 92 PART 1 BASICS OF RESEARCH

Layout of a brief paper from an American Psychological

Research Example Talking Point

CHAPTER 2 AIMS AND HYPOTHESES IN RESEARCH 43 44 PART 1 BASICS OF RESEARCH

Conclusion/Key points Activities

Statistics: SOC: Archive Older versions of the UK Standard Occupational Classification,